Issue 4

Publishing Date || 01 SEPTEMBER 2023 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER
CON T ENT S
AGRONOMY
1. Carbon Trading, International Conventions
and Initiatives on Carbon Trading and
SEPTEMBER, 2023 / VOLUME XXII / ISSUE NO. 04 Impact on Climate Change........................................ 5
FOUNDER EDITOR: LATE DR. S. S. PUROHIT Mandala Kavitha
CHIEF EDITOR: DR. UPDESH PUROHIT
ASSOCIATE EDITOR ORGANIC FARMING
Dr. P Bhattacharyya (Kolkotta) 2. Green Manuring: An Organic Farming Approach...... 7
Dr. P. Balasubramaniyan (Madurai) Vaishali R. Pusdekar, Swapnil Panchabhai
Dr. Tanuja Singh (Patna) and Ashutosh Sawarkar
Dr. Ashok Agrawal (Mathura)
Dr. H. P. Sharma (Ranchi)
Dr. N. Kachhawha (Jaipur) SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Dr. Anil Kumar (Patna)
3. Challenges of Smallholder Farmers in
EDITORIAL OFFICE India and Possible Solutions................................... 10
Agro House, Behind Nasrani Cinema Ashutosh Sawarkar, Swapnil N. Panchabhai
Chopasani Road, Jodhpur - 342 003
Phone: +91-291-2643993 and Vaishali Pusdekar
E-mail: [email protected]; DRY LAND AGRICULTURE
[email protected]
Website: www.agrobiosonline.com 4. Impact of Eucalyptus Plantations on
Ground Water and Soil Ecosystem in Dry Regions. 13
TYPESETTING Dr. Kiran Emmiganur, and Dr. Ummesalma Sanadi
Yashee Computers, Jodhpur
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5. Impact of Climate Change on Indian
PUBLISHED BY Agriculture: An In-Depth Exploration....................... 15
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and Ashutosh Sawarkar
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6. Customized Fertilizer: Essential to Raise
DISCLAIMER: The views expressed by the authors do not
necessarily represent those of editorial board or publishers. Crop Productivity.................................................... 18
Although every care has been taken to avoid errors or Deepa Kalappanavar, Geetha G P, Roopa
omission, this magazine is being published on the condition K Muttappanavar, and Ragini Patil
and undertaking that all the information given in this 7. Land Resource Inventory – Overview..................... 20
magazine is merely for reference and must not be taken as
having authority of or binding in any way on the authors, Geetha, G. P., Ragini Patil., Deepe Kalappanavar
editors and publishers who do not owe any responsibility and Roopa K Muttappanavar
for any damage or loss to any person, for the result of 8. Vertical Agriculture: A Innovation to Stare
any action taken on the basis of this work. The Publishers the Starve............................................................... 22
shall be obliged if mistakes brought to their notice.
Indumathi, P
SUBSCRIPTION RATES 9. Rainfall Simulator for Soil Loss Estimation
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ANNUAL INDIVIDUAL: Rs. 1000.00 Shashikanth, Rubeena Tarranum and Premkumara
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10. Soil Health and Its Relationship with Food
© The articles published in Agrobios Newsletter is
subject to copy right of the publisher. No material can be
Security and Human Health to Meet the
reproduced without prior permission of the publisher. Sustainable Development Goals in India................. 28
Issues of “Agrobios Newsletter” are mailed by ordinary Yelleti Tejeswi, Banka Kanda Kishore Reddy
post at Subscriber’s risk and our responsibility ceases K. Madhuri, B. Chandana, K. Madhavi
once we hand over the magazine to post office. and K. Sudharani
NOTE: “Agrobios Newsletter” does not accept
unsolicited manuscripts and material and does HORTICULTURE
not assume responsibility for them.
11. Online Nursery Information and Marketing
DATE OF PUBLISHING: 01 SEPTEMBER, 2023 Intelligence............................................................. 30
DATE OF POSTING Megha Raghavan
07-08 OF EVERY MONTH AT RMS POST OFFICE 12. Impact of Climate Change on Cocoa Production..... 32
C. Sudhalakshmi, P. Malathi and G. Rajalingam
Contents 3 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER Publishing Date || 01 SEPTEMBER 2023
13. Soil-Less Culture of Ornamentals: The

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Way Forward........................................................... 33
Chandana S. 24. Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture: Need
14. Medicinal and Nutritional Value of Orchids............. 36 of the Hour.............................................................. 59
Dr. Alam Prashanthi, and Bharath Kumar Alam Vinay Kumar, Arjoo and Rajat
15. Low Tunnel Technology: Boon to Vegetable 25. Lulc Classification using Google Earth Engine........ 61
Crop Cultivation...................................................... 38 Premkumara, Rubeena Tarranum and Shashikanth
Sulochana K. H. EXTENSION EDUCATION & RURAL DEVELOPMENT
26. Changes in Agricultural Extension and
PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS Implications for Farmer Adoption of New
16. Qtl Mapping in Crop Plants Through Qtl Practices................................................................. 62
Seq Approach......................................................... 40 K. Madhuri, Banka Kanda Kishore Reddy
Rohit Kumar, Channabasava, Shruti and Anil Jadhav and B. Chandana
27. Quality of Agricultural Extension on
Productivity of Farmers: Human Capital
PLANT BREEDING AND GENETICS
Perspective............................................................. 64
17. The Origin and Evolutionary Theories of Maize....... 42 K. Madhuri B. Chandana and Banka
Varalakshmi, S Kanda Kishore Reddy
28. Mobile and Sensor-Based Technologies in
PLANT PATHOLOGY Higher Education: Innovative Methodology
18. Interruption of Quorum Sensing: A New in Pedagogy and Curriculum Development............. 66
Paradigm for Combating Phytopathogenic Rakesh Bhatthad, S. Ragunath and Vikas Chowhan
Bacteria.................................................................. 45 29. Significance of Ethics in Research.......................... 69
Joginder Pal, Satish K. Sharma and Anju Sharma Vikas Chowhan, Rakesh Bhatthad and S. Ragunath
19. Pathogen Fitness Penalties: An Approach MICROBIOLOGY
for Resistance Risk Assessment............................. 49
30. Microbial Biosurfactants:
Aman Sharma, Dharmesh Gupta, Shalini
An Ecofriendly Compound....................................... 71
Verma, Ankita Chauhan and Diksha Thakur
Arati, Lohith Kumar, N and Lavya, B. S.
20. Biocontrol Potential of Phylloplane Microorganism.51
31. Stress Signalling in Cyanobacteria......................... 73
Diksha Thakur, Shalini Verma, Abha Thakur,
Lohith Kumar, N, Arati and Kavya, B. S.
Ankita Chauhan and Aman Sharma
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
ENTOMOLOGY 32. Bio-Agriculture........................................................ 74
21. Cotton Stem Weevil (Pempherulus Affinis), Dr. K. Selvarani
Significant Pest in Ramanathapuram
District of Tamil Nadu............................................. 54 FOODS AND NUTRITION
T. Thiruveni 33. Nutraceuticals and Its Role..................................... 76
22. Application of Botanical Pesticides in Smt. K. Sudha Rani, K. Madhavi, B K Kishore Reddy,
Sustainable Agriculture.......................................... 55 G. Sasikala and B. Chandana
Dr. Rishikesh Mandloi
23. Revitalizing Ecosystems: A Strategic
Blueprint for Addressing Global Insect Decline....... 57 ANIMAL NUTRITION
G Sham Supreeth, Banka Kanda Kishore Reddy 34. Growing More with Less: The Hydroponics
V. Chinna Babu Naik, B. Chandana, Fodder Revolution................................................... 79
K. Sudharani, and K. Madhavi Kurli Madhavi
4 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Contents

A GR ON OMY
22610
1. Carbon Trading, International

Conventions and Initiatives on Carbon
Trading and Impact on Climate Change
MANDALA KAVITHA
Sri Krishnadevaraya College of Agriculture Sciences, Alamur Road, Rudram Peta,
Anantapur, A.P. 515002
*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
Introduction nations for which reducing emissions is a

daunting task could buy the emission rights from
Global warming has spawned a new form of another nation whose industries do not produce
commerce: the carbon trade. This new economic as much of these gases. The market for carbon is
activity involves the buying and selling of possible because the goal of the Kyoto Protocol
“environmental services,” including the removal is to reduce emissions as a collective. On the
of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, which one hand, the idea of carbon trade seems like
are identified and purchased by eco-consulting a win-win situation: greenhouse gas emissions
firms and then sold to individual or corporate may be reduced while some countries reap
clients to “offset” their polluting emissions. While economic benefit. On the other hand, critics of
some NGOs and “green” businesses favor the the idea suspect that some countries will exploit
carbon trade and view it as a win-win solution the trading system and the consequences will be
that reconciles environmental protection with negative. While the proposal of carbon trade does
economic prosperity, other environmentalists have its merits, debate over this type of market is
and grassroots organizations claim that it is no inevitable since it involves finding a compromise
solution to environmental problems such as between profit, equality and ecological concerns
global warming.
Kyoto Mechanisms
Background
The Kyoto Protocol broke new ground by defining
The carbon trade is an idea that came about in three innovative “flexibility mechanisms” to
response to the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol lower the overall costs of achieving its emissions
is an agreement under which industrialized targets. These mechanisms enable Parties to
countries will reduce their greenhouse gas access cost-effective opportunities to reduce
emissions between the years 2008 to 2012 to emissions, or to remove carbon from the
levels that are 5.2% lower than those of 1990. atmosphere, in other countries. While the cost
The idea behind carbon trading is quite similar of limiting emissions varies considerably from
to the trading of securities or commodities region to region, the effect for the atmosphere
in a marketplace. Carbon would be given an of limiting emissions is the same, irrespective of
economic value, allowing people, companies or where the action is taken.
nations to trade it. If a nation bought carbon, it
would be buying the rights to burn it, and a nation All three mechanisms under the Kyoto
selling carbon would be giving up its rights to Protocol are based on the Protocol’s system for
burn it. The value of the carbon would be based the accounting of targets. Under this system,
on the ability of the country owning the carbon the amount to which an Annex I Party (with a
to store it or to prevent it from being released commitment inscribed in Annex B of the Kyoto
into the atmosphere. A market would be created Protocol) must reduce its emissions over the
to facilitate the buying and selling of the rights five-year commitment period (known as its
to emit greenhouse gases. The industrialized “assigned amount”) is divided into units each
equal to one tons of carbon dioxide equivalent.
Agronomy 5 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

These assigned amount units (AAUs), and other companies with low internal emission reduction
units defined by the Protocol, contribute the costs. The latter entities would also be expected
basis for the Kyoto mechanisms by providing for to maximize their production of low-cost
a party to gain credit from action taken in other emission reduction so as to maximize their
Parties that may be counted towards it own ability to sell certificates to high-cost entities. The
emissions target (www.unfccc.int). overall outcome is that the emission reduction
The three Kyoto mechanisms are: target is met, but at a much lower cost than
would be incurred by requiring each entity to
1. Joint Implementation, achieve the emission reduction target on their
2. Clean Development Mechanism and own
3. Emissions Trading.
Impact on Climate Change
1. Joint Implementation
Positive Impacts of Carbon Trading
This is one of the so called ‘flexibility mechanisms’
are defined in Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol The benefits to the general community of trading
designed to help rich (annex 1) countries meet emission reduction/offset certificates in a market
their Kyoto commitment using methods other include:
than directly via cuts in their own emissions. 1. The reduction in overall cost of meeting
Under Joint Implementation, an Annex I Party emission reduction targets, as mentioned
(with a commitment inscribed in Annex B of the above;
Kyoto Protocol) may implement an emission-
2. The progressively improved definition of
reducing project or a project that enhances
a “price” for carbon, particularly as the
removals by sinks in the territory of another
market becomes more liquid and active,
Annex I Party (with a commitment inscribed
and assuming that all carbon certificate
in Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol) and count
products are fungible, meaning that they
the resulting emission reduction units (ERUs)
are equivalent ways of addressing emission
towards meeting its own Kyoto target.
reduction;
2. The Clean Development Mechanism 3. The opportunity to generate income from
activities that previously attracted no
The clean development mechanism allows
additional revenue, such as investment
governments or private entities in rich countries
in emission reduction, renewable energy
to set up emission reduction projects in
generation, greenhouse friendly fuels and
developing countries. They get credit for these
carbon sequestration;
reductions as ‘certified emission reductions
(CER’s)*. This system is different from the Joint 4. The ability to use revenue from carbon
Implementation as it promotes sustainable sequestration to help fund additional
development on developing countries. The planting of trees and other vegetation,
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the for benefits such as salinity amelioration,
entry point for developing countries (non-Annex biodiversity enhancement, conversion to
I) into the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change. greenhouse gas friendly fuels and energy,
The mechanism was established under Article and employment and wealth creation in
12 of the Kyoto Protocol adopted by the Third rural areas.
Conference of the Parties
Negative Impacts of Carbon Trading
3 Emissions Trading Keeping the oil flowing Carbon markets
Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol authorizes Annex are geared towards prolonging the fossil
B countries to engage in international emissions fuel economy for as long as possible rather
trading. This means that the Annex B countries than developing strategies for a rapid, just
will have the option of buying or selling some transition away from carbon-based fuels.
portion of their emission allowances. These The complex system of carbon credits and
allowances are called “assigned amount units” offsets allows for corporations to continue
(AAUs) in the Kyoto Protocol. the expansion of fossil fuel infrastructure
Emissions’ trading is one of the flexibility rather than forcing them to abandon these
mechanisms allowed under the Kyoto Protocol projects.
to enable countries to meet their emissions Carbon trading promotes “clean coal”
reduction target. Countries/companies with Carbon markets provide incentives for so-
high internal emission reduction costs would called clean coal technology. Even if it were
be expected to buy certificates from countries/ possible to sequester carbon emissions from
6 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Agronomy

coal on a large scale (which it is not), the Tinto, Shell, Siemens Corporation all
entire coal cycle is a dirty, deadly process for support carbon trading. No, they haven’t
communities and the environment. had a miraculous change of heart, these
Widespread support from polluters: companies know that one way or other
Alcoa, BP America, Caterpillar, Chrysler, greenhouse gas emissions are going to be
ConocoPhillips, The Dow Chemical regulated. They have made the strategic
Company, Duke Energy, DuPont, Exelon decision to throw their weight behind cap
Corporation, Ford Motor Company, FPL and trade, knowing full well that it is the
Group, General Electric, General Motors regime under which they can continue to
Corporation, Johnson & Johnson, NRG pollute and profit.
Energy, PepsiCo, PG&E Corporation, Rio
O R GA N IC FAR MIN G
22588
2. Green Manuring: An Organic Farming

Approach
VAISHALI R. PUSDEKAR1*, SWAPNIL PANCHABHAI2 AND ASHUTOSH
SAWARKAR3
1*
Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, Anand Niketan College of Agriculture,
Warora, Dist.-Chandrapur, Maharashtra, India-442914
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education, Anand Niketan College of
Agriculture, Warora, Dist.- Chandrapur, Maharashtra, India-442914
3
Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture and Rural Development, Division of
Genetics and Plant Breeding, Integrated Rural Development and Management (IRDM),
Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute, Narendrapur, West
Bengal, India, 700103
Green manuring is a sustainable agricultural directly in the field, either as pure crops or
practice that involves incorporating green plant intercropped with the main crop, and later
tissues into the soil to improve its physical incorporated into the same soil. Leguminous
structure and fertility. This method is an essential green manures, such as sunhemp, dhaincha,
supplementary approach to add organic matter sesbania, and wild indigo, are particularly rich
to the soil, enriching it with nitrogen, a crucial and in nitrogen due to their ability to fix it from the
often deficient nutrient. Green manure crops, air. They are cultivated on the farm and plowed
especially legumes, provide organic matter under the soil when they are about to flower,
and additional nitrogen by fixing atmospheric contributing essential nutrients for the next crop.
nitrogen with the help of root nodule bacteria.
They also act as a natural barrier against erosion 2. Green Leaf Manuring
and leaching. Green manuring can be classified Green leaf manuring involves collecting green
into two types: in-situ green manuring and green plant tissues, such as tender twigs and leaves,
leaf manuring. from outside the field and incorporating them
into the soil as green manure. Trees and shrubs
Types of Green Manuring grown on bunds, waste land, or nearby forest
1. Green Manuring In-Situ areas are the primary sources of green leaf
manuring. The leaves of leguminous trees are
In this method, green manure crops are grown often used for this purpose. The green leaf
Organic Farming 7 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

manures gradually release nitrogen into the 7. Succulent and leafy growth for easy
soil, providing nutrient-rich material for plant decomposition.
growth. The common shrubs and trees used 8. Deep root system to absorb nutrients from
for green leaf manuring are Sesbania (Sesbania lower soil layers.
speciosa), Glyricidia (Glyricidia maculeata),
Karanj (Pongamia glabra), Neem (Azadirachta 9. Requires less water and thrives on poor and
indica), Calotropis (Calotropis gigantea), and exhausted soils.
Wild tamarind (Leucaena lecocephala), etc. 10. Tolerant to drought, shade, floods, and
(Thapa and Tirupathi, 2006) adverse temperatures.
11. Yields a large quantity of green material
Characteristics of Good Green Manuring Crop within a short period.
1. Quick and easy to plant and establish.
Stages of Green Manuring Crops for Burying
2. Rapidly produces succulent tops and roots.
3. Creates a good ground cover. A green manuring crop can be turned into the soil
at the flowering stage or just before flowering.
4. Preferably a legume to fix atmospheric The majority of green manuring crops require 6-8
nitrogen. weeks after sowing for maximum green matter
production and succulence, making it the ideal
stage for incorporation. (Purohit and Dushyant
Gehlot, 2006)
Procedure of Green Manuring Crops for

Burying
1. At the appropriate stage, cut the green
manuring crop close to the ground with a
sickle.
2. Open a furrow with a plow and place the
green plants in the furrow.
3. Open an adjacent furrow to cover the green
plants from the preceding furrow.
4. Continue this process until the entire field is
turned.
5. Adequate moisture in the field is necessary
for rapid decomposition, which usually takes
6-8 weeks. (Dahama, 2005)
Nutrient Release from Green Manuring

Heterotrophic bacteria break down green
manure, converting it into plant nutrients. This
process is aided by warmth and moisture,
similar to composting. Carbon dioxide and weak
acids are released during decomposition, which
reacts with the insoluble soil minerals, releasing
essential nutrients for plant growth. For instance,
adding green manure to calcium-rich soils can
increase the phosphate content, serving as a
natural fertilizer. (Jaisingh, 2005)
Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio in Green Manuring

The carbon to nitrogen ratio in a plant is essential
because using the wrong plants as green manure
can affect the soil’s nutrient content and nitrogen
availability to crops. The ratio varies depending
on the plant’s age and species, but it must be
5. Grows well on various soil types. less than 30:1 to prevent nitrogen deficiency
6. Suppresses weed growth effectively. in the soil. Legumes like beans, alfalfa, clover,
8 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Organic Farming

and lupins are preferred green manure sources 5. Under rainfed conditions with limited
due to their rhizobium-rich root systems, fixing rainfall, proper decomposition of green
atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. (Sharma,2009) manure may not occur, reducing its benefits.
Advantages of Green Manuring 6. When the cost of green manuring crops
exceeds that of chemical nitrogenous
1. Enhances organic matter in the soil, fertilizers, it may not be cost-effective.
filling nutritional gaps, reducing the need 7. Diseases and insects in field crops may
for inorganic fertilizers, and stimulating increase if proper care is not taken.
microorganism activity.
8. Decomposition of green manure can release
2. Serves as an excellent alternative to organic toxic substances and gases, affecting root
manure, stabilizing soil structure and growth and nutrient absorption by plants.
preserving nutrients, especially nitrogen.
9. One crop is lost during the green manure
3. Rapid decomposition process releases period as the field is occupied for 75-80 days,
carbon dioxide and weak acids, acting on including the decomposition period.
insoluble soil minerals to release nutrients.
10. Green manure crops utilize soil water, which
4. Provides approximately 15-18 quintals of can hamper germination and growth of the
dry matter per acre, along with essential succeeding crop.
elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, Conclusion
and manganese.
5. Naturally suppresses weed growth, reducing Green manuring is an effective organic farming
the need for herbicides. approach that provides numerous benefits to the
soil and subsequent crops. It enriches the soil
6. Improves topsoil stability, soil structure, with essential nutrients, improves its structure,
aeration, permeability, and infiltration and reduces the need for chemical fertilizers.
capacity, reducing soil loss from erosion. However, careful consideration of the type of
7. Increases the activity of soil microorganisms green manure crop and its incorporation timing
and improves nutrient regimes in the soil. is necessary to maximize the advantages while
8. Returns various plant nutrients from the minimizing the disadvantages.
subsurface soil layer to the surface layer.
References
9. Restores and improves nutrient regimes that
may be lost due to leaching. Arun K. Sharma, 2009: A Handbook of Organic
Farming, Published by Agrobios, Jodhpur, India.
Disadvantages of Green Manuring Rajanya Jaisingh, 2005: This is organic Agriculture,
1. Over fixation of nitrogen and phosphorus Jain Brothers, New-Delhi.
can lead to nutrient pollution in the soil. Dahama A. K., 2005: Organic Farming for Sustainable
2. Green manuring can be expensive, leading Agriculture, Agrobios, Jodhpur, India.
farmers to opt for less cultivated crops to Thapa U. and G.P. Tirupathi 2006: Organic Farming
save costs. in India, problems and Prospects.
3. During the manure period, farmers may be S. S. Purohit and Dushyant Gehlot, 2006: Trends in
Organic Farming in India, Published by Agrobios,
unable to plant their marketable cash crop,
India.
affecting their income.
4. Green manure crops may compete with the
main income source for farmers.
Organic Farming 9 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

S U S TA IN A B L E AG R ICULT UR E
22587
3. Challenges of Smallholder Farmers in

India and Possible Solutions
ASHUTOSH SAWARKAR1, SWAPNIL N. PANCHABHAI2 AND VAISHALI
PUSDEKAR3
1
Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture and Rural Development, Division of
Genetics and Plant Breeding, Integrated Rural Development and Management (IRDM),
Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Educational and Research Institute, Narendrapur, West
Bengal, India, 700103
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Anand Niketan
College of Agriculture, Warora, Dist.- Chandrapur, Maharashtra, India-442914
3
India’s agricultural landscape thrives on the these advancements, leading to reduced yield
tireless efforts of smallholder farmers. These potential and limited profitability.
resilient individuals, tending to modest plots
of land, form the bedrock of the nation’s food Limited Irrigation Facilities: Pawns of Climate
security and rural economy. However, beneath Variability
their crucial role lies a complex tapestry of
Smallholder farmers relying on rain-fed
challenges that hinder their progress and
agriculture are at the mercy of erratic monsoons.
threaten their livelihoods. In this comprehensive
Insufficient access to irrigation facilities
exploration, we delve into the intricate
makes them vulnerable to changing weather
challenges confronting smallholder farmers
patterns. Droughts and prolonged dry spells
in India. From uneven resource distribution to
pose a significant threat, causing crop failures,
limited market access and the pressing impact
economic instability, and food insecurity.
of climate change, we dissect each issue and
Consider a smallholder farmer in a rain-fed
propose feasible solutions that can steer these
region whose livelihood is closely tied to the
farmers towards a brighter future.
monsoons. If rains fail, their crops suffer, and
their financial stability is compromised. This
Uneven Access to Resources uncertainty underscores the urgent need for
Land Fragmentation: A Barrier to reliable irrigation infrastructure.
Modernization
Lack of Credit and Financial Support
Land, the essence of agriculture, is increasingly
fragmented among smallholder farmers. Stifled Growth Due to Limited Credit
Generational divisions lead to plots of land being Smallholder farmers face a persistent challenge
split into smaller portions. This fragmentation in accessing credit and financial support.
restricts the adoption of modern farming Traditional institutions deem them high-risk
techniques and mechanization. In a hypothetical borrowers due to lack of collateral and financial
scenario, a family’s five-acre landholding may be awareness. This denies them the resources
divided into numerous smaller parcels, impeding needed for investing in quality seeds, fertilizers,
investments in advanced farming technologies. and modern equipment. Imagine a smallholder
This division hampers efficiency and productivity. farmer striving to diversify their crops for
Modern practices like precision farming demand improved income. Without access to credit,
larger, contiguous land areas. Smallholder they are unable to secure the necessary funds to
farmers, bound by fragmented plots, miss out on
10 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Sustainable Agriculture

experiment with new crops. This lack of financial Price Volatility: The Rollercoaster Ride
backing stifles growth and innovation.
Price volatility is a constant concern for
Lack of Technical Knowledge smallholder farmers. Fluctuations in demand,
supply disruptions, and market dynamics lead
Navigating the Knowledge Gap to unpredictable income. This uncertainty
complicates financial planning and leaves
A dearth of up-to-date agricultural knowledge farmers vulnerable to sudden market shocks.
perpetuates a cycle of stagnation for smallholder Imagine a smallholder farmer who invests
farmers. Many are unaware of modern heavily in cultivating a high-demand crop. If
techniques, best practices, and technological market conditions shift, causing a surplus,
advancements. Limited education and the prices plummet, leaving the farmer with
inadequate extension services contribute to this significant losses. This volatility underscores the
knowledge gap. Picture a smallholder farmer need for more stable income sources.
adhering to outdated practices that yield subpar
results. This lack of awareness prevents them Climate Change Vulnerability
from embracing innovative methods that could
drastically increase their productivity. Climate Change’s Grim Reality
Absence of Extension Services: Bridging the Smallholder farmers are disproportionately
Information Divide affected by climate change. Erratic weather
patterns, shifting rainfall, and extreme events
The absence of accessible extension services disrupt traditional agricultural cycles. The
compounds the knowledge gap. These services, resulting yield fluctuations and economic
designed to educate farmers about cutting-edge instability jeopardize their livelihoods. Consider a
practices, are often scarce in rural areas. As a smallholder farmer grappling with erratic rainfall
result, smallholder farmers remain unaware patterns. Their reliance on rain-fed agriculture
of transformative innovations. Imagine a leaves them exposed to the risk of crop failure,
smallholder farmer seeking guidance on organic resulting in financial losses and food insecurity.
pest management. With access to extension
services, they could learn effective methods, The Importance of Adaptation
reducing the need for harmful chemicals and
Climate change necessitates adaptive strategies.
promoting sustainable practices.
Smallholder farmers can embrace techniques
Need for Modern Agricultural Practices such as crop diversification, water-efficient
irrigation, and climate-resistant crop varieties
Smallholder farmers stand to benefit immensely to mitigate its impacts. Visualize a smallholder
from modern agricultural practices. Techniques farmer implementing climate-resilient practices.
like precision agriculture, drip irrigation, and soil By growing diverse crops and employing
health management can dramatically increase efficient irrigation methods, they reduce the risk
yields and resource efficiency. Consider a of complete crop failure, ensuring a consistent
smallholder farmer who adopts precision income regardless of climate fluctuations.
agriculture methods. By utilizing data-driven
insights, they optimize resource allocation, Possible Solutions
leading to higher yields and reduced waste.
Promoting Cooperative Farming: Unity for
Market Access and Price Volatility Prosperity
Middlemen Woes: Limited Market Reach Cooperative farming models hold promise for
alleviating the challenges faced by smallholder
Navigating complex agricultural markets proves farmers. Collaborative efforts enable them
challenging for smallholder farmers. Many rely to pool resources, share knowledge, and
on intermediaries or middlemen to sell their collectively negotiate with buyers. This collective
produce. Unfortunately, these middlemen often approach grants access to larger markets,
exploit their position, offering unfair prices minimizes post-harvest losses, and secures
to farmers. Visualize a smallholder farmer better prices. Imagine a group of smallholder
cultivating fruits. They are compelled to sell farmers forming a cooperative. Through joint
through middlemen, who dictate prices and efforts, they aggregate their produce, attracting
siphon off substantial profits. This intermediary- bulk orders from wholesalers and processors.
centric system undermines the farmers’ earnings This consolidated approach enhances their
and perpetuates economic inequality. bargaining power and boosts overall profitability.
Sustainable Agriculture 11 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Enhancing Financial Inclusion: Empowering fortify their farm against the impacts of climate
Farmers change, ensuring consistent yields and income.
Financial inclusion is pivotal in addressing Leveraging Technology: Knowledge at Your

smallholder farmers’ financial constraints. Fingertips
Microfinance institutions, cooperative banks, and
government initiatives can provide accessible In the digital era, technology can empower
credit, enabling farmers to invest in modern smallholder farmers. Mobile apps, market
technologies and sustainable practices. Consider information platforms, and weather forecasts
a smallholder farmer securing a loan from a provide real-time insights. These tools enable
microfinance institution. With this financial informed decision-making, enhancing resource
support, they can implement a drip irrigation allocation and overall productivity. Imagine
system, conserving water and increasing crop a smallholder farmer receiving a real-time
yield. weather alert on their mobile phone. Armed with
this information, they can adjust their farming
Knowledge Dissemination: Empowering practices, optimizing their crop management for
Through Education impending weather conditions.
Bridging the knowledge gap demands robust Conclusion

extension services. These services offer expert
guidance, training, and hands-on demonstrations The challenges faced by smallholder farmers
of modern techniques. Utilizing technology like in India are multifaceted and interconnected,
mobile apps and digital platforms can amplify reflecting the intricate nature of agriculture itself.
their reach, ensuring farmers stay informed. Yet, these challenges are not insurmountable.
Visualize a smallholder farmer attending a Through cooperative efforts, policy reforms, and
workshop on organic farming techniques. With a collective commitment to change, we can
expert guidance, they acquire knowledge about address these issues head-on and pave the way
composting, natural pest control, and soil health, for a more prosperous future for smallholder
enabling them to transition to a more sustainable farmers. By advocating cooperative farming,
and profitable farming approach. enhancing financial inclusion, disseminating
knowledge, embracing climate-resilient
Climate-Resilient Farming Techniques: A techniques, and leveraging technology, we
Shield Against Uncertainty empower smallholder farmers to transcend
adversity. These solutions promise not only
Combatting climate change requires smallholder improved livelihoods for farmers but also a
farmers to adopt resilient farming techniques. strengthened agricultural sector for India. As we
Crop diversification, agroforestry, and water- stand on the cusp of transformation, let us ensure
efficient irrigation contribute to building resilience that those who sow the seeds of sustenance reap
against unpredictable weather patterns. the rewards of prosperity.
Consider a smallholder farmer implementing
climate-resilient techniques. By diversifying their
crops and integrating trees into their fields, they
12 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Sustainable Agriculture

D RY L A N D AG R ICULT UR E
22570
4. Impact of Eucalyptus Plantations on

Ground Water and Soil Ecosystem in
Dry Regions
DR. KIRAN EMMIGANUR1 AND DR. UMMESALMA SANADI 2
1
Department of Agronomy; 2Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India.
Eucalyptus is one of the first forest species largely to 260 m, as compared to mean depth of bore
cultivated throughout the world. More than 700 wells (177 m) in the study area of 21 villages of
Eucalyptus species which are mostly native to Kolar district. The bore well yields were reduced
Australia and expanded all over the world from by 35 to 42 per cent in the study area during the
Australia due to its great degree of ecological span of 3-5 years, when they were located within
spread and its ability to adopt. Currently, more a diameter of 1 km from Eucalyptus plantation.
than 22 million ha of Eucalyptus plantation found The reduction was to the tune of 25 to 37 per cent,
in over 90 countries, mostly in tropical and sub- when bore wells were located within a diameter
tropical areas which represent 13.4 per cent of 1-3 km from such plantations (Mukund Joshi
of global forest plantations. India is having 4.8 and Palanisami, 2011).
million ha accounting for about 14.5 per cent of Rodriguez et al. (2011) concluded that during
the global coverage (Anon., 2005). In Karnataka the first 3 years of Eucalyptus plantation, the rate
it is spread over 2.1 lakh ha (Karajagi et al., 2009) at which the water table dropped each summer
and almost 90 per cent of the area falls in Kolar remained constant at 2–2.5 mm day-1 and thus
and Bangalore rural district. appeared to be unaffected by the plantation.
It was given immense importance in large Between years 4 and 7 the rate of water table
scale afforestation especially in social forestry and descent showed a year-on-year increase until
agroforestry programmes during seventies and reaching rates that were double those seen
eighties, because of its higher growth capacity, at the start of the study (4.5–4.9 mm day-1), the
ability to adopt wide range of edapho-climatic relation between leaf biomass development
conditions, industrial benefits etc., but negative and rate of water level descent thus showed a
impact of growing Eucalyptus outweigh all these sigmoid pattern that represented the transition
benefits. Eucalyptus has become the focal point from pasture land to mature Eucalyptus globulus
of raging controversies like allelopathy, lowering plantation.
water table, loss of soil fertility etc., especially in Hazrat et al. (2014) confirmed that
dry regions. The high-water uptake by Eucalyptus Eucalyptus has adverse impact on ground water.
interferes with processes which replenish soil It has lowered the water table by 0.762 m per year
moisture and recharge of ground water leading in the study area. The water table was at depth
to soil aridization and ground water depletion. It of 4.57 and 3.65 m before Eucalyptus plantation
also inhibits the germination and growth of other in village Kot and Totai, respectively but now
plants through allelopathy thus posing a threat to because of the excessive uptake of water by
food production. Eucalyptus plantation the depth of water table
has significantly increased to 20.11 and 23.77 m
Impact of Eucalyptus Plantations on Ground in village Kot and Totai, respectively.
Water
The study indicated that 20 years of continuous Impact of Eucalyptus Plantations on Soil
cultivation of Eucalyptus in private and public Ecosystem
lands deepened the freshly dug bore wells up Behera and Sahani (2003) compared soil
Dry Land Agriculture 13 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

physicochemical characteristics, microbial neighbouring or successional crops

biomass and activity in a tropical dry deciduous Eucalyptus plantation has some adverse
natural forest, regenerating forest and eucalyptus effect on soil microbial activity in soil
plantation site. Porosity (48.8%) and water ecosystem
holding capacity (52.5%) was less in the soil of
the Eucalyptus plantation site. Concentration of Thus, the improvement of soil microbial
soil organic carbon (14.6 mg g-1 soil) and the size properties of barren degraded soil due to
of soil microbial (246 µg of C and 44 µg of N g-1 Eucalyptus plantation was less than that of
soil, respectively) and micro fungal biomass (243 the spontaneous natural regeneration.
µg g-1 soil) was also the least in the plantation site
compared to natural and regenerating forest.
Future Line of Work
Khan et al. (2008) noted that aqueous Need to develop better clones that limit the
extracts of Eucalyptus leaves at a concentration current hydrological impacts
of 10, 15 and 20 per cent had inhibitory effect Caution is required for planning large scale
on wheat germination (18-74%) and effect was plantation and changes in law needed to
found significantly higher than control treatment ban Eucalyptus in dry areas
(80-94%). The inhibitory effect was increased Need to develop alternate forest species for
as the extract concentration increased. It is similar growth and adoption to dry areas.
very clear from these results that wheat crop
sown near or under the Eucalyptus trees will be References
adversely affected due to allelopathic effect.
Anonymous, 2005, http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/6b.
Thepparit et al. (2010) examined the physical, html
chemical and biological soil properties in
Behera, N. and Sahani, U., 2003, Soil microbial
Eucalyptus plantation (> 3 years) and compared biomass and activity in response to Eucalyptus
with the dry dipterocarp forest nearby. The plantation and natural regeneration on tropical
results indicated that microbial biomass nitrogen soil. Forest Ecol. Mgt., 174:1-11.
and microbial biomass carbon in Eucalyptus
Hazrat, B., Sobia, N., and Syed, S. A., 2014, Effects of
plantation were less (15.81 and 102.24 µg g-1 soil, exotic Eucalyptus plantation on the ground and
respectively) than in the dry dipterocarp forest surface water of district Malakand, Pakistan. Int.
(108.64 and 244.25 µg g-1 soil, respectively). The J. Innovation Scientific Res., 8(2):299-304.
soil physico-chemical properties like pH (4.87),
Karajagi, R., Banakar, B. and Kunnal, L. B., 2009,
organic matter (0.67%), available P (2.05 ppm) Growth in area and production of Eucalyptus in
and extractable K (50.67 ppm) also less compare Karnataka. Mysore J. Agric. Sci., 43(4):641-645.
to dry dipterocarp forest.
Khan, M., Hussain, I. and Khan, E., 2008, Allelopathic
effects of Eucalyptus (Eucaalyptus camaldulensis
L.) in germination and seedling growth of wheat.
Pakistan J. Weed. Sci. Res., 14(1-2):9-18.
Mukund Joshi, and Palanisami, K., 2011, Impact
of Eucalyptus plantations on ground water
availability in South Karnataka. In- ICID 21st
International Congress on Irrigation and
Drainage, 15-23 October 2011, Tehran, Iran.
Rodriguez, S. J. A., Soto, B., Perez, R. and Diaz, F. F.,
2011, Influence of Eucalyptus globulus plantation
growth on water table levels and low flows in a
small catchment. J. Hydrol., 396:321–326.
Thepparit, T., Surasak, S. and Chuleemas, B. I.,
2010, The influence of Eucalyptus plantation on
Eucalyptus plantation the soil ecosystem under different soil series in
Northeast Thailand. Int. J. Environ. Rural Dev.,
Conclusion 1(2):33-37.
Continuous cultivation of Eucalyptus
deepened the freshly dug bore wells up to
260 m in Kolar region due to higher root
interception and higher transpiration rates
Leaves of Eucalyptus act as a source of
allelochemicals after being released into
soil or after decomposition; this affects the
14 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Dry Land Agriculture

C L IM AT E CHANG E
22586
5. Impact of Climate Change on Indian

Agriculture: An In-Depth Exploration
SWAPNIL N. PANCHABHAI1 VAISHALI PUSDEKAR2 AND ASHUTOSH
SAWARKAR3
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension Education, Anand Niketan
College of Agriculture, Warora, Dist.- Chandrapur, Maharashtra, India-442914
2
3
Assistant Professor, School of Agriculture and Rural Development, Division of Genetics
and PlantBreeding, Integrated Rural Development and Management (IRDM), Ramakrishna
Mission VivekanandaEducational and Research Institute, Narendrapur, West Bengal, India,
700103
As the ramifications of climate change become of climate change in India is the erratic and
progressively conspicuous, the susceptibility of unpredictable rainfall patterns. The monsoon,
India’s agricultural sector takes center stage. serving as the primary source of water for
Agriculture, constituting the backbone of the agriculture, bears witness to fluctuations in its
Indian economy, is intricately entwined with onset, duration, and intensity. Regions once
weather patterns and climatic conditions (ICAR, distinguished by dependable monsoons now
2018). Consequently, any disturbance caused encounter capricious rainfall, engendering
by climate change can wield far-reaching water scarcity and complicating agricultural
implications on food security, rural livelihoods, planning. The fluctuating monsoon patterns not
and the overall well-being of the nation. In this only impinge on crop cultivation but also impact
comprehensive examination, we shall delve water availability for irrigation and livestock.
into the intricate relationship between climate Additionally, irregular rainfall can engender
change and Indian agriculture, scrutinizing heightened incidents of waterlogging and soil
the current scenario, identifying the pressing erosion, exerting an adverse influence on soil
challenges faced by farmers, and exploring health and overall agricultural productivity
potential adaptive measures. By emphasizing (ICAR, 2018).
sustainable and climate-resilient agricultural
practices, we can labor towards safeguarding 2. Protracted Droughts
India’s agricultural panorama for future Climate change has contributed to the
generations. intensification of droughts in various parts of
India. Extended periods of water scarcity disrupt
Current Scenario: Evolving Climate Patterns farming operations, culminating in diminished
in India crop yields and jeopardizing the livelihoods of
India’s diverse agroclimatic zones render it millions of farmers. Studies indicate that the
highly susceptible to the repercussions of climate frequency and severity of droughts are poised to
change. Over the past few decades, several escalate in the forthcoming years, necessitating
discernible transformations in weather patterns prompt adaptation measures. Small and marginal
have materialized, presenting both opportunities farmers, who constitute a significant portion of
and challenges for agricultural practices. India’s agricultural workforce, find themselves
particularly vulnerable during droughts.
1. Perplexing Rainfall Patterns Inadequate access to irrigation facilities and
financial resources exacerbates their challenges,
One of the most momentous consequences leading to agricultural distress and migration.
Climate Change 15 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

3. Exacerbated Weather Phenomena 2. Efficient Water Management

Exaggerated weather phenomena, such as Efficient water management assumes paramount
cyclones, floods, and heatwaves, have gained importance in mitigating the repercussions
momentum and intensity as a consequence of irregular rainfall and protracted droughts.
of climate change. Coastal regions confront Rainwater harvesting, watershed management,
heightened risks of cyclonic storms, resulting in and the promotion of water-efficient irrigation
widespread destruction to crops, infrastructure, systems constitute critical components of
and livelihoods. Floods, induced by copious sustainable water management. Investments
rainfall and deficient drainage systems, culminate in water infrastructure, such as reservoirs and
in crop losses, soil erosion, and the dislocation check dams, serve to amass water during surplus
of communities. Heatwaves, another corollary periods, ensuring its availability during dry spells
of climate change, pose a menacing menace to (IPCC, 2019).
crop health and livestock. Elevated temperatures
can culminate in reduced crop yields, 3. Pioneering Farming Practices
compromised flowering and pollination, and Effecting a transition towards pioneering farming
escalated heat stress on animals, consequently practices stands as a fundamental facet of
yielding diminished productivity (IPCC, 2019). climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Organic farming, agroforestry, and integrated
Impact on Crop Yields pest management serve to bolster soil health,
The changing climatic conditions cast a direct promote biodiversity, and mitigate the carbon
influence on crop yields, impacting food security footprint of agriculture. Encouraging the
and rural livelihoods. Studies have evinced utilization of renewable energy sources, such
that staple crops like rice, wheat, and maize as solar-powered irrigation, contributes to
exhibit heightened sensitivity to temperature sustainable agricultural intensification.
alterations and augmented carbon dioxide 4. Financial Aid and Insurance
levels, engendering reduced yields. For instance,
rice, a staple food for a substantial portion Ensuring financial inclusion and facilitating
of the Indian populace, proves vulnerable to access to insurance plays a pivotal role in
elevated nocturnal temperatures during its reinforcing farmers’ resilience to climate risks.
flowering stage. Similarly, wheat production Crop insurance and income support during
faces vulnerability due to elevated temperatures adverse weather events furnish a safety net
during the critical grain-filling period (Lobell et for farmers grappling with crop losses and
al., 2011). economic hardships. Microfinance institutions
and rural banking networks assume a vital role in
Challenges Encountered by Indian Farmers providing timely credit and financial assistance
to farmers during trying times.
The impact of climate change on Indian
agriculture begets an array of challenges, Technological Innovations for Climate-
compelling proactive and adaptive measures
from all stakeholders. Resilient Agriculture
Advancements in technology furnish propitious
1. Strategies for Adaptation solutions for enhancing the climate resilience of
Adapting to the evolving climate proves Indian agriculture. Various innovative practices
crucial for ensuring the resilience of Indian and technologies are being harnessed to optimize
agriculture. Farmers must espouse climate- resource utilization, enhance agricultural
smart agricultural practices that align with the productivity, and diminish environmental
altered weather conditions. This encompasses impacts.
the selection of drought-tolerant and heat-
resistant crop varieties, the adjustment of sowing 1. Climate Information Services
and harvesting timings, and the implementation Timely access to climate information proves
of efficient water management techniques. indispensable for informed decision-making
Governmental backing, in the form of agricultural in agriculture. Weather forecasting services,
extension services, climate information systems, bolstered by advanced satellite technology
and financial incentives for adopting sustainable and meteorological data, disseminate real-
practices, holds the potential to substantially time weather updates and advisories to
enhance farmers’ adaptive capacity. farmers. Mobile-based applications and digital
platforms facilitate the dissemination of climate
information to farmers in regional languages,
16 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Climate Change

rendering it accessible to rural communities. crop management, reduces input wastage,
and maximizes yields. Collaborative efforts
between the government and private sector
bear significance in propelling the adoption of
precision farming technologies while ensuring
their affordability for small-scale farmers (IPCC,
2019).
3. Resilient Crop Varieties
Crop breeding and biotechnology research
have engendered the development of climate-
resilient crop varieties. These genetically
enhanced varieties exhibit heightened tolerance
to heat, drought, pests, and diseases, thereby
guaranteeing stable yields amidst the ever-
changing climatic conditions. Seed banks and
research institutions assume a pivotal role in
conserving and disseminating climate-resilient
seeds to farmers across the nation (www.
agricoop.gov.in).
Conclusion
As we reflect upon the ramifications of climate
change on Indian agriculture, it becomes
apparent that proactive and sustainable
measures are imperative to secure the future
of farming in our nation. By embracing climate-
smart agricultural practices, investing in
technological innovations, and reinforcing policy
support, we foster resilience and safeguard food
security for the nation. The collective endeavors
of farmers, policymakers, researchers, and civil
society stand instrumental in navigating the
challenges posed by climate change, thereby
ensconcing a sustainable and prosperous future
for Indian agriculture.
References
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Climate Change Impact Assessment on Indian
Agriculture (2018).
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). Special Report on Climate Change and
Land (2019).
Lobell, D. B., Schlenker, W., & Costa-Roberts,
J. (2011). Climate Trends and Global Crop
Production Since 1980. Science, 333(6042), 616-
620. doi:10.1126/science.1204531
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare,
Government of India. (2018). National Action
Plan for Climate Change and Indian Agriculture.
https://agricoop.gov.in/sites/default/files/napcc.
2. Precision Farming pdf
Precision farming leverages data analytics,
remote sensing, and Internet of Things (IoT)
devices to optimize resource utilization and
tailor agricultural practices to specific field
conditions. This data-driven approach augments
Climate Change 17 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

S O IL SCIENCE
22571
6. Customized Fertilizer: Essential to

Raise Crop Productivity
DEEPA KALAPPANAVAR, GEETHA G P, ROOPA K MUTTAPPANAVAR,
AND RAGINI PATIL
Customized fertilizer [Manufacture basically across Asian countries. In fact, existence of large
involves mixing and crushing of urea, DAP, MOP, field variability in nutrient supply capacity of
ZnS, bentonite sulphur and boron granules for soils, nutrient use efficiency, and crop response
obtaining the desired proportion of N, P, K, S to available nutrients affect the effectiveness of
and micro-nutrients. The mixture is subjected blanket fertilizer recommendations in producing
to steam injection, drying, sieving and cooling, a good crop yield. Knowledge-intensive soil and
so as to get a uniform product with every grain crop management technologies are required to
having the same nutrient composition. manage these constraints and ensure increased
crop productivity on a sustainable basis.
What Are Customized Fertilizers?
The Benefits of Customized Fertilizer Are as
Fertilizer (Control) Order 1985 defined
customized fertilizers as “multi nutrient carrier Follows
designed to contain macro and /or micro 1. Customized fertilizers are use of the
nutrient forms., both from inorganic and/ Fertilizers Best Management Practices and
or organic sources, manufactured through a are generally assumed to maximize crop
systematic process of granulation, satisfying the yields while minimizing unwanted impacts
crop’s nutritional needs, specific to its site, soil on the environment and human health.
and stage, validated by a scientific crop model 2. Fertilizer Best Management Practices will
capability developed by an accredited fertilizer make it “easier” in “future” for farmers,
manufacturing/ marketing company”. These extension agents, crop advisers and
forms of fertilizers are considered as the best researchers to exchange their experiences
available option to correct site specific multi- and also to restrict the unwanted nutrient
nutrient deficiencies of soils so as to attain then impact on the ecosystem.
maximum crop production through improved
nutrient use efficiency. 3. Application of customized fertilizer is
compatible with existing farmers system
Chemical fertilizer is one of the key inputs and hence it will be comfortably accepted
that help in sustaining the production and by the farmers.
productivity of crops. Since there is no scope for
extending the cultivable area in many countries, 4. Production of customized fertilizers will
the only option to improve agriculture production unsure improved ‘Fertilizer Use Efficiency’
to meet the requirements of growing population and creating a new “Virtual” source of
is increase productivity to the maximum possible nutrients implying from the existing quantity
level per unit area using fertilizers. In countries of DAP, MOP, Urea, SSP and A.S. available and
like India where imbalanced use of chemical consumed in India, the agricultural produce
fertilizers already created multi-nutrient output will increase, simultaneously the
deficiencies there is an urgent need to motivate distribution and availability of fertilizer will
farmers to adopt balanced fertilizer use. Though be better. All this is achievable keeping the
there are blanket fertilizer recommendations subsidy allocation constant.
for crops for different regions and countries 5. Customized fertilizer satisfies crop’s
research conducted by Dobermann and nutritional demand, specific to area, soil,
Cassman (2002) identified limitations in blanket and growth stage of plant.
fertilizer recommendations widely practiced
18 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Soil Science

6. As the micro-nutrients are also added with materials is needed because of these stringent
the granulated NPK fertilizer the plants can specifications of raw materials, and for large
absorb the micro-nutrient along with macro- scale production it is not suitable. However,
nutrient which prevents nutrient deficiency for the experimental purposes this is the most
in plant. suitable method (FAI, 2011). Compaction:
7. Mixed fertilizers with micronutrients provide Compaction is also called as “dry
recommended micronutrient rates for granulation” process as not using any liquid
the agricultural field at the usual fertilizer binders for making it as granule. Fertilizer material
application. should be powdered and apply high pressure
8. The farmer need not buy micro-nutrient on these powdered materials to squeeze them
separately at extra cost, thus reducing the together which results in large dust generation
total cost. It is found that incorporation of and the final products in the form of briquettes or
micro-nutrient with granular fertilizer at the flakes. Fluid method: Most suited method in the
time of manufacturing results in uniform intensive farming system to obtain a higher yield.
distribution of micro-nutrient throughout Two types of liquid formulations are there; clear
granular NPK fertilizer. This is because liquids and suspension liquids. If it is suspension
micro-nutrient source is in contact with the liquids, it needs constant agitation. It provides
mixed fertilizer under the condition of high a dust free application method. A mixture of
moisture and temperature. ammonia, phosphoric acid and micronutrients
gives a good homogenous liquid fertilizer.
Micro-nutrient with the mixed fertilizer
is one of the most convenient methods of Compound/Steam Granulation
fertilizer application and helps in more uniform
distribution of nutrient with conventional Raw materials are in solid form and uniform
application equipment’s. It is a very unique size reduction of this fertilizer material is the
method developed in agriculture industry and key to granulation. Agglomeration of granules
has tremendous crop for future. can be attained by use of hot water or low-
pressure steam. Then the granulated materials
Manufacturing Methodologies should be dried and cooled by dehumidified
air. Hygroscopic products like urea containing
Chemical Granulation grades need dehumidified bagging plant also
otherwise caking of the products will occur. This
It is also called “slurry granulation” or “complex
is the most suited method for the large-scale
granulation”. Here, fertilizer production start
production of customized fertilizers in India.
with the basic raw materials like rock phosphate,
acids and ammonia rather than their salts like
diammonium phosphate and urea. A large
Application of Customized Fertilizer
capacity manufacturing plants are needed to The objective behind the customized fertilizer is
carry out chemical reactions. Infrastructure cost to provide site specific nutrient management for
of handling and storage of acids and ammonia achieving maximum fertilizer use efficiency for
are huge due to difficulty in undertaking chemical the applied nutrient in a cost-effective manner.
reactions. It is less flexible to produce variety of Customized fertilizers are combination of micro
grades. nutrients like sulphur, zinc, boron added to
the key items such as urea and diammonium
Bulk Blending phosphate (DAP) and potash, in a proportion
It is the simplest and cheapest option available that suits specific crops and soil patterns. A
for the production of customized fertilizers, fertilizer formulated according to specifications
which involves pure mixing of solid fertilizers in that are furnished by/for a consumer prior to
a ratio required to get the desired nutrient ratio. mixing, usually based on the results of soil tests.
It only requires warehouse, weighing and mixing The efficiency of customized fertilizers depends
equipment. It has the advantage of smaller on soil properties, crop, water and specific
capacities of decentralized production uniquely nutrients. Customized fertilizers manufacture
suited to give the customer exactly the NPK ratio basically involves mixing and crushing of urea,
he requires. The physical standard should be DAP, MOP, ZnS, bentonite sulphur and boron
such that the shape and size of HARIT DHARA 2(1) granules for obtaining the desired proportion of
January – June, 2019 Soil Health: Technological N, P, K, S and micronutrients.
Interventions 10 all fertilizers, raw materials are
similar and also high-quality granular fertilizer
material is needed, which are to be used in bulk
blends. In Indian context, importing of the raw
Soil Science 19 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Major Constraints to Promote Customized micronutrient deficiency is observed in all parts

Fertilizers of the country. The most important issues which
hinder the marketing of customized fertilizers
The available research information sounds well are:
for upward revision of fertilizer recommendations
as the existing fertilizer HARIT DHARA 2(1) High Cost of Customized Fertilizers.
January – June, 2019 Soil Health: Technological
Necessity of investing heavy capital in state-of-
Interventions 11 doses (NPK) are proving to
the-art manufacturing facility for customized
be sub-optimal for maximum economic yield.
fertilizer.
It is also evident that application of nutrients
according to current recommendations is Limited awareness and very low affordability
causing nutrient depletion particularly in respect of customized fertilizers among the farmers.
of potassium and micronutrients. The current Uncertainty in response when fertility is restored
soil test-based recommendations consider in the field.
only the nutrient deficiency magnitude, not the
yield targets. Only one recommendation being References
currently given without considering the yield Dobermann A, Cassman KG (2002) Plant nutrient
target is proving to be suboptimal for higher management for enhanced productivity in
yield targets, thus farmers are losing yield, intensive grain production systems of the United
produce quality and profits. The current fertilizer States and Asia. Plant Soil 247:153–175.
recommendations support only medium yield FAI (2011) Fertilizer Statistics, The Fertilizer
target provided the supply of nutrients other Association of India, New Delhi.
than NPK is not a limiting factor. In contrast, the
deficiency of one or the other secondary and / or
22581
7. Land Resource Inventory – Overview

GEETHA, G. P., RAGINI PATIL., DEEPE KALAPPANAVAR AND ROOPA
K MUTTAPPANAVAR
Land resources are not uniform across the fields the country using geo-spatial techniques and
and identifying field variability and grouping to develop soil resource information system
similar fields as one cluster is critical for of the country (Soil Geoportal). At present, the
management. Land resource inventory provides information available in the country is general in
site-specific database needed for planning and nature (1:250000 scale soil maps for the entire
implementation of all development programs. country and few district/state maps at 1: 50000
Land Resource Inventory (LRI) is an assessment scale) and is suitable up to district or taluk level
of the status and changing condition of soil, water planning only. Few pilot studies on 1:10000
and related resources at the field level. The term carried out in various parts of the country have
“land resources” encompasses the physical, proved conclusively the importance of such
biotic, environmental, infrastructural and socio- site-specific database. LRI provides required
economic components of a natural land unit, information for farm/watershed level planning.
including surface and near-surface freshwater For site-specific needs and for development
resources important for management. In soil works, we need detailed farm level database of
science the LRI is defined as inventory of five different scales. The LRI database is generated
physical factors (rock, soil, slope, erosion type, on a geo-referenced cadastral map (1:7920
severity and vegetation) which is the basis of scale), superimposed on Cartosat/Quick Bird
assessing land resources. Soil and water are the imagery. The land parcels are grouped into
two key resources that need to be conserved and management units based on similarity in soil and
managed in a scientific manner for sustainable site characteristics. During LRI, land use details,
yield and profit. weather & climate, hydrology, socio economic
The main objective of LRI is to develop land particulars, market infrastructure, existing
resource inventory (1:10000 or 1:7920 scale) for schemes and other details of the area are also

collected. Recommend crops suitable for the study
area considering present status of soil
The following steps are followed in LRI physical and chemical properties.
Traversing sub-watershed area using satellite Development of community lands with
imagery, cadastral and soil toposheet maps. suitable tree species and promotion of social
Updating land features, soil and water forestry
conservation structure Rejuvenation/ development of tank
Identification of LULC and site characteristics catchment and command areas.
(Texture, slope, Erosion, Gravelliness and Preparation of combating plan to arrest land
stoniness) degradation/desertification and improve
Fixing transects for profile study (Soil bio-diversity
grouping and landforms) Environmental impact assessment
Detailed profile study and identification of LRI information can be used as a basis
land capability classes to assess the present carrying capacity
GIS platform – Generation of thematic maps of the watershed area for various Animal
(Land use and land cover, Texture, Slope, husbandry and Fisheries components.
Erosion, Gravelliness, Depth, Soil phases LRI will help in identifying suitable areas
and crop suitability) for growing fodder crops and measures for
This information will be put in report and improving their fodder yield.
sent to Digital library/portal – Decision LRI for rural development department i.e.,
support system – Watershed development RDPR
plan – Project implementation – Monitoring
and Evaluation. LRI outputs for identifying, prioritising and
allocating works
The Outcome of This Study Will Be LRI outputs help in converging various
schemes.
Provide information on the different classes
of cultivable and non-cultivable lands for LRI for planning new schemes
effective land use planning. LRI outputs helps for Famers & Communities
Provide information on priority-based like
land degradation treatment for effective – Help in sensitising the issues to the
management of soil resource. farmer
Identify the factors responsible for soil – Land suitability maps for crop selection
erosion and suggest appropriate soil – Targeted crop specific nutrient
conservation and land management management
techniques that could reduce soil erosion in
– LRI to empower the farmers by crop
the study area.
selection, crop management, water and
Recommend strategies for improving the nutrient management and conservation
productivity and health status of soil. if needed.

22584
8. Vertical Agriculture: A Innovation to

Stare the Starve
INDUMATHI, P
Department of soil science and agricultural chemistry, College of Agriculture, UAS,
Raichur-580104, Karnataka, India
Introduction Critical Aspects of Vertical Farming (Vf)

By 2050, the human population is expected to 1. Physical layout: primary goal of VF is
reach 9.7 billion, out of which almost 70% live in producing more foods per square meter and
urban cities. Due to the limited access to land for the crops are stacked vertically to grow.
farming, there is a need for sustaining farming 2. Lighting: Perfect combination of natural
tasks so as to pave the way for adding to food and artificial lights is used to maintain the
needs. Many aspects press on food industry and perfect light level in the room. Technologies
processing such as: growth of population and its such as rotating beds are used to improve
growing needs accordingly, reduction of natural the lighting efficiency
sources due to growing cities, earth erosion,
3. Growing medium: instead of soil, it employs
different forms of contamination, advent of bio-
hydroponics (plant roots in a nutrient bath)
fuels, restrictions imposed on food production
or aeroponics (spray-misting the plant roots)
techniques affected by customers and rule
or aquaponic growing mediums are used.
providers which requires better quality, less use
Peat moss or coconut husks and similar non-
of chemicals and many useful environmental
soil mediums are very common.
attempts ‘from farm to fork’.
4. Sustainability features: Uses various
One solution to our need for more space
sustainability features to offset the energy
might be found in the abandoned warehouses in
cost of farming. In fact, vertical farming uses
our cities, new buildings built on environmentally
95% less water than traditional farming.
damaged lands, and even in used shipping
containers from ocean transports. This solution,
called vertical farming, involves growing crops
in controlled indoor environments, with precise
light, nutrients, and temperatures. In vertical
farming, growing plants are stacked in layers that
may reach several stories tall vertically inclined
surfaces.
Vertical Farming
Vertical farming is cultivating plant life with in a
skyscraper greenhouse or on vertically inclined
surface. It is the modern idea of vertical farming
uses techniques similar to glass house, where
natural sunlight can be augmented with artificial
lighting. Artificial light is often LED- based and
may be driven by a renewable power source
such as solar power or wind turbines. Types of Vertical Farming
Gilbert Ellis Bailey coined the term “vertical 1. Despommier Skyscrapers
farming and in 1980s, Åke Olsson, a Swedish 2. Mixed Use Skyscrapers and
ecological farmer, invented a spiral-shaped rail
system for growing plants and suggested vertical 3. Stackable Shipping Containers
farming as a means for producing vegetables in In addition to these, there are three
cities. processes usually adopted in the vertical farming

systems viz., 1) Hydroponics, 2) Aeroponics, 3) Aquaponics
Types of Vertical farming Advantage

Despommier skyscrapers Skyscrapers where crops can be grown in
(Despommier) vertically stacked shelves, mass produced
within closed and controlled environments that
are not influenced by the external climate.
Mixed Use Skyscrapers In these skyscrapers integrate traditional

(Ken yeang) agricultural activities with vertical farming
concept instead of growing crops in
completely controlled and closed environment.
Crops are grown in natural sunlight such as
top floors of an office building that receive the
most sunlight.
The advantage of this Skyscrapers over
Despommier Skyscraper that they require
less initial investment which requires the
environment within the building to be
controlled and monitored according to the
crop’s requirements
Stackable Shipping This method of vertical farming uses shipping

Containers containers to grow leafy green vegetables,
mushrooms and strawberries.
These stacked recycled shipping containers
can be used in urban settings.
Freight Farms and Podponics are using
shipping containers fitted with hydroponic
components, LED lighting, heating and
ventilation systems for climate control
and sensors to monitor the environmental
condition inside the containers.
Processes
Advantages
involved in VF
Hydroponics Plants are grown in the nutrient solution
contained in a grow tray and roots are submerged
in the solution. The grow tray is filled with a
nutrient solution few times a day by using a
reservoir below the tray, a water pump and a
timer.
Aeroponics Plant roots are suspended in air and nourished

by misting the root zones with a nutrient solution
on a continual basis by using a fine sprayer to
ensure that roots get sufficient oxygen.
It uses 90% lesser water than the most efficient
hydroponic systems and plants grow quicker
than in other types of hydroponic systems.
Fertilizer usage is reduced by 60%, while the crop
yields increases by 45 to 75%.

Processes
Advantages
involved in VF
Aquaponics It combines aquaculture and hydroponics in the
same ecosystem.
Fish grown in fish tanks produce waste that are
high in nutrient content, which can be used as
nutrient supplement to grow the plants in a grow
tray.
The plants are naturally filtering the water in
which the fish live. The water from the fish tank,
which is rich in ammonia, is circulated to the
grow tray.
Nitrifying bacteria, thrives in the growth bed
where plants convert the ammonia to nitrites and
then to nitrates and finally solids are converted to
vermicompost, which can be used by the plants
as bio fertilizer.
Advantages of Vertical Disadvantages of Vertical control various environmental factors, such

Farming Farming as temperature, humidity, and light levels, to
Continuous Crop Production Land and infrastructure optimize growing conditions and increase
Elimination of Herbicides Costs productivity. These systems can also automate
and Pesticides Limited Number of Crop certain aspects of the growing process, such
Protection from Weather- Species as irrigation and nutrient delivery, saving time
Related Variations in Crop Pollination Needs and labour costs. Additionally, IoT technology in
Production vertical farming can provide real-time data and
Cost involved in energy
Water Conservation and use such as artificial light
analytics, allowing growers to make data-driven
Recycling high electricity usage to run decisions and improve the overall efficiency of
lighting and heating/ cooling their operations.
Climate Friendly
Human Friendly Controversy over USDA
Organic Certiﬁcation References
Ullah, R., Asghar, I., Griffiths, M.G., Stacey, C., Stiles,
Vertical Farming and Internet of Thing (Iot) W. and Whitelaw, C. 2023, March. Internet of
Based Sensor System as A Innovation in Things based Sensor System for Vertical Farming
and Controlled Environment Agriculture. In 2023
Smart Farming 6th Conference on Cloud and Internet of Things
The use of internet of things (IoT) technology (CIoT), 136-140. IEEE.
in vertical farming has the potential to greatly Rehber, E., 1998. Vertical integration in agriculture
benefit the industry by providing a more efficient and contract farming, 1299-2016-102484.
and sustainable way to grow plants. IoT-based
systems in vertical farming can monitor and

22596
9. Rainfall Simulator for Soil Loss

Estimation Under Controlled
Environment
SHASHIKANTH1, RUBEENA TARRANUM2 AND PREMKUMARA3
Ph.D. Scholar Department of Soil and Water Engineering, CAE, UAS, Raichur, India
1,2&3
Advantages of Rainfall Simulator row crops.

The ability to take many measurements Not Suitable Under the Following Condition
quickly without having to wait for natural
crops grown on a contour, because the plot
rain.
borders interfere with the normal water
Able to work with constant controlled flow;
rain, thereby eliminating the erratic and
any comparison of treatments which have
unpredictable variability of natural rain.
only minor differences because under
It is usually quicker and simpler to set up a field conditions, experiments with rainfall
simulator over existing cropping treatments simulators will suffer from considerable
than to establish the treatments on runoff uncontrollable experimental variation;
plots.
studies of physical processes which require
Disadvantages of Rainfall Simulator accurate variation of rainfall characteristics
such as changes in kinetic energy or intensity.
It is cheap and simple to use a small
simulator which rains onto a test plot of only Characteristics of Simulated Rainfall
a few square meters, but simulators to cover
field plots of say 100 m² are large, expensive It is desirable that all the physical characteristics
and cumbersome. of natural rain should be reproduced as
accurately as possible, but some latitude may be
Measurements of runoff and erosion from acceptable in the interests of simplicity and cost.
simulator tests on small plots cannot be The main characteristics are:
extrapolated to field conditions. They are
best restricted to comparisons, such as Drop size
which of three cropping treatments suffers Drop size distribution
least erosion under the specific conditions Fall velocity
of the simulator test, or the comparison of
relative values of erodibility of different soil Kinetic energy
types. Rainfall intensity
Simulators are likely to be affected by wind, Drop Size
but having to erect windshields undermines
the advantage of simplicity. Raindrops vary from the minute droplets
in mist up to a maximum of 6 or 7 mm
Suitability diameter. This is a physical upper limit to
drop size and above this any drops which
The relative protection afforded by different form from the coalescence of more than
plant densities one drop are unstable and will break up into
·The relative protection afforded at different smaller drops. The median drop diameter by
times during the growing season; volume lies between 2 and 3 mm and varies
Studies of relative erodibility; with intensity.
Studies of soil infiltration characteristics; The distribution of drops of different sizes
varies. Cyclonic rain in temperate climates
Erosion and runoff from up and down slope
is mainly composed of small and average

size drops, but high-intensity tropical test plot at a velocity much lower than the
thunderstorms have a greater proportion of terminal velocity of falling rain, and therefore
large drops. the values of kinetic energy are also low. A
large drop of 5 mm diameter needs a height
of fall of about 12 meters to reach terminal
velocity and this is difficult to achieve in field
conditions.
Pressurized Rainfall Simulator

Water Sprinkler Cans.
Stationary Nozzles.
Irrigation Sprinklers.
Capillary Tube Rainfall Simulators.
Rotating Discs.
Fall Velocity Rotating Booms.
Falling raindrops reach a maximum (or Oscillating Nozzles.
terminal) velocity when the force of gravitational
acceleration is equaled by the resistance of the
drop falling through the air. The terminal velocity
is a function of drop size and increases up to
about 9 m/s for the largest drops, as shown
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is a function of the size and
fall velocity and is often used as a desirable
parameter for a simulator because it is
known that kinetic energy is closely related
to the ability of rainfall to cause erosion.
The kinetic energy of rainfall varies with
intensity as shown fig.
This upper limit is a consequence of the
upper limit of the size of raindrops in that
the highest intensities have more drops but
not of an ever-increasing size, so the energy
per volume of rain does not increase above
intensities of 75 mm/h.
The energy per second does, of increase
with intensity at all levels of intensity.
Rainfall intensity or rate of rainfall can vary
rapidly in natural rainfall, but it is usually not
practical or necessary to build into rainfall
simulators the ability to change intensity
during a test. It is usual to choose and design
for a single value of intensity.
The advantages of this method are that the Scada Based Rainfall Simulator
size of the drops and their fall velocity are SCADA based rainfall simulator at extreme
constant, the distribution of rainfall across weather events of variable rainfall intensity
the test plot is uniform and can be achieved (25 to 150 mm/hr) in different soils (up to
with low water pressures. 10% slope) with moving type simulator over
The disadvantages are that unless the device the soil bins
is raised up very high, the drops strike the

Details of Rainfall Simulator Developed by

Scientists
TABLE 1: The main features of the reviewed RSs and the characteristics of the simulated rainfall they produce
Water Energy
Rainfall
Simulator Drop forming distribution Drop size flux (J Simulation Raindall
Designer intensity Portability
type apparatus by (mm) mm-1 area (m2) continiim
(nm/h)
Christiansen m )
-2
Morin et Spraying Single nozzle 29-142 0.8-0.9 1.5-2.25 16-22 in 1.75 continuous Not
al. (1967) nozzle with a rotating respect to portable
disc drop size
Meyer Spraying Osscillated 10-140 - 1.5-2.5 20-27 in 2.54 Pilsed Portable
and nozzle single nozzle respect to
Harmon drop size
(1978)
Miller Spraying Triple nozzles 43-116 0.83 2.25-2.5 23.1 3 Pulsed Portable
(1987) nozzle with solenoid
valves
Cerda et Spraying Low pressure 10-60 0.93 at 54.6 2.53 at 7.1 at 0.24 Continuous Portable
al. (1997) nozzle single nozzle mm/h 54.6 mm/h 54.6
mm/h
Blanquies Spraying Oscillated - - 1.71 - 3.5 Pulsed Portable
et al. nozzle single nozzle
(2003)
Assouline Spraying Single nozzle 12 0.85 1.17 Very close 16 Continuous Not
et al. nozzle pointing 20 1.21 to 13 portable
(1997) upward 28 1.34
Singh et Modules Rotating 60 - 5.17 - 0.15 Continuous Portable
al. (1999) Perpex 100 5.86
cylinder with
capillary holes
Hignett et Modules An array 40-100 - 2.7 1.6-16.6 1 Continuous Not
al. (1995) of 1600 5.1 1.6-19.9 portable
hypodermic
needles
Design Considerations Portability for movement from one research

site to another.
Drop size distribution near that of natural
rainstorms. Practical Considerations
Drop impact velocity near those of natural
The main factors are power sources, water
raindrops.
supplies and access.
Intensities in the range of storms for which
Most simulators need a power source for
results are of interest.
motors and pumps, the only exceptions
Research area sufficient size to represent being those using gravity. Small reliable
treatment and conditions being evaluated. diesel- or petrol-powered generators are
Drop characteristics and intensity of available but they are not cheap, and one
application fairly uniform over the study more thing to be carried to the site.
area. Small simulators of the nozzle dropper
Raindrop application nearly continuous type may need only small supplies of water
throughout the study area. because they can be targeted onto the test
Angle of impact not greatly different from plot with little wastage outside the plot.
vertical for most drops. Spraying systems need larger supplies, partly
Capability of applying the same simulated because they usually run at higher intensities,
rainstorm repeatedly. and also because the sprays usually cover a
larger area than the test plot
Satisfactory rainstorm characteristics when
used during common field conditions, such A site close to an all-weather road is so much
as high temperatures and moderate winds. easier to operate.

Make a field simulator as simple as possible, University Press, Ithaca, New York 324pp.
robust, easy to repair and with as few moving Jones, O.R., Clark, R. N., 1987. Effects of furrow
parts as possible. dikes on water conservation and dryland crop
yields. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 51, 1307–1314.
References Jones, O.R., Stewart, B. A., 1990. Basin tillage. Soil
Clark, R. N., Jones, O. R., 1980. Furrow dams for Tillage Res. 18, 249–265.
conserving rainwater in a semiarid climate. [in Krishna, J. H., 1989. Modeling the effects of tied-
the Southern Great Plains; USA]. ridging on water conservation and crop yields.
Gao, X. D., Liu, Z. P., Zhao, X. N., Ling, Q., Huo, G.P., Agric. Water Manag. 16, 87–95.
Wu, P.T., 2018. Extreme natural drought enhances Liu, Y., Xin, Y., Xie, Y. and Wang, W, 2019, Effects
interspecific facilitation in semiarid agroforestry of slope and rainfall intensity on runoff and soil
systems. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 265, 444–453. erosion from furrow diking under simulated
Hudson, N. W., 1971. Soil Conservation. Cornell rainfall, Catena. 177:92-100
22598
10. Soil Health and Its Relationship with

Food Security and Human Health to
Meet the Sustainable Development
Goals in India
YELLETI TEJESWI1, BANKA KANDA KISHORE REDDY2, K.
MADHURI3, B. CHANDANA2, K. MADHAVI 2AND K. SUDHARANI2
1
Senior Research Fellow, National Institute of Plant Health Management, Hyderabad
2
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Reddipalli, Ananthapuramu, ANGRAU
3
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalikiri, ANGRAU
Introduction feeding the growing population, decreasing

per capita land availability, land degradation,
India is a fast-growing economy with a and low productivity of crops. To address these
significant contribution to global food security challenges, there is a call to double farm income
and sustainable development goals (SDGs). through the adoption of integrated farming
However, the country faces challenges in systems and the need to evaluate existing trends
achieving inclusive economic growth, balancing in soil research and development in India. Indian
between urban and rural areas, and feeding a soils have low nutrient status, with deficiencies in
growing population. major and micronutrients, leading to malnutrition
The agricultural sector plays a crucial in the Indian population. Large-scale soil testing
role in India’s economy, with about 17-18% of in farmers’ fields indicates that more than 70%
the national GDP and 58% of the population of soils in India suffer from soil acidity or soil
depending on it for their livelihoods. The alkalinity. Nutrient transport through Indian
increasing population, industrial development, soils is an important area of research, especially
urbanization, global trading, and climate change considering the presence of high proportions of
put immense pressure on natural resources, coarse textured soils that facilitate rapid nutrient
making it a daunting task to achieve SDGs transport processes. The use efficiency of plant
related to poverty reduction, zero hunger, well- nutrients in India is low, leading to the loss of
being, and food security. Land use planning and unused nutrients into water bodies and causing
sustainable soil management require innovative environmental problems. The current fertilizer
approaches and the involvement of multiple consumption in India is imbalanced, with a
stakeholders. Despite achievements in food skewed focus on nitrogen (N) and deficiencies
grain production, there are concerns about in other essential nutrients. The return of crop

residues to the soil is crucial for improving soil can lead to improved nutrient use efficiency
health and fertility, but the majority of surplus crop and minimize nutrient losses.
residues in India are currently burnt in the field. Develop site-specific and integrated nutrient
Future research should focus on comprehensive management (INM) recommendations that
digital soil mapping, nutrient transport through take into account the interplay between
Indian soils, site-specific and integrated nutrient water and nutrients. This would help in
management, and the development of national replenishing nutrients and minimizing
soil hydraulic property databases. disparities in fertilizer use, leading to
sustainable food grain production.
Results
Consolidate efforts to develop national soil
Indian soils have low levels of organic draulic property databases for Indian soils,
carbon and nutrients, with more than 70% of including data on water retention, hydraulic
soils suffering from soil acidity or alkalinity. conductivity, and soil water content. This
Land degradation is also a significant issue, would provide valuable information for
affecting 29% of the total geographical area. efficient water management in agriculture.
The deficiency of plant nutrients in Indian Promote the adoption of innovative
soils has led to malnutrition in the Indian agricultural technologies, such as smart
population. sensing, robotics, and remote sensing, to
Efforts have been made to address soil enhance soil research and development in
health through government programs like India. This would enable farmers to make
the national soil health card mission and informed decisions and improve soil health.
public-private partnerships like Bhoochetna. Limitations
These initiatives aim to involve farmers in
soil research and development and promote The analysis is based on large-scale soil
self-reliance. testing data from farmers’ fields, which may
Research on nutrient transport through not fully capture the heterogeneity of soil
Indian soils is needed, especially considering conditions across different regions in India.
the presence of coarse-textured soils that The paper does not provide a detailed
facilitate rapid transport processes. scription of the specific methodologies used
Proximal soil sensing approaches, such as in data collection and analysis, which limits
the DRS approach and multispectral remote the ability to assess the robustness and
sensing data, have been used to estimate reliability of the findings.
soil properties and assess soil health. The paper focuses on nutrient deficiencies
Critical values for soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil health in relation to food security
need to be determined for different soils to and human health, but it may not cover all
assess soil health and recommend corrective aspects of soil research and its implications
measures. Future works suggested for sustainable development goals in India.
The paper does not discuss potential
Conduct a comprehensive digital soil
limitations or challenges associated with the
mapping study to assess key soil function
implementation of suggested future works,
parameters such as nutrient and water
leaving room for further exploration and
holding capacities for Indian soils. This
analysis.
would provide valuable information for
sustainable soil management and resource Reference
assessment.
Further research is needed on nutrient Das, B. S., Wani, S. P., Benbi, D. K., Muddu, S.,
transport through Indian soils, specifically Bhattacharyya, T., Mandal, B.,... & Reddy, N.
focusing on the presence of coarse textured N. (2022). Soil health and its relationship with
food security and human health to meet the
soils that facilitate rapid nutrient transport
sustainable development goals in India. Soil
processes. Understanding these processes Security, 100071.

H O R T ICULT UR E
22566
11. Online Nursery Information and

Marketing Intelligence
MEGHA RAGHAVAN
College of Agriculture, Kerala Agricultural University, Padannakkad
Kasaragod, Kerala
Introduction relevant way. The information displayed in the

plant library should be organized in a way to
The Nursery Management Information System encourage the visitors towards conservation of
(NMIS) was first designed in 1970s to support the nature by providing awareness and education
nursery programs in USA, mainly for tracking the services. Space for this kind of live plant library
seed collection, storage, sowing of seed, seedling establishment may be allocated near the entry
inventory, seedling lifting, grading and culling, gate of nursery which will attract attention of
packing of seedlings for storage, shipment and visitors and potential for proper dissemination
distribution of seedlings. NMIS consists of a of information. The plant library space may also
source subsystem for managing and maintaining be used for the display of rare and important
source material for products and a products propagules available in the nursery for sale.
subsystem for managing and maintaining product
inventories. Source (includes seed as well as Marketing intelligence: Nursery production,
other types of plant propagation materials) was which includes nursery and green house
originally developed as a means of tracking producers, contributes to nation economy and
information received through processing. At the creates employment. In the absence of a proper
end of the day, the data recorder will download marketing system in Karnataka, neither the
to NMIS and a daily inventory checklist of report nurserymen nor the consumers are adequately
is produced for execution of activities by the benefited. Our objective was to explore
nursery manager. The system has the provision marketing of commercial nurseries
of orders entered by the clients along with their Sales forecasting: It is based on no. of
contact details, grading specifications, special assumptions regarding customer and competitor
services, job codes, and amount of request. behaviour as well as market environment.
After an order is entered, an order confirmation Primarily a management device for defining and
report will be sent to the client for review. When stimulating sales effort.
all orders have been entered, a surplus for sale
report will be created. All Forecasts Are Built on Three Assumptions
Live Plant Library at Nursery: An 1. What people say-surveys
Awareness Concept: It is one of the recent 2. What people do – test market buyers’
important concepts to establish a live plant response
library to emphasize the importance, value,
fascination and diversity of plants among the 3. What people have done-time series analysis
public. Detailed notes including common Market demand: Total volume that would be
names, botany, location, habitat, uses and bought by a defined customer group in a defined
cultivation aspect of seedlings and plants may geographical area in a defined time period in a
also be communicated to the visitors through defined marketing environment under a defined
this library. In other words, plant library can be market programme.
defined as an exhaustive collection of plants Estimating future demand: In most
and specimens in different forms preserved and markets total demand and company demand
placed to provide information about plants to are not stable, a good forecasting becomes a key
beginners, professionals, and nurserymen in a factor for profitable nursery.
30 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Horticulture

Problems in marketing of nursery plants: A small box could hold hundreds of these
Care of the nursery and planting of the trees plants resulting in reducing transportation
required a commitment of time and labour, costs besides easy and convenient for
which were in short supply. dispatch.
Lack of community infrastructure for It also reduces the mortality rate and the
replanting trees health and life of these plants can be
sustained for a number of days before
Poor linkages among farmers, researchers
planting. Robust and healthy growth is
and extensionists
assured after planting.
Susceptibility of grafts to bacterial and viral
diseases after four years Strategies for Commercial Nursery
Involvement of commission agents and price A focus on crops, farmers are familiar with
of the graft vary from nursery to nursery and systems of production that built on what
Lack of guidance to grow disease free grafts was already practiced
and organic method farming Investigation and pilot testing of market
Marketing Channels Followed by Growers opportunities for nursery plants
Action to strengthen and support self-help
Nursery producer grower→
farmer groups and networking.
Nursery producer→Wholesale
Awareness creation and Training and supply
dealer’s→Grower→
of mother plants to self-help groups and
Nursery producer→Wholesale enterprising farmers to intensify nursery
dealer’s→Retailer grower→ farming.
Marketing Costs Establishment of community nurseries to
provide year-round employment.
1. The costs of distribution are a major
marketing problem in nursery Rising of grafts by farmers showed avoiding
transport of grafts from other regions, Grafts
2. The marketing costs incurred by the are grown in exactly same conditions (soil,
producer for the disposal of their plants water, climate) and no transplanting injury
3. Transport cost to the farm occurred.
4. Loading and unloading charges Easy access to grafts is a source of motivation
5. Commission charges for planting more trees.
6. Packing charges Women must regain control over plants and
7. Distance of the nursery the associated knowledge and skills.
Establishing nursery men co-operative
Transportation society.
To compete on the nursery market –quality Nursery men should have strategic planning
of the plant which should meet the approval and marketing decisions that move them toward
of the ultimate purchaser should be ensured. a competitive advantage. Awareness of changes
over time is critical to nursery farming in the
The plants are mostly propagated in pots or supply chain if these firms want to adapt to meet
polythene bags with soil free media the demands of their changing customers.
Even though the plants appear small the
roots of the same are in abundance for
speedy and healthy growth.
Horticulture 31 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

22576
12. Impact of Climate Change on Cocoa

Production
C. SUDHALAKSHMI, P. MALATHI AND G. RAJALINGAM
Associate Professor (Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry)
Coconut Research Station, Aliyarnagar – 642 101.
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.; family Malvaceae) variables holds great promise on processes like
having its genesis in the wet forests of South photosynthesis, transpiration, flowering, pest and
America near equator, is a major cash crop disease incidence and yield. In Andhrapradesh,
that provides food, employment, income, and which is the largest producer of cocoa in the
raw materials for the global chocolate industry country, abnormal variations in temperature
(Peprah, 2015). It is a potential intercrop of are observed. During drought period, size of
coconut and arecanut plantations in India. It is the beans is reduced and hence the number of
a domesticated crop distributed between 10oN beans exceeds 110 per pod. In such occasions,
and 10oS of the equator at an altitude of 500 weight of the beans goes less than 1.0 g per
m from the mean sea level. Optimum rainfall bean. Thus, the quality of the beans is depressed
regime for cocoa cultivation is 1500 – 2000 mm during drought period.
per year with monthly distribution of 90-100 mm. High relative humidity intensifies the
Although cocoa is cultivated in wide range of incidence of black pod disease (Denkyirah et al.,
temperature conditions ranging from 15-39oC, 2016) pulling down cocoa productivity. Higher
the optimum temperature for its cultivation is rainfall can slow cocoa drying and processing,
25oC. Cocoa production is highly vulnerable to lowering bean value and increase processing
extreme weather events, wherein timely and costs (Hutchins et al., 2015). In Kerala, during
moderate rainfall distribution is essential for high rainfall, there is thickness in the content
effective production. Global temperature is on of mucilage and again the size of the beans
the rise and Global Circulation Models (GCMs) in reduced. But in Tamil Nadu, such type of
have anticipated a temperature increase by abnormal variability in temperature is seldom
1.4-3.1oC by the end of this century (Stocker et witnessed and hence uniform quality of beans is
al., 2013). Every stage of cocoa development maintained throughout the year. Wind velocity is
requires ambient climatic conditions. Climatic also a key player in cocoa cultivation. Experience
factors, including temperature, rainfall, humidity, at Coconut Research Station, Aliyarnagar showed
and sunshine hours are the key players in cocoa that whenever the wind velocity exceeds 35
production (Owoeye and Sekumade, 2016). kmph, there was marginal scorching of leaves
Cocoa is grown as an intercrop in coconut and severe breakage of twigs. Structural pruning
and arecanut plantations of India with only 40- is imperative to allow the breeze to pass though
50 % of the incident solar radiation reaching the branches to prevent breakage. Hence cocoa
the ground. There is an increased production at could not be a remunerative crop in wind prone
lower light levels with optimum growth at 20 – areas (Sudhalakshmi, 2020). Thus, cocoa is a
30 % of full solar radiation (Galyuon et al., 1996). sensitive crop to the catastrophes of climate
Cocoa can be successfully cultivated with a change more prominently drought, high rainfall
mean maximum of 30-32oC and mean minimum and turbulent wind flow.
of 18-21oC. Although dry season induces
uniform flowering, higher yields are hardy References
during such temperature extremities (Zuidema
Sudhalakshmi, C., B. Meena, S. Praneetha and H.P.
et al., 2005) which is generally attributed to
Maheswarappa. 2020. Scorching of cocoa leaves
the low assimilation rates caused by vapour in coconut gardens. Indian coconut Journal, 63
pressure deficit (Acheampong et al., 2013). (07): 26- 27
Also, temperatures below 10oC is lethal for its
Peprah, 2015. Sustainability of cocoa farmers’
establishment as they have a depressing effect
livelihoods: A case study of Asunafo District,
on cambial growth thus having negative impact Ghana. Sustainable Production and Consumption
on flowering. Cocoa is a cross pollinated crop (04): 2-15.
mainly aided by midges (entomophily). Weather

22582
13. Soil-Less Culture of Ornamentals: The

Way Forward
CHANDANA S.1
PhD Research Scholar, Floriculture and Landscape Architecture,
ICAR-IIHR (Indian Institute of Horticultural Research), Bengaluru.
Introduction Aeroponics
Soil less culture is a method of growing plants
without using traditional soil as a growing
medium. This technique is particularly popular
in various horticultural practices including
floriculture where it is used to cultivate flowers
and ornamental plants. In soilless culture, plants
are grown in a nutrient-rich water solution
allowing them to absorb the necessary nutrients
directly through their roots. In soil less culture
plants are grown either using water or substrate
for culture. Hydroponic culture can be traced
back to ancient civilizations like the Babylonians,
Aztecs of Mexico, and Chinese, who created
remarkable gardens such as the Hanging
Gardens of Babylon and the Floating Gardens.
Egyptian hieroglyphic records dating back to
several hundred years B.C. also document the
practice of growing plants in water (Resh, 1991).
Greenhouse soils required frequent replacement
to address issues with soil structure, fertility and
pests. Consequently, researchers recognized
the possibility of utilizing soilless culture as a 1. Solution culture/ hydroponics: Solution
substitute for traditional soil-based cultivation culture is a technique that enables plant
methods. growth either in a plain nutrient solution
Advantages of soil less culture (Pardossi et or a sterile substrate. This method utilizes
al., 2004; Savvas, et al., 2013; Gul, 2017) significantly less water compared to soil
cultivation typically using less than 1/5th
1. Safe alternative to soil disinfection to 1/10th of the water while occupying less
2. Possibility to cultivate greenhouse crops with space and achieving higher yields. The
high yield and quality in non-arable soils global acreage under hydroponics has
3. Precise application of water and nutrients experienced a tremendous expansion.
(Precision Farming) For example, in Australia the area under
4. No soil borne diseases and pests, no hydroponics increased from 155 hectares
fumigation needed and reduced weed in 1990 to 2,500 hectares in 2008. The
incidence. commercial hydroponics industry has grown
four to five times in the last decade currently
5. More crop per drop i.e., yield per unit area is estimated to cover 20,000 to 25,000 hectares
more. with a total value of 6 to 8 billion US dollars.
6. Effective alternative to reduce the Many countries have embraced hydroponics
consequence of climate change. including Holland, Canada, Spain, Australia,
Types of soil less culture: 1. Solution USA, Italy, China, Mexico and recently
culture/Hydroponics 2. Substrate culture 3. India with significant government support.
Hydroponics is employed to cultivate

various crops including cucumber, tomato, or pots containing media and used
lettuce, strawberry, cut flowers, capsicums for planting. At regular intervals a
and more. simple timer activates a pump filling
a) Solution culture based on water flow: the upper tray with nutrient solution.
i) Static solution culture Subsequently, the solution drains
back into the reservoir. This regular
ii) Continuous flow culture cycle ensures that the medium or
b) Solution culture based on disposal of pots are consistently flushed with
nutrient waste: nutrients and air.
i) Run to waste (Open)
ii) Recycled (Recirculating)
2. Types of Hydroponic Systems
v) Drip method: The drip method

serves as an excellent water-saving
iii) Nutrient film technique: NFT solution for hydroponic gardens.
(Nutrient Film Technique) is a water The fundamental principle involves
culture method where plants are pumping nutrient solution from
cultivated with their root systems the reservoir through a main line
enclosed in a trough, channel typically 1 inch in size which divided
or gully and a continuous flow into 1/2 inch lateral lines running
of nutrient solution is circulated alongside the plants. These lateral
through it. The key components of lines are equipped with individual
an NFT system include a catchment drippers for each plant precisely
tank that holds the nutrient solution, positioned at the plant base. This
a pump to circulate the solution and setup ensures a controlled flow of
a network of pipes that distribute water directly to the roots of each
the solution to the growing troughs. plant.
The solution then flows down the
troughs via gravity (Savvas et al.,
2013).
vi) Deep flow/ Deep fil technique

(DFT): In this method the nutrient
solution is continuously pumped
through the troughs primarily for
aeration purposes. The troughs
remain consistently filled with
nutrient solution and the plant
iv) Ebb and flow: The ebb and flow
roots are suspended within it. The
method involve a tray positioned
depth of the nutrient solution in this
above a nutrient solution reservoir.
system typically ranges from 5 to
The tray can be filled with media

15 cm setting it apart from the NFT
technique where the water stream
has a depth of 1 to 2 mm.
4. Aeroponics: Aeroponics is an advanced

vii) The Wick System: The wick system hydroponic cultivation method that involves
employs a wick, like a rope, to growing plants in an air or mist environment
transport the nutrient solution without using a solid medium or substrate to
from a reservoir to the plants using support the roots. In this technique the plant
osmotic pressure, akin to a candle roots are suspended in the air and a fine
wick drawing up melted wax to the mist or aerosol of nutrient solution is sprayed
flame. directly onto the roots. The mist is typically
delivered using high-pressure misting
3. Substrate culture: Substrate hydroponics
nozzles or similar devices. Offers several
is a method of hydroponic cultivation
advantages over traditional hydroponic
that involves using a solid medium or
methods. Since the roots are continuously
substrate to support the plant roots. Unlike
exposed to oxygen, they receive optimal
the nutrient film technique (NFT) or water
levels of air and nutrients promoting rapid
culture methods where the roots are directly
growth and healthier plants. The absence
exposed to the nutrient solution substrate
of a solid medium also reduces the risk of
hydroponics relies on a solid material to
soil-borne diseases and allows for easy
provide physical support and hold the
inspection and maintenance of the root
nutrient solution around the roots. Various
system. Due to its efficiency in delivering
types of substrates can be used in substrate
nutrients and oxygen to the roots aeroponics
hydroponics organic (peat, cocopeat, tree
is known for its ability to produce higher
bark, wood chips and spaganum moss)
yields and faster growth rates compared
and inorganic (perlite, vermiculite, rock
to other hydroponic systems. However,
wool, hydrogel and oasis). These substrates
this method requires precise control of the
not only anchor the plants but also retain
nutrient solution and misting intervals to
and deliver the nutrient solution to the
avoid waterlogging or dehydration of the
roots. The roots can access both water and
roots.
oxygen within the substrate, allowing for
optimal growth conditions. The ideal soilless Soil Less Culture in Ornamental Flower Crops
growing medium should possess specific
physical and chemical properties. These Soilless culture is increasingly being adopted
include a uniform texture that allows for for cultivating ornamental plants particularly
efficient drainage while retaining nutrients in cut flower production. Several studies have
and water for the root system. It should have shown successful cultivation of various species
a low bulk density ranging between 190 such as Calendula officinalis L., Matthiola
and 700 kg/m3 to facilitate easy installation incana L., Pelargonium zonale L., Petunia x
and transportation. High porosity within the hybrida L., Pinus pinea, Cupressus arizonica,
range of 50% to 85% is crucial to ensure a C. sempervirens, Sternbergia lutea, Galanthus
well-aerated environment for the roots. elwesii Hook, Lilium candidum, Limonium
Maintaining a particle size distribution sinuatum, Eustoma grandiflorum (Lisianthus
between 0.25-0.5 mm helps strike a good russellianus) and Tulipa gesneriana using soilless
balance between air and water retention culture techniques. (Karagoz et al., 2022).
with pH between 5.0 and 6.5 and it should
be easily adjustable if needed. Lastly, it Conclusion
should have a low content of soluble salts
to avoid any adverse effects on plant growth With the evolving living conditions during the
(Pardossi et al., 2011). COVID-19 pandemic individuals have embraced
planting in their gardens, balconies, terraces

and even living rooms using basic hydroponic review: Use of soilless culture techniques in
systems. This simple adoption of soilless ornamental plants. Ornamental Horticulture. p.
culture has extended to homes indicating its 172-180.
growing popularity. It is foreseeable that both Pardossi, A., Tognoni, F. and Incrocci, L. (2004).
the commercial and scientific utilization of soil Mediterranean greenhouse technology. Chronica
less culture systems for ornamental plants will Horticulturae. 44 (2):28-34.
continue to expand rapidly. Soilless culture Pardossi, A., Carmassi, G., Diara, C., Incrocci, L.,
proves to be an effective tool in enhancing crop Maggini, R. and Massa, D. (2011). Fertigation
yield and water use efficiency while also reducing and Substrate Management in Closed Soilless
the environmental impact of greenhouses and Culture. Dipartimento di Biologia delle Piante
nurseries. By adopting this technique growers Agrarie, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
can obtain better quality produce that aligns with Resh, H.M. (1991). Hydroponic Food Production.
consumer preferences. Woodbridge Press Pub. Com., California.
Savvas, D., Gianquinto, G., Tüzel, Y. and Gruda,
References N. (2013). Soilless culture. In Good Agricultural
Gul, A. (2017). Soilless cultivation in Turkey. Practices for Greenhouse Vegetable Crops.
Chronica Horticulturae. 57(3):23-27. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 217
(Rome, Italy: FAO), p. 303–354.
Karagoz, F. P., Dursun, A. and Karasal, M. 2022. A
22597
14. Medicinal and Nutritional Value of

Orchids
DR. ALAM PRASHANTHI AND BHARATH KUMAR ALAM
Teaching Associate, Dept. of EECM, College of Community Science, PJTSAU, Hyderabad
– 500004
Scientist, Genetics and Plant Breeding, ICAR-CRIDA, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad - 500059
Introduction systems in various cultures around the world

for their potential health benefits. While many
Orchids belongs to family Orchidaceae, are a orchid species are known for their beauty and
diverse and widespread family of flowering ornamental value, some have also been valued
plants. The term Orchids comes from the for their medicinal properties. It’s important
Greek word “orchis,” which means “testicle”. to note that the use of orchids in traditional
The origin of these plants has been around for medicine is a complex and culturally specific
millions of years and they are considered one of practice, and not all orchid species are used
the largest families in the plant kingdom. They in this way. Here are a few examples of how
are mostly known for their ornamental value orchids have been used in traditional medicine:
and fragrance. Orchids exhibits an incredible
range of diversity in the shape, size, and colour Chinese Medicine: Orchids, particularly
of their flower. Currently, Orchids have about the Dendrobium species, have been used
28,000 accepted species, distributed in about in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)
763 genera. It was grown in many parts of the for centuries. Dendrobium is believed to
world except in Antarctica. In India, it is grown have properties that help nourish the Yin,
in Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Karnataka, promote body fluids, and alleviate dryness.
and Kerala. Though Orchids are known for It is often used in herbal formulations to
their ornamental value, many different cultures address conditions like dry mouth, dry
and tribes throughout the world utilize them as throat, and other symptoms associated with
medical herbs, food, and other cultural values. Yin deficiency.
Ayurveda: In Ayurvedic medicine, an
Orchids in Traditional Medicine ancient Indian healing system, some orchid
species have been used for their potential
Orchids have been used in traditional medicine

therapeutic benefits. Orchid bulbs and salads, desserts, and as garnishes.
flowers are sometimes included in Ayurvedic Bee Balm Orchids (Monarda didyma):
formulations to address conditions such as Also known as bergamot, this orchid’s petals
respiratory issues, digestive problems, and have a citrusy flavor and are often used in
even as an aphrodisiac. teas, salads, and as a garnish.
Indigenous Medicine: In various indigenous Calanthe Orchids: Some species of
cultures, different parts of orchid plants Calanthe orchids have edible tubers, which
have been used for medicinal purposes. For can be cooked or eaten raw. The tubers are
instance, some South American indigenous starchy and have been used in traditional
communities use orchid roots and tubers to dishes in certain cultures.
treat conditions like coughs, fevers, and as a
general tonic. Lady’s Slipper Orchids (Cypripedium
spp.): In some cultures, the roots of
Southeast Asian Traditional Medicine: lady’s slipper orchids have been used in
In countries like Indonesia and Malaysia, herbal teas and medicinal preparations.
certain orchid species have been used in However, consumption of these orchids
traditional medicine to address conditions is less common and may require specific
like diabetes and hypertension. These knowledge.
orchids are often prepared in the form of
When using edible orchids in cooking or
herbal teas or tonics.
garnishing, it’s important to ensure that the
Tibetan Medicine: Orchids are also flowers have not been treated with pesticides or
mentioned in Tibetan traditional medicine chemicals. If you’re unsure about the safety of a
texts, where they are used to address issues specific orchid, it’s best to avoid consumption.
related to the liver and lung functions, as Additionally, be sure to use edible orchids in
well as to enhance vitality. moderation and consider their flavors and
textures when incorporating them into dishes.
Edible Orchids
Edible orchids are a group of flowers from the Future Suggestions
Orchidaceae family that are safe for human Edible orchids are a unique and intriguing subset
consumption. These orchids are often used to of the plant world. Orchids are typically known
add a unique and decorative touch to culinary for their vibrant and exotic flowers, but some
dishes, desserts, and beverages. It’s important species also produce edible parts that have been
to note that not all orchids are edible, and used for culinary and medicinal purposes in
consuming the wrong type of orchid could various cultures around the world.
potentially be harmful. Always ensure you’re
using varieties that are confirmed to be safe for Here are some key points that a research
consumption. review article on edible orchids might cover
Some commonly used edible orchids Diversity of Edible Orchids: There is a wide
include: variety of orchid species that produce edible
Vanilla Orchid (Vanilla planifolia): The parts. These parts can include the tubers,
source of vanilla beans, this orchid is famous flowers, and even aerial parts in some cases.
for its use in flavoring various desserts and Different species of orchids have varying
beverages. flavors, textures, and nutritional profiles.
Dendrobium Orchids: Several species of Cultural Significance: Edible orchids have
Dendrobium orchids have edible flowers. been consumed by various indigenous
These flowers are often used in salads, communities for centuries, especially in
garnishes, and desserts. They come in a regions like Asia, Africa, and Oceania. These
variety of colors and have a mild, slightly orchids often hold cultural and traditional
sweet taste. value, being incorporated into local dishes
Cymbidium Orchids: These orchids and practices.
produce colorful and long-lasting flowers Nutritional Value: Research on the
that are sometimes used in salads, sushi nutritional content of edible orchids is
presentations, and desserts. They have a important. Orchids can contain various
crunchy texture and a delicate flavor. nutrients such as carbohydrates, fibers,
Pansy Orchids (Miltoniopsis spp.): These vitamins, and minerals. Studying their
orchids have flowers with a sweet and fruity nutritional value can help determine their
aroma, and they are sometimes used in potential as food sources.

Culinary Uses: Understanding how edible sources, edible orchids could play a
orchids are used in different cuisines role in the future of food production and
is another crucial aspect. They can be consumption. Research might discuss the
consumed raw, cooked, pickled, or used as potential role of edible orchids in addressing
ingredients in various dishes, adding unique food security and dietary diversity.
flavors and textures. It’s worth noting that the use of orchids in
Conservation and Sustainability: Given traditional medicine is not without controversy.
the popularity of some orchid species in the Many orchid species are endangered due to
horticultural and culinary markets, concerns habitat loss, over-collection, and illegal trade for
about overharvesting and the sustainability medicinal and ornamental purposes. As a result,
of wild populations are important. Research conservation efforts are crucial to protect these
might explore the impact of harvesting on plants from extinction.
orchid populations and potential strategies Moreover, scientific research on the
for sustainable management. medicinal properties of orchids is limited, and
Cultivation and Domestication: Some the efficacy of their traditional uses has not been
orchids are being cultivated for their widely studied. It’s important to approach these
edible parts, both for local consumption traditional practices with caution and consult
and commercial purposes. Understanding qualified healthcare professionals before using
the cultivation methods, challenges, and any plant-based remedies.
potential benefits can be a significant focus In recent years, there has been growing
of research. interest in studying orchids for their potential
Chemical Composition: Orchids contain medicinal compounds and other bioactive
various phytochemicals that contribute to substances. Researchers are investigating
their flavors and potential health benefits. whether certain compounds found in orchids
Research might explore into the chemical could have applications in modern medicine,
composition of different edible orchids and such as in the development of new drugs or
their effects on human health. treatments. However, this area of research is still
Future Prospects: Given the increasing in its early stages.
interest in diverse and sustainable food
22608
15. Low Tunnel Technology: Boon to

Vegetable Crop Cultivation
SULOCHANA K. H.
ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hesaraghatta Lake Post, Bengaluru
560089, India.
For a country like India, which is leading in vegetables. Growing vegetable crops under low
population in the world, struggling for food and tunnels enhance the plant growth by warming
nutritional securities, always there is appreciation the air around the plants in open field during
for novel techniques, good agricultural practices, winter season. The current technology is mainly
modernization or improvisation of farming employed for producing the best crop of off-
practices, effective utilization of diminishing season crops (especially in northern India where
arable lands etc. in order to combat the hunger. the temperature reaches extreme in winter and
One of the effective ways to grow vegetable with summer). To achieve sustainability, farmers go for
added advantages over normal cultivation is low intensive production systems such as mulches,
tunnel cultivation. floating row covers as well as low tunnels and
Low tunnel or plastic tunnel technology high tunnels (Arancibia 2009 and 2012; Carey
which consists of miniature structures covered et al. 2009; Pool and Stone 2014). Especially,
by flexible transparent material that are installed these tunnels facilitate the entrapment of carbon
over rows or individual beds of transplanted dioxide, the enhanced photosynthetic activity of

the plants, hence the increased yield. December) is done. Next it is fixing of hoops,
When we look at the history of this transplanting and covering of low tunnels at
innovation, the initial use of plastic film in a height of 2-3 feet and width of 2.5-4 feet
agriculture is said to date back from 1948 by Prof. depending on crop spread. Hoop is normally
E.M. Emmert. The first of its kind, plastic tunnel positioned as a semi-oval and placed at every
employed by Mr. Richard, who utilized them 2-3 m distance. Transplanting of seedlings done
to grow Japanese eggplants and long Chinese in a single row along with drip irrigation, and 50
beans in 1981, who also pioneer in building the cm distance between plants and 1.5 m between
first tunnel laying machine. the rows is maintained. Transparent 30 micron
thick IR grade plastic is generally used for tunnel
Vegetable crops suitable for low tunnel covering, reflecting infrared radiations to keep
cultivation are mainly, cucumber, brinjal, the tunnel inside warmer than the outside
chilli, water melon, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, environment. Plastic can be vented during peaks
muskmelon, summer squash, lettuce, carrot, of day to keep the temperature at normal level.
cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, kale etc. especially Usually, 3-4 cm wide holes are made on the
off-season vegetables with high value and low plastic to maintain the temperature inside.
volume are grown to fetch a descent market
price and catch the early market demands. For promoting good amount of honey bees
Self-pollinated crops are most sought, as if the for cross pollination in case of monoecious
cross-pollinated crops grown, care is required to cucurbts and all, maintenance of 1-2 bee hive /
remove the covers when blossoming begins to acre at North-West side and opening vents for
ensure proper cross pollination through various their movement is essential.
agents like wind, honey bees, bumble bees etc. Low tunnels provide the grower with better
Tunnels can be constructed at various heights vegetative growth of plants, enhanced yield,
and covered above with any kind of plastic improved water and nutrient use efficiency,
materials like perforated or slit plastic film, spun- long term availability of the bearing period and
bonded fabrics or insect nets. In case of plastic also earliness (advances by 30-40 days than the
film, it increases the temperature well inside, normal one in case of long melon, squashes,
but its use in low tunnels is limited to small plant musk melon), exclude insects from the crop and
crops only because, the water condensation that reduce pest damage, in short, low tunnels can
promotes suffocation and decay of the foliage in improve productivity and land use efficiency, act
contact with the film inside the tunnel. Whereas as an alternative way for river bed cultivation.
spun-bonded fabrics are permeable and allow These temporary structures that are easy to
airflow with little condensation inside the tunnel, assemble and disassemble with each crop
the condensation dissipates easily after sunrise. and the mobility offers an advantage over high
Spun-bonded row covers are semitransparent in tunnels because it allows for rotations with
nature. The thickness of the spun-bonded row cover crops or other field crops to improve and
cover directly influences the level of protection maintain soil health and productivity, protects
against cold temperatures, but it also influences the crop from rain, frost, snow, wind and high
the strength of the material. or low temperature. Still, research on low tunnel
Major steps involved in cultivation under low technology for different vegetables grown
tunnel include nursery raising, where, plastic under different regions of India has to be done
portrays, soilless media, nylon nets, raising by standardizing the covering material, tunnel
healthy and vigorous seedlings (November- height to adopt the same and reap its benefits on
a large extent.

P L A N T B R E E D ING AND G ENET IC S
22567
16. Qtl Mapping in Crop Plants Through

Qtl Seq Approach
ROHIT KUMAR1*, CHANNABASAVA1, SHRUTI1 AND ANIL JADHAV2
1
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CoA, UAS Raichur, Karnataka
2
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Crop Physiology, CoA, UAS, Raichur, Karnataka
Introduction: The world’s population has yeast strains and obtained a large number of
crossed 7 billion and is still growing, while haploid progenies. They then applied BSA to
the amount of land suitable for agriculture select two populations with extreme phenotypes
is decreasing due to several reasons such and genotyped the bulked DNA with a single
as rapid climate change, urbanization etc. nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) microarray and
Therefore, there is a great demand for efficient whole genome sequencing, which successfully
crop improvement to increase yield without identified the location of QTLs involved in
further expanding farmland and damaging the resistance to various chemical compounds.
environment. In crop plants, multiple genes The proposed method is called XQTL since an
each with a relatively minor effect control the extremely large number of progenies were used
majority of agronomically important traits. in each bulk. Similar applications of whole-
These genes are called quantitative trait loci genome sequencing to BSA for identifying QTLs
(QTLs) (Falconer and Mackay, 1996). Once a in rice with much larger genome sizes than yeast
QTL controlling a favourable trait is mapped has been reported (Takagi et al. 2013).
with closely linked DNA markers, it is introduced
into an elite cultivar by crossing of the recurrent Qtl Seq
elite parent to the donor plant. Following each
backcross, the progeny inheriting the desirable QTL Seq is the technique of plant QTL
QTL are selected by using tightly linked DNA identification using whole-genome resequencing
makers, a process known as marker-assisted of two DNA bulks of progeny (each with 20–50
selection. Bulked-segregant analysis (BSA) is an individuals) showing extreme phenotypic
elegant method to identify DNA markers tightly values by next-generation sequencing (NGS)
linked to the causal gene for a given phenotype technology. It was developed by Takagi et al.
(Michelmore et al. 1991). Following a cross (2013) for mapping QTL of partial resistance to
between parental lines showing contrasting the rice blast disease in RILs and seedling vigour
phenotypes, the resulting F2 progeny are scored in F2 population.
for segregation of the phenotype. Two bulked
DNA samples are generated from the progeny Steps Involved in Qtl Seq
showing contrasting phenotypes and DNA 1. Development of mapping population
markers exhibiting differences between the two
bulks are screened. However, in these analyses,
the availability of DNA markers was the main
factor limiting effectiveness of the methods.
Furthermore, genotyping of each marker for the
two bulked DNAs is still time-consuming and
costly.
Recent development of whole genome
sequencing has accelerated the analysis of QTLs
in yeast, a model organism with a relatively
small genome size (12.5 Mb). Ehrenreich et
al. (2010) made a cross between two diploid We have to develop mapping population
40 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Plant Breeding and Genetics

by crossing individuals with contrasting 7. Plot the SNP-index graph using a sliding
phenotype for target trait, the most window analysis with 1 Mb window size and
commonly used is mapping population in 10 kb increment
QTL Seq approach is F2 population
2. Phenotyping of the mapping population
3. DNA from 10 to 20 individuals from each

extreme are bulked to generate ‘Highest’
bulk and ‘Lowest’ bulk
4. Whole genome resequencing each of the
bulked DNAs with a > 6x genome coverage 8. Calculate the Δ(SNP-index)
5. Align Short reads to the reference sequence Δ(SNP-index) =SNP-index of (H-bulk
of cultivar using BWA software -L-bulk)
6. Calculate the SNP-index by SNP calling using 9. Plot the graph of Δ(SNP-index)
SAM tools software
10. The QTL can be identified as peaks or
valleys of the SNP-index plot or by identifying
the genomic region which has Δ(SNP-index)
value of 1 / -1. whereas genomic region
which do not contain QTL has Δ(SNP-index)
value of 0.
Advantage of Qtl Seq

It allows the rapid identification of QTLs, because
it does not require DNA marker development
and genotyping, which is the most time-
SNP-index is the proportion of reads consuming and costly procedure needed for the
harboring the SNP that are different from the conventional QTL analysis.
reference sequence. In this example, here
10 short reads cover a Cytosine position, Limitation of Qtl Seq
therefore coverage of the site is 10x. Among
these 10 reads, four contain a SNP different QTL-Seq analysis always locates QTLs for a
from the reference nucleotide, the SNP-index single trait at one time, while traditional QTL
is calculated as 4/10, which is equal 0.4. On mapping may locate QTLs for several trait in one
the other hand, if all the reads harbour a SNP experiment depending on number of contrasting
different from the reference, the SNP-index traits exits in the parents of mapping population.
is 1.0
Plant Breeding and Genetics 41 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Conclusion References
In view of the recent rapid development in Falconer, D, S. and Mackay, T, F, C., 1996,
sequencing technology, we force those methods Introduction to Quantitative Genetics, 4th edn.
that make use of whole-genome sequencing- London: Prentic.
based techniques including QTL-seq, Mut Map Michelmore, R. W. and Paran, I., 1991, Identification
(Abe et al,.2012a) and others will dramatically of markers linked to disease resistance genes
accelerate crop improvement in a cost-effective by bulked segregant analysis: A rapid method to
manner. These and other related technologies detect markers in specific genomic regions by
that take full advantages of the rapidly declining using segregating populations. Proc. Natl Acad.
cost of genome sequencing are expected to Sci. USA, 88.
significantly contribute to the on-going efforts Takagi, H., Abe, A., Yoshida, K., Kosugi, S., Natsume,
aimed at addressing the world food security S., Mitsuoka, C., Uemura, A., Utsushi, H., Tamiru,
problem by reducing breeding time. Since M., Takuno, S., Innan, H., Cano, L, M., Kamoun,
flowering time is a quantitative trait governed by S. and Terauchi, R., 2013, QTL-seq: rapid
polygenes, based on the SNP-index and Δ(SNP mapping of quantitative trait loci in rice by whole
index) charts obtained from QTL-seq will be genome resequencing of DNA from two bulked
populations. Plant J., 21: 174-83.
helpful to map QTLs responsible for flowering
time variation in crop plants.
P L A N T B R E E D ING AND G ENET IC S
22593
17. The Origin and Evolutionary Theories

of Maize
VARALAKSHMI, S
Phd Scholar, Department Of Genetics And Plant Breeding, Govind Ballabh Pant University
Of Agriculture And Technology, Pantnagar 263145, Uttarakhand (India)
Abstract biologists believed teosinte was ancestor; after

advancements in field of molecular biology,
Maize domestication is one of the extensively with the help of molecular markers they found
studied and debated topics to conclude direct progenitor of maize i.e., Z. mays var.
maize origin and its ancestor. Evolutionary Parviglumis.
history under domestication dispersed several
confusing views regarding maize origin and its Introduction
wild relatives. There is various morphological
differences and genetic diversity between Maize was staple food for ancient American
maize and teosinte; maize gained and lost civilizations; its origin and domestication was
several genes during domestication and while most interrogative subject to both biologists and
evolving from teosinte. Many of biologists and archaeologists (Mangelsdorf, P. C., & Reeves, R.
geneticists expressed their views and proposed G. 1938). Maize origin issue has been discussed
different ideas and hypothesized as theories and dragged for more than a century although
on origin of maize. Innumerable phylogenetic direct progenitor was found out. Goodman
studies and archaeological records insinuated 1988 reviewed excellently regarding origin and
wide diversity found in highlands of Mexico and domestication of maize and made intuitive
single domestication event was responsible statements. Vavilov carried out studies on
for transforming weedy species to present “centres of origin and diversity” and identified
day cultivated maize for about 10000 years Central America is centre for origin of maize
ago at Balsas valley. Throughout 20th century having genetic diversity along with wild species

and wild relatives (Vavilov, 1926; Bukasov, 1981). arrangement of the spikelets of the pistillate
Early 20th century teosinte was discovered and inflorescence have controlled larger effects of
Beadle 1939 obtained fertile progenies of cross morphological syndrome (Hossain, Firoz, et al.,
between maize and teosinte and he suggested 2016). This hypothesis was accepted widely till
that maize and teosinte may be diverged recently. 1960s but lack of evidence to support and fails to
However, Mangelsdorf and Reeves 1931 omitted produce fertile hybrids from cross of maize and
idea of teosinte as an evolutionary descent and Tripsacum; hypothesis could not be successful
hypothesized maize was originated from “wild for longer time.
maize”. Perhaps no hypothesis is justifiable Catastrophic sexual transmutation
until the end of 20th century. Advancements theory: according to this hypothesis ear of
in molecular genetics and readily availability maize was transformed and condensed from
of molecular markers has made remarkable the branches of teosinte tassel due to a sudden
differences in understanding origin and found sexual transmutation terminated as primary
out its immediate progenitor. Matsuoka et al., lateral branches and this was proposed by
2002 presented phylogenetic analyses on maize Iltis (1983). Maize female inflorescence is
lines using SSR markers and indicated that single derived from central male reproductive part
domestication event in southern Mexico about i.e., tassel of teosinte was major assumption
9,000 years ago leads to arose of maize and and in agreement with Iltis elucidated genetic
found evidence for gene flow from teosinte into assimilation phenomenon (Hossain, Firoz, et
maize during post domestication. Further van al., 2016), because of femininity dominance in
Heerwaarden et al. (2011) conducted genetic apical position suppressed all ears of teosinte
survey studies using SNP dataset scored in a large secondary and tertiary branches beneath it,
number of accessions of both teosinte and maize this causes alterations in drawing of nutrients
convincingly reported gene flow between maize between branches that results substantial
and its wild relatives gives information regarding changes morphologically and structurally this
geographical origin of maize. On account of led to transformation of teosinte into primitive
maize origin different scientists proposed several maize. But due to strong evidence and gaining
hypotheses to know evolutionary history of popularity of teosinte hypothesis, this hypothesis
maize, among them are (1) tripartite hypothesis, loses its credibility.
(2) catastrophic sexual transmutation theory, (3)
Tripsacum - Zea diploperennis hypothesis and (4) Tripsacum - Zea diploperennis: this
teosinte hypothesis (Hallauer, A. R., & Carena, M. hypothesis was given by Eubanks (1995) and it
J. (2009). Many maize geneticists, evolutionists was considered as modern version of tripartite
and archaeologists debated and discussed on hypothesis. It states that maize was arisen due
this hypothesis and given detailed account. to hybridization between two wild grasses Z.
diploperennis and Tripsacum dactyloides. This
Tripartite Hypothesis: Mangelsdorf and hypothesis proposed based on six highly fertile
Reeves (1938, 1939) proposed that unknown hybrid plants obtained from cross of teosinte
wild maize, now extinct having similar structures and tripsacum through standard pollination
of present day cultivated maize. Later it was technique; and extended with observations on
detailed by Mangelsdorf (1974), he made three Tripsacorn’ and ‘Sundance’ putative hybrids
major inferences; 1) now extinct wild pod- originated from wild grasses has rudimentary
popcorn was a progenitor of domesticated maize ears with naked kernels affixed to cob (Hossain,
(De Wet, J. M. J., & Harlan, J. R. (1972). 2) teosinte Firoz, et al., 2016). Strong evidence to support
was progeny of a maize-Tripsacum hybridization. this scenario come from segregating intercross
3) Modern maize race show tripsacoid syndrome progeny derived from archaeological specimens
characteristics due to contamination of maize from Tehuaca´n, Oaxaca, and Tamaulipas
germplasm with either teosinte or Tripsacum exhibits relatively high degree of morphological
chromosomes (De Wet, J. M. J., & Harlan, J. R. similarities (Eubanks 2001). This supports
1972; Hossain, Firoz, et al., 2016). Mangelsdorf fact that tripsacum has provided certain
and Reeves described hypothesis by their chromosomal regions which transformed
own experiment on hybridization of Zea and teosinte spike into maize ear by mutagenic
Tripsacum and obtained fairly vigorous F1 hybrids action and concluded maize derived certain
but complete pollen sterility and cytological chromosomal regions from tripsacum and other
studies indicated there was very little pairing from teosinte. But naturally crosses of Tripsacum
of 10 Zea and the 18 Tripsacum chromosomes. and Z. diploperennis could not be successful
But Mangelsdorf and Reeves believed infected and chromosome number of Tripsacorn’ and
Zea from Tripsacum possess minimum of four ‘Sundance’ is 2n=20, if Tripsacum (2n = 36 or 72)
traits such as horny glumes, a brittle rachis, was one of parent of these hybrids’ chromosome
unpaired pistillate spikelets and a distichous number should be 28 or 46 chromosomes hence
Plant Breeding and Genetics 43 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

this hypothesis was not accepted. But Eubanks archaeological evidence, it was grown as wild
1997 did Molecular analysis of crosses between near Balsas valley hence habitually called Balsas
Tripsacum dactyloides and Zea diploperennis by teosinte (Matsuoka, et al., 2002; Hossain, Firoz,
RFLP markers found much similar bands with et al., 2016).
teosinte than with Tripsacum.
Teosintes and Wild Relatives:
Teosinte hypothesis: Beadle (1939, 1972,
1978) proposed the teosinte hypothesis with
his compelling argument that teosinte was Genus Species Ploidy level
the sole progenitor of cultivated maize. The Zea nicaraguensis 2x
teosinte hypothesis states that (a) ancient Zea perennis 4x
people cultivated teosinte because it fulfils their Zea luxurians 2x
basic need as food source, (b) while cultivating Zea diploperennis 4x
Zea
teosinte mutations improved teosinte’s utility Zea mays subsp. 2x
to humans that makes ancient people apply Huehuetenangensis
selection pressure on teosinte, (c) minimum of Zea mays subsp. Mexicana 2x
five mutations woulb be enough to transform Zea mays subsp. parviglumis 2x
convert teosinte into a primitive form of
maize, (d) different mutations are responsible References
for different traits, e.g., one mutation would Beadle GW (1939) Teosinte and the origin of maize.
have converted the disarticulating ear-type of J Hered 30:245–247
teosinte into the solid eartype of maize and Beadle GW (1972) The mystery of maize. Chicago.
(e) over the course of time, humans selected Field Mus Nat Hist Bull 43:2–11
additional major mutations along with many Beadle GW (1978) Teosinte and the origin of maize.
minor ones. In 1939 Beadle obtained relatively In: Walden DB (ed) Maize breeding and genetics.
fertile progeny from crosses of Euchlaena Wiley, New York, pp 113–128
mexicana and maize but there was no evidence
Bennetzen JE, Buckler V, Chandler J et al (2001)
of genetic phenomenon how these two forms Genetic evidence and the origin of maize. Lat
are differentiated at one time Mangelsdorf and Am Antiq 12:84–86
Reeves obtained proof that differences are
Bukasov, S. M. (1981). Cultivated plants of Mexico,
localized to four to five chromosomal segments
Guatemala and Colombia. Cultivated plants of
and Beadle used this data advocated these Mexico, Guatemala and Colombia.
four segments might correspond to four major
de Wet, J. M. J. and Harlan, J. R., Origin of maize:
genes and controlled different traits respectively
the tripartite hypothesis, Euphytica, 21, 271, 1972.
that transformed teosinte into modern maize.
Two papers published by Beadle and Emerson Doebley, J. (2004). The genetics of maize evolution.
provided first evidence by making crosses with Annu. Rev. Genet., 38, 37-59.
wild species viz., Z. luxurians, Z. mays ssp. Doebley, J. F., Goodman, M., & Stuber, C. W. (1984).
mexicana, showed that Z. luxurians cytologically Isoenzymatic variation in Zea (gramineae).
distinct and progenies obtained exhibited Systematic Botany, 203-218.
partial sterility and Z. mays ssp. mexicana was Emerson RA, Beadle GW. 1932. Studies of
cytologically similar and hybrids exhibits normal Euchlaena and its hybrids with Zea. II. Crossing
chromosome pairing and complete sterility and over between the chromosomes of Euchlaena
concluded maize-teosinte hybrids shows similar and those of Zea. Z. Abst. Vererb. 305–15
recombination frequencies as that of hybrids of Eubanks MW (1995) A cross between two maize
two varieties of maize (Emerson RA, Beadle GW. relatives: Tripsacum dactyloides and Zea
1932; John Doebley 2004). Longley, A. E. (1941) diploperennis. Econ Bot 49:172–182
did chromosome morphology studies on maize Eubanks MW (1997) Molecular analysis of crosses
and its relatives concluded that Mexican annual between Tripsacum dactyloides and Zea
teosintes might have been the ancestor of maize. diploperennis (Poaceae). Theor Appl Genet
Isoenzymatic studies reveled that Z. mays var. 94:707–712
Parviglumis is very similar to Z. mays subsp. Eubanks MW (2001) The mysterious origin of
mays and consistent with theory that teosinte is maize. Econ Bot 55:492–514
the ancestor of maize (Doebley, J. F et al., 1984). Hallauer, A. R., & Carena, M. J. (2009). Maize. In
Matsuoka et al., 2001 evaluated SSR markers Cereals (pp. 3-98). Springer, New York, NY.
to study diversity and evolutionary patterns Hossain, F., Muthusamy, V., Bhat, J. S., Jha, S. K.,
between maize and teosinte. Now Z. mays ssp. Zunjare, R., Das, A.,... & Kumar, R. (2016). Maize.
parviglumis accepted direct progenitor of maize In Broadening the Genetic Base of Grain Cereals
by most maize geneticists and evolutionists (pp. 67-88). Springer, New Delhi.
(Bennetzen et al. 2001) and agrees well with Iltis, H. H. (1983). From teosinte to maize: the

catastrophic sexual transmutation. Science, Matsuoka, Y., Mitchell, S. E., Kresovich, S., Goodman,
222(4626), 886-894. M., & Doebley, J. (2002). Microsatellites in Zea–
Mangelsdorf PC (1974) Corn: its origin, evolution variability, patterns of mutations, and use for
and improvement. Harvard University Press, evolutionary studies. Theoretical and Applied
Cambridge, MA Genetics, 104(2-3), 436-450.
Mangelsdorf PC, Reeves RG (1938) The origin of Matsuoka, Y., Vigouroux, Y., Goodman, M. M.,
maize. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 24:303–312 Sanchez, J., Buckler, E., & Doebley, J. (2002).
Mangelsdorf PC, Reeves RG (1939) The origin A single domestication for maize shown
of Indian corn and its relatives. Texas AES Bull by multilocus microsatellite genotyping.
574:1–315 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
99(9), 6080-6084.
Mangelsdorf, P. C, Corn. Its Origin, Evolution,
and Improvement, Harvard University Press, Van Heerwaarden, J., Doebley, J., Briggs, W. H.,
Cambridge, Mass., 1974, 1. Glaubitz, J. C., Goodman, M. M., Gonzalez, J. D.
J. S., & Ross-Ibarra, J. (2011). Genetic signals
Mangelsdorf, P. C., & Reeves, R. G. (1938). The origin of origin, spread, and introgression in a large
of maize. Proceedings of the National Academy sample of maize landraces. Proceedings of the
of Sciences of the United States of America, National Academy of Sciences, 108(3), 1088-1092.
24(8), 303.
Vavilov NI (1926) Studies on the origin of cultivated
Mangelsdorf, P.C. and R.G. Reeves. (1931). plants. Bulletin of Applied Botany.
Hybridization of maize, Tripsacum, and
Euchlaena. Journal of Heredity 22:329-343
P L A N T PAT HOLOGY
22580
18. Interruption of Quorum Sensing:

A New Paradigm for Combating
Phytopathogenic Bacteria
JOGINDER PAL 1 SATISH K. SHARMA2 AND ANJU SHARMA2
1
Department of Plant Pathology, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidalaya Palampur,
India; 2Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry Nauni, Solan (H.P.)
India
Introduction however, the main molecules produced by

Gram-negative bacteria are acylhomoserine
Quorum sensing (QS) is a molecular mechanism lactones (AHLs). The other QS signal includes
by which bacteria communicate to collectively autoinducing peptides (AIPs) and autoinducer-2
adapt their behavior and regulate diverse arrays (AI-2) exists both in Gram negative and Gram-
of functions, including virulence factor synthesis, positive bacteria which play key roles in the
motility, biofilm formation, and siderophore regulation of bacterial pathogenesis. These
production according to cell density and the virulence factors regulated by QS help bacteria to
surrounding environment (Remy et al., 2018). evade the host immune and obtain nutrition from
Bacterial quorum sensing (QS) signaling can the hosts. However, during the last few decades,
be activated by the self-produced extracellular several approaches have been proposed to
chemical signals in the milieu. This system disrupt QS pathways to reduce their virulence
regulates gene expression in response to cell and decrease biofilms. The strategy of blocking
density through the constant production and the QS system and inhibiting the production of
detection of signaling molecules. Several virulence factors is termed as quorum quenching
signaling molecules have been identified; (QQ). This strategy prevents pathogenic bacteria
Plant Pathology 45 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

infection by interfering the QS system between includes four mechanisms: 1) Direct inhibition of
microbial cells, attenuates virulence without the synthesis of signal molecules; 2) Inhibition of
killing the pathogens, preventing the expression the transport of signal molecules; 3) Chemical
of QS-dependent genes, thereby weakening or biological degradation of signal molecules;
the selective pressure on pathogens. Recently, 4) Competitive inhibition of the combination
different mechanisms encountering QS have of signal molecules and receptor. Therefore,
been proposed in prokaryotes and eukaryotes QQ is regarded as a promising biological
organism which offers a promising novel way to control strategy, and is expected to become a
fight against bacterial disease. new approach for antibacterial treatment and
In general, QQ effect can occur at different biological control.
stages (figure 1) of the QS pathway, which mainly
FIG 1. Inhibition mechanisms of quorum sensing system (1) Inhibition of signal molecule
synthesis; (2) Inhibition of signal molecule transport; (3) Degradation of signal molecules;
(4) Competitive inhibition in the combination of signal molecules and receptors
Different Quorum Sensing (Qs) Manipulation are not necessarily produced in order to inhibit
Mechanisms Occurring in Various Plant– the QS pathways of neighbouring bacteria, but
could rather serve to degrade the QS signalling
Microbe Interactions
molecules and render them as available food
The mechanism interfering QS via ‘quorum and energy sources. The first QQ enzyme was
quenching’ (QQ) can be achieved in several identified and purified from the Gram-positive
ways: (i) inhibition of the transcription/activity Bacillus sp. strain 240B1. The gene encoding the
of enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of QS enzyme was named aiiA (for AI inactivation),
signalling molecules; (ii) destruction of the QS and its protein product was shown to inactivate
signalling molecules in the medium and thus AHL signals by hydrolysis of the lactone ring.
the prevention of their accumulation; and (iii) Expression of aiiA in Pectobacterium carotovorum
inhibition of the activation of QS receptors. Of (formerly named Erwinia carotovora) decreased
these three mechanisms, the most studied and significantly AHL release and soft rot disease
applied method, with regard to plant pathology, symptoms in different detached tissues of
is the use of AHL-degrading enzymes against soft potato, eggplant, Chinese cabbage, carrot and
rot Pectobacteria. celery. Throughout the years, additional AHL-
degrading enzymes have been identified in
Disruption of Qs by Ahl-Degrading Enzymes several bacterial species, among them Bacillus
spp., Pseudomonas spp., Rhodococcus spp.
It is now commonly accepted that bacteria
employ QQ enzymes that can inhibit the QS
pathways of their neighbors. These enzymes
46 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Plant Pathology

Transgenic Plants with Ahl-Degrading Disruption of Qs by Bacterial Volatiles

Enzymes Over recent years, VOCs produced by plant
Several studies have shown that, in the associated bacteria have received increasing
laboratory, transgenic plants expressing bacterial attention because of their involvement in inter-
AHL-degrading enzymes are more resistant kingdom, long-distance communication with
to infection by phytopathogens. In one study, plants. Many of these bacterial VOCs have
in comparison with control plants, transgenic provided new sources of compounds with
plants expressing the aiiA lactonase from Bacillus antibiotic, induced systemic resistance and
sp. exhibited a significant reduction in the plant growth-promoting activities. A group of
maceration area of leaves (tobacco) or tubers volatile sulfur compounds, such as dimethyl
(potato) when infected with Pe. carotovorum. sulfide, dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) and dimethyl
The activity of the expressed enzyme slowed trisulfide, is commonly produced by bacteria.
down the production of virulence factors, thereby DMDS was measured as the main volatile in the
providing the host plant with time to build up headspace of Serratia plymuthica strain IC1270,
the defence mechanism that could eventually and was shown to efficiently suppress the
overcome the pathogenic invaders. It is worth growth of Agrobacterium strains. In addition to
noting that some plants naturally synthesize QQ their inhibitory and toxic effects against a wide
enzymes with comparable activities to bacterial range of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms,
AHL-degrading enzymes (Barea et al., 2013). bacterial VOCs, specifically DMDS, have been
Extracts from legumes, including alfalfa, clover, shown recently to have strong QQ activity
lotus and yam beans, have been reported to (Chernin et al., 2011). VOCs produced by the
possess AHL-degrading capabilities. rhizospheric strains B-4117 of P. fluorescens and
IC1270 of S. plymuthica act as inhibitors of the QS
Ahl-Degrading Bacteria as Biocontrol Agents network mediated by AHLs.
The use of plant-beneficial bacteria to improve Effect of Ahl on Plants
plant health has been studied for many years
as an alternative to conventional chemical- Plant-associated habitats (rhizosphere,
based agriculture. In this regard, a relatively phyllosphere, endosphere) are potentially
new emerging field of study is the use of favourable for QS signaling, because they are
bacterial biocontrol agents to manipulate QS spatially structured and are colonized, at least
pathways. This field of study also presents an locally, at a high cell density by diverse bacterial
alternative approach to the genetic modification populations. Ten to twenty per cent of the
of plants with bacterial lactonases. Molina cultivable bacteria in rhizospheric environments
et al. (2003) were the first to report the use of are AHL-producing strains, which communicate
bacteria expressing native or ectopic AHL- at both the intra- and inter-species level.
degrading enzymes as biocontrol agents. Moreover, AHL signalling is implicated in the
The authors examined two phytopathogenic manifestation of plant-associated phenotypes in
bacteria, Pe. carotovorum and A. tumefaciens, pathogenic, symbiotic and biocontrol bacterial
and two biocontrol agents: (i) Bacillus sp. A24, strains. The functions controlled by QS are
natively expressing AHL-degrading enzyme; highly diverse, including the horizontal transfer
and (ii) genetically engineered P. fluorescens of plasmids in A. tumefaciens and the regulation
with the plasmid pME6863, carrying the aiiA of rhizospheric competence factors, such as
gene from Bacillus sp. A24. Co-inoculation of antibiotic synthesis, in many biocontrol strains
Pe. carotovorum infected potato plants with (e.g., Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Serratia), as well
wild-type Bacillus sp. A24, or the genetically as functions that are directly implicated in plant–
engineered P. fluorescens P3/pME6863 strain, bacteria associations, such as virulence factors.
resulted in a significant decrease in tissue The plants are able to perceive bacterial QS
rot symptoms compared with the controls. molecules and respond to them with changes
Suppression of potato soft rot was observed in gene expression and modifications in
even when the AHL-degrading P. fluorescens P3/ development.
pME6863 was applied to tubers 2 days after the
pathogen, indicating that biocontrol was not only Manipulation of Qs-Dependent Pathways by
preventative, but also curative. In addition, co- Plants
inoculation of tomato plants with the pathogen
A. tumefaciens and the biocontrol agents P. As a result of the importance of QS signaling in
fluorescens P3/pME6863 and Bacillus sp. A24 plant-associated habitats, it is not surprising that
significantly reduced the amount and weight of plants are able to produce compounds that serve
galls. as both agonists and antagonists of QS pathways.

Dozens of plant molecules, whose production sensing inhibitors (QSIs) and quarum quenching
profiles change with the developmental stage enzymes to degrade the signaling molecules
of the plant, have been isolated and catalogued and block the action of autoinducers (AIs).
for their potential to interfere with bacterial Therefore, interference with QS by using above
signalling. Several plant species secrete AHL strategies are promising routes to decrease
mimics, which can either stimulate or inhibit bacterial pathogenicity and decrease biofilms,
bacterial AHL QS systems. QS biomimics have potentially enhancing bacterial susceptibility to
been discovered in plants and bacteria. The antimicrobial agents including antibiotics and
detection of AHL mimics has been reported in bacteriophages.
secretions of pea, rice, soyabean, tomato, crown
vetch, M. truncatula and from the unicellular References
algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The precise
Remy B, Mion S, Plener L, Elias M, Chabriere E and
source, structure and biological significance
Daude D. 2018. Interference in Bacterial
of these AHL mimics from plants are currently
unknown, and their function is still speculative. Quorum Sensing: A Biopharmaceutical Perspective.
The first natural compound shown to inhibit QS Front. Pharmacol. 9: 203.
was discovered in the red marine alga Delisea Molina L, Constantinescu F, Michel L, Reimmann
pulchra. C, Duffy B and Defago G. 2003. Degradation of
pathogen quorum-sensing molecules by soil
Table 1 Examples of quorum quenching (QQ) compounds bacteria: a preventive and curative biological
produced by plants control mechanism. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 45:
71–81.
Plant Source QQ Compound Barea JM, Pozo MJ, Azcón R and Azcón-Aguilar C.
2013. Microbial interactions in the rhizosphere. In:
Allium sativum Bulb Ajoene
Molecular Microbial Ecology of the Rhizosphere,
(garlic) extracts (4,5,9-trithiadodeca-
Vol. 2 (de Bruijn F.J., ed.), pp. 29–44. Hoboken,
1,6,11-triene-9-oxide)
NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Citrus spp. Extracts O-Glycosylated flavonoids
Chernin L, Toklikishvili N, Ovadis M, Kim S, Ben-
naringenin [5,7-dihydroxy-
Ari J, Khmel I and Vainstein A. 2011. Quorum-
2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)
sensing quenching by rhizobacterial volatiles.
chroman-4-one],
Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 3: 698–704.
neohesperidin, hesperidin
Curcuma longa Extracts Curcumin [(1E,6E)-
(turmeric) 1,7-bis(4-hydroxy-3-
methoxyphenyl)-1,6-
heptadiene-3,5-dione
Fruits (e.g., Extracts Patulin (4-hydroxy-4H-
apple, pear, furo[3,2-c]pyran-2(6H)-
peach, banana, one)
pineapple, grape)
Zingiber officinale Essential Monocyclic sesquiterpene
(ginger) oil α-zingiberene
[2-methyl-5-
(6-methylhept-5-en-2-yl)
cyclohexa-1,3-diene]
Medicago sativa Seed An arginine analogue
(alfalfa) exudates L-canavanine
((2S)-2-amino-4-
{[(diaminomethylidene)
amino]oxy}butanoic acid)
Conclusion
Numerous phytopathogenic bacteria utilize
molecular communication systems i.e., quorum
sensing to synchronize the expression of certain
genes, expression of virulence factors and
the synthesis of biofilm. Naturally occurring
strategies that interfere with bacterial signaling
have been extensively studied in recent years,
examining their potential to control bacteria.
To interfere with QS, bacteria use quorum

22599
19. Pathogen Fitness Penalties: An

Approach for Resistance Risk
Assessment
AMAN SHARMA, DHARMESH GUPTA, SHALINI VERMA, ANKITA
CHAUHAN AND DIKSHA THAKUR
Department of Plant Pathology, Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry,
Nauni, Solan (H.P.)
Resistance evolution is a constant threat to Fungicide Resistance

crop protection. Fungicide resistance confers a
selective advantage in fungicide selection, but Fungicide resistance is a stable, heritable trait that
resistance- conferring mutations may also result causes an individual fungus to be less sensitive
in pathogen fitness penalties or even resistance to a fungicide. Because of practical resistance,
reversals. Although chemical control of fungal labeled rates of a fungicide no longer provide
plant diseases has a long history, it did not take commercially acceptable disease control.
off on a large scale until the second half of the Fungicide use does not result in resistance.
nineteenth century. Chemical control with There are already resistant fungal strains in the
fungicides is used as an immediate relief against fungal population. Such resistance is caused by
a wide range of plant pathogens. Some naturally naturally occurring genetic mutations. Fungicide
occurring resistant strains may be present in applications select for resistant fungal mutants
pathogen populations as a result of mutation, because the fungicides kill the fungicide-
leading to the development of resistance sensitive population, leaving only the resistant
because pathogens are under selection pressure mutants alive. The population of resistant fungal
due to resistance. strains eventually outnumbers the population of
sensitive fungal strains.
Fitness penalties can be defined as making
the resistant strain less fit than the sensitive strain If fungicide treatments are administered, the
in the absence of a fungicide. For example, when tolerant individuals are more likely to survive,
perennial ryegrass was inoculated with a mixture and sub lethal fungicide stress will stimulate the
of azoxystrobin-resistant and azoxystrobin- synthesis of efflux transporters, drug-degrading
sensitive Magnaporthe oryzae strains, sensitive enzymes, and so on. Thus, repeated fungicide
strains produced more conidia and increased treatments will shift a fungal population, and
in frequency over time, consistent with a fitness individuals with varying and gradually increasing
penalty for azoxystrobin resistance. Fitness is a levels of resistance can be found until the entire
common currency in comparative biology, and it population is almost entirely resistant. Different
is one of the factors that contribute to the success mechanism of fungicide resistance is decreased
of the infection process and disease development. permeability, increase of detoxification,
Simple terms, fitness is an organism’s combined alteration of target site, over expression of target
ability to survive and reproduce. Fitness can be site.
quantified and measured in absolute and relative
terms. Several traits, such as reproductive rate, What Effect Does Understanding Fitness Costs
rate of multiplication, infection efficiency, or Have on Anti-Resistance Management?
amount of disease caused (aggressiveness),
If a resistance mutation has no fitness cost,
have been used to assess pathogen or parasitic
the pathogen strain carrying the mutation will
fitness in plant pathogens. To calculate fitness
persist in fungal populations even in the absence
costs, both sensitive and resistant pathogen
of a fungicide. As a result, the corresponding
strains must be measured in the same, non-
fungicide may lose its effectiveness permanently,
selective environment.
and there will be no benefit to using this fungicide
in a mixture or alternation. However, when

fitness costs are considered, there are two major was assessed. From the 112 isolates, 11 DMI-
implications for anti-resistance management. resistant mutants were derived. Two mutants were
First, resistance selection can be reversed prochloraz resistant, three were epoxiconazole
when the fungicide is not present. The second resistant, and six were difenoconazole resistant.
conclusion is that as long as fitness costs are The RF values (resistance factor, the ratio of
present, low fungicide doses can be used without a resistant mutant’s EC50 value to that of its
selecting for fungicide resistance. This has a parent) ranged from 4.09 to 62.56. The FSC
promising application for developing fungicide values (factor of sensitivity change, the ratio of
mixtures that avoid selection for resistance while RF values at the 10th to the 1st transfer) after 10
achieving the desired level of disease control. transfers on fungicide-free PDA ranged from 0.52
to 1.99. The FSC values for mutants ER3, DR3,
Role of Fitness Penalties in Resistance and DR4 were greater than one, indicating that
the resistance was relatively stable. Except for
Management
PR2 and ER2, the colony diameter of the majority
Fungicide resistance fitness components include of C. truncatum DMI-resistant mutants after 4
ability to survive between seasons, mycelia days at 28 ºC was equal to or smaller than that
growth, spore production, spore germination, of the parental isolate. Except for ER3 and DR2,
and infection efficiency. Understanding fitness spore production was significantly lower in DMI-
penalties can help to improve the accuracy of resistant mutants than in their parents. Some
resistance risk assessments. This risk can be mutants were unable to produce conidia. Most
mitigated by attempting to generate resistant mutants had lower virulence than their parental
mutants in target pathogens, either through isolates, as indicated by disease scores. Only
artificial mutagenesis after spore treatment with PR1 had a higher disease score than its parent
chemical mutagens or U/V-irradiation, or by among the 11 mutants.
exposing successive generations to increasing
fungicide concentrations. Measurements of Conclusion
infection efficiency, sporulation, and growth
are useful indicators of fitness, but they should Fungicide resistance in pathogens is an
ideally be supplemented with competition evolutionary process that leads to disease
experiments involving mixtures of resistant and control measures failing. Because resistance
sensitive isolates to determine relative fitness. may be accompanied by fitness penalties that
For example, evidence of fitness costs for influence the risk of resistant build-up in the
Pyricularia oryzae QoI-resistant isolates records absence of selection pressure, understanding
multiple detectable costs for the P. oryzae QoI parasitic fitness is critical. The ability to predict
resistant mutants. While most mutant strains’ in effectiveness and optimize disease control
vitro conidia production, latent period, infection strategies based on fungicide combinations,
efficiency, and in planta sporulation were including mixtures, alternations, and dynamic
hampered (compared to the wild type), these turnover of mixtures, requires knowledge of
variables did not appear to be affected in one fitness costs. This knowledge will help predict
Northern strain. which resistance mechanisms are likely to
emerge, allowing researchers to know what to
Risk analysis entails determining the look for ahead of time, informing monitoring
fitness impact of mutations, preferably in a programs and the development of molecular
target pathogen. When a new fungicide class diagnostics.
is introduced, it is beneficial to anticipate
resistance risk, attempting to predict both risk References
level and potential mechanisms. Fitness testing
in the laboratory should include in vitro and on Hawkins NJ and Fraaije BA. 2018. Fitness penalties
host plant testing for rate of growth and degree in the evolution of fungicide resistance. Annual
of sporulation. Failures or significant reductions Review of Phytopathology. 56: 16.1-16.22.
in fitness activities in all mutants indicate that the Malandrakis AA, Lafka E and Flouri F. 2021. Impact
type of mutation induced in the laboratory will not of fludioxonil resistance on fitness and cross-
cause practical problems. If the mutants’ growth, resistance profiles of Alternaria solani laboratory
pathogenicity, and sporulation are normal (or mutants. European Journal of Plant Pathology.
better than normal), a positive indication of risk https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-021-02351-3.
is given. Zhang C, Diao Y, Wang W, Hao J, Imran M, Duan H
and Liu X. 2017. Assessing the risk for resistance
The baseline sensitivity of 112 wild-type and elucidating the genetics of Colletotrichum
Colletotrichum truncatum isolates to three truncatum that is only sensitive to some DMI
commonly used DMIs was determined, and the fungicides. Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 1-11.
risk of C. truncatum resistance to these fungicides

22605
20. Biocontrol Potential of Phylloplane

Microorganism
DIKSHA THAKUR, SHALINI VERMA, ABHA THAKUR, ANKITA
CHAUHAN AND AMAN SHARMA
Department of Plant Pathology, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar, University of Horticulture and
Forestry Nauni, Solan 173230
Biocontrol is the use of living organisms, such the release of phytohormones in the host cells.
as insects or micro-organisms, to control pest
populations. Under biocontrol some of the Importance
special natural enemies are reintroduced that
help to control the invasive species with an aim In order to ensure a sufficient and consistent yield
not to eradicate them, but control it in a way that we depend on chemical crop protection and
it becomes manageable. Plants are surrounded growth-promoting products such as fertilizers,
with microorganisms whose population is herbicides and pesticides. Use of these chemicals
promoted by plant organic compounds and have been proven to increase other previously
favourable niches to microbial development insignificant diseases like there was an increase
and activities. The surface of aerial plant parts in coffee berry disease caused by Colletotrichum
provides a habitat for various epiphytes most kahawae after the use of copper fungicides
of which are found to influence the growth of whereas an increased infection of apricot by
pathogens. These saprophytic organisms are Eutypa armeniacae (die back) was found due
found to play an important part by reducing the to a fungicidal reduction of the antagonistic
incidence of foliar diseases on crops in the field. bark saprophyte Fusarium lateritium. Use of
In order to have more knowledge about the benzimidazole fungicides have been observed
ways of enhancing antagonistic effects of these to increase the disease caused by pathogens
microorganisms against various pathogens it insensitive to these fungicides like the one
is necessary to understand about the nature of belonging to the Phycomycetes, Cochliobolus
their specialized microhabitat, usually named as spp. and Alternaria spp. Another example was
the phyllosphere or phylloplane. Phyllosphere an increased population of Drechslera and
refers to aerial or above ground parts of plants Alternaria on wheat kernels after benomyl
including leaves, stems, buds, flowers and fruits treatments used against Septoria and Epicoccum.
or is the surface and interior of the aerial parts Use of benomyl on strawberries reduced the
of vascular plants. Different terminologies are Botrytis cinerea attack with an increased fruit
used for various parts of the plant for defining rotting by Rhizopus which may be due to the
phyllosphere such as caulosphere (stems), occurrence of fungicide-resistant strains of target
phylloplane (leaves), anthosphere (flowers) and pathogens or fungicide-insensitive non-target
carposphere (fruits). Phyllosphere microbes pathogens. Many of these chemical products
are said to be derived from indigenous as well directly or indirectly pose a threat to human
as exogenous plant microorganisms which are health and environment, which fuels a demand
transported by horizontal propagation means for safer products and a promising alternative
through soil and air and also by other plants. is the use of microbial based products that can
The microbial communities of leaves include protect crops against diseases. Such microbial
diverse genera of bacteria, filamentous fungi, products are classified under biological control
yeasts, algae and protozoa and nematodes, less agents defined as “a natural enemy, antagonist
frequently. Microbial communities inhabit both or other organism used for pest control”.
as epiphytes (external surfaces) and endophytes
(internal spaces). Hence, various studies on Microorganisms Found in Phylloplane
phylloplane microbial communities have helped Microbiome
to understand their direct involvement in crop The leaf area of plants globally is estimated to
protection, productivity and against pathogens be almost twice that of global land area. The
along with stimulating plant growth by inducing

microbial communities inhabit both as epiphytes and phosphate solubilization along with
(external surfaces) and endophytes (internal phytostimulaion by producing indole acetic acid,
spaces) on leaves. The microbial communities ethylene, cytokinin and gibberelin. Bacillus strains
of leaves include diverse genera of bacteria, isolated from solanaceous phylloplane showed
filamentous fungi, yeasts, algae, and protozoa antibiotic activity against Alternaria alternata,
and nematodes, less frequently. Bacteria are the causal agent of tomato early blight resulting from
most abundant inhabitants of the phyllosphere, an antibiosis-like mechanism whereas in some
whereas filamentous fungi are transient cases they are found to be potential ecological
inhabitants present predominantly as spores and competitors. Isolation of phylloplane bacteria
rapidly sporulating species, yeasts colonize the from rice plants proved to have antagonistic
habitat more actively. Its composition is strongly activity against sheath blight which were later
influenced by both genotypic and environmental identified as Pseudomonas fluorescens, P.
factors, many of which can be manipulated aeruginosa and P. asplenii. Another interaction
by breeding, agronomy and crop protection that occurs is the presence of hyperparasitism
strategies in an agricultural context. Bacteria, where reduction of infection and pathogen
yeasts and filamentous fungi form populations inoculums takes place when hyperparasites
on leaves. Most of the bacteria are Gram- attack hyphae and sporulating structures of
negative, chromogenic including the genera: plant pathogens. Most popular example under
Erwinia, Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas, and this is Ampelomyces quisqualis on powdery
Flavobacterium. Gram-positive bacteria including mildews and Tuberculina vinosa, Darluca filum
Lactobacillus, Bacillus and Corynebacterium and Verticillium lecanii on rusts. Where, Darluca
have been isolated less frequently. In addition filum occurs naturally on uredo and teleutosori
to saprophytic bacteria few pathogenic bacteria of numerous rust species and aecidiospore rust
e.g., Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, P. galls and cankers is reduced by hyperparasites
syringae pv. morsprunorum, P. syringae pv. such as Tuberculina maxima and Scytalidium
glycinea, Erwinia amylovora and E. carotovora uredinicola. In another example phylloplane
found to be present in a non-pathogenic epiphytic bacteria were found effective against bacterial
phase. The genera encountered most frequently blight caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis
belong to the families Cryptococcaceae and pv. passiflorae by a mechanism involving
Sporobolomycetaceae. Spores of filamentous competition for iron and nitrogenate compounds
fungi such as Alternaria, Cladosporium and on leaves. B. subtilis are proved to produce
Epicoccum lands on leaves during growing chemical metabolites such as siderophores,
season and germinate rarely to form colonies antibiotics like DAPG and pyocyanin,
until toward the end of the season during the biosurfactants (2R, 3R-butanediol) protecting
begin of leaf senescence. Cladosporium species plants phyllospheric microbes for them to act
are mostly encountered at this time and under as beneficial mutualists improving plant growth
certain conditions, on non-senescent leave and thus also acting as antagonistic pathogens.
may form the familiar sooty mould complex Trichoderma viride and Aspergillus flavus were
when insect honeydew is present. found to be antagonistic against Alternaria
brassicae infecting rabi crops by releasing
Phylloplane Microbes as Biocontrol metabolites. Alternaria spp., Trichoderma spp.,
Ganoderma spp., and Saccharomyces spp. have
Microorganisms, predominantly bacteria and been extensively studied as PGPFs (Plant growth
fungi, can act as mutualists promoting plant promoting fungi) as they maintain plants quality
growth and tolerance of environmental stressors, and quantity. In lettuce plants T. asperellum is
commensals using the leaf habitat for their own found to induce peroxidase and polyphenol
growth and reproduction, or as antagonistic oxidase along with cell wall degrading enzymes
pathogens. Although biocontrol factors are related like chitinase and β-1,3-glucanase as a defensive
either to direct or indirect microbial interactions. mechanism against leaf spot disease. Phylloplane
Direct interactions occur between the pathogen microbes can either produce antimicrobial
and the biocontrol agent. Indirect interactions compounds, or are involved through an indirect
are the interactions between the biocontrol agent mechanism, induced systemic resistance (ISR)
and the host plant which improves the plant’s or systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Under
fitness, like its resistance to the disease. Under induced systemic resistance (ISR) we have
direct interactions there are many mechanisms many examples in which the defense was due
which helps in various biocontrol processes like to activation of ISR like F. oxysporum (non-
production of antibiotics, hydrolytic enzymes, pathogenic) induces systemic resistance as
siderophores, exopolysaccharides and induced defense responses against F. oxysporum f. sp.
systemic resistance (ISR). It also plays a major asparagi (pathogenic), the phylloplane bacteria
role in biofertilization like nitrogen fixation

Bacillus cereus against P. syringae pv. tomato, functions, root elongation and induces fungal
Pseudozyma aphidis in Arabidopsis against defense responses in plants. So, any alteration
Botrytis cinerea, fungus Pseudozyma aphidis either physiological or chemical in mitochondria
isolated from tomato and cucumber plants leads to its destruction affecting the respiratory
against bacterial canker caused by Clavibacter levels resulting in plant wilt and death. But a
michiganensis and powdery mildew caused combination of phylloplane fungal metabolites
by Podosphaera xanthii and T. harzianum and were found to significantly elevate the SDH
Bacillus subtilis were found to have antagonistic activity.
activities towards Alternaria solani and
Phytophthora infestans (early and late blight). Conclusion
Along with fungus this method was also observed
in case of viruses like Rhodopseudomonas With day-to-day increase in food demand, it
palustris inducing resistance tobacco mosaic is very important to ensure a sufficient and
virus. Similarly, when F. oxysporum (non- consistent yield for which we are depending
virulent strains) elicitors are used on Panama more on chemical crop protection and other
disease in banana, they are proved to elicite products promoting growth and better yield
SAR. Phyllospheric microorganisms promotes such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers.
plant growth by providing ecosystem services Use of these chemicals have decreased
like carbon (C) sequestration, nitrogen (N) the target pathogens but on the other hand
fixation and bioremediation. Nitrogen fixing have increased other previously insignificant
microorganisms are proved to promote plant diseases. So, this problem requires a solution
growth with increased nitrogen content when which does not involves the use of chemical
sprayed onto leaves. Production of IAA, hydrogen products. Phylloplane microbes are thus
cyanide (HCN) and ammonia from plant growth studied to know about their both positive and
promoting (PGP) bacteria were isolated from Zea negative manipulations in host physiology so
mays. In Kenya bacterial isolates from rice fields that they can survive on their host and how they
are reported to solubilize phosphates. In case of contribute in agriculture under plant protection
strawberry plants. Bacillus M3 and Bacillus OSU- and physiology. Under these studies phylloplane
142 increased the yield, growth and Phosphorus, microbes are found to have mutualistic
Iron, Copper and Zinc content. Phylloplane beneficial relation under which they are able
microbes are said to produce phytohormones to withstand environmental pressure, and also
(auxin, gibberellic acids, and cytokines) and stimulate various physiological processes in their
are able to fix nitrogen and mobilize nutrients. host which leads to the growth, development
Indole acetic acid produced by phyllospheric and protection. These studies will give us an
microorganisms is responsible to stimulate root idea to develop such strategies which can be
growth enhancing root contacFGHSRTt with helpful in prediction, exclusion and prevention
soil and increasing nutrient uptake and this is of the diseases contributing to plant health and
the reason why these phylloplane microbes productivity. We need to focus more on the
Bacillus, Microbacterium, Acinetobacter, Proteus, molecular mechanisms involving in phylloplane
Psychrobacter, Pseudomonas, etc. are used as microbiome interaction, about the symbiosis in
substitutes to chemical fertilizers. Yeast strains between the plants and the microbes, principles
isolated from Drosera indica L. were also found of signalling cascade and signal transduction and
able to produce IAA that modify auxin inducible molecular patterns triggering the plants’ innate
gene expression in Arabidopsis and can immunity. Thus, these studies will eventually
promote plant growth thus can be considered as help to broaden the knowledge on health and
biofertilizer for sustainable agriculture. Various protection of plants. The union of proteomics,
biotic and abiotic stresses are found to damage metagenomics, land and laboratory experiments
plant organelles by reducing the concentration may definitely give our study new insights into
of photosynthetic enzyme Rubisco. Thus, the role of phylloplane microbial communities plant
phylloplane microbes have also been studied health and physiology, which will ultimately lead
about the defence responses in which it was to their contribution to the changing world.
found that strains of Trichoderma spp. and
Sebacinales spp. improve photosynthetic References
efficiency of plants and A. niger and F. oxysporum Goswami S, Goel N and Majumdar RS. 2021.
masked the effect of pathogens and also Phylloplane microbes impact host physiology:
upregulated Rubisco activity in tomato plants. a review. Journal of Plant Protection Research
In mitochondrial inner membrane, presence 61(3):213-221.
of Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) is found Akter S, Kadir J, Juraimi AS, Saud HM and
to influence photosynthesis, controls stomatal Elmahdi S. 2014. Isolation and identification of

antagonistic bacteria from phylloplane of rice S. 2013. Biocontrol potential of phylloplane

as biocontrol agents for sheath blight. Journal of bacterium Ochrobactrum anthropi BMO-111
Environmentalbiology 35:1095-1100. against blister blight disease of tea. Journal of
Sowndhararajan, K., Marimuthu, S. and Manian, Applied Microbiology 114:209-218.
E N T O MOLOGY
22592
21. Cotton Stem Weevil (Pempherulus

Affinis), Significant Pest in
Ramanathapuram District of Tamil
Nadu
*
T. THIRUVENI
Department of Agricultural Entomology, Nammazhvar College of Agriculture and
Technology, Kamuthy Tamil Nadu, India – 623 708
Introduction days. Grubs are apodous white in colour. The

developmental period ranges from 35-57 days.
Cotton is known as “King of Fibre” and it is a Exarate pupa. It pupates in a pupal chamber;
commercial crop grown in India. In Tamil Nadu, the pupation takes place within the stem. The
the average area, production and productivity pupal period is 9-12 days. Adults are very small,
of cotton during 2019-2020 was 1.7 lakh ha, brownish with two small white patches on the
5.00 lakh bales and 500 kg/ha, respectively. elytra. It feeds on the bark of the plant. The
It is cultivated over an area of 9,300 hectares longevity of adult is 12-50 days. The entire life
in Ramanathapuram district. Stem weevil, cycle of the weevil is completed within the stem.
Pempherulus affinis, (Faust) Curculionidae
Coleoptera is a serious menace in cotton growing Nature and Symptoms of Damage
areas and it is reported as a major pest in South
India (Fletcher, 1914 and Balakrishnan et al., The symptom is detected only after the complete
2010). The farmers tend to raise cotton during damage of the plant. The most important
October – February in southern districts of Tamil characteristics symptoms are knot like swelling
Nadu. Among the various pests, stem weevil is just above the ground level by causing damage
found to be a major problem. The infestation to the vascular tissue by the grub feeding inside
occurs on 12 to 15 days old seedlings, which can the stem. The damage starts when the plants
cause the mortality up to 90% (Jothi et al., 2011). are about three weeks old. It affects the stem by
Although some of the management strategies forming exogenous gall in the collar region and
are available, it is not sufficient to manage the finally leads to lodging of plants on 80 days after
pest effectively. Therefore, it is the need of the sowing of crop. Young plants are invariably killed
hour to discuss about the management practices on account of the attack of the pest, and the
to control the pest. This paper will be useful for older plants that survive lack vigour and strength,
the cotton growers. and when strong winds blow, these plants break
at the nodes.
Identification of Pest
Eggs are globular, oval and white in colour,
deposited on the soft and succulent collar region
of the tender plant. The incubation period is 6-9
54 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Entomology

Photo taken at NCAT
Management Strategies 0.3 ml/ l or clothianidin 50 WDG at 0.2 g/ lit.

were effective
Uprooting and burning of infested plants
and the remaining stalks which reduces References
the population substantially in the ensuing
season and also keep the pest under check. Fletcher. 1914. Some South Indian Insects.
Superindent Govt. Press, Madras. 565p.
Basal application of Farmyard Manure 25 t/ha
and neem cake 250 kg/ha is recommended Balakrishnan, N., Murali Baskaran, R.K. and
Mahadevan, N.R. 2010. Influence of intercrops/
Seed treatment with Beauveria bassania trap crops on the preference of major pests of
@10g/kg of seed cotton in different IPM modules under rainfed
Drenching the collar region with condition, Journal of Biopesticides, 3(1):373-378.
chlorpyriphos 50 EC @ 1200 ml/ha on 15 and Jothi, B.D., Nagarajan, T. and Karthikeyan, A. 2011.
30 days after sowing followed by earthing up Cotton stem weevil and its management, Madras
were effective Agricultural Journal, 98 (12):308-303.
Apply carbofuran 3G at 10 kg/ha on 20 days Anandhi, P, Galice, L.J.C. and Elamathi, S. 2020.
after sowing Development of integrated pest management
strategies for cotton stem weevil, Pempherulus
Use resistant variety MCU 3 in endemic affinis (Faust). Journal of Entomology and
areas. Zoological Studies, 8(3):1239–1244.
Foliar spray of chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @
22600
22. Application of Botanical Pesticides in

Sustainable Agriculture
DR. RISHIKESH MANDLOI
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, Rabindranath Tagore University, Raisen (M.P.)
What are botanical insecticides? Natural Selectivity

compounds (insect poisons) that are extracted Toxicity
or produced from plants or minerals. Additionally
known as “Natural insecticides,” Phytotoxicity
Cost and availability
Properties of Botanicals
Classifications of Botanical Insecticides
Quick breakdown
1. Repellents: E.g.: DEET against Mosquitoes,
Fast action
flies, fleas NSKE: Lepidopteran caterpillars,
Entomology 55 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

BPH Basil (Ocimum basilicum), (Mentha Neem has a variety of effects on insects,
piperata), and lemon eucalyptus (Corymbia including antifeedant activity, insect
citriodora) development regulating activity that
2. Feeding deterrents/antifeedants: E.g.: suppresses the synthesis of juvenile
Azadirachtin- Desert Locust, lepidopteran hormones, oviposition deterrent, repellant
caterpillars Pyrethrum-Glossina sp. action, and a shortening of adult life span.
3. Toxicants: Nicotine, Anise, cumin, Products made from neem are UV-sensitive.
eucalyptus, oregano and rosemary were In India, several concentrations of the drug
also reported as fumigants and caused 100% Azardiractine—both the neem kernel- and
mortality of the eggs of Tribolium confusum E.C. oil–based formulations—have been
and Ephestia kuehniella. registered. 0.15%, 0.3%, 1%, 0.03%, and 5%
4. Natural grain protectants: Annonaceae, of azadiractin.
Asteraceae, Canellaceae, Labiatae, The commercially available neem
Meliaceae, Rutaceae. 1 to 2 % Kernel powder insecticides are based on neem seed kernel
or oil. extract, and among of the products that
5. Chemosterilants/ Reproduction Inhibitors: are frequently used are Gronim, Neemazal,
Pyrethrum: Cigarette beetle, house fly Achook, and Nimbecidine.
Rotenone: House fly Nicotine: House fly
Rotenone
6. Insect growth and development inhibitors:
E.g.: Neem-Lepidopteran and Coleopteran It is resin derived from roots of leguminous
larvae. plants Lonchocarpus spp. and Derris eliptica
More than 2400 plant species in nature are It is a gastrointestinal toxin with a wide
said to possess pesticidal qualities. The most chemical spectrum.
effective plant-based insecticides are from Insects’ nerve and muscle cells are affected,
members of the Meliaceae, Rutaceae, Astraceae, and it might occasionally make them cease
Annonaceae, Labiatae, and Canellaceae feeding.
families. Azadiractha indica, a member of the
It prevents the breathing process.
Meliaceae family of plants, is the most significant
botanical source of pesticides. Azadirachtin, a Fish are highly poisonous to it.
tetranortripernoid derived from the neem tree,
has been proven to be effective as a feeding Sabadilla
deterrent, repellant, toxicant, sterilant, and It is an alkaloid that is present in the tropical
growth disruptor. lily Schoenocaulon officinale seed.
The major alkaloids that function as nerve
The Important Families Having Pesticidal poison are cevadine and veratridine.
Properties are
It is generally a contact toxin.
Number of plants having pesticidal Sabadilla is harmful to pollinators, honey
Plant family
property bees
Meliaceae >500
Myrtaceae 72 Ryanodine
Asteraceae 70
It is an alkaloid produced from Ryania
Euphorbiaceae 65 speciosa, a South American shrub.
Leguminosae 60
Fabaceae 55
Activity: Ryanodine prevents striated
muscles from converting ADP to ATP, acting
Indian Neem Tree as a toxin to the muscles.
Neem is indigenous to India and Burma. After eating it, insects stop feeding because
it acts as a slow-acting stomach toxin.
The active ingredients is a mixture of
Azadiractin, melantriol, salannin, nimbin It is reportedly effective against thrips and
and nimbidin and these all belong to group worms
of tetranortriterpenoids It serves as dust. (20%-40%)
The primary component of neem that may
have insecticidal potential is azadirachtin, Nicotine
which is found in the seed and leaves and Nicotine is obtained from tobacco plants,
ranges from 2-4 mg/g kernel. Nicotiana tobaccum and N. rustica to the
extent of 2-8%

Activity: imitates the effects of acetylcholine The plant species, which is a member of the
in the neuronal synapses, resulting in Rutaceae family, also contains Nomilin, a
tremors, loss of coordination, and ultimately limonoid that is just as effective against pests
death. as azadiractine.
It acts very quickly and severely disrupts and
damages the nervous system. Annona
Solid commercially available as nicotine The acetogenins family of chemical, which
sulphate 40% and manufactured in India has pesticidal function, is found in the genus
only for export purpose Annona (Annonaceae) plants.
It is act as contact poison Custard apple fruit extracts containing
ethanol had a juvenilizing impact on
It works well against insects that feed on
cucumber beetles.
soft bodies, such as thrips, leafhopper mealy
bugs, and leaf minor. Pesticides made from plants that are used to combat certain
insect infestations
Pyrethrum
Botanical
Pyrethrum refers to powdered dried flowers Insect Pests
Pesticides
of Chrysantheum cinerarifolium and
Nicotine Aphids, thrips, caterpillars
Pyrethrins are all the toxic constitutes of the
Rotenone Bugs, aphids, potato beetles, spider
pyrethrum flowers
mites, carpenter ants
The largest pyrethrum producer is Kenya. Ryania Codling moths, potato aphids, onion
Pyrethrins mode of action is similar to DDT thrips, corn earworms
and has fast acting knock down effect Sabadilla Grasshoppers, codling moths,
It quickly degrades in sunshine. armyworms, aphids, cabbage loopers,
squash bugs
The commonly used synergist pyrethrins is Pyrethrum Caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers,
piperonyl butoxide spider mites, bugs, cabbage worms,
beetles
Limonene and Linanool Essential oils Caterpillars, cabbage worms, aphids,
These are extracts from citrus peels that white flies
paralyze insects. They are used to manage Neem products Armyworms, cutworms, stem borers,
aphids, mites, and fleas and swiftly bollworms, leaf miners, caterpillars,
evaporated in the environment. aphids, whiteflies, leafhoppers,
psyllids, scales, mites and thrips
22602
23. Revitalizing Ecosystems: A Strategic

Blueprint for Addressing Global Insect
Decline
G SHAM SUPREETH1, BANKA KANDA KISHORE REDDY3, V. CHINNA
BABU NAIK2 B. CHANDANA3, K. SUDHARANI3, AND K. MADHAVI3
1
University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Reddipalle, Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University
1
Division of Crop Protection, Indian Institute of Rice Research, ICAR, Hyderabad
Introduction concerning phenomenon that poses severe

threats to ecosystems, food security, and human
The decline of global insect populations is a well-being. While various factors contribute to
Entomology 57 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

this decline, including habitat loss, pesticide Public Awareness and Education
use, climate change, and pollution, there’s an
urgent need for a comprehensive battle plan Launch public awareness campaigns to
that involves not only entomologists but also educate people about the importance of
policymakers, scientists, and the general public. insects and the threats they face.
This blueprint outlines a strategic approach to Encourage citizen science initiatives
combat insect decline through multidisciplinary where individuals can contribute to insect
efforts and proactive policy changes. monitoring and research.
Understanding the Importance of Insects Policy Reform

Highlight the critical roles insects play in Lobby for stricter regulations on pesticide
ecosystems, including pollination, nutrient use, including bans on highly toxic chemicals
cycling, and food chain support. harmful to insects.
Emphasize the link between healthy insect Advocate for the inclusion of insect
populations and human food security. conservation in national and international
biodiversity agreements.
Scientific Research and Monitoring
Collaboration and Funding
Establish long-term insect monitoring
programs to track population trends and Establish collaborations between
identify vulnerable species. entomologists, ecologists, policymakers,
and NGOs to leverage collective expertise
Fund and support research on the ecological,
and resources.
physiological, and behavioral aspects of
insects to better understand their needs and Secure funding for research, conservation
challenges. projects, and education initiatives related to
insect decline.
Habitat Restoration and Protection
Long-Term Commitment
Promote the restoration and conservation
of natural habitats, including grasslands, Recognize that addressing insect decline
wetlands, forests, and urban green spaces. requires sustained efforts over many years.
Encourage the adoption of insect-friendly Regularly review and update strategies
practices in agriculture, such as reducing based on new scientific findings and
monocultures and creating pollinator- changing circumstances.
friendly landscapes.
Conclusion
Integrated Pest Management (Ipm)
Addressing the global decline of insects
Advocate for the adoption of IPM practices requires a concerted effort involving scientists,
that minimize the use of harmful pesticides policymakers, and the public. By implementing
and prioritize biological control methods. this strategic battle plan, we can create a future
Provide incentives for farmers to implement where insects thrive, ecosystems flourish, and
IPM through subsidies and education. humanity reaps the benefits of a healthier and
more balanced natural world. This blueprint
Reducing Light Pollution serves as a foundation for proactive measures
Raise awareness about the negative impact that will help counter the wilful political failure
of artificial light on insect behavior and contributing to this crisis.
populations.
Support the implementation of light pollution
Reference
regulations and promote the use of insect- Donkersley, P., Ashton, L., Lamarre, G. P., & Segar, S.
friendly lighting. (2022). Global insect decline is the result of wilful
political failure: A battle plan for entomology.
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Ecology and Evolution, 12(10), e9417.
Support international efforts to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and limit global
warming.
Research and develop strategies to
help insects adapt to changing climatic
conditions.

E N GIN E E R IN G A ND T ECHNOLOGY
22572
24. Artificial Intelligence in Agriculture:

Need of the Hour
VINAY KUMAR1, ARJOO2 AND RAJAT3
1
Research Scholar, Department of Business Management, CCS HAU, Hisar,
Haryana2Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture, MHU, Karnal, Haryana
3
Research Scholar, Department of Horticulture, CCS HAU, Hisar, Haryana
Introduction Crop Monitoring, where data can be

collected using technologies like IoT, drones,
The simulation of intelligent behaviour in and satellite imaging, from the fields, and
computers is the focus of the computer science then monitored and analyzed by AI-based
subfield known as artificial intelligence. Artificial applications to identify the right solutions.
intelligence is not a story about Man vs Machine;
rather, it is about Man and Machine working Recent Developments in India
together. By 2050, when the world’s population is
predicted to reach 10 billion, there will be a 70% Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
rise in food demand, necessitating a doubling of Government of Karnataka with Microsoft
agricultural output. To address and overcome AGRI- UDAAN
these issues, agricultural firms need new and
Maharashtra Agri Tech Project
cutting-edge technologies.
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (Pmfby)
How Ai is Used in Agriculture?
Government sponsored crop insurance
Automated farming activities. scheme that integrates multiple stakeholders
Identification of pest and disease outbreak on a single platform.
before occurrence. To improve the crop sector, the government
Managing crop quality, monitoring biotic, will now envisage the use of innovative
abiotic factors and stress. technologies like AI, remote sensing
Machine vision systems and phenotype lead imageries, and modelling tools to reduce the
to adjustments. time lag for settling of claims of the farmers.
By analyzing the data collected, the scheme
Recent Developments in Ai in Agriculture: aims at increasing the crop insurance
Indian Scenario penetration in India by increasing farmer
awareness and reducing farmer premium
The Indian government has recognized the rates.
significance of artificial intelligence (AI), which
is a game-changer in other industries, and has Government of Karnataka with Microsoft
started to use this technology to expand the
sector. Additionally, the government of Karnataka and
Microsoft recently agreed to a Memorandum
A National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence of Understanding (MOU) to equip smallholder
in India was developed by NITI Aayog with farmers with AI-based solutions to improve their
the goals of promoting social inclusion and practices for revenue and price predictions.
economic progress. Microsoft is attempting to use digital tools to
Crop Selection, where AI-based solutions develop a multivariate agricultural commodity
are ideal for selecting crops based on price forecasting model taking into account the
parameters like soil type, monsoon dates, following parameters: sowing area, production
availability and affordability. time, yielding time, weather datasets, and other
pertinent datasets. This is done with the help of
Engineering and Technology 59 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

the Karnataka Agricultural Price Commission enabling farmers.

(KAPC). Health monitoring of crops.
Agri-Udaan Limitations
The government of India has also started AI systems also need a lot of data to train
another program called AGRI-UDAAN - Food machines and to make precise predictions. In
& Agribusiness Accelerator 2.0 to mentor 40 case of vast agricultural land, though spatial data
agricultural startups from cities like Chandigarh, can be gathered easily, temporal data is hard to
Ahmedabad, Pune, Bengaluru, Kolkata, and get.
Hyderabad and help them connect with potential
For example, most of the crop-specific data
investors in an effort to advance innovative
can be obtained only once in a year when the
technologies in agriculture. Shortlisted Agri
crops are growing. Since the data infrastructure
startups with creative business models will
takes time to mature, it requires a significant
be mentored and assisted during the six-
amount of time to build a robust machine
month program to improve their operations,
learning model.
commercialization, product validation, business
plan writing, risk analysis, customer engagement, This is one reason why AI sees a lot of use
financial management, and fundraising. in agronomic products such as seeds, fertilizer,
pesticides and so on rather than in-field precision
These shortlisted startups will also stand
solutions.
a chance of receiving $40,000 as funding
assistance. There still exists a lack of familiarity with
high tech machine learning solutions in farms
Maharashtra Agri Tech Project across most parts of the world.
The project, which was started earlier this So, what might look like a good solution
year and is centered in Maharashtra, aims while planning during the start of harvesting,
to use cutting-edge technologies to precisely may not be an optimal one because of changes
estimate crop output and solve numerous in external parameters.
hazards associated with farming such as
inadequate rains and pest infestations. References
This information will also be used by the Manaware Diksha. (2020). Artificial Intelligence:
initiative to advise farmers about other policy A New Way to Improve Indian Agriculture.
obligations, such as pricing, warehousing, International Journal of Current Microbiology
and crop insurance. and Applied Sciences. (2020); 9(3) 1095-1102.
Murugesan Rajkumar, Sudarsanam S.K., G. Malathi,
The project’s initial phase employs satellite Miral Atishi. Artificial Intelligence and Agriculture
pictures and data analysis performed by the 5. 0. International Journal of Recent Technology
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) and and Engineering 2019; 8(2): 1870-77.
Maharashtra Remote Sensing Application
Panpatte Deepak. Artificial Intelligence in
Centre (MRSAC) to evaluate the area of Agriculture: An Emerging Era of Research. (2018).
land and the conditions of specific crops in
Saxena Anurag, Saha Dipankar. (2020). Application
specific talukas.
of Artificial Intelligence in Indian Agriculture.
The second stage, however, involves Talaviya Tanha, Shah Dhara, Patel Nivedita, Hiteshri
analyzing the data gathered to create Yagnik, Shah Manan. Implementation of artificial
a seamless framework for agriculture intelligence in agriculture for optimisation of
modeling and a geographic database of soil irrigation and application of pesticides and
nutrients, rainfall, and moisture stress to herbicides. Science Direct 2020; 4: 58-73.
enable location-specific advice to farmers.
Top Areas Where Use of Ai can Benefit

Agriculture
Health monitoring of crops.
Growth driven by IOT.
Image- based insight generation.
Identification of optimal mix for agronomic
products.
Automation techniques in Irrigation and
60 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Engineering and Technology

22606
25. Lulc Classification using Google Earth

Engine
PREMKUMARA, RUBEENA TARRANUM AND SHASHIKANTH
Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering, University
of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur
Google Earth Engine (GEE) is a cloud-based samples for different trees while others are not
platform which combines vast amount of remote chosen. The non-training samples are internally
sensing data from multiple sources with a high- used to assess the classifier’s performance and
performance computer service, allowing for give the generalization error a biased estimate.
quick and easy satellite imagery computing. GEE In addition, the RF model randomly selects
is a technique for breaking down large amounts variables from the training samples in each node
of data into smaller pieces and processing them to identify the best fraction to build a tree (Pande,
across multiple devices. As a result, the data 2022).
were recompiled for the final result after being An accuracy assessment in GEE is
processed as many separate parts (Loukika et necessary for LULC classification to explain
al., 2021). the correspondence between ground truth and
Dynamic information of Land Use and Land classification results. The confusion matrix is
Cover (LULC) is the basis for characterizing a general method for evaluating the accuracy
surface evolution, assessing global climate of remote sensing image classification, which
and environmental changes, supporting land provides the correspondence between the
resource management and facilitating regional LULC classification results and verification data.
economic and socially sustainable development The verification of classification accuracy is
(Pan et al., 2021). The continuous and accurate reflected by overall accuracy, kappa coefficient,
analysis of LULC is an integral part of the producer’s accuracy (Liu et al., 2020).
sustainable development activities undertaken The GEE platform provides users with
in any given area. cloud-based computing resources that can
GEE allows for the automation of LULC decrease barriers like data storage space and
classification processes. Through the utilization personal computing power. The integration
of various machine learning algorithms, such of GEE’s capabilities with ground-based
as Support Vector Machines (SVM), Random data, socio-economic indicators, and climate
Forest (RF), Classification and Regression models enhances the accuracy and depth of
Tree (CART), and Naive-Bayes. SVM employs LULC analyses, enabling a comprehensive
optimization algorithms to locate the optimal understanding of the intricate interactions
boundaries between classes (Huang et al., between human activities and the environment.
2010). CART operates recursively by splitting
nodes until it reaches the terminal nodes, based References
on a predefined threshold. In this approach,
Huang, C., Davis, L. S. and Townshend, J. R. G., 2010,
input data are split into group sets and the trees
An assessment of support vector machines for
are constructed utilizing all except one of those. land cover classification. Int. J. Remote Sensing,
The tree is validated using the left-out group and 23(4): 725-749.
the reduced tree with the lowest deviation is
Liu, C., Li, W., Zhu, G., Zhou, H., Yan, H. and Xue,
selected (Loukika et al., 2021).
P., 2020, Land use/land cover changes and
The random forest classifier model combines their driving factors in the Northeastern Tibetan
the collective output for a new label based on the Plateau based on Geographical Detectors and
maximum votes from several decision-making Google Earth Engine: A case study in Gannan
processes. The random forest chooses a random Prefecture. Remote Sensing, 12(19):139-150.
subset of samples to create a single tree. It is Loukika, K. N., Keesara, V. R. and Sridhar, V.,
used as a bagging method, in which data from 2021, Analysis of land use and land cover using
the original finished training set are sampled for machine learning algorithms on google earth
each tree. This method could select the same engine for Munneru River Basin, India. Sustain.,
Engineering and Technology 61 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

13(24): 158-178. Pande, C.B., 2022. Land use/land cover and change
Pan, X., Wang, Z., Gao, Y., Dang, X. and Han, Y., detection mapping in Rahuri watershed area
2021, Detailed and automated classification of (MS), India using the google earth engine and
land use/land cover using machine learning machine learning approach. Geocarto Int.,
algorithms in Google Earth Engine. Geocarto Int., 37(26): 60-80.
37(18): 415-432.
EX TE N S IO N E D U C AT IO N & R UR AL D EVELOPMEN T
22569
26. Changes in Agricultural Extension and

Implications for Farmer Adoption of
New Practices
K. MADHURI AND BANKA KANDA KISHORE REDDY AND B.
CHANDANA
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalikiri, Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University
1. Technology Integration: Agricultural promoting practices that are environmentally

extension services have been incorporating friendly and climate-resilient. This includes
more digital and technological tools to encouraging practices such as agroforestry,
disseminate information to farmers. This organic farming, water conservation, and
includes the use of mobile apps, SMS soil health management. The implications
alerts, and online platforms for providing are better resilience to climate shocks
real-time advice, weather forecasts, and potential access to niche markets for
market information, and best practices. environmentally friendly products. However,
The implications of this shift are increased some farmers may face initial challenges in
accessibility and convenience for farmers, transitioning to these practices and might
especially those in remote areas. However, need financial or technical support.
it might exclude farmers with limited access 4. Customization and Tailored Solutions:
to technology or digital literacy skills. Rather than a one-size-fits-all approach,
2. Participatory Approaches: Extension agricultural extension services are
services have recognized the importance increasingly customizing their advice based
of involving farmers in the decision-making on the specific needs and circumstances of
process. Participatory approaches involve individual farmers or groups of farmers. This
farmers in the research, planning, and personalization can improve the relevance
implementation of new practices. This of the information provided and increase the
can lead to increased farmer ownership likelihood of adoption. However, it demands
of innovations, better alignment with local a deeper understanding of local contexts
needs, and a higher likelihood of successful and may require additional manpower and
adoption. However, it may also require more resources.
time and resources to facilitate participatory 5. Private Sector Involvement: In some
processes. regions, there has been a shift towards
3. Focus on Sustainability and Climate involving the private sector in agricultural
Change Resilience: With growing concerns extension services. Companies or NGOs
about sustainability and climate change, are partnering with farmers to promote
agricultural extension services have been their products or technologies and provide
62 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Extension Education & Rural Development
extension services alongside. This can practices can contribute to increased
improve the dissemination of cutting-edge food production, thereby enhancing
technologies and increase farmer access food security at the national and
to inputs and markets. However, potential household levels.
conflicts of interest may arise, and farmers d) Sustainable Agriculture: Certain
could become dependent on specific brands technologies, like precision farming
or products. and conservation practices, promote
6. Gender and Social Inclusion: There is a sustainable use of resources and
growing recognition of the importance of minimize environmental impact.
gender-responsive and socially inclusive 8. Agricultural Extension: Agricultural
agricultural extension services. Tailoring extension services are essential for facilitating
extension programs to address the unique technology adoption and knowledge
needs and challenges faced by women and dissemination among farmers. Extension
marginalized groups in agriculture can lead services provide information, training, and
to more equitable and sustainable outcomes. support to help farmers understand and
However, it requires a deliberate effort to implement new technologies effectively.
overcome existing biases and inequalities.
Challenges of Agricultural Extension in
6. Technology Adoption: Technology adoption Developing Countries
in agriculture refers to the uptake and use
of modern agricultural practices, tools, and Limited Reach: In rural and remote
innovations by farmers to improve their areas, access to extension services may
productivity and efficiency. This can include be limited due to poor infrastructure and
the adoption of improved seed varieties, communication networks.
advanced irrigation systems, precision Lack of Resources: Insufficient funding
agriculture techniques, farm machinery, and and human resources can hinder the
digital tools. effectiveness of extension programs.
Challenges of Technology Adoption Language and Cultural Barriers:
a) Cost: Many advanced technologies can Differences in languages and cultural
be costly, making them unaffordable practices may make it challenging
for small-scale farmers with limited for extension workers to effectively
financial resources. communicate with farmers.
b) Access: Limited access to information Gender Inequality: In some regions,
and markets may hinder farmers from extension services may not adequately
knowing about and accessing new address the needs of female farmers, leading
technologies. to disparities in technology adoption.
c) Education and Awareness: Lack of Improving Extension and Technology
technical knowledge and awareness Adoption
about the benefits of new technologies
can be a barrier to adoption. Localized Approaches: Tailoring
extension programs to specific regions and
d) Risk Aversion: Farmers may be hesitant communities can improve relevance and
to adopt new practices due to the fear of effectiveness.
failure and potential economic risks.
Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborations
7. Impact of Technology Adoption: The
between governments, private companies,
impact of technology adoption in developing
and NGOs can enhance the dissemination
countries’ agriculture can be significant and
of technologies and extension services.
far-reaching:
a) Increased Productivity: Modern ICT Solutions: Using information and
technologies can boost agricultural communication technologies (ICT) can
productivity, leading to higher crop help reach more farmers and provide timely
yields and better income for farmers. information through mobile apps, SMS, or
voice-based services.
b) Income Diversification: Technology
adoption can lead to the production of Capacity Building: Training extension
higher-value crops or products, enabling workers and farmers in modern agricultural
farmers to diversify their income practices can enhance the adoption and
streams. sustainable use of technologies.
c) Food Security: Improved agricultural
Extension Education & Rural Development 63 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04
Reference farmer adoption of new practices. Applied

Economic Perspectives and Policy, 42(1), pp.8-20.
Norton, G.W. and Alwang, J., 2020. Changes in
agricultural extension and implications for
22575
27. Quality of Agricultural Extension

on Productivity of Farmers: Human
Capital Perspective
K. MADHURI B. CHANDANA AND BANKA KANDA KISHORE REDDY
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kalikiri, Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University
Agricultural extension and rural advisory the effective and responsible use of these
services play a crucial role in bridging the gap technologies.
between scientific knowledge and farmers’ 5. Capacity building: Continuous learning and
practices. Over the years, significant lessons skill development for extension workers are
have been learned from these services, and vital to keep them updated with the latest
there have been advancements in approaches knowledge and approaches. Well-trained
and technologies. Here are some key learnings extension personnel can better assist
and future directions: farmers and deliver quality services.
What We have Learned 6. Knowledge sharing and networking:
Building strong networks and collaborations
1. Contextualization is crucial: Extension among stakeholders, including farmers,
services need to be tailored to specific researchers, NGOs, and policymakers,
regions, crops, and the socio-economic foster the exchange of knowledge and
conditions of the farmers. One size does not experiences, leading to improved practices.
fit all, and successful extension programs
consider local needs and realities. What’s Next
2. Participatory approach: Involving farmers 1. Digital agriculture: Embracing digital
in the extension process, including their technologies, such as mobile apps,
knowledge, experiences, and needs, leads IoT devices, and remote sensing, can
to more effective and sustainable outcomes. revolutionize extension services. These
Participatory approaches empower farmers technologies can provide real-time
and make them active participants in their information, weather forecasts, pest alerts,
own development. and market prices to farmers.
3. Holistic and integrated approaches: 2. Data-driven decision-making: Leveraging
Agriculture is complex, and addressing big data and analytics can help in making
challenges often requires a multi-faceted informed decisions and tailoring extension
approach. Integrating various aspects such services based on the analysis of trends,
as crop management, livestock, soil health, challenges, and opportunities in specific
water management, and market access is regions.
essential for success.
3. Climate-smart agriculture: As climate
4. Technology adoption: The adoption of change continues to impact agriculture,
modern technologies can significantly extension services need to promote climate-
enhance agricultural productivity and smart practices that enhance resilience
efficiency. However, it’s crucial to provide and sustainability, such as drought-resistant
training and support to farmers to ensure crops and water management strategies.
4. Gender inclusivity: Extension services and improve data accuracy.
should actively involve women farmers and 5. Involve stakeholders in evaluation: Engage
consider their unique needs and challenges. stakeholders, including farmers, extension
Empowering women in agriculture can workers, researchers, and policymakers,
lead to improved productivity and social in the evaluation process. Their input and
outcomes. feedback can provide valuable insights into
5. Financial literacy and market access: the program’s strengths, weaknesses, and
Equipping farmers with financial literacy areas for improvement.
skills and facilitating access to markets can 6. Conduct mid-term assessments: Regularly
improve their economic prospects and assess the program’s progress through mid-
increase the value of their produce. term evaluations. This allows for course
6. Private sector involvement: Collaborating corrections and adjustments to be made if
with the private sector can facilitate the needed, ensuring that the program stays on
adoption of modern technologies and track to achieve its objectives.
innovations, as well as enhance market 7. Use randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
linkages for farmers. and control groups: In some cases,
7. Impact evaluation: Regularly assessing the employing experimental designs, such as
impact of extension programs is crucial to randomized controlled trials with control
ensure their effectiveness and identify areas groups, can provide more rigorous evidence
for improvement. of the program’s impact. RCTs can help
Improving the monitoring and evaluation establish causality and isolate the effects of
of agricultural extension programs is essential the extension interventions.
to ensure their effectiveness, impact, and 8. Focus on learning and adaptive
sustainability. Here are some key strategies management: Encourage a learning culture
to enhance the monitoring and evaluation within the extension program, where lessons
processes: from monitoring and evaluation are used to
1. Set clear objectives and indicators: adapt and improve program implementation
Clearly define the objectives of the continuously.
extension program and develop specific, 9. Assess cost-effectiveness: Evaluate the
measurable, achievable, relevant, and cost-effectiveness of the extension program
time-bound (SMART) indicators to track by comparing the resources invested with
progress. These indicators should reflect the the achieved outcomes. This assessment
desired outcomes and impact on farmers’ helps prioritize interventions with the highest
livelihoods and agricultural practices. impact.
2. Baseline data collection: Conduct baseline 10. Participatory evaluation: Involve farmers
surveys before implementing the extension and beneficiaries in the evaluation process.
program to gather data on the current Participatory evaluation methods, such
situation of farmers, their knowledge, as participatory impact assessment and
practices, and socio-economic conditions. outcome mapping, can help capture the
Baseline data will serve as a reference point perspectives and experiences of those
for evaluating changes and impact over directly impacted by the program.
time. 11. Long-term follow-up: Continue monitoring
3. Regular data collection and and evaluation beyond the program’s
documentation: Implement a systematic duration to assess the sustainability of
data collection process throughout the changes and impacts on farmers’ practices
program’s duration. Use a combination of and livelihoods.
quantitative and qualitative data collection 12. Share findings and lessons learned:
methods, such as surveys, interviews, focus Disseminate evaluation findings and lessons
group discussions, and observation. Ensure learned with stakeholders, the wider
proper documentation of all data and agricultural community, and policymakers.
information. Transparently sharing results can contribute
4. Use technology for data management: to evidence-based decision-making and
Utilize digital tools and platforms for data improve future extension programs.
management, storage, and analysis. This can In conclusion, agricultural extension and
include mobile data collection apps, cloud- rural advisory services continue to evolve,
based databases, and data visualization leveraging new technologies and approaches
software, which can streamline the process to address the ever-changing challenges faced
by farmers. By building on past learnings and a pivotal role in promoting sustainable and
embracing innovation, these services can play inclusive agricultural development in the future.
22589
28. Mobile and Sensor-Based

Technologies in Higher Education:
Innovative Methodology in Pedagogy
and Curriculum Development
RAKESH BHATTHAD1*, S. RAGUNATH 2 AND VIKAS CHOWHAN3
Ph.D. Scholars, Dept. of Agricultural Extension Education, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka (India), 584104
Effective learning requires a comprehensive Willingness

approach that involves appropriate curriculum, Capacity / capability
engaging pedagogy, continuous formative
While there is a widespread consensus
assessment, and adequate student support. The
about the competences students might acquire
curriculum must be interesting and relevant,
for coping with today’s challenging world, it is still
and updated regularly to align with the latest
an open space for debates and improvements
knowledge requirements and to meet specified
about the best ways schools and universities
learning outcomes. High-quality pedagogy is then
can approach in a more creative and innovative
necessary to successfully impart the curricular
way such development targets. Defining which
material to students; pedagogical practices
sets of innovative pedagogical approaches can
determine the learning experiences that are
efficiently guide teaching and transform learning
provided to students, thus directly influencing
is quite a challenging attempt.
learning outcomes. Along with providing suitable
resources and infrastructure, such as quality Considering innovation in correlation
libraries, classrooms, labs, technology, sports/ with existing educational practices, especially
recreation areas, student discussion spaces, in higher education contexts, some authors
and dining areas, a number of initiatives will be consider that any action or involvement for
required to ensure that learning environments enhancing learning can be considered a
are engaging and supportive, and enable all matter of innovation in teaching and learning.
students to succeed. “Innovation is a deliberate activity which tends
to introduce novelty into a given context, and it
Again, there are multiple factors influencing
is educational because it seeks to improve the
learning and students’ achievement, but high
learning of students in a situation of interaction
among them is the quality of the livid learning
and interactivity. In a university context,
experience, the authentic interaction of
educational innovations are often described as
teachers and learners. When we talk about
anything that does not fall under formal teaching,
innovative pedagogies, we refer to the explicit
a method still used by a very large majority of
call to imagination in designing, facilitating and
professors” (Béchard et Pelletier, 2001, p. 133).
debriefing learning processes. While keeping
a reasonable focus on knowledge, skills and The term “innovative pedagogies” is being
attitudes, innovative pedagogies are going used with increased frequency in relation to the
beyond by engaging strategies, methods and learning results (knowledge, skills, responsibility
tools that create a balanced and effective and autonomy or knowledge, skills, attitudes and
ecosystem for learning, and therefore ensuring values) that are needed for today’s students to
three basic conditions for learners: thrive and shape the world, create and contribute
to a better future, as well as how instructional
Readiness systems can effectively develop them. Many
of the so-called innovative pedagogies call for Some relevant innovative pedagogies
curricula where students take an active role in clusters are being referred to:
managing their learning; they are expected to
Blended learning: Rethinking the purpose
develop the habits of metacognition in terms of
of the classroom and classroom time
knowing what one knows and what one needs
to understand better. Gamification: Engagement through play
and the pedagogies of games
To understand the real nature of pedagogical
innovations, we must address the idea that such Computational thinking: Problem-solving
aspects cannot be seen as outcomes or products approach through logic
of some individuals, but rather as a process Experiential learning: Inquiry in a complex
in which innovative teachers engage. Seeing world
innovations as such, we can further analyse what Embodied learning: Capitalizing on
are the main factors contributing or constraining creativity and emotions
this innovative process. The research conducted
by Averill and Major (2020) shows that there are Multiliteracies and discussion-based
four main needs that, if satisfied, can provide an teaching: Fostering critical thinking and
adequate environment for nurturing innovative questioning
pedagogies among teachers and their teaching We must invoke the importance of these
practices: clusters, especially because they achieve, two
major things:
the need for competence;
1. they work as a matrix to group teaching
the need for autonomy;
approaches and identify general pedagogical
the need for relatedness; and approaches; and
wellbeing as an outcome. 2. they retain practice at a level so that it
Implementing innovative pedagogies translates learning principles into specific
requires not just a straight-line approach, but teaching practice to achieve the new
a combination of the cultural and national learning goals, without falling into ready-
uniqueness with general teaching pedagogy. made prescriptions.
Moreover, granting a more context-appropriate Even though a certain threshold of quality
facet to the innovation, we must make use of the teaching is not required for introducing innovative
teacher’s reflective interpretation. pedagogies in the educational activities,
For higher education (HE), the challenges experiencing with these innovations can bolster
ahead are great if we only consider those quality teaching. Early exposure to environments
related to the teaching dimension in relation and professional experiences with teaching
to professionalization and social responsibility innovation is considered as an important aspect
roles: reinforcement of the professional for the teaching staff, notably from the beginning
dimensions of training (transfer of learning), of their teaching career. Even so, exposure to
high level learning experiences for HE students, innovative environments and practices does not
use of technologies in education. At this point, alone assure quality teaching. As seen above,
it is highly necessary to create robust evidence there are more factors that influence the whole
related to innovative pedagogies at HE level process. Nonetheless, exposure to innovative
and how they can respond to the current pedagogies lays important foundations for
challenges, in order to develop, apply and scale quality teaching practices and enhances specific
best practices within study programmes. The capabilities and interests in this direction.
necessity of pedagogical innovation in HE is not The 2020 edition report from the Open
something that appeared in these challenging University, exploring new forms of teaching,
times. Aspects like the changing nature of the learning, and assessment for an interactive world,
student population and learning environments in order to guide teachers and policy makers in
forwarded the idea that traditional approaches productive innovation, proposes, under the title
to teaching may not be able to satisfy the “Innovating pedagogy”, a list of new educational
educational needs of today’s learners. It is concepts, terms, theories, and practices and
shown that one of the methods of ensuring HE pares them down to ten that have the potential
sustainability is by creating academic networks to provoke major shifts in educational practice
and, by their use, sharing and exchanging best (Kukulska-Hulme et al, 2020):
practices, adopting innovative methods of
teaching and pedagogies, inculcating skills and 1. Artificial intelligence in education:
attitudes among the students so that they can Preparing for life and learning in the age of AI
become global and responsible citizens. 2. post-humanist perspectives: Confronting
the relationship between humans and B) Methodology-Based Pedagogical

technology Innovation
3. Learning through open data: Using real-
Flipped / Reverse / Parallel learning and
world data for personally relevant learning
classroom
4. Engaging with data ethics: Ethical use of
Experiential learning design / design thinking
data in digital life and learning
/ universal design
5. Social justice pedagogy: Addressing
Game- / Play-based learning
injustices in lives and society
6. Esports: Learning and teaching through C) Skill-Based Pedagogical Innovation
competitive virtual gaming Cognitive skills: learning analytics, making
7. Learning from animations: Watching and thinking visible, computational thinking
interacting with short animations Non-cognitive development innovations:
8. Multisensory learning: Using several learning experiences addressing emotional
senses to enhance learning and social development, cultural awareness
9. Offline networked learning: Networked The way the learning spaces are used
learning beyond the Internet and configured is transformed by mobile
10. Online laboratories: Laboratory access and personal technology. It allows learning
for all by looking into the future and trying – including research, collaboration, creating,
to predict what will happen, we also shape writing, production, and presentation – to occur
that future. almost anywhere. And as nowadays students are
mobile digital citizens, every institution that has
The growing quantity of reports and a plan to grow needs to be ready to service them
literature on the topic of innovative pedagogies as best as possible his poster presentation aims
reflects the efforts of thousands of researchers to demonstrate an advanced version of clickers.
and practitioners at all levels, their numerous
successes and failures, but also, they are The present chapter aims to show the
persistent in finding “the way”. There are emergence of innovative methodologies for
multiple ways to achieve and be successful in pedagogy and curriculum development mainly
learning, changing and dynamic ways that make using technology enhanced digital technologies
pedagogy a difficult science, not producing in university / higher education as a way for the
recipes, but always providing reference frames, formation of digital literacy in the contemporary
milestones, and plenty of space for imagination. knowledge society. It also makes way for
analyzing the changes, which occur in university
As shown before, there are already some education creating prerequisites for mobile and
approaches or taxonomies for clustering sensor-based learning. Special attention paid to
innovative pedagogies where we had a classical distance learning, where teachers and learners
but productive approach, partially inspired use digital communication technologies and
by grounded theory principles. But, inspired interactive learning tools.
primarily by the collective practices and
reviewing the existing literature, there are three Reference
important clusters according to their specificity.
Averill, R. M., & Major, J. (2020). What motivates
A) Technology-Based Pedagogical Innovation higher education educators to innovate?
Online / digital: OER, platforms (MOOCs), Exploring competence, autonomy, and
blended learning, online laboratories, relatedness – and connections with wellbeing.
Educational Research, 62(2), 146-161.
artificial intelligence in education, Mobile-
assisted language learning (MALL), Digital Gilbert, A., Tait-McCutcheon, S., & Knewstubb, B.
Behavior Change Interventions (DBCIs) (2020). Innovative teaching in higher education:
Teachers’ perceptions of support and constraint.
Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality Innovations in Education and Teaching
(VR): Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), International.
Multisensory learning, Cloud Classroom Khairnar. C. M. (2015) Advance Pedagogy:
(CCR), Innovative Methods of Teaching and Learning.
Labs: FabLab, Makerspace, Science in International Journal of Information and
remote labs, Open labs, mobile assisted Education Technology, Vol. 5, No. 11, pp 869-872.
third spaces (MATS). Sahasradubhe, S., Shaikh, N., & Kasat, K. (2020).
Internationalization of higher education –
Necessity to adapt to new forms of engagement
for ensuring sustainability. Journal of Statistics
and Management Systems, 23(2), 431- 444.
22590
29. Significance of Ethics in Research

VIKAS CHOWHAN1*, RAKESH BHATTHAD 2 AND S. RAGUNATH 3
Ph.D. Scholars, Department of Agricultural Extension Education, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Raichur- 584104, Karnataka, INDIA
Research Ethics Benefits of Observing Ethics in Research

Ethics are the principles and guidelines that Studies
help us to uphold the things we value. Ethics 1. It helps in promoting the aims of research,
and law are different aspects, although laws of such as bringing out the truth and avoidance
the land are intended to be based on certain of errors.
ethics. Almost all societies have legal rules to 2. It promotes the values that are essential
govern certain behaviour in a country or society, to collaborative work, such as trust,
but ethical norms tend to be broader and more accountability, mutual respect and fairness.
informal than laws. An action may be legal but
unethical or illegal but ethical. Ethics aim to 3. It holds the researcher accountable to the
achieve two fundamental objectives, i.e., to tell public and society.
us how we ought to act in a given situation and 4. It helps in building public support for
to provide us with strong reasons for doing so. research, which in return can help in getting
participants who take part in the research
Main Approaches to Research Ethics willingly.
The following are the three major approaches to Some Desirable Elements to Ensure Ethics in
ethics: Research
1. Deontological approach: We should identify The following is a general summary of some
and use a universal code in making ethical research ethical guidelines and principals that
decisions. This is an absolutist approach. various codes address.
2. Ethical skepticism approach: It states that 1. Honesty in reporting data, results, methods
ethical standards are not universal but are and procedures and publication status.
relative to one’s own particular culture and
time. This is based on relativism. 2. Objectivity to avoid bias in experimental
design, data analysis, interpretation and
3. Utilitarianism approach: Decisions regarding peer review.
ethics in research should be based on an
examination and comparison of the costs 3. Integrity, acting with sincerity, striving for
and benefits that may arise from a study. If consistency of thought and action.
the expected benefits exceed the expected 4. Carefulness to avoid careless errors and
risks, the study is presumed to be ethical. negligence and proper documentation of all
The risk-benefit precaution is a modern aspects.
version of the end justifying the means. It 5. Openness in sharing data, results, ideas,
has its most direct application when those tools, resources and openness to criticisms
exposed to the risks also receive the benefits. and new ideas.
The ratio is more difficult to justify when the
6. Respect for intellectual property rights, such
participants are subjected to potential harm
as patents, copyrights and other forms of
and when the benefits are directed to other
intellectual property.
individuals or to the society to be absolute in
their requirements. 7. Confidentiality in context of communications,
personal records and privacy issues.
8. Responsible publication with an aim to
serve the society. Avoiding wasteful and subject or the subject’s environment that are
duplicative publication. performed for research purposes;
9. Responsible mentoring in terms of guiding Private information: data on subject’s
research students. psychological character, demographic and
10. Respect for colleagues translates to personally identifiable information (e.g.,
extending fair treatment to the colleagues. name, address, email, telephone number)
11. Social responsibility means to serve the Tools Used for Human Subject Protection
society and different stakeholders. 1. Informed consent of participants
12. Non-discrimination against colleagues a) The investigator must obtain the
or students on the basis of sex, race or informed consent of the prospective
factors that are not related to their scientific participant prior to data collection;
competence and integrity.
b) Informed consent protects the
13. Enhancing competence for own professional individual’s freedom of choice and
advancement or lifelong learning and taking it shows respect for the individual’s
steps to promote competence in science as autonomy and is given voluntarily to
a whole. participate or not in research;
14. Ensuring legality of the whole process by c) The respondent should be briefed
obeying relevant laws, i.e., institutional and about the research through a document
governmental policies. called ‘Informed Consent Form with
15. Animal care through proper experimental Participant/Patient Information Sheet’
designs. 2. Compensation for participants: Participants
are compensated for their time through:
a) cash payment
b) gifts
c) a chance to participate in a lucky draw,
etc.
Important Measures to Make Research More
Ethical
1. Informed consent: The provision of
informed consent also includes the
knowledge that the informed participation is
voluntary and that participants can withdraw
from the study at any time.
2. Protective research design: This involves
estimating the probability of happening of
Human Subjects Research harmful effects, their severity and the likely
duration of these effects.
A systematic, scientific investigation designed
to develop or contribute to generalizable 3. Screening: It is an attempt to select only
knowledge by involving human beings as those individuals for study who show a high
research subjects. The researcher obtains data tolerance for potential risks.
through intervention or interaction with the 4. Pilot studies: When the potential harms are
individual or any identifiable information (IRB, uncertain, a useful precaution involves a pilot
2017). study with follow-up diagnostic interviews to
assess the effects and request advice from
Direct interaction: by collecting data the participants.
through personal interviews, administering
psychological tests, collecting blood/saliva 5. Outside proposal review: Requesting
samples, etc.; others to review research proposals is a
helpful precaution in minimizing risks.
Indirect interaction: analysing secondary
data obtained through other researches 6. Professional codes: Two features of
involving human beings as subjects; professional codes are important for
discussion. Firstly, professional codes have
Intervention: includes both physical been developed inductively from the wide
procedures for data gathering (EEG research experiences of professionals.
recordings, etc.) and manipulations of the Secondly, professional codes place strong
emphasis on researchers’ responsibility for References
their research.
AESA (2014.) (Available at: http://www.aesagfras.
7. Government regulations: Government net/Resources/file/Where%20we%20can%20
regulations such as state and central laws publish%20extension%20research%20-%20
are designed to protect or advance the Final%20Note.pdf)
interests of society and its individuals. Thus, Institute Review Board. (2017), Non-human subject
the researchers are required to take certain research. Salt Lake City, Utah: The University
precautions. of Utah. (Retrieved from: http://irb.utah.edu/
guidelines/human-subject-research.php).
Conclusion KVS Madaan, KVS. (2019). “NTA UGC NET/SET/
Ethics always emerge from conflict between JRF Paper 1 Teaching and Research Aptitude”
values, and research ethics are not an exception. Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd. Noida
In research, these conflicts may take different -201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
forms, such as participant’s concern for privacy Serrat, Olivier. (2008), Identifying and sharing
versus some justification for manipulation, good practices. Knowledge Solutions, ADB.
openness and replication versus confidentiality, (Available at: https://www.adb.org/sites/default/
present loss versus future benefits and so on. files/publication/27598/identifying-sharinggood-
Each decision made in research involves a practices.pdf)
potential compromise of one value for another. Sivakumar PS, Sontakki BS, Sulaiman RV, Saravanan
However, still researchers must try to minimize R, and Mittal N. “Manual on Good Practices in
the risk to participants, colleagues and society Extension Research and Evaluation.” Agriculture
Extension in South Asia (AESA). Hyderabad,
while trying to optimize the quality of outcome.
India (2017).
Research ethics help us to reconcile value
conflicts.
M IC R OB IOLOGY
22601
30. Microbial Biosurfactants:

An Ecofriendly Compound
1
ARATI, 1LOHITH KUMAR, N AND 2KAVYA, B. S.
1
Ph.D. Scholar Dept. of Agricultural Microbiology UAS, GKVK Bangalore
2
Ph.D. Scholar Dept. of Plant Pathology UAS, GKVK Bangalore
Surfactants are amphipathic compounds with achieved through microbial production, known
both hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties that as biosurfactants (Sharma et al., 2021).
preferentially partition between liquid interfaces Biosurfactants are composed of
with different degrees of polarity and hydrogen amphipathic molecules that have both
bridges. It increases the solubility of hydrophobic hydrophilic and hydrophobic constituents (Fig
molecules, thereby reducing surface and 1), the hydrophobic moiety has long-chain
interfacial tension. The most commonly used fatty acids and the hydrophilic moiety can be
surfactants are of chemical origin, but their a carbohydrate, cyclic peptide, amino acid,
toxic nature, low degradation rate, and high phosphate carboxyl acid or alcohol. Irrespective
persistence power limit their frequent use in the of their chemical counterparts, biosurfactants
food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. are generally classified based on molecular
In recent years, such problems have motivated weight (low or high). The low molecular weight
the scientific community to seek surfactants that of microbial and synthesized biosurfactants offer
are more environmental friendly, such as those excellent capability for reducing surface tension,
Microbiology 71 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

however, high molecular weight is associated of biosurfactants are considered the surfactant
with the ability to make a stable emulsion. of the next generation and are frequently utilized
Numerous microbial strains of bacteria, fungi in various industries worldwide. Considering the
and yeasts have been reported for the efficient environmental and health safety, biosurfactants
production of biosurfactants (Santos et al., 2016). or biosurfactants producing microorganisms
are being encouraged for use in enhancing crop
yield without any harmful side effects.
References
Araujo, H. W. Rade, R. F., Montero-Rodriguez,
D., Rubio-Ribeaux, D., Alves, D. A., Silva, C. A.
and Campos-Takaki, G. M., 2019, Sustainable
biosurfactant produced by Serratia marcescens
FIG 1: Amphipathic structue of surfactant containing UCP 1549 and its suitability for agricultural and
hydrophillic and hydrophobic moeities marine bioremediation applications. Microb. Cell
Factories, 18(1): 1-13.
In recent past, biosurfactants have been Fenibo, E. O., Ijoma, G. N., Selvarajan, R. and
deployed in sustainable agricultural practices Chikere, C. B., 2019b, Microbial surfactants: the
to improve soil quality by degrading toxic next generation multifunctional biomolecules
and hazardous contaminants or making trace for applications in the petroleum industry and
elements available in the soil. As water relations its associated environmental remediation.
are very important in the phyllosphere ecology, Microorganisms, 7(11): 581.
surfactants from microbial origin can enhance Gayathiri, E., Prakash, P., Karmegam, N., Varjani,
the contact between water and leaf surfaces. S., Awasthi, M. K. and Ravindran, B., 2022,
These surfactants increase the wettability of Biosurfactants: potential and eco-friendly
the leaf to enhance diffusion of nutrients across material for sustainable agriculture and
the waxy cuticle (Pacwa-plociniczak et al., environmental safety-a review. Agron., 12(3):
2011) suppression of pesticide toxicants and 662.
uniform dispersion of fertilizers in the soil by the Jimoh, A. A. and Lin, J., 2019, Biosurfactant:
process of hydrophilization. The availability of a new frontier for greener technology and
micronutrients that are often present naturally environmental sustainability. Ecotoxicol. Environ.
or in wastes can be increased by biosurfactant; Saf., 30(184): 109607.
additionally, it boosts the plant immune system, Kumar, A., Singh, S. K., Kant, C., Verma, H., Kumar,
facilitates biocontrol mechanisms such as D., Singh, P. P., Modi, A., Droby, S., Kesawat, M.
parasitism, antibiosis and competition thereby S., Alavilli, H. and Bhatia, S. K., 2021, Microbial
eliminating phytopathogens and promotes biosurfactant: a new frontier for sustainable
seed germination (Gayathiri et al., 2022). In agriculture and pharmaceutical industries.
addition, the application of biosurfactants also Antioxidants, 10(9): 1472-1497.
influences the native microflora of the plants or Pacwa-Plociniczak, M., Płaza, G. A., Piotrowska-
soil. In pharmaceutical industries, biosurfactant Seget, Z. and Cameotra, S. S., 2011, Environmental
molecule is broadly used as antioxidants applications of biosurfactants: recent advances.
and anticancer agents (Kumar et al., 2021). Int. J. Mol. Sci., 12(1): 633-654.
Biosurfactants are involved in the successful Santos, D. K. F., Rufino, R. D., Luna, J. M., Santos,
removal of biohazardous chemicals by increasing V. A. and Sarubbo, L. A., 2016, Biosurfactants:
the bioavailability of pollutants to microbial cells multifunctional biomolecules of the 21st century.
from soil particulates and sediments (Araujo et Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17 (3): 401- 431.
al., 2019). BS reduces surface and interfacial Sarubbo, L. A., Rocha, R. B. J. R., Luna, J. M.,
tension that leads to more dispersion of Rufno, R. D., Santos, V. and Banat, I. M., 2015,
pollutant resulting in higher emulsification and Some aspects of heavy metals contamination
elimination of pollutants from soil (Sarubbo et remediation and role of biosurfactants. Chem.
al., 2015) which make soil free of contamination Ecol., 31(8): 707-723.
and appropriate for growing crop (Fenibo et al., Sharma, J., Sundar, D. and Srivastava, P., 2021,
2019b; Jimoh and Lin, 2019). Biosurfactants: potential agents for controlling
cellular communication, motility, and
These biosurfactant have many advantages
antagonism. Front. Mol. Biosci., 8: 893-906.
like they are less toxic, biodegradable,
environmental friendly and have a better
foaming ability and higher selectivity compare
to their chemically synthesized counterparts.
These eco-friendly and multifunctional attributes
72 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Microbiology

22607
31. Stress Signalling in Cyanobacteria

1
LOHITH KUMAR, N 1ARATI AND 2KAVYA, B. S.
1
Ph.D. Scholar Dept. of Agricultural Microbiology UAS, GKVK Bangalore
2
Ph.D. Scholar Dept. of Plant Pathology UAS, GKVK Bangalore
The domain of bacteria includes an ancient, In addition to their remarkably long persistence
monophyletic phylum of organisms called as free-living organisms, cyanobacteria also
cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic form symbiotic associations with more complex
prokaryotes that capture sunlight for energy biota; for example, the nitrogen-fixing species
using chlorophyll a and various accessory Anabaen azollae forms a symbiotic association
pigments (Fig 1). They are common in lakes, with the floating fern Azolla, which is widely
ponds, springs, wetlands, streams and rivers and distributed in ponds and flooded soils (Whitton
they play a major role in the nitrogen, carbon and and Potts, 2012).
oxygen dynamics of many aquatic environments.
FIG 1: Some common filamentous blue green algae

From their early emergence up to the The general features of the plasma and thylakoid
present day, cyanobacteria have succeeded in membranes of cyanobacterial cells are similar
colonizing a wide range of aquatic to terrestrial to those of the chloroplasts of higher plants in
ecological niches. This impressively wide terms of lipid composition and the assembly of
pattern of distribution is due to their ability to membranes. Therefore, cyanobacteria can be
cope with many kinds of starvation and stress expected to serve as powerful model systems
such as nutrient deprivation, light, temperature for studying the molecular mechanisms of the
fluctuations, oxidative and osmotic stresses. In responses and acclimation to stress, also these
response to environmental changes of various mechanisms may provide models that are
kinds, the ability to trigger and coordinate suitable applicable to higher plants as well (Los et al.,
adaptive mechanisms depends on the ability 2010).
of these bacteria to rapidly sense the physical Salt stress, which is the most common
stimuli present and to appropriately transduce abiotic stress in nature, combines ionic and
the signals perceived into gene expression osmotic stresses. High cellular ion concentrations
modulation processes (Rachedi et al., 2020) and osmotic stress can alter normal metabolic
The unicellular cyanobacteria have several processes and photosynthesis. Additionally,
features that make them particularly suitable for salt stress increases the intracellular reactive
studies of stress responses at the molecular level. oxygen species (ROS). Excessive amounts of
Microbiology 73 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

ROS will damage the photosynthetic apparatus, of these microorganisms even under the
inhibit the synthesis of photosystem-related unfavorable conditions that frequently occur
proteins and destroy the thylakoid membrane during large-scale production processes.
structure, leading to inhibited photosynthesis
(Yang et al., 2020). Irradiances far above the light Reference
saturation level of the photosynthetic machinery
Los, D. A., Zorina, A., Sinetova, M., Kryazhov, S.,
are harmful, as they induce photo inhibition
Mironov, K. and Zinchenko, V. V., 2010, Stress
and photo destruction of the photosystems. sensors and signal transducers in cyanobacteria.
Among the multiple environmental stresses that J. Sens., 10(3): 2386-2415.
Cyanobacteria encounter, nutrient depletion is
Rachedi, R., Foglino, M. and Latifi, A., 2020, Stress
often a limiting growth factor for their growth.
Signaling in Cyanobacteria: A Mechanistic
Given the ecological role of Cyanobacteria, Overview. Life, 10(12): 312.
their wide pattern of distribution and their Whitton, B. A. and Potts, M., 2012, Introduction to
versatile metabolism, data on the stress responses the cyanobacteria. Ecology of Cyanobacteria II,
at work in these bacteria are relevant to many Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 1-13.
fields, including industrial biotechnological Yang, W., Wang, F., Liu, L. N. and Sui, N., 2020,
applications. A thorough knowledge of the Responses of membranes and the photosynthetic
regulatory networks mediating stress responses apparatus to salt stress in cyanobacteria. Front.
is a prerequisite for circumventing inhibitory Plant Sci., 11(713): 1-10.
mechanisms in order to maintain the growth
A GR IC U LT U RAL EDUCAT ION
22565
32. Bio-Agriculture
DR. K. SELVARANI
Assistant Professor, Kalasalingam School of Agriculture and Horticulture
What is Bio-Agriculture? use in India is at 0.30 kg/ha. India’s total irrigated

land area of around 70 M ha uses 85% of all
The term organic farming was defined by Codex water withdraw in India. In addition to excessive
Alimentarius Commission (1999) as “Organic withdrawal and lower rate of renewability, water
farming as holistic food production management pollution are the major environmental issues
system, which promotes and enhances agro- in India. In-field burning of crop residues and
ecosystem health, including biodiversity, use of traditional fuel sources for household
biological cycles and soil biological activity. Bio- uses has polluted air quality in rural and urban
farming emphasizes the use of management areas. Above all, soil degradation a major
practices in preference to the use of off-farm input problem on all agroecosystems, is caused
staking into account that regional conditions through accelerated erosion by water and wind,
require locally adapted systems (Kumar et waterlogging, salinity/alkalinity, soil acidity, brick
al., 2017). The other term used for bio farming making because of rapid urbanization, depletion
is Organic Farming, Natural Farming, Green of soil organic matter content, deficiency of
Farming, Eco-Friendly Agriculture, Eco Farming, micronutrients, conversion to non-agricultural
Biological Agriculture, Biodynamic Farming and uses, and other complex problems. In short,
bio-agriculture. agriculture has a large environmental footprint
(Rattan Lal 2023). In this context that India needs
Why Bio-Agriculture? a well-defined bio-agriculture road map as a
India’s food grain production has reached all new growth engine of its progressive agricultural
time high level of 328 million ton (Mt) in 2023. industry.
But fertilizer use in India increased from 0.5 kg/
Table 1. Proposed Road Map for India to Produce More from
ha in 1950 to 160 kg/ha in 2020, and pesticide
74 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Agricultural Education

Less population build-up with minimal harmful
impact on the environment. The shift from
Year the practice of non-judicious use of chemical
Parameter
2017 2030 2050 2100 pesticides to biocontrol agent’s essentiality
Irrigated Area M 70(200) 70(150) 82(100) 100(75) requires active search for potential bioagents,
ha, (km3) method for their multiplication and assessment
Fertilizer Use 30 25 20 15 of their effectiveness for large scale use.
(M t) Biostimulants are organic materials that can
In-Field Burning 100 0 0 0 be used for most of the crop lifecycle to increase
of Residues (Mt) crop yield, improve the efficiency of water
Pesticide Use 56 30 20 10 usage and uptake of nutrients, and enhance
(103 t) crop quality. Biostimulants are differentiated
Cereal Grain 2.1 2.7 2.8 4.0 from fertilizers as these are needed in minute
Yield (t/ha) quantities; while fertilizers are applied in larger
Post-Harvest 34 10 5 5 dose rates and quantities. The new regulation
Losses (%) also introduces eight categories: such as
Organic Manure 200 300 400 500 botanical extracts, including seaweed extracts,
(M t/yr) biochemicals, protein hydrolysates and amino
Source: Agriculture Today, May, 2023. acids, vitamins, cell free microbial products,
antioxidants, anti-transpirants, humic and fulvic
Bio-Agriculture -How can be Practiced? acid and their derivatives. India has proven to
be a pioneer country in developing biostimulant
Use of biofertilizers for nutrient management regulation in an agile manner with well-
is an integral component of bio agriculture. defined criteria/definition, data requirement/
Biofertilizers contain different plant associated guidelines, and enforcement measures. Many
microorganisms that enhance plant growth other countries are still in the midway stage to
and improve yield and quality of the produce develop biostimulant regulations. The Indian
through supply of adequate nutrients. Bacteria, biostimulant market is projected to witness a
fungi and cyanobacteria (blue green algae) are CAGR of 16.49% during the forecasted period to
considered as the potential candidates to be reach a total market size of US $180.95 million by
used as biofertilizers (Suresh, 2023). Biofertilizers 2023, increasing from US $71.23 million in 2017
help to fix nitrogen in the soil and solubilize (Suresh. 2023).
and mobilize phosphate, potash zinc from the
soil. Indian Council of Agricultural Research Conclusion
recognized the importance of Biofertilizers
and started All Indian Network Project on Soil Practicing agriculture using natural materials
Biodiversity-Biofertilizers and have developed becoming an integral part of modern sustainable
many biofertilizers for different cereals, pulses, agricultural practices. There is a global demand
oilseeds and horticultural crops. In 2014, the for safer crop production and crop protection
Government of India initiated National Mission technologies to ensure global food safety and
on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) where use of security. Hence, the efforts to be taken for
biofertilizers is being promoted to improve soil high performance bio-agricultural products
health. development and special attention has also to
Biopesticides Just as biofertilizers are be given for livestock management.
emerging as green alternative to chemical
fertilizers, biopesticides have a huge role to play References
in sustainable management of crop pests and Codex Alimentarius Commission (1999). http://
pathogens. In contrast to chemical pesticides, www.fao.org/organicag/oa-faq/oafaq1/en/
application of ecofriendly biopesticides does Kumar S., Mala, K., Meena, L.R., Kochewad, S.K.,
not lead to development of any resistance Meena, L.K. and Singh, S.P. (2017). Bio-Farming:
in pest and pathogens. Still this sustainable A holistic approach for Social Upliftment and
alternative is struggling to find its place in the Better Health. South Asian J. Food Technol.
market over its chemical counterpart owing to Environ., 3(1):521-525.
technological challenges. In spite of these efforts Rattan Lal.2023. Bio-Agriculture Opportunities and
the biopesticides represent only 4.2% of the Challenges in its Operationalization. Agriculture
overall pesticide market in India compared to Today, XXVI(5); pp:07-10
40% in USA and 20% each in Europe and Oceanic Suresh K. Malhotra.2023. Bio-Agriculture Paramount
countries. for Sustainability. Agriculture Today, XXVI(5);
Biocontrol Agents keep a check on pest pp:12-13
Agricultural Education 75 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

F O O D S A N D NUT R IT ION
22594
33. Nutraceuticals and Its Role

1
SMT. K. SUDHA RANI, 2K. MADHAVI, 3B K KISHORE REDDY, 4G.
SASIKALA AND 5B. CHANDANA
1
SMS (Home Science), 2SMS (Animal Husbandry), 3SMS (Plant Protection), 4SMS (Crop
Production), 5SMS (Ag. Extension)
Nutraceuticals are a category of products vegetable oils. Vitamin E protects cell

that combine elements of nutrition and membranes from oxidative damage and
pharmaceuticals. These are dietary supplements helps maintain the integrity of lipids.
or functional foods that are believed to have c) Beta-carotene (provitamin A): Beta-
potential health benefits beyond their basic carotene is a pigment found in colorful
nutritional value. Nutraceuticals are formulated fruits and vegetables, such as carrots,
to provide specific physiological or medicinal sweet potatoes, and spinach. The
effects, and they are often derived from natural body can convert beta-carotene into
sources such as plants, herbs, or marine vitamin A, which acts as an antioxidant,
organisms. supporting vision, immune function,
The term “nutraceutical” is a combination of and skin health.
“nutrition” and “pharmaceutical.” The concept d) Selenium: Selenium is a trace mineral
emerged in the late 1980s, and the industry has found in certain nuts, seeds, and
since grown significantly, driven by increasing seafood. It is a component of several
interest in health and wellness. antioxidant enzymes, including
glutathione peroxidase, which helps
Nutraceuticals Include protect cells from oxidative damage.
1. Vitamins and minerals: Vitamins and e) Zinc: Zinc is an essential mineral involved
minerals play essential roles in the body’s in various cellular processes, including
antioxidant defense system. Antioxidants antioxidant defense mechanisms. It is a
are compounds that help neutralize harmful component of the enzyme superoxide
molecules called free radicals, which are dismutase (SOD), which helps convert
produced during normal cellular processes superoxide radicals into less harmful
and can cause oxidative damage to cells. molecules.
This oxidative damage has been linked to f) Copper: Copper is another trace mineral
various diseases, including cancer, heart that plays a role in antioxidant activity. It
disease, and aging-related conditions. is a cofactor for the antioxidant enzyme
Here are some vitamins and minerals that superoxide dismutase (SOD).
act as antioxidants: g) Manganese: Manganese is a trace
a) Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): Vitamin C mineral that also acts as a cofactor for
is a water-soluble vitamin found in fruits antioxidant enzymes, including SOD.
and vegetables. It is a potent antioxidant
h) Vitamin A: Apart from beta-carotene,
that can neutralize free radicals and
vitamin A itself is an antioxidant and
regenerate other antioxidants, such as
plays a crucial role in maintaining
vitamin E. Vitamin C also helps support
healthy vision, immune function, and
the immune system and collagen
skin integrity.
synthesis.
i) Vitamin D: Emerging research suggests
b) Vitamin E: Vitamin E refers to a group
that vitamin D may have antioxidant
of fat-soluble compounds known as
properties and can modulate the body’s
tocopherols and tocotrienols. It is
antioxidant defense systems.
primarily found in nuts, seeds, and
76 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Foods and Nutrition

It’s important to note that while these c) Sauerkraut: Fermented cabbage that
vitamins and minerals are crucial for is rich in Lactobacillus bacteria. Make
maintaining antioxidant balance in the sure you choose the unpasteurized,
body, consuming them in excess through refrigerated versions for live probiotics.
supplements is not recommended unless d) Kimchi: A traditional Korean dish made
prescribed by a healthcare professional. A from fermented vegetables, primarily
well-balanced diet that includes a variety cabbage and radishes, which contains
of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and whole various strains of probiotics.
grains can provide sufficient amounts of
these antioxidants for most individuals. e) Miso: A traditional Japanese seasoning
made from fermented soybeans, barley,
2. Herbal supplements: Extracts from plants or rice, often used to make miso soup.
or herbs that are believed to have therapeutic
properties, f) Tempeh: A fermented soybean product
that provides probiotics along with a
Herbal supplements are products made from good source of plant-based protein.
plants or plant extracts that are intended
to supplement a person’s diet and provide g) Kombucha: A fermented tea beverage
various health benefits. These supplements made with a SCOBY (Symbiotic Culture
are often taken in the form of capsules, of Bacteria and Yeast) that contains
tablets, powders, tinctures, or teas. They probiotics.
have been used for centuries in traditional h) Pickles: Properly fermented pickles, not
medicine systems around the world, the vinegar-based types, can be a good
including Traditional Chinese Medicine source of probiotics.
(TCM), Ayurveda, and Native American i) Fermented cheeses: Certain types
herbal practices. of cheeses, like Gouda, cheddar, and
Some common herbal supplements and Swiss, contain live cultures due to the
their purported uses include: such as fermentation process.
echinacea for immune support or ginkgo j) Traditional buttermilk: The fermented
biloba for cognitive function, Ginseng: liquid left after churning butter contains
Believed to boost energy levels, enhance probiotics.
mental clarity, and support overall well- When choosing probiotic foods, it’s
being, Turmeric/Curcumin: Known for its essential to check the label for the presence
anti-inflammatory properties and may be of live and active cultures. Additionally,
beneficial for conditions such as arthritis. incorporating a variety of probiotic-rich foods
Garlic, believed to have various health into our diet can help diversify the strains of
benefits, including supporting heart health beneficial bacteria, leading to a healthier gut
and immune function. microbiome.
3. Probiotics: Live bacteria and yeasts that are 4. Omega-3 fatty acids: Fatty acids found in
beneficial for gut health and digestion. fish oil or algae, known for their potential
Probiotic foods are foods that contain live cardiovascular benefits.
beneficial bacteria and/or yeasts, which can Omega-3 fatty acids are a type of
have positive effects on our gut health when polyunsaturated fat that are considered
consumed in adequate amounts. These essential for human health. “Essential”
beneficial microorganisms help maintain means that the body cannot produce these
a healthy balance of gut bacteria, which is fatty acids on its own, so they must be
crucial for proper digestion and overall well- obtained from the diet. There are three main
being. Probiotics are believed to support a types of omega-3 fatty acids:
robust immune system, improve nutrient
a) Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA): This is a
absorption, and may have other potential
plant-based omega-3 fatty acid found in
health benefits.
certain seeds, nuts, and vegetable oils.
Common Examples of Probiotic Foods The human body can partially convert
a) Yogurt: One of the most well-known ALA into the other two types of omega-3
probiotic foods, yogurt contains fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
strains of beneficial bacteria such as and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA),
Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. but this conversion is limited, and the
efficiency varies from person to person.
b) Kefir: Similar to yogurt, kefir is a
fermented milk drink that contains a b) Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA): Found
variety of probiotic strains. primarily in fish and seafood, EPA is
Foods and Nutrition 77 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

a long-chain omega-3 fatty acid with c) Garlic: Garlic not only adds flavor
various health benefits. to dishes but also provides prebiotic
c) Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): Like benefits.
EPA, DHA is found in fish and seafood. d) Onions: Onions, particularly raw ones,
It is especially important for brain are rich in prebiotics.
development and function, particularly e) Asparagus: Asparagus is a delicious
during pregnancy and early childhood. source of prebiotic fiber.
Omega-3 fatty acids play a crucial role f) Bananas: Ripe bananas contain
in maintaining overall health and are resistant starch, a type of prebiotic fiber.
associated with several benefits, including:
g) Oats: Oats are a nutritious grain
a) Heart health: Omega-3s have been
that contains beta-glucans, a type of
shown to reduce triglycerides, lower
prebiotic fiber.
blood pressure, and decrease the risk of
heart disease by reducing inflammation h) Apples: Apples are a good source of
and improving blood vessel function. pectin, which has prebiotic properties.
b) Brain health: DHA is a major i) Flaxseeds: Flaxseeds are not only rich
component of the brain, and omega-3s in omega-3 fatty acids but also provide
have been linked to improved cognitive prebiotic benefits.
function, memory, and a reduced risk of j) Barley: Barley contains beta-glucans,
age-related cognitive decline. similar to oats, making it a prebiotic-rich
c) Inflammation: Omega-3s have anti- grain.
inflammatory properties, which can k) Cocoa: Yes, chocolate lovers rejoice!
help in conditions where inflammation Cocoa is a surprising source of
plays a role, such as rheumatoid arthritis prebiotics.
and inflammatory bowel diseases. Including these prebiotic foods in your diet
d) Eye health: DHA is essential for can help support a healthy gut microbiome,
maintaining eye health, and an adequate which, in turn, may have positive effects on
intake of omega-3s may reduce the risk your digestion, immune system, and overall
of age-related macular degeneration. health. When combined with probiotic-rich
e) Mood and mental health: Some studies foods, prebiotics can create a beneficial
suggest that omega-3s may have a symbiotic relationship for your gut health.
positive impact on mood disorders such 6. Antioxidants: Substances like vitamins C
as depression and anxiety. and E, and compounds found in certain
Good dietary sources of omega-3 fatty fruits and vegetables, which are thought to
acids include fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, protect the body against oxidative stress and
sardines), flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, cellular damage.
and certain algae-based supplements. Antioxidants are compounds that protect
5. Prebiotics: cells from damage caused by harmful
molecules known as free radicals. Free
Prebiotic foods are types of dietary fibers that
radicals are unstable molecules that have
promote the growth and activity of beneficial
an unpaired electron in their outer shell,
bacteria in the gut. These beneficial bacteria,
making them highly reactive and capable
often referred to as probiotics, play a crucial
of damaging cells and tissues in the body.
role in maintaining a healthy digestive
They are produced naturally during various
system and overall well-being. Prebiotics
metabolic processes, but their levels can
serve as nourishment for these probiotics,
increase due to factors like exposure to
allowing them to thrive and carry out their
environmental pollutants, cigarette smoke,
functions more effectively.
certain drugs, and radiation.
Common prebiotic foods include: Free radical damage is associated with
a) Chicory Root: Chicory root is a popular various health issues, including aging,
source of prebiotics and is often used cancer, heart disease, and other chronic
as an additive in certain foods and diseases. Antioxidants neutralize free
beverages. radicals by donating one of their own
b) Jerusalem Artichoke: Also known electrons, thereby stabilizing the molecule
as sunchokes, Jerusalem artichokes and preventing further damage. They play
contain inulin, a well-known prebiotic a crucial role in maintaining cellular health
fiber. and supporting the body’s defense against
78 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Foods and Nutrition

oxidative stress. e) Flavonoids: These are plant-based
Common antioxidants include: antioxidants found in various fruits,
vegetables, and beverages like tea and
a) Vitamin C: Found in fruits and vegetables, red wine.
such as oranges, strawberries, kiwi, and
broccoli. f) Lycopene: Found in tomatoes and other
red or pink fruits and vegetables.
b) Vitamin E: Present in nuts, seeds, The use of nutraceuticals is often considered
vegetable oils, and leafy greens. a complementary approach to conventional
c) Beta-carotene: A precursor to vitamin medicine, and people use them to support
A found in brightly colored fruits and various health conditions or improve overall
vegetables like carrots, sweet potatoes, well-being. It’s essential to note that while some
and spinach. nutraceuticals have shown promising results in
d) Selenium: A mineral found in Brazil scientific studies.
nuts, fish, and poultry.
A N IM A L NUT R IT ION
22577
34. Growing More with Less: The

Hydroponics Fodder Revolution
KURLI MADHAVI
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Reddipalle, Bikkrayasamudram, Ananthapur, A.P. 515701
In India livestock contributes about 12% of total The benefits of hydroponic fodder are
agricultural household income which plays numerous. Not only does it provide a consistent
critical role in lives of particularly small, marginal source of fresh, healthy feed for animals, but
and landless farmers. In dairy sector/unit green it also reduces water usage by up to 90%,
fodder is one of the most important inputs compared to traditional methods of growing
required for provision of nutrients/minerals fodder. Additionally, hydroponic fodder can
which contributes the quality of milk production improve animal health and productivity, as it is
and maintenance of health of dairy animals. packed with essential vitamins and minerals.
As the world population continues to grow, the
demand for sustainable and efficient farming Hydrophonic Fodder
practices has never been greater. Hydroponic
fodder is a revolutionary method of growing Hydroponic fodder is fresh grass sprouting
nutritious animal feed using minimal resources. that is grown from cereal grains like barley
By growing fodder hydroponically, farmers in a hydroponic fodder system and it’s used
can reduce water usage by up to 90% while as livestock feed. High-quality cereal grains
increasing yield and improving animal health are put in sterilized trays without soil in a
temperature and humidity controlled hydroponic
What is Hydroponic Fodder? environment. They are sprayed with nutrient-
rich water solution at certain intervals and they
Hydroponic fodder is a method of growing are ready within 6-7 days.
nutritious feed for livestock using water, without Although concept is popularly practiced
soil. This process involves germinating seeds when growing veggies, fruits, and flowers, there
in trays or containers, and then watering them is a rising trend of growing animal feed-stock
regularly until they grow into dense, green mats via hydroponics technology popularly known
of sprouts. as hydroponic fodder. Hydroponics technology
Animal Nutrition 79 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

(growing of plants in inert media without soil) of livestock pasture and this has contributed to
has revolutionized conventional farming and the high prices of livestock manufactured feeds,
many farmers today are using it as an alternative concentrates, grains, and hay. Hydroponics
mean to get more output with less resources. fodder provides a cheaper alternative where
As a result of climate change, many farmers farmers can grow healthy and nutritious cereal
around the globe are now experiencing shortage sprouts within 7 days and feed their livestock.
The Benefits of Hydroponic Fodder operations and are relatively easy to set up and
maintain. Vertical systems are perfect for those
Hydroponic fodder is a highly efficient method of with limited space as they can be stacked in a
growing nutrient-rich feed for livestock. By using small area. Aeroponic systems are the most
hydroponic systems, farmers can increase their advanced and efficient option, but also the most
yield of fodder while reducing water usage by expensive.
up to 90%. This is because hydroponic systems
recycle water, making them more sustainable Hydroponic Fodder Vs. Traditional Fodder
and cost-effective than traditional farming
methods. Traditional fodder has been used for centuries
In addition to being more environmentally as a means of feeding livestock. It involves
friendly, hydroponic fodder also has numerous growing crops such as hay or alfalfa in soil and
benefits for animal health. The high nutrient then harvesting them for animal consumption.
content of hydroponic fodder can improve the However, this process can be time-consuming
overall health and well-being of livestock, leading and requires a large amount of land and water.
to more productive animals with better meat Hydroponic fodder, on the other hand, is
and milk yields. Furthermore, hydroponic fodder grown without soil and uses significantly less
is free from harmful pesticides and chemicals, water than traditional methods. The process
ensuring that animals are fed a safe and healthy involves sprouting seeds in trays or containers
diet. and allowing them to grow into nutritious fodder
for animals. Hydroponic fodder also has a higher
Hydroponic Fodder Systems nutrient content than traditional fodder, making
it a healthier option for livestock. While the initial
There are several types of hydroponic fodder cost of setting up a hydroponic system may be
systems available, each with its own unique higher than traditional methods, the long-term
advantages. Tray systems are the most common benefits can outweigh the initial investment.
type and involve stacking trays filled with
growing medium and seeds. Vertical systems Conclusion
are similar but utilize tall towers to maximize
space efficiency. Aeroponic systems use misting In conclusion, hydroponic fodder is a
nozzles to deliver nutrients to the roots of the revolutionary method of growing animal feed
plants without the need for soil or growing that offers numerous benefits over traditional
medium. methods. By using hydroponic systems, farmers
Tray systems are ideal for small-scale can increase their yield while reducing water
80 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Animal Nutrition

usage and improving animal health. Additionally, required and the need for specialized knowledge,
hydroponic fodder is more cost-effective and the benefits far outweigh the costs. With the
sustainable than traditional fodder, making it an right equipment and expertise, farmers can
attractive option for modern farmers. successfully integrate hydroponic fodder into
While there may be some challenges their farming practices and reap the rewards.
associated with implementing hydroponic
fodder systems, such as the initial investment
Animal Nutrition 81 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

82 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Animal Nutrition

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Publishing Date || 01 SEPTEMBER 2023 AGROBIOS NEWSLETTER

Contents 3 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

13. Soil-Less Culture of Ornamentals: The

4 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Contents

1. Carbon Trading, International

Introduction nations for which reducing emissions is a

Agronomy 5 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

6 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Agronomy

2. Green Manuring: An Organic Farming

Organic Farming 7 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Procedure of Green Manuring Crops for

Nutrient Release from Green Manuring

Carbon to Nitrogen Ratio in Green Manuring

8 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Organic Farming

Organic Farming 9 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

3. Challenges of Smallholder Farmers in

10 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable Agriculture 11 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Financial inclusion is pivotal in addressing Leveraging Technology: Knowledge at Your

Bridging the knowledge gap demands robust Conclusion

12 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Sustainable Agriculture

4. Impact of Eucalyptus Plantations on

Dry Land Agriculture 13 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

physicochemical characteristics, microbial neighbouring or successional crops

14 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Dry Land Agriculture

5. Impact of Climate Change on Indian

Climate Change 15 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

3. Exacerbated Weather Phenomena 2. Efficient Water Management

16 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Climate Change

Climate Change 17 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

6. Customized Fertilizer: Essential to

18 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Soil Science

Soil Science 19 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Major Constraints to Promote Customized micronutrient deficiency is observed in all parts

7. Land Resource Inventory – Overview

20 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Soil Science

Soil Science 21 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

8. Vertical Agriculture: A Innovation to

Introduction Critical Aspects of Vertical Farming (Vf)

22 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Soil Science

Types of Vertical farming Advantage

Mixed Use Skyscrapers In these skyscrapers integrate traditional

Stackable Shipping This method of vertical farming uses shipping

Aeroponics Plant roots are suspended in air and nourished

Soil Science 23 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Advantages of Vertical Disadvantages of Vertical control various environmental factors, such

24 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Soil Science

9. Rainfall Simulator for Soil Loss

*Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Advantages of Rainfall Simulator row crops.

Soil Science 25 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

Pressurized Rainfall Simulator

26 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Soil Science

Details of Rainfall Simulator Developed by

Design Considerations  Portability for movement from one research

Soil Science 27 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04

10. Soil Health and Its Relationship with

Introduction feeding the growing population, decreasing

28 || VOL. NO. XXII, ISSUE NO. 04 Soil Science

Design Considerations Portability for movement from one research

What are botanical insecticides? Natural Selectivity

Introduction Crop Monitoring, where data can be