Prepared by D.

Sujatha, AP/CSE SRRCET/II/IVSEM/CS3401-ALGORITHM

UNIT III
ALGORITHM DESIGN TECHNIQUES

Divide and Conquer methodology: Finding maximum and minimum - Merge sort -
Quick sort Dynamic programming: Elements of dynamic programming — Matrix-chain
multiplication - Multi stage graph — Optimal Binary Search Trees. Greedy Technique:
Elements of the greedy strategy - Activity-selection problem –- Optimal Merge pattern —
Huffman Trees.
PART A

1. Give the general plan for divide-and-conquer algorithms. (APRIL/MAY 2008)

(NOV/DEC 2008) (MAY/JUNE 2016) (R) (Nov 17)
The general plan is as follows.

Divide the problem into a number of subproblems that are smaller instances of the
same problem.
 Conquer the subproblems by solving them recursively. If they are small enough,
solve the subproblems as base cases.
 Combine the solutions to the subproblems into the solution for the original problem.
2. List the advantages of Divide and Conquer Algorithm.
Solving difficult problems, Algorithm efficiency, Parallelism, Memory access, Round
off control.
3. Give the recurrence relation of divide-and-conquer? (R)
The recurrence relation is
g(n) if n is small

t(n1) + t(n2)+ ..... + t(nk) +F(n) when n is sufficiently large.
T(n) =

4. Define feasibility.
Feasibility indicates that it is practical and capable of being executed within reasonable
constraints and resources.
5. Define Quick Sort.
Quick sort is the most efficient internal sorting technique. It possesses a very good
average case behavior among all sorting algorithms. Quick sort is not stable search,
but it is very fast and requires very less additional space.
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6. List out the Disadvantages in Quick Sort

i. It is recursive. Especially if recursion is not available, the
implementation is extremely complicated.
ii. It requires quadratic (i.e., n2) time in the worst-case.
iii. It is fragile i.e., a simple mistake in the implementation can go
unnoticed and cause it to perform badly.
7. What is the difference between quicksort and mergesort?

Basis for
comparison Quick Sort Merge Sort

The splitting of a array of

The partition of In the merge sort, the
elements is in any ratio, not
elements in the array is parted into
necessarily divided into
array just 2 halves (i.e. n/2).
half.

Worst case
O(n^2) O(nlogn)
complexity

It works well on smaller It operates fine on any

Works well on
array size of array

It work faster than other

It has a consistent
Speed of sorting algorithms for small
speed on any size of
execution data set like Selection sort
data
etc

8. Define merge sort. (R)

Mergesort sorts a given array A[0..n-1] by dividing it into two halves a[0..(n/2)-1]
and A[n/2..n-1] sorting each of them recursively and then merging the twosmaller
sorted arrays into a single sorted one.
9. List the Steps in Merge Sort

Divide Step: If given array A has zero or one element, return S; it is already sorted.
Otherwise, divide A into two arrays, A1 and A2, each containing about half of the
elements of A.

Recursion Step: Recursively sort array A1 and A2.

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Conquer Step: Combine the elements back in A by merging the sorted arrays A1
and A2 into a sorted sequence
10. List out Disadvantages of Divide and Conquer Algorithm
Conceptual difficulty
Recursion overhead
Repeated
subproblems

11. List out the Advantages in Quick Sort

 It is in-place since it uses only a small auxiliary stack.
 It requires only n log(n) time to sort n items.
 It has an extremely short inner loop

This algorithm has been subjected to a thorough mathematical analysis, a very

precise statement can be made about performance issues.
12. Describe the recurrence relation of merge sort? (R)
If the time for the merging operation is proportional to n, then the computing time
of merge sort is described by the recurrence relation
T(n)= a
2T(n/2)+n n = 1, a constant
13. State Master’s theorem. (APR/MAY 18)
If f(n) θ(nd) where d ³ 0 in recurrence equation T(n) = aT(n/b)+f(n),
then θ (nd) if a<bd T(n) θ (ndlog n) if a=bd
θ (nlog ba) if a>bd

The efficiency analysis of many divide-and-conquer algorithms is greatly simplified by

the use of Master theorem.
14. List out the Disadvantages in Quick Sort
• It is recursive. Especially if recursion is not available, the
implementation is extremely complicated.
• It requires quadratic (i.e., n2) time in the worst-case.
• It is fragile i.e., a simple mistake in the implementation can go unnoticed and
cause it to perform badly.
15. What are the differences between dynamic programming and divide and
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Prepared by D.Sujatha, AP/CSE SRRCET/II/IVSEM/CS3401-ALGORITHM

conquer approaches? (NOV/DEC 2018)

Divide and Conquer
Divide and Conquer works by dividing the problem into sub-problems, conquer each
sub- problem recursively and combine these solutions.
Dynamic Programming
Dynamic Programming is a technique for solving problems with overlapping sub
problems. Each sub-problem is solved only once and the result of each sub-problem is
stored in a table ( generally implemented as an array or a hash table) for future
references. These sub-solutions may be used to obtain the original solution and the
technique of storing the sub-problem solutions is known as memorization.
16. What is the time and space complexity of Merge sort? (APR/MAY 2019)
Time complexity = θ(n log n)
Space complexity = n+log2n
=θ(n)
17. Define dynamic programming. (APR/MAY 2017) (R)
Dynamic programming is an algorithm design method that can be used when a
solution to the problem is viewed as the result of sequence of decisions.
18. What are the features of dynamic programming? (R)
 Optimal solutions to sub problems are retained so as to avoid re-computing their
values.
 Decision sequences containing subsequences that are sub optimal are not considered.

 It definitely gives the optimal solution always.

19. What are the drawbacks of dynamic programming? (R)
 Time and space requirements are high, since storage is needed for all level.

 Optimality should be checked at all levels.

20. Write the general procedure of dynamic programming.(APR/MAY 2017) (R)
The development of dynamic programming algorithm can be broken into a
sequence of 4 steps.
1. Characterize the structure of an optimal solution.
2. Recursively defines the value of the optimal solution.
3. Compute the value of an optimal solution in the bottom-up fashion.
4. Construct an optimal solution from the computed information.
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Prepared by D.Sujatha, AP/CSE SRRCET/II/IVSEM/CS3401-ALGORITHM

21. What is thedifference between dynamic programming and greed algorithm?

(APRIL/MAY 2012) (AN)

Dynamic Programming Greedy Method

1. Dynamic Programming is used to 1. Greedy Method is also used to get the

obtain the optimal solution. optimal solution.

2. In Dynamic Programming, we 2. In a greedy Algorithm, we make

choose at each step, but the choice may whatever choice seems best at the moment
depend on the solution to sub-problems. and then solve the sub-problems arising
after the choice is made.

3. Less efficient as compared to a 3. More efficient as compared to a greedy

greedy approach approach

4. Example: 0/1 Knapsack 4. Example: Fractional Knapsack

5. It is guaranteed that Dynamic 5. In Greedy Method, there is no such

Programming will generate an optimal guarantee of getting Optimal Solution.
solution using Principle of Optimality.
22.Define Optimal Binary Search Trees (R)
The time required to search a node in BST is more than the balanced binary search tree as a
balanced binary search tree contains a lesser number of levels than the BST. There is one way that
can reduce the cost of a binary search tree is known as an optimal binary search tree.
23. List out the memory functions used under Dynamic programming. (MAY 2015) (R)
Memory functions solve in a top-down manner only sub problems that are
necessary. Memory functions are an improvement of dynamic programming because they
only solve sub problems that are necessary and do it only once. However they require
more because it makes recursive calls which require additional memory.
 Greedy Algorithm
 Branch and Bound
 Genetic Algorithm
24.State the general principle of greedy algorithm. (NOV/DEC 16) (R)

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The general structure of a greedy algorithm can be summarized in the following

steps:

1. Identify the problem as an optimization problem where we need to find the best solution
among a set of possible solutions.
2. Determine the set of feasible solutions for the problem.
3. Identify the optimal substructure of the problem, meaning that the optimal solution to the
problem can be constructed from the optimal solutions of its subproblems.
4. Develop a greedy strategy to construct a feasible solution step by step, making the locally
optimal choice at each step.
Prove the correctness of the algorithm by showing that the locally optimal choices at each step
lead to a globally optimal solution.

25. Define Optimization function

Every set of s that satisfies the constraints is a feasible solution.
Every feasible solution that maximizes is an optimal solution.
26. Define Greedy Methodology
Greedy algorithms are simple and straightforward.
They are shortsighted in their approach
A greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm, but the difference
is that solutions to the sub problems do not have to be known at each stage, instead a
"greedy" choice can be made of what looks best for the moment.

27.Write the Greedy Properties(Elements)

It consists of two property,
1. "greedy-choice property" ->It says that a globally optimal solution can be arrived at
by making a locally optimal choice.
2. "optimal substructure" ->A problem exhibits optimal substructure if an
optimal solution to the problem contains optimal solutions to the sub-problems.
are two ingredients in the problem that lend to a greedy strategy.
28.State feasible and constraint
Feasible: A feasible solution satisfies the problem’s constraints
Constraints: The constraints specify the limitations on the required solutions
29.Write the Pseudo-code for Greedy Algorithm
Algorithm Greedy (a,n)
//a[1:n]contains the n inputs.

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Prepared by D.Sujatha, AP/CSE SRRCET/II/IVSEM/CS3401-ALGORITHM

{
solution:=0;//initialize the solution.
for i:=1 to n do
{
x:=Select(a);
if Feasible( solution, x) then
solution:=Union(solution,x);
}
return solution
30. Define multistage graphs. Give an example. (NOV/DEC 2018)

A multistage graph G = (V, E) is a directed graph where vertices are partitioned

into k (where k > 1) number of disjoint subsets S = {s1,s2,…,sk} such that edge (u, v) is
in E, then u Є si and v Є s1 + 1 for some subsets in the partition and |s1| = |sk| = 1.

The vertex s Є s1 is called the source and the vertex t Є sk is called sink.

31.State the principle of optimality. (APR/MAY 2019)

The principles of optimality states that “in an optimal sequence of decisions or choices,
each subsequence must be optimal”

16 Marks (Refer class notes)

i. What is meant by divide &conquer Methodolgy? Explain.
ii. Find the maximum and minimum element from the given set of

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Prepared by D.Sujatha, AP/CSE SRRCET/II/IVSEM/CS3401-ALGORITHM

elements.
iii. Explain merge sort with suitable example. .(AU-APR/MAY2023)
iv. Explain quick sort with suitable example.
v. What is dynamic Programming? Explain dynamic programming
solution for matrix chain multiplication.(AU-APR/MAY2023)
vi. Explain briefly multistage graph with suitable example.
vii. What is meant by optimal binary search tree? Explain with suitable
example.
viii. What is Huffman tree? Outline the steps to build a Huffman tree
using greedy algorithm design paradigm with an example.

Review
1. Define divide and conquer to apply the technique in binary search algorithm and to
analysis it. (APR/MAY 2006) (APR/MAY 2017) (R)
2. Explain in detail in merge sort give an example (APR/MAY 2008) (MAY 2016). (R)
3. What is divide and conquer strategy and explain the binary search with suitable example
problem.(NOV/DEC 2011) (R)
4. Distinguish between Quick sort and Merge sort, and arrange the following numbers in
increasing order using merge sort. (18, 29, 68, 32, 43, 37, 87, 24, 47, 50) (NOV/DEC
2011) (MAY/JUNE 2013). (A)
5. Trace the steps of Mergesort algorithm for the elements 122,25,70,175,89,90,95,102,123
and also compute its time complexity.(NOV/DEC 2012) (A) (Nov 17) (Apr 18)

6. Write an algorithm to perform binary search on a sorted list of elements. Analyze the
algorithm for the best case, average case and worst case.(APR/MAY 2011). (AN)

7. Using the divide and conquer approach to find the maximum and minimum in a set of ‘n’
elements. Also find the recurrence relation for the number of elements compared and
solve the same.(APR/MAY 2011). (A)

8. Trace maximum and minimum (using divide and conquer) algorithm for the following set
of numbers. 20, 35, 18, 8, 14, 41, 3, 39,-20. (A)

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Prepared by D.Sujatha, AP/CSE SRRCET/II/IVSEM/CS3401-ALGORITHM

9. Write a pseudo code using divide and conquer technique for finding the position of the
largest element in an array of N numbers. (A)
10. Sort the following set of elements using merge sort: 12, 24, 8, 71, 4, 23, 6, 89, and 56.
(A)
11. Explain in detail quick sorting method. Provide a complete analysis of quick sort.
(APR/MAY 2008) (Nov/Dec 2016) (APR/MAY 2017) (AN)

12. A pair contains two numbers and its second number is on the right side of the first one in
an array. The difference of a pair is the minus result while subtracting the second number
from the first one. Implement a function which gets the maximal difference of all pairs in
an array (using divide and conquer method). (MAY/JUNE 2015) ®
13. Write the algorithm for quick sort. Provide a complete analysis of quick sort for the
given set of numbers 12,33,23,43,44,55,64,77 and 76. (13)(NOV/DEC 2018)
14. Write the quick sort algorithm and explain it with an example. Derive the worst case
and average case time complexity. (5+4+4) (APR/MAY 2019)
15. (i)Write an algorithm to construct the optimal binary search tree (or) Discuss
the algorithm for finding a minimum cost binary search trees.(8)
(ii) Explain how dynamic programming is applied to solve travelling salesperson
problem. (APR/MAY 2010)(NOV/DEC 2012)(8) (R)
16. Using Dynamic approach programming, solve the following graph using the backward
approach.(APRIL/MAY2011)(A)

17. (i) Let A ={l/119,m/96,c/247,g/283,h/72,f/77,k/92,j/19} be the letters and its frequency of

distribution in a text file. Compute a suitable Huffman coding to compress the data
effectively. (8) (MAY 2015)
(ii)Write an algorithm to construct the optimal binary search tree given the roots r(i,j)
,0≤i≤j≤n. Also prove that this could be performed in time O(n). (8) (MAY 2015) (AN)
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Prepared by D.Sujatha, AP/CSE SRRCET/II/IVSEM/CS3401-ALGORITHM

18. Write the Huffman’s Algorithm. Construct the Huffman’s tree for the following data and
obtain its Huffman’s Code. (APR/AMY 2017) (A)

Characters A B C D E _
Probability 0.5 0.35 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.2
19. Explain the steps in building a Huffman Tree. Find the codes for the alphabets
given below as according to frequency (NOV/DEC 2017)

A 2
E 5
H 1
I 2
L 2
M 2
P 2
R 1
S 2
X 1

20. (i) Write the Huffman code algorithm and derive its time complexity. (5+2)
(APR/MAY 2019)
(ii) Generate the Huffman code for the following data comprising of alphabet and their
frequency.(6) (APR/MAY 2019)

a:1,b:1,c:2,d:3,e:5,f:8,g:13,h:21

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