NASA SP290 Turbine Design
NASA SP290 Turbine Design
NASA SP290 Turbine Design
/N-.o7
__ .t!o
TIIItI|INI{
I)KSll;l
(NASA-SP-290) APPLICATION
TURBINE (NASA)
DESIGN 390 p
AND
N95-22341
Unclas
HlI07
0041715
NATIONAL
AERONAUTICS
AND
SPACE
ADMINISTRATION
NASA
SP-290
Scientific and Technical Information Program--1994 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION Washington, DC
Available NASA
from the Center for AeroSpace Landing Road MD 21090-2934 Catalog Card Number: 94-67487 Information
800 Elkridge
PREFACE
NASA and space turboshaft pellant-driven power organic interest trains, Center, presented Program. 1972-73. concepts, cooling, The edited for an Any Two are the sets units given U.S. of units and reference for fluids, has an interest as in turbines well provide Closed-cycle metal power engines turbine-system entitled 1968-69 course aspects and was as power fluids for include as related turbine auxiliary rocket turbine have spacecraft. land-vehicle and interest "Turbine part of somewhat of turbine fluid-dynamic losses, ground-based and Design the revised technology concepts, blade efforts and and were primarily engines power propulsion engines been Other (cars, studied for using for trucks, electrical at Lewis Application" Graduate again covered presented including turbine design, revised blade and or a to aeronautics jet and l%ogases, of buses, power. Research was Study in applications. propulsion, turbines spacecraft. and electric propulsion course during The Various velocity mechanical notes written for publication. for selected consistent commonly after the set used introductory Airbreathing provide aircraft, and inert
auxiliary providing
long-duration etc.) a
applications
In view
In-House
thermodynamic
fundamental
diagrams,
aerodynamic
design, operation, and performance. and used for the course have been Such turbine topics. of symbol units. as unity units will sets single not satisfy of set required the units These of required equations and are equations for the U.S. a publication course, a can means serve for
as a foundation self-study,
consistent A those
definitions.
all constants
customary
111
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
PREFACE
. . . . . . . . . . .
111
...
AND
FL UID-D
YNAMI
C 1
1 14 19 20
J. Glassman
....................
..............
BASIC CONCEPTS AND RELATIONS ....................... APPLICATION TO FLOW WITH VARYING AREA REFERENCES ...................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
by Arthur
J. Glassman
....
21 21 45 62 63 65
TURBINE FLOW AND ENERGY TRANSFER .................. DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS ......................... REFERENCES ...................................... SYMBOLS ......................................... GLOSSARY .........................................
J. Whitney
and
69 70 84 95 96 98
MEAN-SECTION DIAGRAMS ............................ RADIAL VARIATION OF DIAGRAMS ....................... COMPUTER PROGRAMS FOR VELOCITY-DIAGRAM REFERENCES ...................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
STUDIES
.....
BLADE Arthur
DESIGN J. Glassman
by Warner
L. Stewart
and lOl
102 118 124 125
..................................
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
by Theodore
ANALYSES ........................
Katsanis
............
......
127
130 147 154 155
INTRODUCTION by William
TO BOUNDARY-LAYER ...............................
THEORY 157
............ .............. 157 160 172 188 188 191
D. McNally
NATURE OF BOUNDARY LAYER ......................... DERIVATION OF BOUNDARY-LAYER EQUATIONS SOLUTION OF BOUNDARY-LAYER EQUATIONS CONCLUDING REMARKS .............................. REFERENCES ...................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
V
iI
PAG'E__
I_T_NTtON_!.Ly BLANg
CHAPTER
PAGE
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
by Herman
W. Prust,
Jr ....
193
195 201 217 221 223
BOUNDARY-LAYER PARAMETERS ........................ BLADE-ROW LOSS COEFFICIENTS ....................... BLADE-ROW LOSS CHARACTERISTICS .................... REFERENCES ....................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
by Richard
J. Roelke
........
225
225 231 238 243 246 247
TIP-CLEARANCE LOSS ................................ DISK-FRICTION LOSS ................................. PARTIAL-ADMISSION LOSSES ........................... INCIDENCE LOSS .................................... REFERENCES ....................................... SYMBOLS ..........................................
SUPERSONIC
TURBINES
by Louis
J. Goldman
.........
249
250 263 266 272 277 278
METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS ......................... DESIGN OF SUPERSONIC STATOR BLADES ................. DESIGN OF SUPERSONIC ROTOR BLADES .................. OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SUPERSONIC TURBINES REFERENCES ....................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
....
10.
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINES
by Harold
E. Rohlik
.......
279
284 295 302 305 306
OVERALL DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS .................... BLADE DESIGN ..................................... OFF-DESIGN PERFORMANCE ........................... REFERENCES ....................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
11.
TURBINE
COOLING
by Raymond
S. Colladay
...........
307
307 314 328 330 332 340 345 347
GENERAL DESCRIPTION .............................. HEAT TRANSFER FROM HOT GAS TO BLADE ................ CONDUCTION WITHIN THE BLADE WALL .................. COOLANT-SIDE CONVECTION ........................... FILM AND TRANSPIRATION COOLING ..................... SIMILARITY ........................................ REFERENCES ....................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
12.
DETERMINATION
TEST FACILITY AND MEASUREMENTS .................... TURBINE PERFORMANCE .............................. REFERENCES ....................................... SYMBOLS .........................................
vi
CHAPTER 1
thermodynamics
compressible
energy-transfer treatment textbooks. the Two given U.S. units units purposes Any
occurring
of equations
including
as unity
SI units.
BASIC
CONCEPTS Equation
RELATIONS
get know
very how
far of
temperature
generalizations of behavior,
their referred to
behavior. as being
discussing
either
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
gas real
and of state is
obeys
various certain
simplified conditions.
laws
that
under
ideal
R* pv=--_-
(1-1)
where P
V
absolute specific
pressure, volume,
N/mS; m3/kg;
R*
universal gas constant, (lb mole) (R) molecular absolute weight, temperature, R*/M,_ is often kg/(kg
J/(kg lb/(Ib
mole)(K); mole)
1545
(ft) (lb)/
The
quantity
a single
quafftity
such
that
gas
constant, used
in J/(kg)(K) of specific
Density
is often
instead
RT = pRT
(1-3)
where In sures within small. ideal high tures, proposal relation. most perature
3. ideal under forces behavior which between the at low free presspace are the as
temperatures, which are be accurate while gases hundred have to Even and only use
gas is large
molecules
above their critical to within 5 percent for gases ideal found gas most be below behavicr of state universally over useful their may appear
temperatures, up to pressures critical resulted express range a high values the satisfactory, equations degree
at 1 atmosphere have to
Deviations
cumbersome accuracy The and forms behavior. 2 temperature reduced the similarity
cannot
justified
is required. in behavior (ratio pressure basis The method of (ratio of of substances T, to p, of pressure, simple general at equal critical to for is of reduced To) pc) gas a real pressure, incorporate temperature, temperature, estimating to
critical
of a relatively
method correlation
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
correction law:
term,
called
the
compressibility p=zpRT
factor,
into
the
ideal
gas (1-4)
where The and of the other as with tion and sures. molal state error. should A of data
factor. is a function factor are from and The of reduced temperature of the many from an nature and here average correlatemperatures and by a large result using region with However, is always can law. show gas in presthe of our we valid. the of reduced texts is assumed pressure charts of one to be independent as a function in presented reference is derived is not
compressibility Values and One This for a large data are be extended used pseudocritical of the of where the not for do take error figure 1-1. for
of compressibility reduced of the type number any to critical 1-1 conditions fall that the with granted of associated use usually
2 is reproduced in rigorous
correlation of gases gas. mixtures are that gas that within the use
agreement
compressibility-factor if pseudocritical temperatures components. is would region. gas ideal law factor
to gas
calculate properties
reduced
of the
in a large
we
concerned
calculations quick
determination
compressibility
approximate
_--
_._
______
90 .80 70
t_
--
1. 1_50
.60 .50
--
1.20
.30!
I \ -1.1o
_-'LO0 1.0 I 2,0 I 3,0 1 4.0 I 5.0 f 6.0 I 7.0 I 8.0 I 9,0 F 10.0
FIGURE
1-1.--Effect
of
reduced
and
temperature 2.)
on
com-
pressibility
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
of
Change term
to
State
associated as p) or Btu/lb. a
h. For can
system
of constant function
chemical
temperature (1-5)
where enthalpy
h is specific can
enthalpy, as
in J/kg
A differential
change
in
be expressed
v dT+(00-_h)rp expressed in
dp terms of
(1-6) determinable
properties
definition, Oh Cv=(-_'_),
where
cp is heat One
capacity basic
at
constant
(lb) (R).
of the
differential
dh=
Tds + j
vdp
(1-8)
where s is specific entropy, conversion constant, 1 or derivative determined with from respect equation to
temprature
Oh'_
T los\
One
of the
Maxwell
relations
states
that
(1-10)
Substituting yields
equations
(1-7),
(1-9),
and
(1-10)
into
equation
(1-6)
dh=c,dT+
[v--
Ov T (_-_)p_
dp
(1-11)
is the of the
rigorous state
for and as
enthalpy change
is calculated
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
Ts
P*
_V (1-12)
If law,
we
now
assume set
that
the
gas
behaves
according
to
the
ideal
gas
we can
RT v------P and
(1-13)
( Ov'
By using these on last two equations in
R
equation to zero, (1-12), and the there
(1-14)
effect remains of
pressure
enthalpy
change
is reduced
(1-15) in hand-
If, for
(1-16)
Ah=a( Although calculations, If and it can /'2, then one be might there equation assumed
T2-- T1) +_ b (_--_)+3 not want reason that (1-15) to use to this type it for
(_--T_)
(1-17)
of expression computer
is no
avoid
between
temperatures
This gases,
is an value percent
is a significant
T. However,
the
of some be within
Conditions loss to in be
is normally adiabatic.
assumed change
is no
entropy.
Therefore,
constant-entropy
(isentropic) process is the ideal process for flow in the various parts of the turbine (inlet manifold, stator, rotor, and exit diffuser) as well as for the overall turbine. Actual conditions within and across the
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
turbine are usually determined in coniunction necessary For can a one-phase with some to be able to relate system state
from
isentropic process calculations It is, therefore, process. entropy for an isentropic composition, and pressure (1-19) be expressed as
efficiency or loss term. conditions chemical of temperature s----fcn (T, p) can of constant
be expressed
as a function
and
a differential
change
in entropy
dT(_)r we get
(tp
(1-20)
Substituting
equations
(1-21)
and
(1-10)
into
equation
(1-20)
yields
ds=_
dT--j
0v (0-T),
dp
(1-22)
For
a constant-entropy
process,
ds=0
and
Equation relating
(1-23) temperature
is the
but
not
particularly
useful,
conditions and
integration,
, _dT----
Rln_
(1-24)
By
using
a relation
such
as equation
(1-16),
integration
yields
(T_--T_)
(1-25)
is more
suitable
for use
in
between
tem-
T2, equation
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
Jc_ ln T2--R T1-and p2=('%'_ p, \T1/ But Jcp R where capacity equation 3" is the ratio of heat
p2 ln- pl
(1-26)
Jc,/R (1-27)
capacity
equation
(1-28)
p,
_-_----\_] (1-29) Where should specific heat ratio give a reasonable 3" is not constant, approxlmation. Conservation The rate of mass flow through the use of an average value
w=pAV where w A V rate flow fluid For across across of mass flow, kg/sec; area, m2; ft 2 velocity, m/see; flow (and ft/see nonnuclear) path is, process, must equal the the rate rate of mass of mass lb/sec
flow flow
plA, VI = p2A2 V2 This (1-31) expresses is referred the principle to as the Newton's All conservation are consequences that an unbalanced in the direction force is proportional the body. equations, of Newton's of conservation continuity Second equation. Law of etc., Law Motion dealing of with of mass, and
(1-31) equation
theorems, Second
Motion,
on a body will cause it to accelerate force in such a manner that the of the mass and acceleration of
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Thus, F= m a g where F m
a
(1-32)
N;
; ft/sec
g But
1 ; 32.17
dV a =--d- 7 where (1-32) t is time, yields F=m g Since the mass is constant, equation dV dt (1-34a) can also be in seconds. Substituting equation (1-33) into
(1-33) equation
(1-34a) written as
F=I g Equation fluid Since (1-34a) is equal mass can (1-34b) to per also the specifies rate of as that
d(mV__) dt the is unbalanced of momentum the mass flow force acting with rate,
(1-34b)
on
the
of change time
(mV)
time.
increment be written
equation
F =w g A useful derived
dV
(1-35)
be
relation, sometimes called the from second-law considerations. in figure resistance the downstream in the upstream direction is 1-2. Gravitational (force) and direction
of are
can of neg-
fluid ligible. of
is indicated and
to fluid-pressure
boundary-surface-pressure
direction.
F=pA
+(p+
d-_)dA--(p+dp)
(A+dA)--dRt
(1-36)
Expanding, yields
simplifying,
and F=
dropping -- Adp-dR I
second-order
differentials (1-37)
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
The
mass
of the
element
Substituting
equation
(1-38)
into F_
equation dV dt
pAdx g
(1-39)
Since
(1-40)
equation (1-39) can be written in the F_pAV g Equating (1-37) with (1-41) now yields form dv
(1--41)
pA VdV g dRs 0
(1-42)
p-F--i-A--
(1-43)
p+dp 2
A+dA
f % ,% f
Flow
p dx V
p+dp
V+dV
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
If we now
let (1-44)
where
ql is heat
produced
by
friction,
in J/kg
or Btu/lb,
we have (1-45)
dpp __V_VdgV+Jdq1= For isentropic flow, dqs----0. Conservation For system electrical a steady-flow or or part of of that etc., part energy, (and nannuclear) must If have we system. we still V2/2g, of
Energy process, equal can the neglect internal energy Z, the energy chemical energy heat entering that energy, u, flow q, and
a system
a system
energy
leaving
to consider potential
P lvl
"Jr- V12
_j[_Z1
p2l'2_l__ ,
V2" _2_4_W Tr 2 .4 Z
(1-46) s
_gj energy,
j-2g
J-J--
energy,
potential
definition
h=u + -j
Thus, equation (1-46) reduces
"{72
pv
(1-47)
to
V 2
(1-48) gd Equation (1-48) is the it. Total The in flow Thus, V2 h ' _-h + 2gJ 10 (1-49) sum of the enthalpy and and Conditions the kinetic to energy use it is always as a single appearing quantity. basic form g of the steady-flow energy balance
as we will be using
problems,
it is convenient
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
or Btu/lb. leads can be us The according to the as and to concept the of total conheat (1-15), (1-50) Combining equation (1-50) defined behavior temperature constant equation
temperature.
Total useful
temperature
total-temperature
ideal-gas-law
capacity
be assumed.
equation
T' = T+ 2gJcp
The attained to rest The pressure use temperature, total, of a fluid equation total when temperature a gas and brought p. Since (1-29) Thus, these two T' can be
V2
(1-51)
of as the called temperature V is brought stagnation pressure static we can
at static
velocity
adiabatically.
is also be regarded
from and
p is isentropic,
(1-52)
where With should its use energy be seen, tion, heat change, pressure,
p'
is total regard
pressure, to the
be emphasized. The concept of total enthalpy is general, involves no assumptions other than those associated with balance is a very For use an of as we have useful only systems total to the isentropic considered for it. Total temperature, the burden and or total behavior reaction recommended. with the static and not convenience involving temperature assumptions path for easing ideal-gas-law chemical is between associated
but
it is rigorous the
capacity.
in addition
ture, involves conditions. Flow Let occurs work. each us This part now,
No
Heat
and
No examine
in
with
neither process
that
of the
turbine
(including
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
the
velocities Substitution
are of yields
expressed equation
relative (1-49)
to the into
moving equation
rangement
h2' -- hi' = q--W_ The energy balance for a flow W_ now equal looks something as we were we get like first the First Law to
of Thermoit in college.
dynamics
process,
exposed
If we set q and
to zero,
h_' =-h,' Therefore, constant. that total for Further, temperature adiabatic from flow also with no (1-18) work, and total (1-50), enthalpy it can
equations remains
constant.
TJ =T/
Note enthalpy Total and tions, (1-55) it can that the and and pressure process total the does temperature is another ideal-gas-law that for not have to be isentropic constant. equations flow with (1-22), no work, From in order
(1-55)
for total (1-52), assump-
constant-heat-capacity
be shown
(1-56)
Only
flow with
(ds=0), loss
therefore, (ds>0),
does there is
total
pressure
remain in total
constant. pressure.
a decrease
of
Sound
and of
speed
of sound.
small-pressure-disturbance
a=_/g(-_p), where From to a= The factor called 12 ratio of fluid velocity V _gRT to sound characteristics velocit_y a is a is speed the ideal of sound, gas law in m/sec and or ft/sec. process relations, this
(1-57)
isentropic
reduces (1-58)
of a gas.
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPT_
M= --V
a
(1-59)
only for identifying to flowcertain static (1-58),
Mach
number
parameter
not
behavior regimes, but expressions. Consider temperature, (1-59), and given (1-28) in with
for simplifying and generalizing relation of total temperature (1-51). (1-51) Combining yields equations
equation equation
T'
l_I_7__
M 2
(1-60)
ratio
often
used
is
the
ratio
of fluid
velocity
to
V V Vc,--acr where sound is equal condition (1-60), V. at is critical critical to the velocity velocity, condition, in of sound in m/sec or at the M----1. or ft/sec, ft/sec. and The a. critical The from
m/sec
critical
condition.
Consequently,
2 T.=3"+ and substitution of equation (1-62) 1 T' into equation (1-58) yields (1-62)
acr=_/_lgRT' Thus, for the as the the The because while perature The critical (1-28), in any the entire static ratio the Mach in relation velocity and flow process value process, temperature of fluid velocity critical number the velocity ratio. velocity is not denominator). between ratio (1-51). T T '-1 3,--1(V) _ 3"-t-1 2 static results and from total combining temperature equations in terms Its of the with constant value to ratio (since total of the temperature (Vc,=a,) speed of sound is
(1-63)
and
no work),
critical changes.
velocity
whilethe
critical
sometimes Mach to
critical
over root
is directly
proportional
of static
(1-61),
(1-64) 13
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
APPLICATION The the (flow the in the turbine. equations through process is isentropic). loss-free varying-area already turbine
TO
FLOW are
flow
provided are
diffuser)
of the
We area ously
flo_v:
are change,
going and
to
examine
Much equations
number.
of the
presented
following
for isentropic
_(I_M_
Equation velocity the whether (sonic let us pressure static Let A. changes
(1-65) is opposite the flow), specify pressure us examine Subsonic 1. Increasing Much that
shows
directions
in velocity or greater
pressure
1 (supersonic is a varying-area
in which passage
decreases
increases. (1-65)
pressure
Velocity decreases (dV<0) and This is the subsonic diffuser.. 2. Decreasing pressure (dp<0): and Velocity increases (dV>0) This is the subsonic nozzle. B. Supersonic 1. Increasing Velocity This 2. Decreasing Velocity This C. Sonic Both Area critical, mum-area 14 flow is the flow (M>I): (dp>0): (dV<0) (dp<0): (dV>0) nozzle. and zero occur 1) : (dp>0) must section equal can and and
area
decreases
(dA_0).
area
(tecreases
(dA_0).
is the
of a varying-area
passage.
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
also
want
to note either up
that portion
in
order in followed
to
cross by an
the the
critical flow
con-
1) going
or down
velocity,
passage
a decreasing-area Flow
increasing-area
in
Since diffuser nozzles. entering nozzle. the the (and throat) mences lowered, At some What Mach nozzle. tion the tions velocity, gas
we
are
concerned
primarily
flow in turbines, we will narrow We will further limit the discussion the This nozzle is subsonic, us to the with at the T'. static as pt. and gas a static The When since first case from (and exhaust, pressure this nozzle.--Let corresponds is supplied temperature as p, and is designated and flow value and number Therefore, happens the throat of p,, M= rate consider
the discussion to flow in to the case where the flow is the the case of most interest. Assume where a static is comto pc. to sonic that condiin to equaa (in the simple previously. (zero pressure at the less with velocity) p' static nozzle than Pt still p', and exit flow equal convergent
is maintained
or outside,
pressure
designated
to pc. As p_ is progressively becomes We have in in the The static according a equal seen critical
attained
convergent pressure
p_ is lowered.
which
P'=P_'=P' Once the the The with the pe is reduced flow nozzle an within and increase the then process equations that the (p'/p,) means below nozzle. expands from p,, The the
{ 2-_-_ "_/(_-') \_,+ 1/ exhaust expands from pressure from with p' has no
(1-66)
effect the
on
gas
expansion
Pt to Pe occurs
in entropy
be discussed
are not valid throat condition greater that the than nozzle
for this part of the remains constant or equal mass to flow the
critical also
(p'/p_r)
rate
under these conditions. Thus, flow rate reaches a maximum and thereafter flow remains can be constant The pr6ver_
exhaust
pressure
is reduced.
fact
condition
st)on(is
to maximum
mathematically.
A nozzle
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
to be choked. nozzle.--Let of the with gas T'. us from will less now the consider nozzle. same 1-3, p' reservoir showing this (curve occurring of the lowered and the throat AD still AB at passage (curve velocity velocity in fig. the somewhat assume of presIf 1-3), throat maintained plots discussion. in fig. the convergent-divergent Figure than Again,
Convergent-divergent to be supplied against pressure with this case, diffuser. at some the sonic higher
at pressure
supplement
commences
lowest
pressure
pressure
or Mr----1
p_ is still
diffuses
subsonically
_X._I / rpt
I/
I
/ /r Pe
I
Th roat
I I I I
A ,ll
.B
&
-- _r- .....
-_'_"_'_'_
.=
N Z
Length
FmuR_;
1-3.--Nozzle
flow
processes.
16
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
in
the
diveruent pt:pc._pe), to achieve is less than the critical p_ is a_ain because where nozzle,
section. we the
the the
throat nozzle in
condition pressure
is
now ratio
critical (p'/pe) to
critical
condition
a convergent-divergent
pressure ratio (p'/p_:p'/pc,) required in a simple convergent nozzle. the throat condition state must us can remains remain that the Thus, exist. value. the at the throat as and the critical (1-65) showed
place
convergent
constant,
flow must remain critical condition and If to the the convergent of the flow part of This pressure flow subsonic supersonic that does the is area, mass case pendently divergent discharge servation relations. shows that isentropic isentropic The flow Observing optical in the waves. changes temperature is a rise process weak. normal shock. flow occurs Strong shocks) Weak direction means flow. Shock may in static
its maximum at the throat, nozzle the and for as any well It the some therefore, these pressure as is in figure values Pe_pt Pe_Pt cannot throat.
As long as the nozzle is choked to behave indethe area conwhich assume either 1-3) fig. or 1-3). by occur shock state Total there the because the AE, to allow fig. AE,
of the
isentropic
process,
is represented
falling
is impossible
to some
be isentropic. conditions changes flow are the fluid density in the and even pressure
under
nonisentropic
reveals that surfaces of abrupt These apparent discontinuities waves be across with shocks and shocks (and of the are of very as remains there small thickness, considered a shock pressure, occurring constant entropy. to the small oblique supersonic, shock.
is a loss
in total
an increase in occur normal result occur are shock thus in at some called
Shocks may be strong or flow (and are thus called downstream with respect and the the of the to the velocity number angle shocks), but
subsonic
velocities
Mach
that
upstream
discussion between
nozzles 1-3.
ratios
a normal and
occurs
in the
nozzle, isentropic
l)ressure diffusion
subsonic
occurs
shock
to the
17
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
The AK LF
in
this
case
by
the the
path normal
expansion, diffusion. the shock is AEH. points and the E, H weaker nozzle as AMNG.
represented ing the to point flow For occur higher nozzle When flow the path
of pe correspondnozzle
will be right
of pe between it is p_. In with the too this to shock strong case, point
and
E,
would weaker
result oblique
a static
becoming isentropic.
as p_ approaches
nozzle outside
of p_, the
nozzle-exit
pe occurs
in a nonisentropic be pointed in figure exactly place out 1-3 over effects from are
manner. that the previous In and distance. the The shown and general in figure the subsonic 1-3. Tables flow and Charts many in as discussion actuality, pressure flow Also, the real-fluid and shock rise, the proceffects although consideraof are however,
idealized.
produce similar
downstream
different
isentropic. to those
processes,
qualitatively
Thermodynamic-Property In sets books order of and to facilitate and charts Some properties
tables
constructed
reports.
of temperature include
are the
presented variation
in heat of air
products are
(nitrogen,
5. Compressibility presented in
factors reference
presented
in reference
5 include
Isentropic others)
6 preequa-
a listing in terms
flow number
function and
function ratio.
THERMODYNAMIC
AND
FLUID-DYNAMIC
CONCEPTS
REFERENCES
1. 2. KUNKLE, pressed NELSON, JOHN Gas L. C.; S.j WILSON, OBERT, SAMUEL NASA E. F.: Eng., D.; How col. WILLIAM Products AND to 61, COTA, Use no. W.: from the RICHARD New . . 1954, of 3500 A.; ED: Com-
Handbook. AND
SP-3045,
Chem.
WACHTL,
Thermodynamic
Combustion
H.;
AND
KAYE,
JOSEPH:
Gas
Tables.
John
Wiley
and
Sons,
5.
JOSEPH;
CHARLES JOSEPH
W.; F.;
S.;
FANO,
HAROLD S.;
AND
TOULOUProperPropNitrogen,
WOOLLEY,
HAROLD of
Thermal Transport
and 1955.
Standards, Flow.
RESEARCH Rep.
Equations,
Tables,
Compressible
NACA 7. LEwis
1953. COMPUTING Ratios STAFF: from Tables 1.28 to of 1.38. Various NACA Mach TN Number 3981, 1957.
LABORATORY for
Functions
Specific-Heat
19
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
SYMBOLS A
a aj c_ b_ c
flow
area,
m2; ft _
acceleration, m/seC; ft/sec 2 speed of sound, m/sec; ft/sec general constants for polynomial, heat capacity at constant pressure, unbalanced conversion force, N; constant, lb 1 ; 32.17 eq. (1-16) J/(kg)(K); (lbm) Btu/(lb)(R)
F g h J M M_
m
(ft)/(lbf)(seC)
specific enthalpy, J/kg; Btu/lb conversion constant, 1 ; 778 (ft) (lb)/Btu Mach mass, absolute heat heat number, weight, lb pressure, N/mS; lb/ft 2 Btu/lb J/kg; Btu/lb (R) 1545 (ft)(lbf)/ to system, by J/kg; kg; added produced defined kg/(kg by eq. mole); (1-59) lb/(lb mole) molecular
P q ql R RI R*
friction,
gas constant, J/(kg) frictional resistance universal (lb mole) gas constant,
mole)(K);
T t
temperature,
Btu/lb ft/sec
V
V Ws w x
fluid specific
system,
J/kg;
Btu/lb
lb/sec
in; ft potential of heat energy, factor, capacity volume lb/ft 3 condition condition (M: 1) J/kg; defined at constant (ft)(lbf)/lbm by eq. (1-4) to heat capacity pressure
Z
Z
compressibility at constant
absolute
total
state
CHAPTER 2
characteristics
primarily
GLOSSARY,
TURBINE
FLOW Analysis
AND
ENERGY System
TRANSFER
Coordinate energy-transfer coordinate system of rotation, and These three variation wheel. form
analysis requires
of the some to
flow
and
a turning parallel the to three average) For many the directions plane
a logical
of one
coordinate
through
of rotation,
in figure
axial
a calculation
coordinate.
as blade-to-blade
velocity-variation,
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Vu
FIGURE
2-1.--Velocity
components
for
a generalized
rotor.
is
radial, in an
as
at
the
to flow
a radial-flow is predomi-
radial-tangential
is used. turbine,
axial-tangential
is used. Velocity Vectors the most, and Diagrams variables flow different and absolute velocities of relative in this similar later and that energy coordinate in depicting velocities must chapter, to the velocities flow analysis we will transfer direcblading are of and in
most, with
be concerned assist
us in
making
diagrams. be consid-
blade.
parameters
to be discussed passage.
a rotating
can be analyzed
in a manner
in a stationary
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
made
at
locations diagrams,
upstream the
and circumvectors
of the blade
or at just velocity
distances
the
shows velocity
relative
velocity=Absolute
velocity--Blade
(2-1)
where W V U Since consider relative absolute blade blade the velocity velocity velocity velocity vector vector vector is always that
W=V--U
(2-2)
in the is,
tangential blade
we need we can
only write
magnitude,
the
W= The shows this absolute velocity the velocity and diagram components diagram relative in figure of the to be 2-2 absolute drawn
V--U represents and in be an equation axial-tangential expressed in terms (2-3) and plane, of
relative
velocities.
Assuming
velocities
can
of flow,
V V x = Wx
VU
FIGURE
2-2.--Typical of absolute
diagram velocities in
tangential direction.
components
23
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
components
in the
axial
and
tangential 2
directions
as (2-4) (2-5)
V2:V_2q-V,, and W 2=W2+ where V V= Vu W IV= W_ magnitude axial tangential magnitude axial tangential of V, m/see; component of W, m/see; component ft/sec
Wu 2
component
of absolute
velocity,
m/see; velocity,
component
of relative
m/see;
of relative
velocity, in write
If this diagram (fig. 2-2) were drawn the values marked as axial components From figure 2-2, we see that we can W_,=V,,--U
(2-6)
be
and
the
tangential
geometrical
example,
shown
in figure directions,
absolute
opposite
equation convention
Therefore,
the
13_
Wu
Wx = Vx Wx = Vx U ---I components of
24
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
all are we
and
tangential of the that in positive analysts above then opposite see figure
components blade to the equation 2-3, value use positive of a rotor. Also, many if you direction should by used of at velocity blade (2-6) where the and
of velocity and remains a above a location negative work than In many analysts rather have someone small are velocity.
if they are
direction
negative
positive
U yields
convention switch
negative respect
Therefore, of the
occasion else,
information
make this
in generating
Energy The tively of the a the of the 1 and sumed. regarded being The mutually in magnitude rise to an change a radial nents the basic simple generalized angular by at fluid 2 are as inlet any at any the energy-transfer and is only to a fluid velocity. path, radii points traversing Fluid and 1 and velocity the velocity velocity must radial the
Transfer for all turbomachines Second 2-1 axis point the at Law represents of rotation 1, passes 2. The angle, of steady inlet for and the the mass into The the rotor bearing. gives velocity rotor rise compofor and state outlet of the is rein
of Motion a rotor and through directions points is asare flow three change gives The to
as applied
turbomachine,
at point arbitrary
rotor
rl and
r2. A condition the values can discussed components be taken by velocity axial nor motion change that results average vectors
vectors
representing outlet
(except and
effect
of bearing
radius
tangential
angular
momentum
and
rotor products
torque
is equal
to
the
between or
the
inlet
and
of tangential
force
r:(F_r)_--(F,,r)2
(2-7) 25
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
where net F_ r torque, m; ft equation to V=V (1-34) in the and tangential setting direction, w=m/t yields integrating from N-m; force, lb-ft N; lb tangential radius,
Applying V=O
at t=O
at t=t,
_w_ Vu F,,--g where w g rate of mass flow, constant, equation kg/sec; lb/sec (lbm) (2-7) (ft)/(lbf)(seC) then yields conversion 1; 32.17 (2-8) into
(2-8)
Substituting
T =--
Yu,
lrl
w V,.2r2
=-
(2-9)
Power angular
(rate
of energy
transfer)
is equal
and
J -gJ
(2-10)
where P J Since
roo:V
net
power,
W;
angular conversion
velocity, constant,
(2-11)
we can
where (2-13)
enthalpy, (2-12)
in
J/kg
yields
(2-14)
J t
as hi--h2. basic the rotor terms. work must The equation equation. way be accounted equation for All all the forms energy of turbotransfer difference it Euler
Equation
is stated,
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
be seen the
that
be positive equation the Euler with diagrams radial Actually, although the
is consistent done form. an for the by the This inlet the can
energy
of figure
which
axial-flow planes.
is assumed at the
neces-
following
derivation
be made From
a general (2-4)
equations
(2-15) (2-16)
Vx, 1 = Wx, 1
Wu, 1
Ul
of rotation ''e*
Direction
V_. _z E'
u2
\
'- Vu, 2
FIGURE
2-4.--Rotor
section
with
inlet-
and
exit-velocity-vector
diagrams.
27
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
W,_=W*-(V,,-U)
Since Vx= Wz, combining equations (2-15)
2
and (2-17) U2 yields
(2-17)
V 2- V,,2=W Therefore,
_- V,,2+2UV_
(2-18)
UV,,= 1 (V_+U2-W
Now, adding subscripts for inlet and outlet
2)
yields
(2-19)
U1V.,,
1 (V_+U2
W2 )
(2-20)
1 U2V _ _:-2 (W+U_2-W_ _) Inserting yields Ah'--2gJ Equation relation. By (2-22) definition, 1 (V2 V2_+U__U2_+W2_ Wt2 ) these values into the Euler equation (eq. (2-14))
(2-21)
finally
(2-22)
is an
alternative
form
of
the
basic
energy-transfer
Vl _
V__
2gJ (2-23) equation (2-23)
Ah'=hl--h2=hl+-_--h2. Therefore, shows that comparison of equation 1 Ah:h_--h2=_gj Thus, in static change of terms transfer. the U 2 and enthalpy in absolute are W 2 terms across kinetic the (UI2-U22 of equation rotor, while across to as energy referred Blade As mentioned tum the of the rotor. fluid The change is actually fluid flows a centrifugal previously, that in results following tangential transferred through force acts (2-22)
with
rotor.
sometimes
components
Loading change transfer and the on it in the of energy figure and passage in the 2-5 the tangential from concern way in momenthe fluid the which pair pressure to the of cause
between
each of the
direction
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
Stations
f
Flow
sur,_ce J \\1
/ /- Suction surface "_ ]
I
Flow
Axial chord
pll
Pl
Axial distance
FIGURE
2-5.--Blade
row
with
surface
static-pressure
distribution.
29
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
(concave) surface. Since the free to move in the direction must be established its curved and toward passage surface. resulting to balance through the flow in the suction The
and, therefore, force, a pressure force and directed Thus, and on the turn the
is highest distribution
of static
pressure
is illustrated distance. At where the tion value. flowing point, trailing crease the
velocity becomes The stagnation to On the the exit the along two the pressure
zero and the pressure point is the dividing sides blade surface, and curve The of the surfaces the then blade. static increase in decreases
reaches its stagnapoint for the fluid From pressure back figure curves the toward will up 2-5 to stagnation the the is blade deexit called often
suction pressure
pressure. The pressure-distribution the the blade-loading blade force diagram. acting in the
the
represents
tangential
in a stationary
relative
to the
h"__h+2_
where examine through to equation h" is relative what the happens (2-25), rotor. total to enthalpy, relative (2-24)
J
in J/kg or Btu/lb. as the Now fluid
(2-25)
let us
total
enthalpy we substitute
flows
If in equation we get
for W 2 according
h '2'-- h ',' -Therefore, through For quently, constant We enthalpy. 3O can the purely we see that rotor axial no change for the also This define is flow, rotor the where flow relative only there speed, process.
U_-- UI_ 2 gJ total is no the enthalpy is a change change relative total of the in the in radius enthalpy to relative T". fluid blade and,
(2-26)
changes in blade
if there
that
corresponds temperature,
called
total
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
behavior
and
constant
heat
capacity
can
be
assumed, (2-27)
h"--h=%(T"--T) capacity at constant K; pressure, R equation W 2 T" From and equation relative total (1-51) and -= T _- 2gJc-_ (2-28), related
V__W 2
J/(kg)(K);
Btu/(lb)(R)
absolute
Combining
with
(2-25)
then
yields
equation are
temperatures
T'--
T"--
-2gJc_ write T_') shows U_-- V12 2gJcp like remains defined a relative relative constant as the total for pressure that
(2-29)
For
the
rotor
flow
process,
we can
(2-30)
isentropically
velocity
W and
p. Therefore,
where p" _, relative total pressure, N/m2; at lb/ft 2 pressure to heat capacity at
constant
From
equation
(1-52),
we also
see that
p"
p' For crease, the rotor or remain and flow on process, the
(T"y/(-,-')
=\--_-;,T/ (2-33) total on purely pressure the change axial can flow, increase, relative detotal total 31
constant,
in relative
temperature
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
pressure it must We
constant
only Mach
if the number W
a
flow Mr_
is isentropic; as
otherwise,
a relative
M,_=
(2-34)
and
a relative
critical
velocity
as
Wct=a_.,_=_l where
gRT"
(2-35)
We,
act, ttt
velocity, of sound
R Then, and
and T,,--1 3,+1 Reaction The enthalpy) portant energy classifying of reaction, types fraction that way of of total energy by a exit transfer a change turbine kinetic in stage. energy used Reaction (change static The is one in both in absolute is one in is the parameter change in in way total imof kinetic degree for static total total total _ (2-37)
is used
for classifying
of velocity
an important as the
correlating losses. Stage reaction.--Stage enthalpy enthalpy enthalpy enthalpy through we can across across across across the write stator. tile the the the rotor
as a fraction
enthalpy detiIlition
constant reaction,
According
to the
(2-38)
the
to con-
upstream
downstream
of the
respectively.
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
The
preceding
equation
for equations
reaction (2-22)
can
be and
expressed (2-24)
in into
terms equation.
of
R.,,-Reaction (U_2--U_ Zero stage rotor, can 2) and reaction design. and all be positive, (W2_--Wl_). is one If Rst0=0, the work
(2-39)
values
of
value is no the
that
change stage
absolute kinetic energy across the stage. This stage is called an impulse stage. In the general case where the fluid enters and leaves the rotor at different and radii, enthalpy an equal an impulse in one effect. change For in stage the may other axial result direction flow, of relative WI= W2. basis of in For from by the having a change (U 2) by in only. the static Thus, of static effect direction purely contributed centrifugal change
relative-velocity
enthalpy must be caused by a change an axial-flow impulse stage must have Some pressure definition people in the in terms define rotor impulse rather than pressure is due on the no to
no static
in
change losses.
enthalpy. flow,
is approximately
used herein. The definitions exactly Simple windmill, from the lawn rotation. Blade-row energy energy to that kinetic blade-row stage For at the blade energy reaction. a stator examples or the sprinkler
isentropic
are by
the the
child's impingement
the is
a stationary
A simple
develol)ed
energies
stator to the
change
enthalpy.
reaction
an effect
represented
blade
row,
reaction
is defined
as
R,,
(2-40) is defined
where
as
Rs, is stator
reaction.
33
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
--W22--W1_=
to-W22
l
-
W12
W22
(2-41)
The
0, 1, and of the is
2 refer stator,
respectively. blade-row energies. except (i.e., defined is in appear definition velocities than V2).
the
power
squared
V rather
Turbine For formation velopment when this the fact presented gas-law shown peratures pressure, veniently all adiabatic expansion of work)
Process the maximum or energy ratio from and the With pressure energy transfer trans(de-
is isentropic. a little
be proven discussion.
we will not
do it here), this
we will illustrate previously by temtemperature, we can conexpansion diagram. against with from
constant-heat-capacity energies and energy and temperature entropy all the by being ideal
assumptions, we have changes can be represented Therefore, and with actual variables (isentropic) of interest,
changes.
and
represent
means of a temperature-entropy diagram is a plot of temperature pressure. decreasing Since pressure, entropy as can and
of constant
increases be seen
Constant-entropy-
b.-
E
Pl > P2 > P3 E
b--
I
Entropy, s
FIGURE
2-6.--Typical
temperature-entropy
diagram.
34
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
the
of in
the
coastant-entropy-1)rocess or A increasing diverge; temperature increasing. the each be turbine shown combined T-s, 2-6. At constant-entropy values therefore, difference
thermodynamics diagram of at looks process temperature increasing between process T-s a single any will diagram. diagram. like is repre-
chapter example sented entropy, of constant For divided These The the given
temperature-entropy, figure line. curves the is also of clarity, steps, with will then
four diagrams represent the stator expansion process relation between absolute and relative conditions
P()" id P'L
_,,_Jc-T_= T_ TO
Ti
Tj'
------7
vl
p?
i.--
p_
/
P_'
T_'
Ti' : T_'
T_
2gJcp >2gJCp P2 T2
hl--_
T2 ....
CPl
(c)
l Entropy, s
(d)
(a)
Expansion
process
across
stator.
(b)
Relation relative
and
(c)
Expansion
process
across
rotor.
(d)
Relation absolute
and
FIGURE
2-7.--Temperature-entropy flow
diagrams turbine.
for
flow-process
axial-
35
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
exit blades
(fig.
expansion relation (fig. 2-7(d)). expansion represent expansion. vertical isentropic, 1,id. The increase that than we the
relative relative across static between with final state and kinetic
to
the
moving absolute The total at each state If that from by ideal in be (1-51).
(fig.
and the
conditions Figure four state point the state the by the indicated 0 to small pressures and
stator.
constant-pressure is represented total the expansion state arrows. actual process 1 with It
point
in accordance
equation would
process
would analyze
process. As mentioned terms of relative the absolute and are gies terms represent expansion. If the related and total expansion of the the For expansion The
previously,
flow
conditions. Figure 2-7(b) shows the relation between relative total states at the stator exit. These states and across conditions. and relative axial the the absolute rotor The total flow the and is shown four is relative in figure before so would and that kinetic 2-7(c) curves after T;'= indicated the T_'. enin are indicated in the figure.
constant-pressure
simplicity, 2,id. by
isentropic,
final
be that
The actual process proceeds from state 1 to the small arrows, with an increase in entropy. that the relative would and be kinetic energy by states related at one relative by being, Note the ignore that line 2-8, the alone. across subscript where subIn the 2,id the developed an at ideal the isenstage is less the figure and 2-7 static, than relative 2-7(d). absolute are now developed total are energies into and
be noted
process between in
is shown
These
tropically, and the exit are indicated. The shown state through enthalpy point figure script figure entire 36 (p_, 2-7(c), the 2,id 2-8, stage four as diagrams figure
2-8. for
processes the
turbine state
differences is not to
of the
figure.
it is on
subscript stator
expansion of the
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
T_" T_
i1 ii
=_ _Po \
P2
Ah'
(h6Ahid
lh ---j,,J
T1
T_
Ca
T' 2, id
T2 TZ id
diagram
is,
therefore, from
used than
It turbine could
is
obvious process
obtained process
(as represented
represented
by
Blade-Row Since parameter used actual blade for turbine this blade purpose rows do not
Efficiency operate efficiency, by the ideal isentropically, One exit common kinetic which we need a
to express
blade-row divided
performance.
is blade-row
is defined
V_I
(2-42)
where
is stator
efficiency. 2-7(a). By
The
relation
between
V_ (1-51),
and
2 Vl._a
is
applying
equations
(1-52),
and
\pod
(2-43)
Wi _'=W_, ,d
where Vro is rotor in figure efficiency. 2-7(c). The For relation axial between flow, W_ and
(2-44)
W_._d
is indicated
purely
37
TURBINE
D]_SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
(2-45)
row,
for a specified
pressure. sometimes
as an efficiency, e=l--n
(2-46)
where total
e is the pressure.
loss coefficient. also can be expressed of this type used ideal for Axial
t
in have
terms been
of a loss used,
in
coefficients
each
normalizing parameter Inlet total pressure, exit head have all been used
purpose
Stator:
I
rotor:
/I It
y,
po--pl,
Po
f f
YTo-_P-'
ff
--P2,,
PI
_f
(2-47a)
v'
Po--p___._ "--P;--Pl
! !
'
(2-47b)
V"
"Po--Pl
Y"o
P_
P2
p2
--P2
(2-47c)
't--P--_--pl
Y,
and
Y"
are can
loss These
Relations totalsimply
and
number Stage
dependency.
Efficiencies when isentropic, The energy above the which the expansion we need parameter as the transfer. The are or from that a
or stage is isentropic.
process
or stage to
efficiency, ideal
of actual efficiency
isentropic apply
several different discussed in the Overall stage or the we 38 stage turbine are process. to
overall
in the
inlet
discussing
aerodynamic
efficiency
present,
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
considering seal friction. We will turbine. however, energy. absolute in figure Now to do total
due
such
as bearing done by
and the
work
definition
used
most herein
occasionally, l)lus exit kinetic decrease is indicated available inlet, the is available in
we must work
energy At the
on the is ahvays
conditions. kinetic
state
used
energy
for conversion conditions are used. plenum, energy shaft for expand the If the then could work
At the turbine or stage exit., static and total conditions are sometimes kinetic is just a case, because with total state energy wasted. have it zero would would in tile would stages they on the on energy basis most gas and, are may basis the we use is dissipated, This been the exit be wasted static desirable energy. the as in a kinetic to state to In exit
turbine
exhaust-flow energy In static the such work been turbine. 1)ut to use
exit kinetic
if it could
converted
in the to
state exit
this desirable static state. If we were the loss. are shaft kinetic The carried work.
considering energy from energies to the the turbine total before turbine state the the last other
a multistage only next the stage, stages are last the leaving stage
situation, as a but to static exit purof this to velocity the total cases based inlet The and are on exit total a wasted,
be considered converted of their a useful work example be expanded a high between the inlet The of these work
is rated
of its exit
condition, while total conditions. In pose, from case high leaving The total exit effi('iency total rel)resented in(licated in the exit total kinetic energy) efficien('y between the cases the the is the velocity the and where entire exit
serves
computed
jet-engine
a waste. work culled total seen that available the static between efficiency. for each the ideal efficiency.
available decrease
conditions figure
conditions
be less (as long on the exit static static with efficiency, increasing
is always
difference energy. 39
increasing
kinetic
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Overall
turbine
efficiency
_ and
stage
efficiency
_tg
are
defined
by
similar equations. The inlet and exit conditions, stage. Overall turbine
in and ex are used to denote turbine of the subscripts 0 and 2 used for the can be expressed as
efficiency
(2-48a)
and
assumptions,
this
T;.
Overall turbine total efficiency is expressed
J
as
(2-48b)
(2-49a)
and
constant-heat-capacity
assumptions,
this
._, _ T_
T'_.--T',_ [1 --\p_--_-/ _('-'>"] (P-_= are similarly defined but overall performance efficiency (2-49b)
Stage
total
and
static
efficiencies e3_ciency
with
the
appropriate Relation efficiency turbine. stages effect (2-48b) a given which ture figure perature stage though the the gram, 4O
subscripts. of turbine is useful However, to stage a true efficiency.--The overall of the turbine of the of the as a measure of the
it is not the
indication
comprising hidden in or (2-49b) stage gas the gas is then all the
the turbine. There is an inherent thermodynamic overall turbine efficiency expression. If equation were written ratio the of one the of and stage. stage following delivering stages still by The may for a stage, stage For appear stage have it could the be seen energy to as can form work. the on same the the that transfer, teml)eratemeven and diarepresents for efficiency, is prol)ortional a turbine, in the (T_T2,_,).
pressure would entering losses entering capable individual turbine of stages. can as
be (To--T_),
additional del)ends
pressure
means solid
figure
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
Pk
k _ \\ 1
b---
E
D
i '
\\ A,'i .,tg
\
_\ Ahld: stg
E
D b--
\I:
\\
Ahld, stg
2,id
Entropy, s
FIGURE
2-9.--Temperature-entropy
diagram turbine.
showing
reheat
effect
in a multistage
isentropic dashed taking The difference with p_), that greater constant E-F ing the and which the sum the line place
pressure process having each As lines Hence, by the of work lines stages, that represented from
exit
pressure
p_.
represents
turbine stage is
actual
,7_tg Ah_,.stt, pressure second stage is greater for this stage E-F
Ah_d. stg is
a stage.
of temperature isentropic by of by virtue than work it turbine work A-B. the B-2,id. for can ideal the
between of entropy. represented Thus, the inefficiency actual With three work be seen
of constant the the line C-D work previous will C-D, 2; by the and Z Ah;dstg
increases than
isentropic
efficiency,
be greater. and
is greater
0-A,
of these,
41
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
The to these
total two
actual be values
turbine must
work by
from
the
expansion _tg
from
Po and
P'2 can
represented
Ah',d or
Z Ah'_.,t,,
be equal. -'Ah'
(2-50)
or
, _-_
z ah,_.,,, Ah'_
(2-51)
_Ah_d,
the
turbine
overall
isentropic
is not
the stage isentropic efficiencies, or _' _tg. in turbines is called the "reheat" effect. with the which for process is also calculating stage pressure of adding called overall ratio heat turbine p_/p_ from an "reheat".
be confused
efficiency and
constant
efficiency
-,
_1 --
I--
1--_,t_ 1 --\_oo/
1--\_-]
( p i t nt(.y_ l)l_, ]
J)
(2-52)
where n is the number be found in reference The on the not higher sirable In order ciency fact that stage ratio, pressure
of stages. 1. efficiency raises of two of their is helped all reheat small a gas where a true
The
of this efficiency,
equation
can
differs machines by
consideration. of different behavior, effect. would from to increment It efficiency have reheat this
of turbine a true
pressure to be able
to express
to eliminate
pressure vp. By
of isentropic
the
definition,
(2-53)
__)(_-
z,l_]
(2-54)
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
These
are
not Some be
quite
rigorously ignore to
with that
the the
efficiency differential tial make the be the Using evaluation rather the
authors
the stage,
is no change is used in
d T'----d T. However,
(2-55)
and
exit
yields
In _(2-56) z/P--7-"Y
1 In p_"
Pex
Equation
(2-56)
can
be written
as
infinitesimal-stage efficiency, is also method where a l)olytropic for the the known
_p is effect
the This
l)olytropic polytropic
irreversible for
constant,
Substituting
l)olytropic
T,n
{p,n'_
(n-l)/n
\p,,!
Equations process relate were l)olytropic (2-57) to and efficiency (2-58) as and are the very similar, and if as the
(2-5s)
turbine we couhl
be expressed
a ])olytroi)ic polytrol)ic
process, exponent
then
n--1
n
-),--1
?
(2-59)
If we neglect
inlet
and
exit,
kinetic
energies
for
the
overall
turbine 43
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
process, ciency.
we Actual
can
relate
turbine drop
overall could
efficiency be expressed
to as
polytropic
effi-
temperature
T_ _Te_='_T_,
or
1 J
(2-60)
_1
(_-e_)
_'{(_-
1)/_]
L -\_/
Equating (2-60) with (2-61) then yields
k
J
(2-61)
_=1--\_/
(2-62)
is
in
The
two
apeffi-
other the
pressure efficiencies
approach
pressure
.9-Turbine
-
pressure
r_tio /.,///
_.,,_
09 ---.8 B
b---
.5
1
.7 Turbine
I
,8 poly_ropic efficiency, ffp
I
.9
I
1.0
FIGURE
2-10.--Relation
between Specific
overall 7, 1.4.
and
polytropic
efficiencies.
44
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
DIMENSIONLESS Dimensionless classify number introduced turbine of the and parameters geometry, serve and
more commonly used dimensionless discussed in this section. The basis is dimensional Dimensional analysis. Analysis that allows
dimensionless
parameters
Dimensional comprising light taining the sional that number some procedure on the two variables
is a procedure relation relation. number variables. to include relation equation term the forming 1)rocedure may The
of variables throw each will once some the conbe and states of a of
to be arranged
so that
of the
It is a procedure of dimensionless number all the between is the variables them. The of such
for grouping groups basis in the of the group. from reference problem basic
into
a smaller
at least
to represent
of dimenform powers The formal pertinent 1, which of fluid physical ratios geometrical rather than change of the analysis based effect Mach Froude exnumbers of relations. of
7r-Theorem, a product
which
be expressed
representing dimensionless
obtaining
variables is presented served as the basis for Application flow yields relations. dimensions, term the implies actual The ratios that magnitude
in many texts, this discussion. analysis into ratios dimensionless and linear (as a ratio
of the
represent The
of linear dimension
dimensions), by itself,
is a con trolling
factor. Another of pressure in fluid. based on These viscous effects; number), number, pressing are the The matic, similitude. ]'his on an is
term expresses the fluid to the a basic fluid. flow There of a real Reynolds Weber parameter expresses expresses effects, parameters of dimensionless
the ratio of the force inertia force due to characteristic other that which for dimensionless modify are fluid, number,
parameter
various
which
number, (which
an elasticity
a gas effects.
effects; Reynolds
fluid
Mach
flow. as ratios _o are the such of geometric, idea that of similarity all the dimen45 kineor
dynamic two
quantities operating
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
terms separate
have
the
same then
value,
of the physical
individual conditions
variables, physical
exactly similarity
Complete
ity, which means that the linear same; (2) kinematic similarity, are the same; and (3) dynamic of the different forces are the physical can similarity is the inexpensive to the than is ever operation full-size severe be approached sufficiently experiments machine. with
which means that is doubtful whether for most to be of smaller performed use practical utility. linear with ambient be of great
attained,
scale
Another condition.
of similarity
of machines at some
at or near
conditions
design
Turbomachine Application flow results in are rows parameters the blade of dimensional the previously
mentioned
detailed examination of flow within In addition, dimensional analysis operational characterin the relation of head flow rate, of the of the and fluid. more power The impor-
has great utility in the analysis of the overall istics. For any turbomachine, we are interested (for compressible in conjunction following variables tant relations : Volume Head, Power, Rotative Characteristic Fluid Fluid Fluid From drop lation, density, viscosity, elasticity, these variables, flow H, J/kg P, rate, flow, _4th are this size, used relates speed, to ideal and the work),
properties some
to demonstrate or ft3/sec
Q, m3/sec
or (ft)(lbf)/lbm
W or Btu/sec speed, N, linear rad/sec or rev/min D, nt or ft 3 _-or lbm/(ft) 2 groups in order can be formed. the If we manipu(sec)
dimension,
N/m 2 or lbf/ft
conversion
to ease as
dimensionless
be expressed
(2-63)
form further
by
coefficient.
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
rel)resented
as Q VA VI) 2 V V (2-64)
Thus, the capacity coefficient is equivalent to V/U, and a given value of Q/ND 3 implies a l)articular relation of fluid velocity Io blade speed or, in kinematic terms, similar velocity diagrams. The head is expressed in dimensionless form I)v H/N21) ', whi(,h is called the head coefficient. This can be rel)rcscnted as H H N 2D,_a: -_
(2-65)
Thus, a given value of t./N2D 2 iml)lies a particular rclatiol_ of hea_l to rotor kinetic energy, or dynamic similarity. The term P/pN3D 5 is _t power coefficient. It represents the actual power And thus is related to the capacity and hea(t coefficients, as well as to the efficiency. The term pND2/u is the Reynolds number, or viscous effect coefficient. Its effect on overall turbine 1)erformance, while still iml)ortant, can be regarded AS secondary. Ti_e Reynolds number effect will be discussed separately later in this chapter. The term E/aN2D 2 is the compressibility coefficient. Its effect depends on the level of .XIach number. At low NIach number, where the gas is relatively incoml)ressible, the effect is negligible or very secondary. As NIach number increases, the compressibility effect becomes increasingly significant. Velocity-Diagram Parameters
We have seen that the ratio of fluid velocity to blade velocity and the ratio of fluid energy to blade energy are inq)ortant factors required for achieving similarity in turbomachines. Since completely similar machines shouhl perform similarly, 'these factors become iml)ortanl as a means for correlating performance. Since the fa('tor._ I_/'U aud H/U z are rclatc(I to the velocity (liagrams, factors of this type ar(, refcrrc(I to as velocity-diagram I)aramcters. Several velocity-(liagram parameters are co,mnonly us(,_l ill t_,rt)illc work. NIost of these arc ,ise(l I)rim'trily with rcsl)e('t to axial-ttox_ turbines. One of these parameters is the speed-work parameter X::U 2
gJ/W 'Fh(_ re(:ipro('al of the sl)ce(l-work parameter is also oflcn use_l, aml it 47
(2-66
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
is referred
to as the
loading
factor 1 =X--
coefficient
(2-67)
For
an axial-flow
turbine,
we can
(2-68)
Therefore,
equations
(2-66)
and X=
(2-67)
can
be expressed
as (2-69)
--AV_ is the U
p_ "_fj
Another
l)arameter
often
used
blade-jet
speed
ratio
(2-70)
in m/see velocity st, atie or ft/sec. The to across jet, the the
jet, from
or spouting,
velocity That
corresponding (:onditions
Vj2= 2gJ,_h,,_ Substitution of equation (2-71) back into equation (2-70) yields
(2-71)
U _= -7-= _ 2gJAh,d A relation parameter the static can between the definition zXh' n =Sh-_ The resultant relation is v= _/____ _ This must speed shows also ratio that related is related frequently if efficiency onh to to the used is a funclion other. actual While diagram the of ()ne of these the speed-work diagram, and to the parameter the Is veloc)tv blade-jet by speed ratio and (.2-66) the and
(2-72)
be obtained
use of equations
efficiency
(2-73)
be a function
of the
is directh Another 48
velocity
velocity-diagram
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
factor,
or flow
coefficient
(2-75)
The flow coefficient can be related to the loading coefficient as follows:
v, / v,
By using equation (2-69) and the velocity-diagram (V,,. ,'_ al kAVu / geometry, we get (2-77)
_=#
cot
The term Vu. I/AV,, cannot be completely specific types of velocity diagrams, such next each can angle. It related parameters. next one section of the chapter. efficiency. or the two flow is thus to each This and Where We seen that In be will for these shown type generally For are other required. is usually to four for chapter, of the this function different term becomes type types a function of velocity (a different for each in terms
generalized. However, as will be discussed in of loading diagram). the and coefficient Therefore, flow the
alone
of velocity of the
diagrams,
coefficient stator
be expressed
loadingcoefficient velocity-diagram efficiency an more general is use the general can idealized diagram required
other.
addition,
a somewhat
of velocity
is specified,
velocity-diagram
parameters a more
speed-work efficiency
One parameter must the loading coefficient. Parameters how speed static ratio. (W_: assume _'= static diagram that
Efficiency
mathematically
blade-jet
(total energy.
efficiency The
kinetic
efficiency
h'o-h'2 Ah' ,7-- h--h2. ,_ --_h,_ Substitution of equation (2-68) into equation (2-78) yichts
(2-78)
49
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
a1
Vu,1 j/
V2
Wu, 2
FIGURE
2-11.--Velocity-vector
diagram
for
an
axial-flow,
impulse
stage.
(2-79)
zxV,,=V_,,-V_,z
From the assumptions we adopted, W_. 2= --W_. 1 From equations V,.2=W,.5+ (2-6), (2-81), and (2-80), we get 1- U) + U=V_.I+2U (Wl---- W2) and (W,._= W,.2) and the
convention
U=-W,._+U=-(V,.
(2-82) and AV.=V..,I--V.,2=V..1--(--V..,+2U)--2V..I--2U From the velocity-diagram geometry V_, 1= V1 sin m Since flow is isentropic and the Vl=_ Substitution 50 of equations (2-84) turbine 2gJAh_e and (2-85) into equation stage is of the impluse (2-84) type (2-85) (2-83) (2-83)
(h2, _d=h_=hl),
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
yields AVe=2 Substitution of equation sin al_/2gJAhia-2U (2-86) back into 4U _ 2gJAh_ speed ratio from equation (2-87) (2-72) (2-88) case and in The any constant ratio for of equa2-12 equation (2-79) (2-86) yields
4U sin al _--4'2gJAh_a Now using the finally yields definition of blade-jet n=4z, Equation stator only. an 0.88 jet tion exit The (2-88) angle, variation with ratio and shows static a stator at a blade-jet can be found the setting that
efficiency exit
is a function
of blade-jet figure
speed efficiency
is parabolic
of 70 . A maximum ratio
optimum
blade-
differentiating
to zero:
Vo_t--
(2-89)
I
.2
I
.4 Blade-jet
I
.6 speed ratio, v
I
.8 1.0
FIGURE
2-12.--Effect
of axial-flow,
blade-jet impulse
speed stage.
ratio Stator
on
static exit
efficiency angle, 70 .
of
an
isentropic,
51
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Since the
the sine
stator of the
exit angle
angle does
range the
of 60 to 80 , where optimum of this very blade-iet type would and the and, is a
speed ratio for most cases of interest be in the range of 0.4 to 0.5. Equation specific. ideal indeed, very Likewise, While case, good the it does. (2-88) the We basic and levels find other figure and that parameter 2-12 values trend for
will differ
parabolic
a real for
and
efficiency.
parameters.
The operation turbomachines tion (2-63). This less parameters dimension D variables machines would variables Such groups. speed be
of dimensional analysis led to the dimensionless does not, however, exhaust that would sizes. apply can as / Q \l/2/N2D2\3/4 parameter is found are possible. be desirable to Also, because, to be a range in found this by
on the variables relating to parameters shown in equathe number of dimensionthe linear remaining turbospeed remaining speeds. previous specific as the N having of the rotative of two known the of the
A parameter not because values of geometrically not case, at combining D is having values
apply
similar
all rotative
NQI/2
When exit
used
for
the
volume
NE),/2
flow
rate
is taken
at the
stage
or turbine
(2-91)
The Ds and
parameter is found as
that
excludes
is known
as the
specific
diameter
stage
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
volume flow rate H in foot-pounds of units, to be the Specific presented specific the less because it is specified
Qe_ in cubic per pound, speed units and are value total-to-static not
feet per second, ideal work, and diameter D in feet. With diameter The but value can (hh_). be related blade to the speed is are head not truly for consistent. (5h;_), H is usually
specific
dimensionconvenience, previously
sometimes,
The
(2-95) equations
ratio Some
differing cases,
in defining
eliminating
efficiency
parameter parameter
expressed
speed-work (2-96)
substituting
(2-97)
Specific coefficient.
speed The
can is
also
be related
to
the
flow
where (2-91),
A_x
is
the
exit
flow and
area, (2-75)
in
m 2 or
(2-93),
(2-94),
with
equation
NsD,
(2-99)
Since diagram
specific
speed
and
specific can
velocitythen 53
parameters,
which
efficiency,
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
speed speed
and
diameter diameter
can
also contain
be
used variables
to
velocity-diagram flow rate, and equation diameter also often (2-99), are dictate
parameters do not. These are diameter their use leads to terms, such as D2/Aex that referred the type imply to shape. to as design Thus, as specific shape speed since sometimes referred of design Overall parameters.
and volume appearing in and the specific They shape are will
sometimes
parameters,
to be selected. Parameters that entire be some that used we have When represent to correlate parameters and stages. encountered been discussing can
be applied equal
turbine.
applied similar
efficiency. serve
of these
the type of design that rapid means for estimating The parameters: Overall specific speed following are
most
__
No1/2
___e, H3/4
(2-100)
D"_H1/'
(2-101)
;=
U..
(2-103)
av refers to the its only, on the specific to value while nature speed the overall
to value
some for
the most
supersiggen(2-100)
because depend
application
considerations overall
parameters considerations
contribute
value
specific
speed.
(2-104)
54
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
where flow
volume as
at exit,
in m3/sec JP
or ft3/lb.
Also,
let
mass
w----_
_'H
and (2-105) into
(2-105)
Then, (2-100)
substitution yields
of
equations
(2-104)
equation
-_,=1_.7 Thus, three gas useful choice by the in other of N The and the terms. and the overall The specific first term The
,=\ be expressed depends as the only This product which second term
oo)
of can is a ; performance, on the specified
be reasonably
effects that different fluids on the turbine. The third both by the rotative rather application. specific speed the overall speed than and
(in cases where term is dictated are specified values the tur-
power
N_/J__,
the
individual influences
is established
axial flow
flow
[
.2
I
.3
I
.4
I
.5
I
.6
I
.7
I
.8
I
.9
I
1.0
I
1.1
I
1.2
I
1.3
I
20
I
30
I
40
I
50
I
60
I
70
I
80
I
90
I
100
I
110
I
120
I
DO
I
140
I
150
I
160
) Specific speed, Ns, ( ft3/4 )(Ibm314 )/(min)(sec 112)(ibf3/4 t FIGURE 2-13.--Effect of specific speed on turbine-blade shape.
55
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
in
2-13
for example
turThe specific
with the
axial-flow ratio.
decreases
specific
application indicates the type The values of some of the proximation Dividing for stage of the equation specific number (2-100) speed yields N_
that will be required. give us a rapid apa given application. (2-91) by equation
speed
Qe_
1/2 (2-107)
the stage,
reheat we can
effect, write
which
is small,
and
assume
equal
head
H=nH Further, these yields n:(NsY/3 last if the two expansion effect conditions and ratio assume into is not that equation too large, (2-107) we and can
compressibility
Qe_:-Q_:._t_.
Substitution rearrangement
(2-109)
\NJ
Since assume specific application number discussed from stage speed. basis metrically parameter assuming suming equal the stage specific can in order speed tell speed us is a correlating value level specific (2-109) parameter of stage speed gives us on of efficiency. for specific Thus, known an this is often value for of be the the efficiency, speed with from estimate estimate is presented. obtained for the overall blade on the parato the for is stage experience a reasonable a given and effect overall equation 2, where of estimate speed-work parameter. however, value Or, (2-102) blade per stage, speed
of compressibility a compressibility for number and of speed speed (2-66) overall the turbine parameter Knowledge requires of blade blade for for equation of stages
A similar
speed-work
parameter, a reasonable
be selected varied
if desired. a constant
ah' =n h'
56
(2-110)
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
Equations studies
(2-109) associated
and with
(2-111) preliminary
parametric
analyses. Parameters in equation Another to w the (2-63) choice volume are of flow
Performance The perfectly variables, performance. rate Change which actual ideal ratio, number equivalent istic eluded viscosity constant. Now, as temperature. work work Q because of considerably turbomachinery correct however, The for for
machines. expressing of
preferred
nondimensional Q changes constant. to H, and to Ah'. Since temperature a characterare assumed inand weight, 3' is initial express Since Mach is pressure
mass any
w is preferred while
expansion, remains is
for compressible
pressure
specific initial on
or drop temperature
enthalpy variable. of
as on the
we include depends
N and
dimension
properties ratio
a molecular
the
dimensional
analysis
produces .
following:
w_/RT,.
-, P; D_
ratio but
-- Icn_R-_n'
, -_ ) _/ RT,,,'_T"--7 'P_
assumed terms constant, modifying to see may law, there the what and flow,
ND
p,..
(2-113) would be
If the
specific
heat
had
not
been
some complicated, and speed terms. Let we can by using tionality us operate get out
work,
on
some The
of them.
mass-flow
be transformed
RT .
(2-114) 57
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
of this
relation
into
the
mass
flow
parameter
of equation
Thus, the
the critical,
mass mass
flow flow
rate rate
by velocity
the
ratio equals
of actual The
or sonic, parameter
speed
U U oc ,-7-_,_, oc-_]RT't,, _RT,_ ac, Thus, Mach parameter implication fluid certain machine singular with the have fixed the rotative speed Division V/U, analysis Mach with dimensions, as for of the in order the is represented to the critical of the is that number, respect to nondimensionally velocity, mass-flow for but the which parameter of not must velocity. rotative but must becomes be inlet is by a kind by only For speed is similarity.
(2-116)
velocity
of rotor
kinematic
also
incompressible effect
All variables
of varying
dimensionless as
parameters
presented
expressed
(2-117)
p_---_ -_-Icn _T-'
For
a given
gas
in a given
turbine,
the
parameters
further
reduce
to
_=fcn
_-r,
--7'
-r-,
(2-118)
on
the
particular or
case, (2-118)
the can
parameters be used
presented to express
in equaturbine
(2-117),
Equivalent It and 58 is very specific useful and heat to report pressure This ratio.
of temperature
of fluid
in order
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
different easily sure, known of these Let constant. subscript can then us used 101 as following
be
directly
and
compared atmospheric
and
N/m
518.7 R; molecular NACA performance variables standard use With the the
standard
of flow,
expressed
known
conditions similarity
eq denoting be expressed
(2-119)
(2-120)
of
these
equations
then
yields
for
the
equivalent
p',. w,q.=w
Ah_q-----,_h
taT' ta ,
RT',_
(2-122)
(2-123)
(2-124)
by
As you may recall, assuming constant the case, Let us The yield ratio since now fluid. do not heat only
we started off the discussion of these specific heat ratio for all conditions. specific add heat ratio can change effect that but out left with into are only depend a specific-heat-ratio corrections all conditions, that are terms, are terms number, effect under the
parameters This is not temperature the at above critical on both with, the With conditions commonly
parameters.
velocity. have
to work
a very
on equivalent
conditions.
specific-heat-ratio
59
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
8q--
V_.v_,,.J \p,.:
---t
(2-125)
_:,=t,h' ,,,_7 )
N_q_ where Nj(V_'d.) '
(2-126)
(2-127)
.>,,S. _2 V,;(,,,:,)
"\%,,+1/ (2-128)
.d__Ly<.,-,,
'\,y+ 1/
2 27 V<,--_-_l gRT' ratio, (2-124). equations (2-125) (2-129)
for
constant
specific (2-122)
heat to
to
(2-
to equations we define
0=(
kYcr.
Vc,
8ldl #
)2
(2-130)
and .--_--P-_",
Pstd
(2-131)
The
equivalent
conditions
are
then
expressed
as
w,q=w
(2-132)
_kh
_'_--
0 N
(2-133)
Neq=_ One operation of both reduce effect the point actual that can be seen flow of and from these than similarity speed. of jet Effect number was Both equations will cause of these example aircraft
greater a powerplant.
standard
a reduction
A well-known
is the reduction
in takeoff Reynolds
on hot
The to 6O be
effect one of
of viscosity the
in the
of Reynolds
shown
dimensionless
parameters
affecting
turbomachine
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
performance.
While
its
effect
is secondary,
it is still
important. correlated
The in
effect of Reynolds number the following manner: Expressing efficiency 7' we can write as
on turbine
efficiency
is usually
A '
hh'_
'
Ah' 5h'
_h J
ld
(2-135)
-7
If we assume that the only loss
,o,
(2-136)
is friction
loss,
(2-137)
where length.
and
L is the
characteristic
flow-path
1 fOCR--_0._ where and Re (2-137) is the into Reynolds equation number. (2-136) Substituting yields equations
(2-138) (2-138)
1--_'
(2-139)
for
1 and 1 by
2 to the
equation for
(2-139) condition
and 2
equation
Since
for geometric
mmilarity
V_/Ah_.,_-=V22/Ah
reduces
(Re_'_ '2 \Re1/ Actually, on the losses, between is it has 0.2, the been but This fraction In found usually occurs of view
(2-141)
is an for losses
that varies
the in loss
of correlation
is not and
machine.
attributable another
varies
machines.
of correlation
61
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
1--v_--A
{Re2"_ _
(2-142)
A and the
B are
fractions A and in
that to tests
1. In equation viscous the that at Lewis, loss fact values that as well of
exponent is viscous
at 0.2 to reflect
discussion a good
corresponding
B seem effects.
REFERENCES
1. 2.
SHEPHERD,
D.
G.:
Principles J.;
AND
of
Co., Similarity
1956. Param-
ARTHUR Examination
STED/ART,
of Turbines.
Geometry NASA TN
Characteristics D-4248,
tligh-Expansion-
Axial-Flow
62
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
SYMBOLS A
a
flow area, Reynolds speed heat Reynolds diameter, specific modulus kinetic
m2; ft 2 number correlation m/sec; at constant ft dimensionless; N/m2; coefficient, ft/sec number m; correlation
in eq. in eq.
B
C_
J/(kg)(K);
D D_ E
e
(sec I/2) (lbfl/4) / (ft I/4) (lbm 1/4) lb/ft 2 by eq. (2-46) defined
]
g H h J K L M N
force, N ; lb friction factor conversion head, J/kg; constant, 1 ; 32.17 (Ibm)(ft)/(lbf)(sec 2) (ft) (lbf)/lbm
specific enthalpy, J/kg; Btu/lb conversion constant, 1; 778 (ft)(lb)/Btu conversion constant, length, rad/sec; 2_r rad/rev; m; ft rev/min (ft 3/4) (lbm 3/4)/ (rain) (sec 1/_) (lbf 3/4) 60 sec/min characteristic Mach number rotative specific speed, speed,
N,
?%
dimensionless;
number of stages polytropic exponent power, absolute volume W; flow Btu/sec N/m2; m3/sec; lb/ft 2 ft3/sec (R) rate, J/(kg) number m; ft temperature, speed, jet speed volume, velocity, flow rate, m/sec; velocity, K; ft/sec m/sec; (defined mZ/kg; m/sec; kg/sec; loss ft/sec by eq. (2-71)), m/sec; ft/sec ft3/lb ft/sec lb/sec defined from from by eqs. (2-47) or radial or radial direction, direction, R pressure,
P P
Q
R Re
r
gas constant, reaction Reynolds radius, absolute blade absolute ideal specific relative mass
T U V Vj
V
W
20
!:1
OL
angle angle
axial axial
63
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
ratio ratio
of heat of inlet
at constant
pressure standard by
to heat
capacity
at
pressure heat
of specific ratio to
eq. on on
of critical critical
velocity velocity
based based
standard
(2-66) (2-72)
p
T
N-m; coefficient,
coefficient, velocity,
defined
Subscripts: av cr eq ex /d in loss opt p r rel ro st std stg u x 0 1 2 average critical equivalent exit ideal inlet loss optimum polytropic radial component relative rotor stator NACA stage tangential standard condition
condition
(M---- 1)
component
inlet
Superscripts: --_ -' " 64 vector overall absolute relative quantity turbine total total state state
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
Tip-___
FLow _
I Blad_
_Hu b
surface
edge
l Spacing. or pitch
Incidence angle J /
FIOURF
2-14.--Blade
terminology.
65
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
aspect axial
ratio. chord.
The The
to
the
of the
projection
of the
turbine, onto of the blade. axial blade blade blade solidity. exit height. inlet trailing angle.
The
between
line
at the
direction. at the to the tangent direction. by by the and the intersection trailing chord It edges. line and from of the It is the the line
The angle.
at the leading edge bucket. Same as rotor camber tangents equal camber leading surface chord. onto The the to line. camber-line angle. to the The the sum
axial
at the
angles of the
tangents. The mean profile. extends the edge to the trailing edge, and the suction surface. length chord of the line. perpendicular It is approximately halfway projection equal between of the to the pressure profile distance side
blade
linear
laid
convex
dif-
angle
the blade
The angle between the turbine axial direction. The angle the turbine section as hubratio. The The front, The flow
direction flow
flow inlet angle. blade inlet and hub. hub-tip hubleading mean nozzle pitch. pressure pressures radius 66 ratio. incidence The innermost ratio. Same
between the fluid axial direction. of the blade. ratio. hub blade. between to tip-radius ratio of the of the
direction
inlet or nose,
angle
minus
The blade section halfway Same as stator blade. in the The highest. as hubto tip-radius direction surface blades. concave
points
Along
BASIC
TURBINE
CONCEPTS
root. rotor
as hub. A rotating ratio The of the angle as pitch. between blade. surface of the of the blade. Along this surface, the chord line and the turbine axial blade. chord to the spacing.
solidity. spacing.
Same
blade. blade.
trailing
or tail,
of the
67
CHAPTER 3
Velocity iagrams D
By Warren. Whitney nd J a Warner .Stewart L
As the indicated in chapter in the and design from their through step required specify to the methods to the diagram work were entirely chapter of the at the in chapter from 2. Various efficiency efficiency for and produce. one 2, one blade the of is the the of the row use flow, most to the of velocity work, geometry angles addition, expected capacity and the from velocity of the parameters in chapter and of the important is of the rotative velocity is very velocity the velocities the next. The diagrams. variables velocity absolute blade row Once speed diagrams. important that diagrams turbine. diagrams turbine 2, were and case. can for are radial Only variations the used. in be associated and diswith their This The constage. The the in the to of and are the are
be considered fluid relative universally overall established, Their that blading significantly The relating cussed the relation chapter first sidered Usually, second diagrams and from turbines part general them in chapter velocity relation these is
or analysis relation
of turbines speed
as it passes velocities described design the to diagrams required affect next the
to the
requirements
blading
constructing flow
dimensionless also was to concerns the the presented illustrated subject a single flow blade
by an idealized of velocity diagram conditions radius radial in the radius. the with that
diagrams.
average
mean to of forces
direction axial-flow
in this
69
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
MEAN-SECTION In this section, between their review, the (2-14) the hub velocity and by to 3-1 no can tip) the stage shows change diagrams are turbine.
DIAGRAMS occurring The and at the different their stage radius mean the types selection velocity 2 and through the the section average of diawhen diagram nomenstage,
assumed
to represent
Assuming
ah ' =--UA V_' gj where h' U V, g J This The rate, total blade enthalpy, speed, J/kg; m/see; component constant, constant, relates component conditions, the of and Btu/lb ft/sec of velocity, 1 ; 32.17 1 ; 778 stage the the (lbm) m/see; (ft)/(lbf) ftlsec (sec 2)
(3-1)
(ft) (lb)/Btu specific work vector the to the relation (3-2) velocity to diagram. the flow
velocity area by
_0 Vz = P-_an
is related
where Vx w o Aan axial mass density, annulus angles the the studies shape. the such as U2 U _=gJAh'--AV,,-The 7O speed-work parameter is used in g JAb' AV_ 2 this chapter because (3-3) diagram component flow rate, of velocity, kg/see; lb/sec m/see; ft/sec
kg/m3; lb/ft 3 area, mS; ft 2 are axial velocity expected parameters because Such the key and is velocity-diagram swirl often efficiency are parameters parameter, velocities referred and used were which in parameters (the to as blading values discussed can tangential the swirl geometry. with be in related chapter can because they not of but
absolute affect
association
parameter
the
2 and in several
speed-work
be expressed
VELOCITY FI0w
DIAORAMS
VX,0 Station 0
Vx, al-'"
VI
w z v/Ivu,
Vx, 2
i" i'll
,,
!
FIGURE
../
u
WU,2
_/Vu .2
3-1.--Velocity-vector
diagrams
and nomenclature.
types normalize
are
related the
to
the
swirl
distribution by AV,.
and
it
is
convenient
to
diagram
velocities
Velocity-Diagram After diagrams shapes on the related stator parameter. the can depending Diagram parameters, exit (V_._) and diagrams in this diagram. overall be design evolved. on the type such the and section: Diagram requirements Velocity diagram refers shape as stage rotor their exit to type and
Types are the the and The and established, have value values swirl following swirl physical different of the constraint split the velocity sizes speed-work imposed between three the are and
diagrams some
of performancecommon
characteristics
Zero-exit-swirl Rotor-impulse Symmetrical three diagrams in figure 3-2. head The or the
and
several
values many
Zero-exit-swirl
component diagram,
represents
Vu., _ 1 hVu-and
(3-4a)
71
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Diagram type
Impulse
Symmetrical
O.25
0.5
1.O
FIGURE
3-2.--Effects
of
speed-work stage
parameter
and diagram.
diagram
type
on
shape
of
velocity-vector
V_.2_ AV,-can be used an to reduce axial-flow the to such rotor definition loss. (UI= of U2) stage
0 (3--4b)
For (2-39)
having reaction
constant presented
axial in
velocity equation
(Vz.1=Vz.2), reduces
W2 R.,-1-
_, 2--
W2 u, 1 2+W ,2-W .t
(3-5)
where Rst_ W_ By (3-5) stage reaction component (2-6) of relative and as Rs,g= This 0.5, is equation which zero, is which, and which is plotted in an For be in shown, static figure impulse example, represents pressure 1 1--_-_ 3-3(a). diagram. rotor. at At At _---1, k=0.5, _=0.5, the rotor. the reaction the reaction negative reaction decrease Because is in of (3-6) is equations velocity, (3-3) m/sec; and ft/sec equation tangential using can equation be
(3-4),
expressed
a conservative
indicates
Below _,----0.33,
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
1.0--
Symmetrical_
\
.o_
ZeroS,
(a)
_- Impulse
.5-::3
,m
(b)
I
0 .25
1
1.0
FIGURE 3-3.--Effects
diagram
type
losses, 3-2
such
high the
are
positive-reaction,
diagram.--For reduces
equation
From axial
equation velocity,
(3-3), exit
and swirl
the
assumption can
of constant be expressed 73
velocities
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
as
V_, _ AVu-and
Vu
X+0.5
(3-8a)
encountered
swirls are obtained and zero-exit-swirl figure because seldom, one in 3-2. Because positive if ever, which to have
at _ values less cases coincide. swirl swirl when velocity _ is greater third shape. decreases
than 0.5. At _=0.5, These effects are leaving a 0.5. turbine impulse work, than
Symmetrical specified
diagram.--A stator-exitsame
of diagram rotor-exit-velocity
commonly
triangles
In terms
V1 =W2 and V2=W, Under this condition, the equation for stage 1 R,tg=_ From axial equation velocity, (2-6), the swirl equation velocity (3-3), and the assumption can
(3-10) of constant as
components X+ 1 2
be expressed
(3-11 a)
Vu. 2 h_l A-V_= 2-These typical is the at 0.5. this (e.g., decreases, This the type reaction diagrams same as the the exit good and swirl characteristics in figure increases, is conducive for stages stages Stage A significant 74 aspect of a turbine but diagram the are shown 3-2. The at _= total exit in figure 1. As the
reaction
to high where
attractive
is not
turbine).
expected
efficiency.
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
efficiency
is
an
important
function
of,
among
other
things,
the
of velocity diagram surface. Therefore, the efficiency relations and used in References between herein 1 and chapter
used and the pressure the diagram selection of point used turbine hh' _--Ah_d 2, the up intended diagram to 2 are parameters some as a basis stage
distribution is greatly application. efficiency the for more this efficiency and
requirements
of
development.
As presented written as
static
(3-12)
where stage Ah' hh_ stage stage static Expressing static work, ideal efficiency J/kg; work Btu/lb based J/kg; on ratio of inlet total pressure to exit Btu/lb of actual ah' ,hh' +Lot'-b where
Lst Lro
in terms
work
plus
losses
yields
Lro+
V22
(3-13)
Btu/lb Btu/lb J/kg; Btu/lb n' is the V]/2gJ. same except for the elimi(3-3)
y /2gJ
The nation into
total
efficiency loss,
leaving yields
Substituting
equation
,1--
gJ(L,,TLro)
V2 2
(3-14)
In it was kinetic
the
to is,
the
diagram to
proportional
across
(3-15a)
Wl2+W2_ 2gJ
(3-15b)
where/4
is constant
of proportionality. 75
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Equations efficiency. be found efficiency (1) axial work (eq. related (4) the work The erence presented that the determined associated (5) The The
(3-14) exact in references is as follows: velocities tangential and axial by values of previous curves for and the for the above eq.
and nature
(3-15) of
serve the
as the terms
the
basis and
for for
assumptions
equations
1 and are
expressed
tangential of the
components. components according (3-4), components assumption an angle for the test the to (3-8), are expressed diagram (3-11)). by of an applicationto the are a range tangential selected on by relating parameter (2-6) being considered
(2) The
evaluated
mass-flow
assumption. constant experience. can then be generated diagram are presented are the are total types. as obtained in figure actually symmetrical representative efficiency. 3-4. for This the from The refcurves diagram as and for characteristics diagram over of speedvarious method of proportionality
analytically
in reference efficiency
2, approximates characteristics
a symmetrical diagram. The were not obtained for )_ values negative The For higher efficiency _-_0.5, other the decreases High diagram rather designer exit this The swirls chapter, static static the two efficiency more total types than must and parameter, than at and, for each reaction total diagram },, value the in that type, region.
diagram undesirable
efficiency
are
in at
figure
3-4(a). is slightly
a speed-work of _. The at
s)_nmetrical-diagram
efficiency values
impulse-diagram efficiency is equal not are rather less to shown, than fiat.
zero-exit-swirl-diagram }_--1, although }, values rapidly. efficiencies, for static, still the before efficiency efficiency" exit velocity curves
symmetrical-diagram efficiency than _1 below with Even merit, either and 0.5, any where however, later 3-4(b). efficiency static },_0.5, efficiency of these total, the in of the
the
discussed
The because 76
represents
highest
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
less
0.5 than
is the For
with the
the
impulse at
X values no
zero-exit-swirl diagram,
is a maximum
swirl.
symmetrical
1.0
.8
f,,_.._=--_'---u-
.6
e-
-%
_6 .4 Diagram type Zero exit swirl Impulse Symmetrical .2
(a)
//
/
/// /
(b) 0 .2 .4
I
.6 ;_ Speed-work parameter,
I
.8
I
1.0
Total Static
parameter (Curves
77
TURBINE
DESIGN .90 --
AND
APPLICATION
.80-t--
L_
70
iency, "q
1
6O 65
I
70 Stator exit angle, % deg
I
75
J
8O
FIGURE
3-5.--Effect
Speed-work
param-
efficiency little
X= 1,
where
there
is
no
exit
swirl.
zero-exit-swirl-diagram as _, is reduced is affected also to and the about of about this level the shown are means The in the are total angle the static best type is related from the total that If be angle of stress been swirls One but
efficiency by
is highest the An
at _ = 1, but
speed-work through-flow
angles.
example
of this of stator
reference
efficiencies
as functions
It is evident maximized. angle stator of The could It large use back are stream shows 78 should exit
maximum
efficiency exist
through-flow influence
annulus
area
of
speed-work reductions and turbines turbines efficienc:_ swirl the of such turbines.
parameter, in static the flow 3) the (ref. 3-6(a) are lower is through diffuse
efficiency.
figure
down-
referred
efficiencies
l_-stage
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
than are no
lower
downstream
of the (fig.
of X is use
below
be achieved
of downstream
1. O0
Diagram type
downstream
.60
.-
.40
.i
.2 Speed-work
.3 parameter, h
.4
.5
Total Static
79
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Multistage
Turbine
Efficiency
When the turbine requirements are such that the speed-work parameter is quite low and high efficiencies are still desired, multistage turbines are used, and the required work is split amongst the various stages.
t-
o_ ro
stages Turbine
2 2
ta_
.!
o--
7 I
50
.f/..i
_ N
//,,,"
/,
40 0 tb)
/ ,/,/"
I
10
]
.ZlO
I
.50
FIGURE 3-7.--Comparison
(a) Total efficiency (b) Static efficiency. of efficiencies of 1-, l_/r -, and 2-stage from ref. 4.)
turbines.
(Curves
8O
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
Two-stage turbine the stage with the results reduction two exit
stage an
to
increase
an increase possible
so as to maximize
of the 4) are
in reference
overall static
speed-work efficiency between for total smaller turbine for are exit a exit split first type and the the swirl no 50:50 stage. swirl work has and of output.
parameter,
_, of 0.50, efficiency turbine. 24 1-stage and the turbine 2-stage values reaction. between 1-stage turbine 1-stage
a 2-percentage-pointthe difference points The 2-stage loss work 3-7 and with for zero work impulse stator. This a type each of the swirl the total figure split exit
and a 9-percentage-point-higher As _ is reduced increases points static occurs smaller efficiencies by varying criteria efficiency zero-exit-swirl efficiency stage At associated as an impulse 3-8 (a) In and _=0.125, diagram and diagram At _=0.5, for to 0.15, static to 5 percentage efficiency. for the of the in work positive maximized diagrams with efficiencies because fraction presented stage of no is
2- and
efficiency difference than 2-stage The maximum while negative work split for
leaving
imposing and
As _ is reduced, maintained produced increased second diagram kno_:a turbine (fluid by stages as in the the to 75:25.
fraction
optimum
as well
of turbine
three-stage)
is achieved
quent blade rows merely turn As k is reduced below 0.125, maintained, but work fraction. Figure two-stage stator. exit The swirl 3-8(b) turbine, diagram and with of this with increasing the is
the flow with no change the velocity-compounded exit velocity again speeds for swirl and decreasing for without X=0.125 A study made
counterrotating blade
of turbine
in reference
higher than those for conventional because of the elimination of one work depends upon the swirl
leaving
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
fb) (b) Counterrotating for special types parameter _, 0.125. turbine. 2-stage
of
turbines.
in
general, of the
would diagram).
be
a low-work The and ratio. their engines the Such for rockets. use used turbines
split splits
is
illustrated at low as
efficiencies
functions potential row, applications turbines.--In requirements than turbines, turbines efficiency stages (for two
of a blade
counterrotating many dictates stages vapor for nuclear are turbines of cr stage and as _,=_
are
being for
combination
of turbines power
multistage and
speed-work
parameters
(3-16) Total total stage, obtained the stage effect efficiency and where static stator efficiencies. discussed for a first inlet For stage for velocity overall 2, a
is stage
the
number is
(stator-inlet
efficiencies
as functions
of X. Overall in chapter
efficiencies static 82
efficiency,
neglecting
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
o+
where first-stage exit total general-stage to exit Ah_, , general-stage to exit This small. equation By using static total ideal work ideal ideal based J/kg; work work
n_'
,
of inlet total
(3-17)
on ratio Btu/lb
to
of inlet of inlet
neglects the
reheat
stage-efficiency
definition,
Tb
becomes
_--
1,.4_n
2+1_
(3-18)
Overall on the
total basis
efficiency of stage
differs total
only
in that
the
last
stage
is evaluated
efficiency.
n
Therefore,
_'--
1, f n--1,
(3-19)
The are Figure efficiency This function aspect may ations here. large total imposed, shown because
in from stages
this
presented
as a function all
of _. The
is reached (stator
described Reynolds to diagram value. (0.1 number The although turbine described static
herein,
or downward with illustrates the or, 3-9(b) number if some show loss. used ratio. ratio method This must varying that
however, to
concern
or less), achieve
required the
restriction be similar
efficiencies leaving
of presenting is to blade speed plot speed with the ratio parameter was
parameters of the
efficiency
as a function
energy
associated Blade-jet
TURBINE 11
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
'_
.S .6_
Limiting efficiency
(_
_ I z l Illl ....
I J I llJl
.8 i_.5
.4
32
I/ of stages/ 1
.z( b_
.01
t
.02
J I = I= I=1
.04
l = 1= I=1
.4 .6 .8 I
FIGURE 3-9.--Overall
(Curves
from
ref.
6.)
and
efficiency in of stages
to
equation it is clear
(2-74). that have dependent speed must to the selections upon In represent by component the an type an important utilized. (dictated
section, and
diagram
turbine integrity
diagrams (related
goals
as performance
requirements),
and weight.
OF
DIAGRAMS velocity the entire tip-radius diagram blade ratio was span. (about
to represent
a turbine
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
0.85 lower
or
an
is
In
the
case diagrams
of
encountered,
flow diagrams
the that
balance of forces that were described for the end regions, This which section effect selection.
to the conditions
variations
and their
Radial Consider 3-10(a). sulting pressure force path. the must an element When force. acting When force the there The is of fluid flow pressure fluid to for and (fig.
Equilibrium in the 3-10(b)) serves the the of the (streamline) flow net turbine component must to fluid flow be field, as in figure the by rea
moving along
through-flow
is curved pressure
maintain as part
be accounted
acceleration of the flow must have of which is in the radial direction horizontal. is termed The The figure in the radial pressure 3-10(b). x direction, The radial balance equilibrium forces Fluid the acting weight net of forces will on
an associated pressure force, if the streamline is inclined to account formulated of fluid If unit (directed for these
factors
is neglected. pressure
Fp.,et:(p+dp)(r+dr)dO--prdO--2
(p+?)
dr
sin dO 2 (3-20a)
where
F_, n_ g
inward
force,
N;
lb
P 0
r
radius
terms yields
(d0/2)=d0/2
F_. ,,, =rdpdO The mass m of the fluid being acted on by the pressure force is
(3-20b)
85
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
!_!ii2iiii!_i!_::: dr
J
(a)
\ \
._____Vx
rVm.
ame .I vr
(b)
(a) (b) Rotation plane (r-e). FIGURE 3-10.--Radial Element of fluid in turbine (c) flow field.
(c)
Meridional
plane factors.
(r-x).
equilibrium
dr)_--wr
_] d_f0 2r
(3-21a)
m=--prdrdO The ferential net pressure To flow, balance the radial force the results pressure from force is the force three factors
previously.
centrifugal
associated
F_,c--m g 86
Vu _ r
prdrd0 g
Vu 2_p V2drd r g
(3-22)
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
The
radial
component force
of the with
pressure flow
force along
required the
to
balance streamline
the
centrifugal is
associated
meridional
FT, 0-----m g where V,_ r,_ a,_e The velocity radius angle positive that radial along
V_,
cos rm,
a,_=
prdrdO g
V*. r_
cos
am_
(3-23)
meridional
streamline,
sign force
is directed streamline
to produce
acceleration
along
meridional
(3-24)
to
the
components
(3-23),
_gdp p dr-Equation contributing plete line form. curvatures (3-25) For is the axial (1/r,_)
V_ r radial
V_, dVm_ cos a_e---sin a,_e r_, dt equilibrium not equation convenient flow), angles the (am,) and to use meridional are both includes in its
(3-25)
all comquite
factors.
stream(3-25) often be
small. Therefore, the last two terms are small as compared to the first neglected. Thus, we can write gdp pdr-The approximation radial represented equilib.rium. Radial In those other assumed total order effects to illustrate that the Variations nature second will radial (1-49)) is no (eq. by
(3-26)
known
as "simple"
in
Velocity radial variations If streamline of velocity, as in velocity, and certain slope and is the
component be written
definition
87
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
(3-z7)
(1-8) to
turbine exit
is radially is radially
uniform, constant.
enthalpy
at the
first-stator
stator loss is radially constant, then the entropy at the first-stator exit is also radially constant. The rotor, as will be discussed later this chapter, may or in may not have radially constant work (total enthalpy) loss. At enthalpy gradients due For entropy tion into extraction any place and imposed simplicity, are (3-26), equation radially the (3-28), and probably the turbine, depend various on does not have therefore, radial the blade uniformity rows, that these equilibrium radially gradients inlet
entropy mixing.
of the
by the
to radial
assumptions expression,
and with
equa-
v. 2 , 1 d(V. 2) 1
-_ 2 In specify often, order to solve this of swirl dr --I-_ it is with Kr N dr --0 to V, been has (3-29) independently and V_. Most specified (3-30a) as equation, velocity V,,: or, in terms of mean-section necessary radius
a relation a variation
between
V_ or V_ and
r or between
conditions,
vZ:=,,E:
Substituting (3-29) and equation then (3-30b) and between its differential the limits form of r,_ and into integrating
v.
(3-30b)
equation
r yields
am flow special
( i)rc,r
I_\_/ angle case at the of N=0
-mean
,l
is not
(constant
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
special
case,
integration
of equation
(3-29)
yields
r 71/2
v=V_=[1--2 A case the and absolute equation of interest flow angle (3-29) not covered to
tan _ _ by
In _.j
equation
is radially
constant.
integrates Vu
V=(r'_
-sin'a
(3-33)
The for
radial
velocity, equations, of 60 .
variations
largely
dependent
E _.._>= m_ 1.0
___"'Expnent'N1 0
.5 2.0
I
V u = Kr N
- J
Q .m
"N
L.
_ E "- :>_
Vu = KVx 1.C
_-2 -1
B e--
........
60[ -1
30
.7
<
.8
I
.9
I
1.0
I
1.1 r/r m
I ""-z
1.2
I
1.3
3-11.--Radial
variations flow
of angle
velocity a,,,
and 60 .
flow
angle.
Mean-section
89
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
variation (value of N). As the swirl distribution exponent N or decreases from a value of --1, the changes in axial velocity angle with changing radius become associated lengths. larger to on 1). The stage chapter. more pronounced. As
seen, the axial velocities of N cannot be obtained can be used for design of rh/r,, illustrated in subsequent shorter variations discussed (values
and flow angles with all blade purposes and in rt/rm figure sections Free-Vortex becomes closer 3-11 of this
with certain values The range of N that as the effects velocity blades become radial are of the diagrams
When then
a value
of -- 1 is used
for the
rVu=K This for is the such condition a swirl turbine. design is used radial variation in the of the for flow distribution in a free is referred vortex, to as and a turbine
a free-vortex
vast majority of axial-flow diagram is accounted for. If outlets, because diagram (3-31), variation then the is the in
this condition there is no UVu Thus, valid axial mass from entire design vortex An products
both the stator and rotor in specific work, _x(UV_), leaving the rotor from the if N=--I Thus, mean-section in equation the radial
and
are radially
constant.
the specific work computed for the entire flow. Further, velocity Vx is radially flow per unit area the mean-section flow designs example within an is one set of simplicity
constant.
(pV_) is small, and the mass flow rate obtained velocity diagram can be used to represent the accuracy of the velocity of main 0.1 percent for for a in the most wide cases. use This of freedesign is reasons
for axial-flow
turbines. diagrams free-vortex tip sections of a blade in the diagram shape for this an swirl must for at the example is diagram with high the when A a a speed-work impulse distribution, standpoint taken hub low-radius-ratio section. be conservative, aerodynamic parameter
shown in figure 3-12 for the hub, mean, and with a radius ratio of 0.6. The radial variation is considerable. 1. The The associated while (_t----1.56). is the in order the efficiency). the tip Thus, critical Therefore, to ensure mean-section diagram hub for diagram is from special diagram, satisfactory a diagram section diagram having very an care especially diagrams is nearly symmetrical )_m of reaction hub (lowest selecting blades, 9O (_h=0.56), section zero-exit-swirl
free-vortex
mean-section
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
45. 30....
Hu_ section
rm/r t O.8
Mean section
rt/r t = 1.0
Tip section 3-12.--Radial variation flow. Stator mean-section exit eter Xm, 1. of velocity-vector diagrams for free-vortex angle a,,, 60; mean-section speed-work param-
FIGURE
very
high
reaction
tip
diagram
can
also
be
troublesome
it is a illushub and a
leakage across the potential problem radial 3-12, tip, variation the
blade tip clearance space. is that of rotor-blade twist. in rotor inlet causing of the inlet angle angle. varies results and tip For from the
in figure
rotor thus
45 at the problems
--38 at the
a variation
in a blade sections
having of such
tip section,
fabrication
91
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
.-/*-
_ ip section
\\
FmURE
3-13.--Relative
positioning
of hub
and
tip
sections
of freeovorgex
turbine.
Non-Free-Vortex Free-vortex are often potential trated having vortex flow, design section for 0.6, 0.8, any closer 3-11, At the having The 92 all the the 0.889, sections, sections, or are the non-free-vortex in figure (N-------2) designs designs 3-14 are are are the the (N=I) with which shown 1.25. For For of 0.889 As the section. exist of 0.75 the are are so the commonly common
Diagrams used heading with the that all other some design. for the The the The the designs The of the Illuscases superwheelmeansame of tip Gf tip
classified
under
of non-free to alleviate free-vortex in diagrams 3-11. design, design. ratios to to to to the the section
vortex.
used
in an attempt variations
disadvantages velocity
illustrated constant-swirl design, free-vortex at a radius diagrams with with hubare, cases exit and 1.25 a blade
in figure (N=0) and (N: ratio at a huba hubcorrespond to tip-radius to a blade no the --1)
design,
constar_t-flow-angle
r/r,_ of 1, are tip-radius hub hub tip-radius ratio diagrams as shown are the same
radius
r/r,_ of 0.75, ratio and ratio and decreases, relatively to show in figure for all
correspond
respectively. r/r,_ values respectively. value mean values to the 3-14 no real any
a blade blade
arLd 1.111
particular
of r/rm corresponds There for axial the (az._:0). diagrams are rotor particular
in figure
radius exit
swirl
DIAGRAMS
Constant swirl (N = O)
Wheel flow {N = 1)
1. 250
(a)
(a)
1.111
(a)
1.flOf
O. 889
O.150
(a)
aNo real value for axial velocity. FIGURE 3-14.--Radial variation of velocity-vector distributions. diagrams for various swirl
and, and
A possible
no advantage the is large with hubdiagrams free-vortex velocity axial and the for free-vortex and
twist
for
not be sustained (Vx becomes radius ratios much below 0.8. The alleviate design. large below 0.85 and than those and about for for the the these relative constant-swirl the blade-twist here for the However, cannot 0.70 (N=0) and too
to tipdo is
problems
of the
constant-swirl
addition,
relatively could
turbines,
higher
of a free-vortex
93
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
M - 0.58
-8
16. --__ 6
_r \
_ "_'_
Mr "0./_,_ _'" &'i_
M,.oW
Mr" 1"01_'_ I1__, "7 _45. 3o /M0.74
-\
FmURE
3-15.--Comparison twisted
(a) Free-vortex turbine. (b) Nontwisted turbine. of velocity-vector diagrams of free-vortex turbines. (Diagrams from ref. 9.)
add
non-
94
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
procedure
for
rotor design,
blades is twist
inlet
and
exit 7.
angle, Such a
presented
reference which,
eliminates free-vortex diagrams A large in closely twist exit, design this used radial
therefore, experimental designs. at (N) the The stator condivalue of from positive is higher (0.72). 9 are shown
nontwisted
in axial
to a swirl-distribution-exponent is eliminated, design the blade-inlet (0.85) than to swirl more Mach than 30 for at the at free-vortex
free-vortex relative
nontwisted
number
nontwisted
However, over that same The work tion tions error section by compute turbine vortex additional As seen alleviate free-vortex Mach plexity. designs deviations been used It in
the reaction at the hub of the nontwisted design is improved of the free-vortex turbine. The two turbines have about the
efficiency. non-free-vortex and, may may flow because flow not occur mass rate designs of the represent if such the and With this therefore, complexity from the numbers, has from cannot rotor-twist designs been be results increased shown sustained improved flow flow radial per unit true a turbine conditions rate. The more all feature Thus, radial in axial the conditions, on the turbine hub design than variation velocity, and basis should and the tip design mean-section of the in in radial specific variacondimeanto gradient area. average
conditions.
A non-free-vortex
of a non-free-vortex of a freethis to with hub comsmall 10, have however, designs associated as from in reference higher design However,
much
procedures,
problems deviations
free-vortex
free-vortex
as reported performance.
to obtain
COMPUTER
PROGRAMS
FOR STUDIES
VELOCITY-DIAGRAM
has radial
of the types,
It is evident
determination
diagrams
and number
for a given
application
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
If
it
is
to of the
effects, been
evolved
One such The program the only radial in allows entropy correlation program reflects values no real computer dependent independent tions This in instead proven generated rotor and
program is described in references consideration of streamline-curvature equation radial loss exit information swirl of these meridional the (swirl solution velocity). 3-11. in a program variation The valid that as input. variation modification, in meridional modified turbine (meridional distribution input velocity because velocity) The and radial in also but gradients flow. In includes and inputs. specifications, (Vme=V_/cos of with a large small of rotor However, variations from as
11 and effects it
in enthalpy addition, an internal a basis. work for a,,_) variations these either
as an input
reference
13 as
uses
stator exit
distribution
solution
variation
existence
reference
the and
radial shows
is used
successful
reasonable
in meridional
REFERENCES
1. STEWART, teristics ASME, 2. STEWART, WARNER in Dec. Terms 1961. L.: Analytical Terms Investigation of Work WARNER Turbine with NACA WILLIAM T.: of and L.: Single-Stage-Turbine Speed Analysis RM E56J19, and Speed Requirements. of Efficiency Stators 1957. Requireof Two-Stagein L.: of A Study Velocity of Axial-Flow Diagram Turbine Efficiency Paper Charac61-WA-37,
Parameters.
WARNER
AND
STEWART,
Single-Stage Speed
Downstream Analysis
Requirements. in Terms
of Work
Turbine
E57L05,
Characteristics E57K22b,
96
VELOCITY 7.
SLIVKA,
DIAGRAMS
WILLIAM R.; AND SILVE_RN, DAVID H.: Analytical Aerodynamic Characteristics of Turbines with Nontwisted NACA TN 2365, 1951.
8.
HEATON, THOMAS R.; SLIVKA, WILLIAM R.; AND WESTRA, LEONARD F.: Cold-Air Investigation of a Turbine with Nontwisted Rotor Blades Suitable for Air Cooling. NACA RM E52A25, 1952. WARREN J.; STEWART, WARNER L.;
AND MONROE,
9. WHITNEY,
DANIEL
E.:
Investigation of Turbines for Driving Supersonic Compressors. V-Design and Performance of Third Configuration with Nontwisted Rotor Blades. NACA RM E53G27, 1953. I0. DORMAN, T. E. ; WELNA, H. ; AND LINDLAUF, R. W. : The Application of Controlled-Vortex Aerodynamics to Advanced Axial Flow Turbines. J. Eng. Power, vol. 90, no. 3, July 1968, pp. 245-250. 11.
CARTER, A. F.; PLATT, M.; AND LENHERR, F. K.: Analysis of Geometry and Design Point Performance of Axial Flow Turbines. I-Development of the Analysis Method and the Loss Coefficient Correlation. NASA CR-1181, 1968.
12.
PLATT,
M.;
AND
CARTER,
A. F.:
Analysis
of Geometry
and
Design NASA
Point
Per-
of Axial
Flow
Turbines.
Program. Efficiency.
vol.
J. Roy.
CARTER, A. F.; AND LENHERR, F. I_.: Analysis of Geometry Point Performance of Axial-Flow Turbines Using Specified Velocity Gradients. NASA CR-1456, 1969.
and DesignMeridional
97
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
SYMBOLS A flow area, m_; ft 2 force, N; lb constant, 1 ; 32.17 (lbm) (ft)/(lbf) (sec 2)
g h J K L
m
pressure conversion
specific enthalpy, J/kg; Btu/lb conversion constant, 1;778 (ft)(lb)/Btu proportionality loss, mass, swirl number J/kg; kg; Btuflb lb exponent lb/ft 2 of stages N/m_; m; ft J/(kg) R m/sec; mS/kg; m/sec; kg/sec; flow angle, deg lb/ft 3 (K) ; Btu/(lb) (R) constant
distribution
P R r
8
T U V
t)
specific entropy, temperature, K; blade absolute specific relative mass fluid angle density, speed, velocity, volume, velocity, flow rate, absolute
m/sec;
W
W o_
Subscripts:
a
first stage annulus component hub general ideal component mean section meridional
net
to circumferential
flow
h i /d 1 m
me
to linear
acceleration
net
r ro 8
radial rotor
component
due
to streamline
curvature
st
98
VELOCITY
DIAGRAMS
t
_g
tip tangential component axial component at stator inlet at stator at rotor exit exit or rotor inlet
0 1 2 Superscripts: -'
overall absolute
99
CHAPTER 4
BladeDesign
By Warner L.Stewart nd a Arthur . Glassman J
The design of a turbine of the established of velocity of stages. of the blading and covers blade conditions conditions chord can must integrity be expressed or axial profile chapter. chapter. design, Channel used solidity that which surface flow spacing some and overall by consists the This that diagrams. of the of three major of flow, with the steps. work, the The The and first is the These step efficiency third step of velocities is
determination are usually the evolution number and/or required the size, This The the
speed. second
is the design
will produce
flow angles
by the velocity shape, chapter state state selected The which to spacing) many Blade
the determination aspects of blade of flow, which blade mechanical selection design.
height fluid
of the
is set
requirements diagram, The with The chord in the exit turbine. to allow
and inlet usually siderations. and chord volves chapter. tries part in the assure spacing,
throughout be long
to be a minimum
structural
of in-
considerations connecting
in the
analytical
to accomplish
is discussed
_A_}l___
i_._f,9_i.(L
Y _,. A_
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
SOLIDITY One of the important solidity, value flow, aspects which and is the cost. and due of turbine ratio However, increased affecting diagram and the solidity. that to separated factors blade blading thereby loading concepts reduce of velocity desired from blading the chord spacing flow. This solidity design standpoint reduction eventually section selection. Also included studied solidity. is the chord selection
of chord
or axial
is usually
is limited results
will include
permissible on
Solidity as well in this chapter referring in the blade from with slightly
Figure as the figure pertains to equations rows rather that and if the tions, height fluid used inlet and are
4-1
shows
ai_d (,xit diagrams The velocities in this When velocities discussion bla(t(_ rows. absolute
static-pressure shown we and than to rotor blade must figures. with are exit
a blade.
a rotor,
relative
we are
the angle
flow angle
negative considers
If one
between as it flows
two from
tangential
force
(subscript
1) to exit
where
Fu
force,
N; lb 1; $2.17 s m/see ; ft/s(,c m/see; must shows ft/sec b(, _h(_ sam(, t h(_ blade, a typical _s the force of velocity, by the fluid 4-1 (Ibm) (ft)/(lbf) (see 2) m ; ft lb/ft of velocity,
constant, kg/m'_;
8 P
spacing, component
V_ Vu This due
distribution of figure
around
as was
discussed
in chapter 102
static-pressure
BLADE Stations 1
DESIGN
Vx, 1
--L y2_Vu,
.,_-_...._
C X --------_
pl
Pl
13-
FIOUP, E
4-1.--Typical
blade-row
and
surface
static-pressure
of axial blade
The on
area the
represents
F,, = c_ where
C_
L'
(pp-
p_) d
(4-2)
axial
chord,
m; ft static static m; ft z, is (4-3) 103 pressure, pressure, N/m2; N/m2; lb/ft lb/ft 2 2
Pv P,
X
The
solidity,
{T x
_-
--
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Substituting
equations
(4-1)
and
(4-2)
into
equation
(4-3)
then
yields
a_ =
(4-4)
g
At this point, been first used is the we introduce the used actual
/0
two tangential blade loading loading that and
d
loading by coefficients blade Zweifel (l) (ref. total that loading. 1). have The This
introduced
the static
surface
to the inlet
to be constant
form,
t'
_, = where
_Z
(pp--
p.)
d (4-5)
pl' -- p_
Zweifel inlet
loading
coefficient N/m2; N/m2; lb/ft lb/ft 2 2 defined surface on that coefficient, this second except is equal surface. that This the loading hand, assumed minimum coeffiit must can ex_b is de-
pl r
total
pressure, pressure,
is similarly on the (see a value suction of 1, and form, fig. 4-1) Zweifel
be less than
1. The
on the other
of 1. In equation
/o
where p,,m,, is the N/m 2 or lb/ft2_ _. The pressed velocity as minimum components
(pp--
p_) d (4-6)
pl p-
ps
,min
static in terms
pressure
on
the and
suction flow
in ex-
of veloerity
(4-7)
(4-8)
BLADE
DESIGN
where V
ot
fluid fluid
ft/sec
or
(4-6), relation
(4-7),
and
(4-8)
into
equation
trigonometric
where inlet
K is the to that
ratio
velocity exit.
component
(Vu.1)
at the
blade
(V,.2)
solidity, incom-
diagrams,
p is constant,
Bernoulli's
equation P'= 1 P-k--z pV 2 zg (4-10) (K-1) into equation sin2a_ (4-9) (4-10)
can be used.
Substituting (K-1)
equation sin2a2
yields
(4-11)
,,W,,
where Let V_ is the velocity on the suction surface where parameter p = p_._,. D, as us now define a suction-surface diffusion
D_ =
V_ 2
(4-12)
of this type have been of the flow on the suction susceptibility (4-12)) (K_ = (eq. in equation 1) sin 2a2 =
used to represent a measure of surface. This deceleration is an blade to separate. Using (4-11) (Kyields 1) sin 2a2 (4-13)
that exceed
the
a,_D, vary
or
a,_, loading
is it
velocity-diagram solidity
Since
greatly, suction-
decreasing
in increased
105
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
surface later gential 4-2(a). value and represents exit primarily solidity sents increases diffusion move value
D,), for
the
chapter.
of K=0 1 represents
impulse
of K <encountered
a negative
direction angles
As seen from
to zero for all exit is no turning K values. must It impulse. solidity value Thus, can
for K = 1. This
decreasing toward
suction-surface
of K, a xnaximum
of solidity to
parameter a function 1.
be
modified derived
2 COS COS
to yield
in reference
o_2
ax_z O/1
sin (m--
a2)
(4-14)
For brevity, (4-14) of the angle given In the each which shows flow for exit inlet
this is expressed that angles angle, angle relation the only. values solidity decreases can solidity
only
in terms parameter
coefficient
_,.
is plotted with
several
increases
inlet parameter
region
of most
interest
decreasing 2 as
Wl 2
A third
be evolved,
of blade
reaction
was defined
in chapter
R--l---V= 2
(4-15)
Substituting
equation
(4-8)
into
equation
(4-15)
yields
R=
1-(
cs a2_ 2
\cos al/
(4-16)
for
the
two-dimensional, of equation
case, equation
where (4-14)
Substitution
(4-17)
wkere 106
Aa is m--a2.
BLADE
DESIGN
Exit-flow angle,
m x O
% deg -45
__ X tD t..
1--
.5
J
-1.5
3F
_lnlet-flow
angle,
Y,
I
-30 -45 -60 -75 Exit-flow angle, % deg
3 [--
!
,
z_
deg ,_ or 120
2__--_...._
0 -.25
.75
I. O0
(a) Effect
of tangential-velocity ratio and exit-flow angle. (b) Effect of exit- and inlet-flow angles. (c) Effect of reaction and turning angle. FIGURE 4-2.--Effect of velocity diagrams on solidity.
107
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Equation reaction reaction that, creasing angle turnings Radial diagrams and value flows radial of axial (zero varying and
parameter parametor in figure parameter unless radial both the was very
previously,
parameter
is a maximum
or very
variation.--Chapter that velocity must occur equilibrium. diagrams, The exit Consider and ratio , and hub from at the solidity. inlet of -70 Since
in velocity blade vary in the inlet speed with desired and exit exit the
to satisfy solidity
will be a radial of this radial turbine constant rotor swirl the (4-14) are
distribution. shown
corresponding
computed
table:
Stator
Rotor
Solidity parameter,
ffx_z
Solidity parameter,
ffz_ z
Hub
- 70
0.64
54
--54
1.90
Tip
- 62
.83
--2
--63
.79
that
the from
being chapters.
used
in this
is someangles the
Herein,
Assume enables
radially.
reasonably
Let us now determine shown solidity radius 108 in the preceding in blade variation (because any
of solidity consistent. to
table
blade
inversely
proportional
spacing
proportional
directly proportional to
parameter corresponding 0.64X0.7=0.45, fore, axial a considerable chord at the tip hub which axial can increase of the were rotor, held value
axial of taper
the solidity
stator, held
the
axial
is 0.64.
were desired
constant, of 0.83. used solidities at the which from Taper but stress. axial velocity coefficient. hub
axial
would so that
is almost with the constant, would of 0.79. so that solidities standpoint especially a radial
to hub
at the tip. In the If axial axial than often radius cally used, axial this where turbine Effect the used and case chord corresponding 1.33, taper tip. axial at the desirable, blade turbines, tip value is still hub from with
solidity
parameter value blades the is not from results lower only the cases,
can decrease
tip in the rotor desirable and radial the there fabrication solidity
aerodynamically
diagrams, effect
cocfficient
cases, have
especially
a severe
performance. of compressibility.--Thc
pl r-
p*,min
(4-9)
to 1/D, For
flow
as same
a compressible
as for incompressible
by equation
1 2g t_ V_D'
O"x
(4-18)
_*,inc plt-Ps,,nin
ax,,,c such
is
the
flow or (4-17).
value
as
an
and the
(1-64))
using
of D, (eq.
is modified
109
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
0"2:
O'X
, inC
where 7 Vc. Then, equation ratio of specific heat constant volume critical by using (4-19) velocity, binomial m/sec; expansion at constant pressure to specific heat at
can be approximated
O" x
- 1 a_,,._ The approximation diffusion 4-3. The increases effect represented 1. The parameter compressibility from with value _'+1 by
e 2(7+1) equation ratio effect a value (4-20) values becomes is quite of critical more
(4-20)
good
for
up to about
solidity
_x/=._,_ is plotted
against velocity is no
for several
of 2. At D, = 2, there values
solidity
1.50
--
.__1. 25 O
1.0 .6 0
.50
2 3 Suction-surface iffusionparameter, s d O
FIGURE
4-3.--Effect
of compressibility
on
axial
solidity.
110
BLADE
DESIGN
For
Do values
of more the
than
2, a region of good
that design
is only
because
it is beyond
limits
practice,
increases with increasing (V/V_r)2. should be maintained below about Relation It is well recognized pressor Correlation described This reflecting evolved parameter energy neglect is assumed parameter turning is defined on the suction that the =0), (Vp.,,i, blade is an of blade in reference includes and that important loss 2 and two solidity. ratio pressure surface the Dwith the
Experience has shown that 2 to avoid excessive losses. to Solidity of a turbine of both within blade
diffusion
diffusion 3, where
of the
of the
decelerations
surfaces
overall
2
parameter
is defined
V,_.,-
With
the
use (4-21)
of the
definitions to
of D,
(4-12))
equation
reduces
(4-22)
of equations
(4-23)
and
D _z_
sm Aa--R
(4-24)
This
that
for made
with turbine 5)
the
two blade
terms loss
been and
diffusion
parameters.
definite trend but complete blade different not Consider figure 4-4(a). loss give the with values
increasing diffusion be obtained. Such alone would giving on loss, from not the same
solidity
same first
of reaction is reduced
as shown
As reaction
a relatively
TURBINE unity, reaction tion flow of the The frictional on the of these in
DESIGN AND APPLICATION occurs with from a gradual values reaction are highly desired increase cause the is caused discussed accelerating in many when solidity. unit per The flow unit required. value in blade by in to the chapter diffusing. loss. Further rapidly. in as the The blading increases, As solidity is increasing loss occurs suction-surface change 6) reductions This nature variaof the reaction because boundary-layer in
there loss
to negative (which
loss to increase
is usually in figure
loss encountered of solidity at some surface hand, surface area the optimum per loss
on loss is indicated
4-4(b).
area
the increased
diffusion factors.
A minimum of the
opposing
Reaction, R
o .-I
(b)
Axialsolidity,ox
and solidity.
BLADE
DESIGN
to the number,
optimum shape
solidity of suction
of many disvalues
velocity
of turning.
In gencral,
as mentioned
not exceeding
Selection Both optimum Zweifel tion the locus analytical solidity. loading and
Solidity have been made value in figure represents to identify when the of the in equa4-5 (a)
to reference
as a function curve
this is plotted
to determine to determine
of actual
solidity,
it is necessary
as, because
_COS as
(4-25)
An analytical to the solidity figure determined measured The solidity were 4-5(b). with
was axial
used
stagger
flow angles
solidity.
values
of actual solidity
solidities,
determined
a figure
figure 4-5(b) for this case. Loss function reaction in relative various optimum curves solidity the from the exit the nounced of figure exit
maximum
coefficients blades
based
on cascade ratio replotted impulse curves larger region not the It must obtained blade
are of
of pitch/chord terms, angles. For flat solidity. are rather from angle and are
(inverse
(al = - a_). These figure the importance values loss, and some increase becomes
negative) any
of exit angle,
of minimum minimum
penalties
more
optimum Thus,
spacing.
shape
cannot be correlation
solidity,
significance
113
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Inlet-flow
6--
angle,
\
\
_1_ \ -2
Typeof bladerow
_4
"" _. _ _ _ _
"_
"_3-
40
\ \ \\\\\
\\
g'
1 (a)
o1.1_
I
Inlet-flow angle,
\ \
\
\ \ \
\70
% \ deg
\80
\ \ \ \ \
\
\
\
\ \ \ \ X \ \ \ \ \ \ \
(b)
o
-20 -30
I
-70
I
-80
FIGURE 4-5.--Effect
(a) Axial solidity. (b) Actual solidity. of inlet and exit angles on optimum coefficient _= =0.8.
solidity.
Zweifel loading
114
BLADE
DESIGN
9O _
Optimumsolidity from
Number blades
o
o
24 of 64
" I 2.8
of efficiency
with
solidity
of reference
7.
\
\ 8-i
------
\
_ _I
6'_
__
"_-40
4
I ""*-
_ .... %
_ _
>"
80
,,--7o
Ol
1.5
3.0
3.5
FIGURE 4-7.---Effe(:t
coeffi(.ient.
optimum 4-7 those are obtained for most curves impulse with results that exit the act
solidities plotted between exit-angle do cross (al = -a_) angle analytical pertain to determine
the
in
is the
analytical solidity
(c_ = 0) blading in optimum be said the there are that at this experimany we do 115
is that
assumptions, in a manner
particular optimum
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
------
Based analytical esultsof fig. 4-_b) on r Based experimental on resultsoffig. 4-7 Inlet-flow angle, al, deg
- 2
-a 2
1-0
E -(]2
o
-30
I
-40
I
-10
I
-80
FIGURE
4-8.--Comparison
solidities.
not are
yet more
fully results,
such 4-7.
4-5,
frequently
optimum
than
mental is to
as those
use ,
is slightly
recommended
in reference
Ultralow-Solidity In the occurring some The approach boundary increasing the are blade. the success. Studies alternate tandem, test references The minated 116 is suppressed past, the limitation suction in blade to reductions of the high Such concept must layer
Blading in solidity blade. losses })e utilized do not could boundary layer been have, are rotor tests in the the have that which and region has such occur. of separation include layer explored perhaps, illustrated concepts blades removing by blowing, with better marginal potential 4--9. as the plain, in value then is one the or on been lower that separation solidities, separation
on the and
surface
To achieve
to reduced
treatments
boundary
by use
of turbulators
Certain
blade jet-flap
in figure as well
in references results
of low-solidity rotors
are presented
with 15 and
16, respectively. on the principle is utilized of separation. (perhaps although the front foil is ter-
tandem
of suction-surface at about
remaining
BLADE
DESIGN
Tandem blades
Jet-flap blades
FIGURE
4-9.--Low-solidity
blading
concepts.
place
on the
rear
a clean
boundary
layer thc
and
with
20 to 30 percent
of the
air going
through
jet-flap blade operates with edge perpendicular to the point around the Figure 1.2 the jet 4-10 trailing delivers shows In addition,
a secondary air stream main stream. This jet edge, some thereby force to the
stagnation lift.
througl_ distributions
momentum.
experimental
1.0
_,
Suctionsurface
IJ
_ e'-
6I I
Pressure
surface
f_
__
, I
20
I
80
I
100
40 60 Axialchord,percent
FIGURE
4-10.---Jet-flap
experimental
velocity
distributions.
117
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
around longer
one such
blade
the and
is no
surfaces
trailing the
diagram
with
closely
suction
tendency
where cooling.
is required
as blade
BLADE-PROFILE After determined This involves to and connecting designed channel exit must the blade from surface provide thc free the chord solidity profiles. stream. required length has of the The The inlet been inlet and
DESIGN selected the blade and exit parts and itself exit the must blade spacing and must the the loss. inlet the be and
considerations,
be designed. blade
determination a smooth,
blade
connecting minimum
provide
Consideration throat, trailing reference the blade discussion significant 4-11, new just station The diagram which within and edge loss. in effect shows the the Trailing
exit
section the
includes throat
the and
edge,
the edge.
trailing
edge.--In
the design
it is wise to utilize considerations. thickness causes thickness exit region. with the as part blade the
smallest shown in in a
further in the
trailing-edge will be made with The velocity the obtain blade this at station
Consideration exit-velocity
reduced
trailing-edge equations
blockage that
2, which
is located
"within-the-blade"
at 2a include
conservation
momentum: (4-26)
and
continuity
(p
S COS or2
_)_
(4-27)
118
BLADE
DESIGN
Station 1
FIQU_E 4-11.--Blade
where between
t is the
thickness, (4-26) The 2 to bc either to produce at station assumptions. flow 3Iach in the high inside a turbine fig. 4-11)
or feet. by
The (since
asa flow an
(4-27) must
assuming
incompressible
changes
small)
or isentropic.
exit angle of a2a in order 2 outside the blade row. The preceding is often blockage the design Mach number and the be to equations and specified can cause flow rate
(65 or greater)
station cannot
2a to become be obtained.
to determine Throat.--Since,
whether
choking
the flow accelerating of the the sion throat makes no design procedure. use of the change
"inside-the-trailing-edge" flow
assumes
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
the from
throat the
and velocity
station diagram
2a,
then
the
throat 2a by
can
be
at station
following
o(
= where throat o is the and the throat opening, that the If it is assumed "free-stream"
1
8 cos (T2a
cos a:_
(4-28)
and
2, then
q2
(4-29)
this and
the
of trailing-edge not its length. dimensions. predicted at exit down angles that from exit
changes (cqs. This 60 and could be across (4-28) then at the section (up to, 8 compares
angle
position with
give similar
by equation
comparison deviations due to lower the throat. The or If the from exit. (throat) divergent perhaps, achieved additional case, the following (4-29) flow the For
agreement
to 35 . This
deviation
to the
case
blade dimension
expands
condition be located
at the back
numbers is obtained.
passage
low supersonic
been found that satisfactory performance is still located at the exit of the channel, occurs exit downstream dimension from o would the throat. be computed
expansion channel
(4-30)
o = o_ \A _} where throat opening computed velocity, flow, m; ft m2; ft 2 flow, me; fC" from equation (4-28) or (4-29) for
058
for sonic
for supersonic
BLADE
DESIGN
1.0
.9--
Rt
1.1
Mach
I
number
1.4
FIGUttE 4-12.--Variati(m
This exit,
area
and of
Suction surface be made edge design. A "straight unity) or transonic paragraph, on the tail problems solidity 5lost ture fusion ably at curw'd from effect the the
trailing
trailingfrom
suction-surface
diffusion back" blading, uses this of the and the design and type blade the
is used trailing
of D,
are specified
long
of surface
flow acceleration Principal lowflimsy. of curvasome difangle of this (which curvature the effect in for the on the instead be lower is considerpreclude
with designs
a straight
structurally amount permits it adds the 0.8, than effect 4-13 the 0.8), selected
blading
structural
a wedge
If eonv(,ntionally on loss is not exit-flow severe. number between velocity if the constant. curvature At higher
should
In general,
distribution
to trailing
121
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
__o .-
_\\ L7
FIauR_
4-13.--Variation
of between
profile throat
h)ss
Math (from
and
surface
curvature
Inlet The than erally number velocities diffusion numbers, to choke used and inlet and edges ellipses, leading-edge the exit-region radius geometry geometry. earl usually and then the case toward that inlet. a serious In inlet of a turbine At increases the be used, blade blade because through row is usually inlet, the the .\lach blade less critical large is genlead5 [ach high 5[ach as were
leading-edge
concern can
region
of suction-surface is not so severe (4-27), a blade-inlet to check this opening for bladeis arbitrary in the and as can leading such edge,
losses. (4-26)
be taken
contraction
edges of
specified, with
which
be used to minimize
Profile geometri('s a profih_ that, have yields been the selected, required the flow
remaining
is t:o join
BLADE
DESIGN
turning desigu Two pressure turn velocity of these procedures The the
and
a satisfactory must sufficient major flow occur as a result Radial as a result influence should the flow analysis and
the
blade.
procedure of the
describe
to an accuracy Velocity
limits).
considerations
illustrated from
static-pressure
variations
of radial-equilibrium the blade-surface be at theory in the ncxt least that programs chapter.
channel
procedures putations
computer
are discussed
Pressure
surface7
_ Suction
_su rface
..-Pressure surface
Cross-channel
Suction surface_..
distance
(a)
__
-'Nl
,
_ I
";1
"'- Tip
NN
_::
/
,-Hub
Velocity (b)
(a)
FIGURE
4-14.--Turbine
blade-row
123
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
REFERENCES
1.
ZWEIFEL,
O.:
The
Spacing Brown
of
with pp.
Large
Deflection. SEYMOUR;
Boveri
SCHWENK,
FRANCIS and
ROBERT
Factor
Losses NACA
Loadings
in Axial-Flow-
RM ARTHUR
WARNER
GLASSMAN, Turbine
of Axial-Flow Paper
WARNER
Blade-Lolling ASME,
WARREN
Diffusion
67-WA/GT-8,
L.; WHITNEY,
Nov.
J.;
1967.
AND MISER, JAMES W.: Use of
in
])escribing
Turbine
Rotor-Blade
Losses.
L.:
Correlation with
of
Element
Momentum in RM
Thickness
Diffusion
of Subsonic Turbine
W.; STEWART,
Two-Dimensional E55BOS,
WHITNEY,
WARNER
AND
of 7.
Affected
by
Changes
RICHARD at
Investigation
MATHIESON,
C.
R.:
the
Flow
and 2891,
Pressure Aeronautical
9. BETTNER,
Losses
in
Blade
Rows Gt.
of
Axial-Flow Britain,
M. :
R&M
Research
L. ; AND
Council,
NOSEK,
JAMES
STANLEY
Loaded
Turbine
Blade ASME,
in Three-Dimensional
69-WA/GT-5, 10. LUEDZRS, cepts 2, Apr. 11. STABE, Blade 12. NOSEK, tion 13. NOSEK, Jet-Flap 14. STABS, Stator 1971. 15. BETTNER, Solidity 16. 17. BETTNER, Solidity, PRUST, Geometry ing. NASA JA_ES Tandem JAMES Jet HERMAN and TN H. G.;
J.:
Some Blade
Conno.
Turbine
G.: Ratio
Turbine X-1991,
of Axial
U.; AND
NASA
KLINE,
F.:Two-Dimensional
Tandem M.;
Blade
NASA
Test
of a
Rotor
l)_ign with
of a Jet-Flap NASA TM
Turbine X-2426,
L.:
l)esign Rotor.
of a Highly
Loaded,
Low
L.: W.,
of a Highly Effect of
Low
Flap
Thickness 1)-6637.
of Certain
Turbine
Bind-
124
BLADE
DESIGN
SYMBOLS A
C
m; ft
D F g K
o
force, N; lb conversion constant, ratio throat absolute reaction blade of inlet opening, pressure, spacing, m; ft
components _
P R
8
m; ft thickness, m; ft ft/scc axial direction, deg deg to specific heat at m/sec; from from at a by equation by equation (4-6) (4-5)
t V
X
o_8
pressure
lb/ft
defined defined
loading
Subscripts" cr inc max rain opt p s ss u x 1 2 2a critical incompressible maximum value minimum optimum pressure suction supersonic tangential surface surface component value
axial component blade row inlet blade within row exit edge of blade row trailing
125
CHAPTER 5
design
of a proper
blade
profile, of the
in the flow
last in
section order
of to the also
4, requires
calculation
field
discusses associated computer Lewis Research Center. The cannot nonsteady, passages. simplifying simplified surfaces Similar mean surface), directly, actual velocity be calculated viscous, To calculate assumptions to flow at this
NASA field of
distribution time
flow complexity
distribution, two-dimensional
three-dimensional surfaces.
on or through
are illustrated in figure 5-1 for the case of a radial-inflow turbine. surfaces are used for an axial-flo(v turbine. A flow solution on the hub-to-shroud shown but provides stream in figure surface does (commonly not (fig. yield for the 5-1 (c)) to part is the called the meridional velocities surface which a velocity mathematical solution of the and potentialyield dis5-1 (a), blade-surface blade-to-blade solutions, obtain is the
information
required
(fig. 5-1 (b)) and orthogonal surface the desired blade-surface velocities. There tribution formulation of the problem, we are over two of the will parts to a method surfaces. and streamthe For the one of these problem, problem. discuss (stream-filament)
numerical formulation
mathematical
methods and
velocity-gradient
methods.
stream-
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Hub-to-shroud
stream surface -_ |
Blade-_,-blade surface]
I
(a)
0_)
,- Ortho_nm
(c) (a) Hub-to-shroud stream surface. (b) Blade-to-blade (c) Orthogonal surface across flow passage. FIOURE 5--1.--Surfaces used for velocity-distribution calculations. surface.
128
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
methods A similar
will be described type of analysis equation assumptions herein: relative point the is steady at any system. obeys the ideal-gas given is rotating, surfaces. are
relative
to the
blade-to-blade
surface surface.
can be made
and can be used various means vary methods that with relative the time. to a
velocity
on the blade
be steady
p=pRT where p p R T absolute density, absolute pressure, kg/m_; J/(kg) N/m_; lb/ft S (K); (ft) (lbf)/(lbm) (R) K; R lb/ft 2
(5-1)
gas constant,
temperature,
(p = constant). is nonviscous. A nonviscous fluid therefore, has no boundary as if the free layer. stream
The blade-surface velocity is calculated, extends to the blade surface. (4) (5) (6) inlet. (7) The The The For fluid total the has a constant temperature streamthat and the heat and flow is isentropic. total
analyses, irrotational.
additional
assumption
is made
Y is do at shape
time,
rotation
is zero.
Of course,
a frame
of reference
has rotated,
because
of reference
has rotated.
129
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Direction of rotation
Time = t
r-l
LJ
Time-t+At
FIGURE
5--2.--Absolutely
irrotational
flow.
numerical
techniques However,
the
mathematical that
will An is
be discussed.
be emphasized
are many
in Chapter
IV of reference
STREAM-
AND
ANALYSES
stream as shown
function in figure
can 5-3.
be
defined
but two
perhaps blades
the of a
is in terms
of streamlines.
Suppose
we consider
It is assumed
is two-dimensional
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
1 .8
Mass flow fractbn
.6 .4
\\\\
FIGURE
5-3.--Streamlines
for a stator
cascade.
axial
flow here,
so that
the
radius flow
r from in the
the radial
and be
there is no variation of the rotation about the centerline. Shown the line. blades Thus, passing in figure between the
5-3 are a number number surface by each surface (which the upper
mass
is w. The upper
is a streamline)
of the upper blade has the value of 1, while the remaining values between 0 and 1. Note that a value can be assois called function. the stream-
ciated with any point in the passage. This value function value and can be used to define the stream It will be recalled (or uniform) that mass flow can be calculated flow by w= pVA
for a one-dimensional
(5-3) 131
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
where
W
flow,
kg/sec; to the
V A This
velocity,
normal
can be extended
to a varying
flow by using
an integral
w= f a pV dA Since relative this stream-function (blade velocity rows), W, which analysis the fluid that any by
QI
(5-4) to both will blade be stationary expressed row reduces and rotating of
applies velocity
cascades
in terms to absolute
velocity V. We will assume the mass flow wl._ between fig. 5-4) can be calculated
wl._ --/Q
_ pW,,b dq
(5-5)
-'_Q1
FIGURE
5-4.--Arbitrary
curve
joining
two
points
in
flow
passage.
132
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
velocity
component
from
sign convention
dependent With
for steady
an analytical (x, y) :
u at a point
/Q(_'Y) pWnb dq
o
u(x,
y) =
W
(5-6)
of the lower blade, This of path, example, the point that and the
point along
on the any
upper
surface
curve
Qo and
(x, y).
integral to calculate
derivatives in figure
Ou/Ox
at the
(x, y).
as shown
dq-}- fc ffipW_b
W
dq (5-7)
FIGURE
5-5.--Curve
joining
(x,y)
with
a point
on the
upper
surface
of the lower
blade.
133
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
(Xo.Y)ff c2 (x,y}
FIGURE 5--6.--Curve
joining
with
a point
on the upper
curve and
(x0, y),
and along
(Xo, y)
integral
C2, we have
W, = -W_
dq = dx. Hence, dx
Ou (x, y) = -Ox or
(5-8)
Ou
Ox
aW,,b
w
(5-9)
In a similar
manner,
we can calculate Ou_ Oy pW_b w that the and OV._ flow is absolutely the above (5-10)
Now From
irrotational.
operator [OV=
curlV=fOV.
\or
OV=_ i
+(OV_
\ox
ov/
wherei, 134
j, and
k are the
unit
vectors
in the
x, y, and
z directions,
respec-
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
tively, m/sec
and
Vx,
V,
are
the
absolute
velocity respectively.
components Since
(in we are
or ft/sec)
x, y, and
z directions,
considering
two-dimensional
and OVa_ Oz Hence, equation (5-11) requires OV:,=O Oz that OVx Oy (5-14) (5-13)
only OV_ Ox
Since V_= W_ and Vu-- W_+_r where equation _ is the (5-14) angular speed (in rad/sec) in terms OW3, Ox Actually, in this the particular flow is irrotational case. Now, from with OW_ Oy respect to the (5-10) moving (5.9), (5.18) pb cOy w Ou pb Ox (5-19) into equation (_-17) coordinates and the radius (5-16) r is constant, as (5-15)
can be expressed
of relative
velocities
(5-17)
equations
w 0_t
and
W_ -
=
Substituting equations (5-18) and
(5.19)
yields
0 (10u_=
; oy/
and
(5-20)
For incompressible
p is constant,
0_U
02U
(5-91)
which called is Laplace's a harmonic equation. function. Any There function satisfying deal Laplace's of theory equation concerning 135 is is a great
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
harmonic complex The number solution Laplace's specifying along The in every 5-8. the first
functions variables. important of functions that two entire thing satisfies things: equation
to the theory here is that conditions. (5-20) and is the 5-7. (2)
functions a tremendous
of
(5-21),
find
a by
boundary a finite
to either condition A typical same in the angle along stream entire of u Along of
a boundary region. region upstream that the the way FG, flow
boundary that cascade we along Similarly, the flow defined, and FE,
a finite is sufficiently
solution
as shown
It is assumed
of the
_0,_ is known.
Along a periodic
u= 1. Along
condition _ is the
exists;
1 greater where
it is along distance
AB and CD.
is known,
yl
Wx
FIGUI_E
5-7.--Two-dimensional
infinite
cascade.
136
CHANNEL FLOWANALYSIS
6/
"_'. E
Uniform flow n
Uniform flow
L
A y _-_x FIGURE 5-8.--Finite solution region. B P _ C W
Consider
the
differential
of u in the direction
of the velocity
W:
du = OxO'-u dx+_ The Along differential and AH, Ou Or and substitution from equation (5-22) Ou_ 07 However, du -"-dx Further, uniform Ou/Oy there. is constant Therefore, Ou [u(H)-u(A)'] .... 8y s where (5-25) s is the and blade spacing in equation in the (5-24) along 8u 8x is 0 because the velocity the vector stream
(5-22) along a
streamline,
must
a streamline.
(5-23)
yields (5-24)
Ou dy Oy dx
tan _
(5-25)
AH,
since
it is assumed
that
the
flow is
1 s Substituting AH
(5-26)
equations
(5-26)
(5-27)
ia 8
137
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Similarly,
along
DE,
o,,, = We now have shown unique (5-20)), subsonic There After throughout function. this specify problem solution a boundary 5-8. These solution the condition boundary equation is always along
(5-28) of the region determine flow is strictly or (5-21). and velocities of the problem and from This stream is to this will of solving a (eq.
in figure
to Laplace's
region. techniques is obtained, can as the later. for solving by equation differentiation problem. blade or inverse, surface distribution. (5-20) blade-surface direct velocities
be obtained The
is known
A method
indirect, on the
this velocity
Potential-Function For defined. streamlines. as the stream two-dimensional If lines The of equal potential irrotational potential function exists but the main are flow,
Method a potential they function in the same then can be to detail it can
drawn,
will be orthogonal
function,
and relations
will be given.
-- = Vx Ox and - Vv Oy We will tional system for pure assumption axial refer relative to absolute to the of absolute flow, since velocities coordinate irrotational This the rotation here, system flow, since used. we must This, that if there respect have coupled the
(5-29)
(5-30)
implies
has no effect
is no change
radius; that is, the flow is actually irrotational with as we saw in the discussion of the stream function. From the continuity relationship for steady flow,
o(pvx) +o(pv,) =o
Ox 138 Oy
(5-31)
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
Substituting
equations
(5-29)
and
(5-30)
in equation
(5-31)
yields
0(oo,o()
If the flow is incompressible, p is constant, a_ a2_ and
=0
So, the potential satisfy function flow, same the boundary same the satisfies both differential solution over the Laplace's the stream equation region entire equation. function (Laplace's shown Thus, and the pressible, function difference We specify BC and irrotational lies in the boundary FG, - V, = 0 0_ where V, is the velocity normal to the blade surface. Along AH,
(5-33)
for incompotential The We can Along
equation). 5-8.
can consider
conditions
(5-34)
(5-35)
and
along
DE,
oue
The
inlet
and
outlet
axial
velocities
are given
W
by the
equations
(v_) ,. and
p_nbs
(5-37)
(V_) o_t-
(5-38)
Along uniform
AB,
GH,
CD, AH,
and
EF,
a periodic
the flow is
along
(0yy_),.,= Substituting
[_(H)-
_(A)Is
- (V_) _,
(5-39)
V_ = V: tan/_
(5-40) 139
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
into
equation
(5-39)
yields _(H) =(A)q-s(Vx)_, is exactly at the = (D) outlet, +s(Vx)o,,, tan #o_, the lines FE and (5-42) CD. solution, value of a tan s(Vz)_,_ _,, tan _, greater
(5-41)
along HG
Because than
of the AB.
along
the
boundary
conditions
(5-32) a unique
or (5-33).
boundary only
within point,
If the
is specified unique
at one
to equation
for incompressible
(5-32), for strictly subsonic compressible As for the stream function, there are equation ary the (5-32) or (5-33) subject to the conditions. A method velocity distribution 2 and Choice 3. of Streamfor solving to determine
flow throughout the region. numerous methods for solving preceding or equivalent boundproblem of specifying shape is described in
references
If the flow is steady, irrotational, choose between the stream function case, the conditions However, pressible choice The choice (the if any flow) of stream existence is made on the basis differential equation of the is not function of the three applicable, or potential stream
of ease of solution for the boundary is the same: Laplace's equation). (steady, we may function. is proven from the mass of path. Some used out the the continuity crossing requires assumpthat other on flow. three flow is flow This irrotational, be restricted or incomas to the then
assumptions
function
equation. For a line between that tion the is necessary flow was to the
the stream function to be defined, two points must be independent incompressible irrotational, for the axial-flow or steady. We which case for the blade flow to be unique.
turned
to be irrotational
relative
considered.
be made for other problems. Another restriction is that it can be defined only for two-dimensional since two the stream points, function and function coordinate this can is defined is meaningless if the in
can easily
as a percentage
dimensions. existence potential the given be shown system. This irrotational 140 relative is necessary
CHANNEL
FL_OW
ANALYSIS
because is, if
we must
have
equality
of mixed
second
partial
derivatives;
that
02_
m
OxOy then
0 V ----_ Ox _-Oy and the flow must flow; with the be that respect must be continuity irrotational. is, the made potential to assure to the
V.
(5-44)
in
if the
a unique
equation. Solution for many Stream-Function ways solution case of steady, Laplace's of solving theory. of the direct incompressible, subject function. but equation Method various We will problem to the The with points 5-9. (5-21)) problems consider for the boundmethod a lower in the Then a A can be in figure 1 and 0 is
Finite-Difference As posed stream flow. stated by before, stream-function detail function there
are
or potential-function
in further
the finite-difference for the simplest we must potential for the is to 5-8. point four establish solve discussed
irrotational
ary conditions of solution rate region written typical 5-10. points denoted in figure tively. tions, mesh When The first shown at The
on the stream is quite solution. grid is shown equation stream mesh distance
similar,
of convergence
A typical where
finite-difference mesh
approximation point
point
0, and
explanation following
2Uo]
is done,
is obtained:
2U4
2ul h_(h_Th2)
2u_ 4-h2(h_+h2)
+h_(h_+h4)
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
N
I ] Ii'_ "_ _- .." _
. ! 1
"
li, ii I I _ i [ i\ I \_, I .
\
N
_
_\! " ' "
fl II, IJ.-"_
r A
--'-..I
ilII Ii,
_ 1
1 1
"F
Jl
!
E I
,l
'_\{
;
j i
.,
FIGURE 5-9.--Mesh used for a finite_lifference
: !
!
\\
solution.
I)
h2
h3
D
h4
,4
FIGURE 5-10.--Notation
for adjacent
142
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
Solving
equation
(5-45)
for u0 yields
4 UO= E i-1
the
expression
aiui
(5--46)
= --
h3--_- h4
aoh_
(5-48)
hi+h2
a3 --
aoh3
(5-49)
1 1 ao=(h3Th4)(_T_)+(h.+h,)(_+-_,)
(5-46) points
holds
at every surface,
interior then
mesh the
point.
If one
of the point
value
equation to obtain
cannot
boundary
For example,
boundary
0 is on line AH,
a finite
difference
approximation
(tan-Bin)
(5-52)
Uo= u3-
h3 (tans-_"'
(5-53)
can be derived 0 (fig. 5-11) the boundary. 1,s is a distance 5-11. Substituting by using the
the
along A and
AB
and
CD, If
periodic
boundary
is on
it is known point 1 in
ul=ul.s-1, y-direction,
as shown
143
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
2 31
G.
u2 "u2,-s
+1
2,-s
uo=alui..-I-
_,
i--2
aiui--al
(5-54)
along HG
CD need
also. considered, AB. The since since 2,-s they point is a are just 1 equation for the first 2 is on line distance 5-12. s
along the
case, 2 in this
y-direction, (5-46)
-_-
as indicated
in figure
Substituting
in equation
a_Na ,_.
(5-55)
FE (fig. 5-8). to region are will each of unbe in the as there is unknown be applied
equation point to
also
first
mesh to
(5-52)
points there
where
mesh
are n unknown
have
be ui at the last
equation
at a typical
be written
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
H
/
1,2
Ul "Ul, s - 1
FIGURE 5-12.--Mesh
_"_aijuj
_-ki
(5--56)
values
of the
of equations zero, the can and the outermost aij matrix for the valuable there iterative is relaxation. point Storage unknown uj. be obtained
(5-47)
aii
through
= --1.
(5-55).
unknown is always
boundary.
singular; techniques. of linear unknowns, small, the required. changing satisfy procedure The ever, time the factor. the change the and
solution
A numerical
by iterative systems number To consists point, values of are start is of the of u. Howpoint
in solving requirements methods. mesh This at every in the exci_ssive greatly the and the
are a large
iteration,
every
estimated
each this
in succession
so as to
equation is repeated
After
is simple The
it always
for this
problem.
is extremely
computer
overrelaxation greatest
is convergent when
However,
is an optimum
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
1 and
2 which factor
the
rapid
convergence.
This procedure,
can be calculated
in reference
an explicit denoted
of ui=0
n in succession
uim+l-_-_
uim-_-0J
--
Z j-I
aijui
re+lj-i-i-1
aij_J
m'gf-]gi-
uim
(5-57)
any other
for
u is as
obtained
by the
(or the
it is necessary (5-10)
to calculate
use of equa-
w(OZ)
Yz-
(5-58)
pb
and
o
W_ = pb au/Oy curve, blade must such surface, angle. Analyses and is best at the are called axial, the calculation by comLewis blading blade-toTURBLE, radial, with or the NASA for be estimated done, the either curve, two (5-59) The partial derivatives discrete or by The mesh values fitting points. and
au/ax
and
from
the
by finite through
as a spline velocity
resultant
is calculated tangent
components is calculated
be seen,
done
Several
through The
turbomachine
of these
stream-function region.
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
TURBLE extends equation (lower called flow Another a detailed or in the MAGNFY in the by problems.
in
that
it
performs solutions
all are
the
same (local
in
the
solution type
to transonic described
a A
preliminary program to analyze splitters. 8, obtains blade and Flow indicated turbomachine described
stream-function in reference rows and described blades. flow. flow axialcan or _IERIDL, The or blade
solution. rows
7, can be used with of any in reference regions TANDEM surface, mixed-flow which subsonic is by as
slotted
or trailing-edge
5-1(a)),
be analyzed
in references
be obtained
to extend
a preliminary
VELOCITY-GRADIENT As methods within give sonic, the called involves guided method blades. such guided defined. shown guided half must additional an possible basic indicated previously, are the limited region. however, solution in stream-function to solutions
ANALYSIS and that solution flow are potential-function entirely subsonic and to also subthan is equation can be extended regime. alone It other to obtain
By use of a velocity-gradient the subsonic the transonic without the method solutions The because
a velocity-gradient or supersonic indicated earlier. analysis method that on the in figure and the other 5-9, and is, a solid degree 4-11, associated hand, less surface surface. than for
of analysis
velocity-gradient curvature can only both Therefore, solidity suction velocity suction ends the provided and/or
is often equation
a stream-filament streamline,
or stream-filament, of analysis where boundary. passage most (high of the surface half a passage
A velocity-gradient passage; depends For region, On region, in figure as shown the orthogonals intersect
of flow guidance
a well-guided
is within such
blade
surface
be computed
of the suction
the stream-function
analysis distribution
be used if better
definition
of the suction-surface
is required. 147
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Method The sidering narrow passage velocity idea of a velocity-gradient case. Suppose as shown in figure method we have 5-13. can We be demonstrated assume the height the by cona of the average
a simple passage
two-dimensional
flow through
(5-60)
there
is a variation
in velocity velocity
difference
interested
by balancing in chapter
3 for consideration
equilibrium,
it can be shown
(5-61)
re is the for rc is
important; rc is positive cave downward. For the can be integrated curvature for integration along from the to be equal
if it is concave upward, and negative if it is consimple case shown in figure 5-13, equation (5-61) a radial inner line by assuming to the to any ro r passage point radius W Wo the streamline radius. in the There passage, (5-62) radius results, of in magnitude
Row
FIGURE 5-13.--Flow
148
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
where
Wa r. r
or suction, surface,
surface, m; ft
m/sec;
ft/sec
flow through
passage
is expressed
as
w--rl
rm+d
pWb into
(5-63) with
and
substitution density
of equation assumed,
(5-62) yields
constant
w. =
(5-64)
In a similar puted as
manner,
the
outer,
or pressure,
surface
velocity
can be com-
(5-65)
an estimate equation
of the (5-62),
blade-surface which to
velocities
can be obtained equation. If there were gradient equation. x, as shown W,, W_, and 5-14 flow.
simply We are some could Since in figure We. The are a, the
necessarily
restricted
two-dimensional
variation of velocity in the height of the be calculated in that direction also. We will we are coordinate 5-14. plane angle Also meridional now consider with are a very radius the the the following Ws= W_ is the and The general r, angle velocity x axis. resultant interested system indicated component W_ in turbomachinery,
velocity-gradient we will use 0, and components, of W, shown the hold Also axis
a rotating
cylindrical
containing
x axis,
and/_,
angle
meridional
relations W sin/_
149
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
FIGURE
5-14.--Cylindrical
coordinate
system
and
velocity
components.
In line, of the
addition as shown
x-coordinate, is the distance m-distance meridional plane; meridional meridional upward. along
it is convenient along a meridional the true is less than streamline that is, the streamline streamline.
to use stream-
an
m-coordinate. line distance a streamline The radius want neglected. positive We distance constant
stream-
The
curvature
of rc is q be the and
is concave
an arbitrary inlet, dO
total
temperature
momentum
dq +c--dq
(5-70)
where
W arc COS ol COS 2
W sin _
r
/_+sin
a cos _ -----2_ dm
dW,n
sin _
(5-71)
150
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
Q r
J
Axis 5-15.--The m-coordinate.
_x
FIGURE
a cos/_
dW_______ dm
(5-72)
c=Wsinasin[3cs[3+rcs_(ddWWm These ential vature, A great to tial (5-73). blades, distance We=0, equations any a, and number For equation are derived velocity-gradient involving 8. These channel, these of special example, in figure (into to the are as equations equation, streamline-geometry not cases suppose 5-16, page). and and We l_=0. known
). (B13)
(5-73)
of reference to solve such reasonably equations passage where (5-70). 5-16, with
11.
In using
for a guided
(0) direction
streamline.
in equation figure
dO/dn=O
Further,
Llnner wall
FIGURE
5--16.--Annular
passage
with
no
blades.
151
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
seen to
that (5-73),
dr/dn
= - sin a. Then,
from
equations
(5-70)
dW_ dn Thus, tion for this (5--61). Computer Several machine NASA CTTD computer blading Lewis program, to use or velocity orthogonals orthogonals. are flow rate to as illustrated Computations passage. mass than blading, of the mediumThis by Research which This programs Center. has for One case, equation (5-70)
(5-74)
of equa-
Programs the that analysis methods was in reference which used of flow have been through written years more turboat the is the general 13. to and flow the to axial-
velocity-gradient is described program, can be used both from This made for the results 5-17, for can also
now been
superseded
program
in a flow solution which satisfies of these program indicated may be obtained used basic
in figure program
a specified
to compute
high-solidity because
can be provided solutions passage. methods plane the base along for uses the to Such reference 11
program
Velocity-gradient and blade-to-blade analysis 14, which Since convenient onal-plane reference orthogonals. was more velocity-gradient quasi-orthogonals. presented reference centrifugal in
have
to obtain method
meridionalfor a meridiin it
solutions.
mixed-flow orthogonal
is presented along the streamline use were analysis impeller vaned plane and diffusers in advance,
equation
straight
which
programs for
A program
a blade-to-blade
analysis
that uses quasi-orthogonals in reference 16. A further viously 152 use of the
impeller as
is described preto
mentioned solution
in this chapter,
stream-function
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
local flow
supersonic and
The
subsonic
angles equation.
curvatures transonic-flow
solution
Orthogonal su Hace _/
/
j,f
su rface
f
Midchannel stream line--,
i
Mean
i
Hub
FIGURE
5-17.--Turbine
blades
with flow
three-dimensional passage.
orthogonal
surface
across
153
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
REFERENCES
1. JOHNSEN, Axial-Flow 2. COSTELLO, Velocity 1950. 3. COSTELLO, Detailed scribed 1060, 4. VARGA, gram Surface 6. KATSANIS, on 1969. 7. KATSANIS, Calculating a Tandem 8. KATSANIS, Calculating face 9. THEODORE; Velocities Blade AND McNALLY, and Streamlines NASA McNALLY, TN WILLIAM on TN O.: FORTRAN Stream 1969. FORTRAN Program Stream for SurProgram Surface for of 5. KATSANIS, for GEORGE R.;
CUMMINGS,
IRVING
A.;
O.,
EDS.:
Aerodynamic
Design
of
of
Designing
Blades Flows.
with NACA
AND
SINNETTE,
JOHN Blades
Procedure in
Design
of
Cascade
with NACA
Compressible
Potential
Flows.
Iterative MCNALLY,
Inc.,
1962. ProStream
THEODORE; Calculating
FORTRAN
Velocities NASA
a Blade-to-Blade
of a Turbomachine. THEODORE:
FORTRAN Stream
Transonic NASA TN
Velocities D-5427,
a Blade-to-Blade
Surface
of a Turbomachine.
Turbomachine. AND
THEODORE; Velocities
in a Magnified NASA
a Blade-to-Blade
Hub-Shroud
Mid-Channel
D-7343,
10.
AND and
MCNALLY, Streamlines
1).:
FORTRAN H--Programmer's
Program Manual.
for Flow
Hub-Shroud
Mid-Channel
D-7344,
11.
Quasi-Orthogonals of a Turbomachine.
Flow D-2546,
12.
KATSANIS,
THEODORE;
AND
DELLNER,
LOIS
T.:
for NASA
Calculating TM X-1394,
Velocities
for
for Flow
CalRows.
JOSEPH
AMBROSE;
AND
OSBORNE,
WALTER
M.:
Method
of Analysis of Arbitrary 15. VANCO, Meridional D-6701, 16. KATSANIS, Distribution D-2809,
for Compressible Design. R.: of Plane 1972. THEODORE: on 1965. a Use of NACA
Flow Rep.
Mixed-Flow
Centrifugal
Impellers
MICHAEL
FORTRAN a Turbomachine.
Program
for
CMculating
Velocities NASA
in
the TN
I--Centrifugal
Compressor.
Arbitrary
Quasi-Orthogonals Surface in a
for Turbomachine.
Calculating NASA
Flow TN
Blade-to-Blade
154
CHANNEL
FLOW
ANALYSIS
SYMBOLS A
ai
flow area, mS; ft 2 coefficients cascade passage distance constant distance distance absolute distance radius, blade absolute for equation height, width, between in equation m; ft m; ft mesh points, m; ft m; ft (5-56) (5-46)
b d h
ki
m
?t
along meridional streamline, normal to streamline, m ; ft pressure, along m; ft spacing, m; ft K; R temperature, J/(kg) N/m2; (K); lb/ft curve, (ft) 2 m; ft arbitrary
P q R r
8
gas constant,
(lbf)/(lbm)
(R)
T t
u
time, sec stream function absolute relative mass fluid velocity, velocity, flow rate, absolute m/see; m/see; kg/sec; angle ft/sec ft/sec lb/sec of inclination to blades, from out axial of the direction meridional boundary, in the plane m; ft
V W
W
meridional plane, deg fluid flow angle, relative (in the tangential distance in direction 0
P
to cascade rad
in direction lb/ft a
of rotation,
o3
Subscripts: c in m n out p r s x y z curvature inlet meridional component outlet pressure component normal surface to streamline
radial component suction surface axial component in y-direction in z-direction 155 component component
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
tangential mesh-point
component designations
o 1
1, 4 3, 2, I
156
CHAPTER 6
is available of the
to be a loss. predicted,
important
difficult
is the prediction
it is necessary
primary cause of losses is the boundary layer that develops and end-wall surfaces. Other losses occur because of shocks, flows, operation. which disk is used losses. friction chapter to calculate _Iethods and (windage), gives an flow incidence, to basic needed the are and partialThis introduction boundaryto estimate viscous loss in the
for determining
trailing-edge
presented
NATURE When velocities, thin the and hand, layer boundary conditions thc velocity a real the in the fluid influence immediate At the agree there nonviscous) of the layer. (such
OF
LAYER a turbine blade. the with the blade This the layer use on at normal is called of ideal other
as air)
to a relatively
neighborhood
(frictionless,
assumptions.
condition). 157
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
It is the frictional, velocity boundary point and laminar. surface sufficiently ness of the or changes Most are significant boundary tance. bulent flow are that turbulent layer It usually boundary amplified, pressure slide from layer A boundary at the
or viscous, layer
forces
in this thin value finite and fluid local negligible at a point 6-2(a) blade
layer
that
reduce
the 6-1.
fluid The
in figure
layer
In a laminar
boundary so that they way, The this blades through In the this the value, leads velocity
smooth-
as figure
flows
or entering components flow. remain region, random In the any region point With region weak laminar
a transition
becomes
of turbulent
6-2 (b) indicates. in the away in the moves rear laminar boundary from in figure of the increases. 6-3. suction This
a separated
can likewise
As the free-
velocity
decreases
pressure
_- Transition _ region
Separated region-t
FIGURE 6-1.--Boundary
layer
on blade.
158
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
Steady Steady t t
I t
(a) Laminar FxovaE flow. 6-2.--V_riation of velocity with
Unsteady t
(b) time Turbulent at a point. flow.
FIoUrtE
6-3.--Boundary-layer
separation.
flow
in
the
in the
in a direction separation. point. can turbulent Finally, layers sent can laminar for lew_'l ()f the equati()ns The also
which
is the the
is illustrated
incompressible
boundary-layer and
compressible
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION Turbulent boundary Separat ion layer 7 _ II I I __I __' ' .....
bubble;,
,Z__...1-f_.rrt_
c Stagnation point
FIGURE
6-4.--Laminar
separation
and
reattachment.
Boundary layers should be considered relative Mach number exceeds values equations discussed for these in this various cases chapter.
are derived
OF
equations. can
systems, directions.
three The
Navier-Stokes
Stokes equations themselves can be derived servation of momentum to a fluid element. will not be repeated here. References 1 and
derivation, in two somewhat There are various forms what tion assumptions represents the are fluid made with
derivation.
Navier-Stokes
for a compressible
du dt where
u
__
V(V.u)
(6-1)
velocity sec
vector,
m/sec; 1;32.17
t g f 160
acting
on a unit
of fluid,
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
lbm/ft N/m2;
P
/z
In this u, v, and
u represents three
w in the
coordinate
directions
z, respectively. (6-2)
u=uiTvj+wk where The i, j, and total, k are the unit vectors in the three coordinate In any of the
directions. coordinate
or substantial,
derivative
of u is du/dt.
directions, d 0 0 0 0
Oz
In equation rather vector than quantities, du _ -_=g'--p Expressing which may the g VP+U-o V(V.u)--p V operator familiar in terms to the (6-1), to a scalar the Laplacian (6-1) operator If the term becomes _ [VX(VXu)-]+_ of gradients, reader, equation curls, 1 p- V(V.u) and V2 is applied to the function. V2u is expanded into
(6-3)
vector simple u
equation
(6-4)
divergences, becomes
be more
(6-4)
p-f-_- grad(div P
u) -_-
curl(curl
u)
+_
1 _l P grad
(div
u)
(6-5)
In order to derive into three The Ou the three boundary-layer scalar equations, equations are 02u 02u\ _y2+0-_) equations, equation of the (6-1) has
to be expanded directions. Ou Ou
coordinate
resulting
+U x+V y+W
l u 0 [Ou
Ov
Ow\
Ov
Ov
Ov
Ov
g Op __u_/O2v
020
02v\
l u 0 [Ou
Ov
Ow\
161
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
aw
aw
+ w aw
g Op.
tt [CO2w. O_w.
COho'_
+5-_ t,_+_+_)(6-s)
P
1 tt cO[cOu
cOy
cow\
where
components
force
f.
order
to
derive flow,
is a constant. preceding is
is incompressible.
incompressible
/cOu V. u=div the final terms (3) and (4) (5) Thus, With following Flow (6-7). Flow Body these is steady. forces are This eliminates from the for the is consideration, in equations as well
cOy
eliminates
cOOr terms. to inertia (6-6) and viscous and (6-7). reduce to the forces. equations
negligible
in relation Navier-Stokes
f, andf_
equations
two equations
x- and y-directions:
(6-_0>
(6-11)
u_+__:
Likewise, the continuity
COy
COy
. _ . t,_+_)
cOy
equation
cO u
becomes
_x+_yy=0 In order boundary-layer and show that velocities 162 some and to make equations the (6-10) check with directions to (6-12) is performed respect pertinent suitable on to the the
(6-12/ for the analysis made Figure boundary dimensionless, terms layer. to the 6-5 shows various of
flow,
equations
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
U =u uO_
u_5 _
full
Trailing
FmURE 6-5.--Boundary-layer
velocities
and dimensions.
The
following
dimensionless
parameters
X X =-
(6-13b)
U0
(6-13c)
(6-13d) Uo
(6-13e)
Re = o.L
Uo (6-13f)
where X L Y U dimensionless characteristic dimensionless dimensionless free-stream dimensionless x-coordinate length velocity velocity velocity (in this case, in x-direction upstream of blade, m/see; ft/sec in y-direction 163 the blade chord), m; ft y-coordinate
u0
V
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
pressure
number 6-5, we see that since x is proportional boundary-layer less than layer (6-10) and by are to (6-11) L/Uo. 1. Likewise, much smaller in terms multiplied resulting to L, X is of order thickness since _, since than _/,u, 1.
since
Y is of in
$r,m/L
V = v Uo is of order
boundary
OU
OU
OP
1 /O_U
02U\
OV
OV
OP
1 [02V
O2V\
u +v
.....
OU OV = 0 terms in these equations 1, and _--_+_-_
(6-15)
The are
order of order
of the other.
various Since
be compared
X and
U are of order
Y and
(6-17a)
(6-175)
- = _ 1
(6-17c)
(6-17d)
(6-17e)
1
e- e
1
e2
(6-17f)
164
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
e ----- E 0X _ 1.1 02V OY _ Furthermore, magnitude order 1. Relating to (6-16) the as the these yields OU OU OP 1 /02U 02U\ change change orders -_ _.e 1 e to X is of the to X, so that same
a2V
(6--17g)
(6-17h)
in P with of U with
order
of is of
OP/OX
of magnitude
terms
in equations
(6-14)
v o-T=
= -- 1 + (_)
i3-X +
(1+_)
(6-18)
OV
OV
OP
1 /02V
02V\
+ v oT= or
(t2) (_+!)
(6-19)
OU
OV
(6-20)
1+1 By examining can be reached: (1) inertia (6-18), 02U/OX Reynolds (2) In dominating is to dominate, smaller fore, allows than P=P(X) In equations (6-18) to (6-20), the following conclusions
theory,
it is assumed same For d, since terms large. l/Re are of order in this
that order to
the be true
viscous
2) -] are of the
of magnitude larger
U(OU/OX)+V(OU/OY). of order the two with terms be relatively dominates (6-19), _, the and that
in equation
02U/OY
2 is much
parentheses. _ and
of order
e or less. Therefore,
or Op/Ox=dp/dx. boundary
us to assume
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
in comparison
less equations: OU OU dP 1 02U U _ T V O----Y - d--X -{-Re 0 Y_ = OU OV (6-22) in dimensionless are size useful of the boundary form. layer in and So, to (6-21)
OX +-_=O These The the are Prandtl's of the fluids. boundary-layer equations Reynolds From equation number equations in this (6--21) form on the
boundary-layer
in determining
influence
for different
we see that
as Re increases
magnitude, the viscous-force smaller. The boundary-layer as Re increases, decreasing The variables by Uo/L. of the boundary _i_u decreases. layer decreases viscosity boundary-layer by multiplying The resulting
terms (1Re) (02U/O y2) will get smaller thickness will correspondingly decrease. Furthermore, as the can (6-21) are Ou Oy
Ou Ov
equation
g dp p dx
_t
_ 02u p Oy 2
(6-23)
--+--=0 Ox Oy These laminar, are Prandtl's boundary-layer flow. Density gradient solution. equations and viscosity along the blade The remaining for
(6-24)
incompressible
and known. The pressure known from an ideal-flow and equations (6-23) It should be noted the presence of shock of large layer depend gradients boundary shock Mach and that
(6-24) are sufficient the boundary-layer (i.e., where the occur). Just as
waves
instantaneous number,
magnitude
phenomena conditions
on mainly
Reynolds
wave depend on primarily the Mach number. number is not included in the boundary-layer about the interaction of shock waves and
us nothing 166
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
completely used close in their to the are since in the equations to (6-8)
as separation is that point, order used where point be used development of the not in the the as u. calV is of for
is approached.
assumptions
rapidly, the
to be of the the
same region
is incurred.
neighborhood (6-6)
of a separated
of the boundary-layer equations were derived of coordinates in which the radius of curvature axes flow wall can is quite arises over and large (i.e., wall. where the curvature question (fig. 6-6) as to how boundary-layer the x-axis to it, a new a system. the blade assumption the radius result are in curvature equations terms the with variations equations provided near sharp there edges. boundary-layer
for an orthogonal system of each of the coordinate effects equations are negligible). would coordinate change The for system equations are relative given in on the radius orders manner wall, dr/dx applied and ._ l, walls. to
If a curvilinear
orthogonal
of the curved
be derived 1. The
arc very
x along With
can be estimated
done
boundary-layer
occur,
boundary-layer as well,
for fiat
in curvature,
as would
y
x x
FIGURE
6-6.--Curvilinear
coordinate
system
on
a blade.
167
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Laminar An order-of-magnitude
boundary
In the used.
compressible
density
to relate
is not isothermal, flow will involve These for viscosity Sutherland's are
form for
boundary-layer
variable-viscosity
parameters specific
(6-25)
at the
reference K; R S=
temperature
temperature, K; R
To
S A less is the
temperature,
less accurate,
_o= \_o/ where by the _ is a constant. heat range T. The cquation, and and
0.5<oo<1.0 0.65. be related particular related variables to problem equation, and with
(6-26)
For air, _0 is approximately thermal conductivity fits these relating of the for With can the variables these
least-squares unknowns
compressible-boundary-layer equations component equation. analysis for flow. For of the momentun_
will be the
is almost
analogous
are the
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
Ou
Ou
Op,
0 [
pu _+ pv oy-- -g _-v_ =
L2" ou 2 ----
[Ou
Ov
Ov
pu _xx+P,
Oy
g Op.
0 [
Ov
/Ou
Ov\l
a [.lay
au\l (6-28)
+O(pv) Oy
=0
(6-29)
is performed equations,
on these the
equations
similar
incompressible-flow
following
boundary-
pu -_x-{-pv --=--g Oy
-d-x-t--_y
(6-30)
o(pu)
+ Ox The equation of state flow. The is also state
o(pv)
-0 Oy (6-31)
for the is
solution
of compressible
boundary-layer
(6-32) (K) or the of state, boundary by energy gas, means written (ft) (lbf)/(lbm) continuity is the layer energy (R). equation, is derived the from equation. order-of-
R is the final
gas
required
of another in full:
magnitude
following
equation
for compressible,
two-dimensional
flow of a perfect
pc, where
Cp
U_xxTV_yy
=_xx-i-_Oyy.Oxx
k_-x)T_yy
k_yy)+_j_
(6-33)
heat
at constant constant,
J/(kg) Btu/(sec)
(K);
(R)
J k and
conductivity,
(6-34)
169
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
check energy
is performed equation
on the results:
above
equations,
the
(6-35)
(6-30), thc
(6-31), ideal
(6-32),
and
(6-35)
are
boundaryflow of
equations
two-dimensional,
Turbulent It is desirable of turbine probably formance. motions) fluctuations present. the fluid There flow. sional, required, stretching ever, handle mesh
flOW.
Boundary-Layer a turbulent boundary blades, flow has that motion on the boundary layer with main irregular fluid closed-form is very mean
Solution layer
Methods over the major separation in their or (mixing (see since are fig. 6-2). are the often portion will pereddy These at in
is not
turbulent, decrease
a resulting motion
fluctuations solutions
superimposed are Yet,, the due are than two first since the represent mixing those is the
so complex
magnitude The
due to the
equations. which
two-dimensional computers solutions fluctuating is to write of mean and by of velocity, u'. as follows:
calculations available of these components the equations and for So the fluctuating In this example,
is a prime
even
equations
on a small
second
approach in terms
energy
velocity.
velocities,
pressure,
temperature
u = _+ u' v=_+v'
p = _+ p'
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
negligible as functions If the continuity, compressible These They the are are product not
and
are not considered. time-averaged listed and set "apparent" pu '_ and v'. These
So these value in equations energy of stress turbulent pu'v', new For where terms this
parameters
are calculated into the and stresses. time of additional equations or th_ before
of the
of temperature. are substituted for arises incompressible in thees or Reynolds average additional terms over add equations stresses, u'v' is the in the reason, Reynolds for which
flow properties momentum, flow, the form of the to the presently are
a new
equations.
are called
of u r and
unknowns
expressions
approximations turbulent
boundary-layer Turbulent
equations Incompressible
can be solved. Boundary (6-36) into Layer equations (6-10), analysis boundary-
the (6-12),
an order-of-magnitude incompressible,
following
(6-37)
(6-a8)
These flow. (_ and equations Notice, are analogous however, equation. the This making adds three to equations presence a new of the (6-23) and (u'v') only (6-24) stress two Layer into equations all turbulent, for (6-27), order-ofcomfor laminar term in the two Reynolds with
momentum
unknown
unknowns
the analysis
(6-32),
and
performing
following
boundary-layer
o(_)
. o(_,)
, o(p'v')
ox
-o
(6-39)
(6-40)
/5 =_RT
(6-41) 171
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
0_
(6-42)
where
T, is the
absolute
total
temperature,
in K or R, and
is defined
as
T,= +
We have now derived and as are for far the basic note basis boundary-layer incompressible at this for the time many, that many solutions solutions equations and this are dimensional, boundary-layer the These starting equations laminar point turbulent, as the
(6--43)
for twoonly which various compressible is really concerned.
boundary-layer boundary-layer
methods under
obtaining
OF profiles
some
methods
flat-plate,
incompressible
Profiles from profile most in the boundary-layer boundary layer mathematically solualong
profile
(fig. 6-7).
describes
FIGURE
6-7.--Boundary-layer
velocity
profiles.
172
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
e:J
u
/ (b)
J IlL rll//llllTII/I/,
la) U/1/:frillill/I1
the dimensionless y/5:,,, stream _],m, from the from at a distance velocity from the blade u,. profiles those
u/ue surface,
the blade.
velocity
external
is often
flow
while used
flow are
A com-
mathematical by Pohlhausen
laminar
_-}-b
(6-44) shape
a, b, c, and
parameter
u wherc
dx
(6-45)
}, a = 2 +-6 (6-46a)
k b = -- 2 X
(6-46b)
c=
(6-46c)
173
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Shapeparameter,
;:!== 0
o.
1
.2 .4 .6 .8 Fraction of boundary-layer height, y/Sfull 1.0 FIGURE 6-9.--Laminar veh)city profiles.
d = 1 ---
(6-46d)
profiles profiles
for various
values
for turbulent
often
by the
power
-- =
Ue
_
kS/,,H/
(6-47)
that
the
exponent 4 up
from
to about
namely
placement thickness in the next section. Definitions Solutions often In obtained to placement order thickness thickness boundary little attains distance 174 of the thickness define of the is rather layer a value from
are described
of Important two-dimensional of three 5, the these arbitrary, to that which the wall. outside is very however,
Boundary-Layer boundary-layer important parameters. 0, and it is necessary The definition from the transition place the the to thickness
Parameters equations These the to first form are are the factor define inside This at most disH. the the is of layer a small thick-
in terms
boundary
of boundary-layer velocity
importance,
boundary
It is possible
to define
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
ue
Ue
,-(u e - u) ue
II!_1111/_ rllllilllllllll r/Ill,
(a)
llill, 'lllll/ll/llfll 'llll[lll//
(b)
velocity
profile.
(b) thickness
6-10.--])isplacement
for
distance
from velocity
where
the
velocity
differs
by I percent flow,
external
displacement
thickness
5, for
compressible
boundary-layer
_[ass
defect
t/=81u.ll
(p,u.-
on)
dy
(6-48)
pe is the 5, the
density, layer. by
in kg/m This
3 or lbm/ft mass
3, in the defect
free
stream
outside
of by a It is
boundary distance
as shown potential
decrease _ can
in velocity be defined
in the by the
As figure
(p.U.--pU)
y--O
dy
(6-49)
Solving
for _ gives
= -- 1 The displacement
peue _u-O
[_-,s.,, thickness
(p.u.--
dy
(6-50)
to
f.=',,<,,
_ _0
(6-51)
presence of
The friction
in the
boundary
layer
to the
175
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
l"
y= I/ull
Momentum
defect
= I
d
pu( u,-y=0
u) dy
(6-52)
This
momentum
defect
from
the
momentum
of purely equation
potential
flow
can be represented
by a distance
0, defined
by the
p,u,20 =
Y=PJfull
pu (u,--
u) dg
(6-53)
" y=0
Solving
gives
the
definition as
of the
momentum
thick-
layers
pu(u_--u) thickness
dg=
_ y=0 pc_le
1-flow reduces to
dg
(6--54)
The
momentum
for incompressible
0=-/_e2 y=0
dy=
]
" y=0
-l"/e
1--
dy
(6-55) flow is
The defined
form as the
factor ratio
compressible thickness 5 H =0
and
incompressible
of displacement
to momentum
thickness: (6-56)
There These
parameters principal
besides
two-dimensional, boundary-layer
of Separation or a casing with fluid an adverse particles pressure is deflected the gradient occurs, from pressure cannot, in because away fluid and some the of the surface gradient general, of their from move the in a particles
When retarded toward exists penetrate small surface behind direction defined immediate
is transported
away
kinetic
Thus, the
In general,
the point
of separation
opposite to the external as the limit between forward neighborhood of the wall.
(6-57)
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
TItEOR_/
(;),.o
>o
,_\\\',, ..... LSeperation point
FIOURE 6-11.--Velocity gradients as flow
-o
- -- _x_
undergoes
separation.
By relation the
examining between
and flow
considering only at
(i.e., boundary
From
equation
u = v = 0, we have
dp
\Oy_/__o We dp/dx can now through relate velocity of the on the at the profiles The wall, wall the = g dx to Ou/Oy, cquation curvature its gradient, changes profile that O_u/Oy _, and indicates of the dp/dx, sign and with exist that velocity the the
(6-58)
finally in to the
(6-58). pressure
02u/Oy 2, depends
a velocity
would
subjected
to a decreasing
pressure.
For such
a profile,
(c)
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
indicates Furthermore, Ou/Oy, subjected profiles Figure with near gradient). the
Ou/Oy figure
is positive 6-12(c)
for
all
y and (6-58),
as y increases. is the that have (the slope negative layer velocity form of of
indicates dp/dx.
that
02u/Oy _, which
for all y. From to negative pressure indicative a profile due that to an 6-13 (b) not shows flow figure surface;
equation
Consequently, dp/dx)
a boundary
a decreasing
fig. 6-12(a)). in a boundary (adverse has (fig. cases there 6-13(c)). a positive layer pressure slope This decelerated increasing
indicates
to positive dp/dx. However, zero at some distance from 02u/Oy_= profile. O. This is a point that It follows
for which
of the
in a region
of retarded
j
Y :::_/-Point of inflection
(a|
(b)
TRY-
_y2 .
FIOURE
distribution
increase.
Stagnation
Fmuug
6--14.--Pressure
distribution
on a turbine
blade.
178
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
dp/dx),
the
will
have
Since
of inflection,
assumptions gradient).
in deriving
potential
pressure
separation surface,
of the suction
Layer
on
a Flat
Plate
in 1904 in Germany. NACA of 4). from dp/dx the ffiO. of Blasius (ref. the velocity and Technical Prandtl's in 1908. solution
published
as an
to be published with
solution by NACA
is constant
u _+v
where v is the kinematic viscosity
0U
o_
,/p,
9V
oy=
in m'/sec or ft'/see, and
(6-59)
(6-e0)
The following are the boundary u=v=O
U=Ue
conditions: at
at
y=O
y= oo
(6--61)
With
the
use
of a stream (6-59)
function into
transformed ordinary
the
partial
differential equation:
equation
differential
daf=0 dy 3
(6-62)
f(,)179
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
which
depends
on the dimensionless
y-coordinate, Y
n, where
(6--64)
This
equation
has
the
following
boundary
conditions:
f=_--fy=O
at
n=O
(6-65) df
_=1 dy Equation mate able (6-62) df/dy, the curvature solution point. with and velocity asymptotic (6-62) in the expansion More a high profile at the wall cannot form be solved of a power the Howarth of accuracy, 6-15. rather at _= oo
for ,1 = _, degree
solutions
recently,
tabular
of 7. Since
= u/u_, further
possesses
abruptly
from
it in order
!_
E
s-. 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 Boundary-layervelocity ratio, u/ue Fmuaz 180 6-15.--Blasius-Howarth velocity profile for flow on a flat plate.
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
the the
asymptotic
value.
At the
wall itself,
the
curve to
has
a point Prandtl's
of
since
order-of-magnitude
boundary-layer
(6-66)
For a semi-infinite flat plate, the Reynolds Rezu,x
p
number
can be expressed
as (6-67)
In order
to make
equation
(6-66)
dimensionally
correct,
we can say
x2
or
Rez
(6-68)
_is.u c
(6-69)
The in
constant laminar
numerical
solution thickness
and is equal
(6-70) follow-
to the Blasius
ing relations
important
boundary-layer
for laminar
= 1.72
v_
(6-71)
0=0.664
v]_
(6-72)
gr,,
pUe 2
= 0.332
_/"-:-_U_g =
0.332 (6-73)
1.328 D = _ b _/-_plu2 g
(6-74)
181
TURBIN]_
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
(6-75)
stress drag
N/m_;
lbf/ft _ N; lbf
D b l
of fiat plate,
Cf
Re_
coefficient length l
relations
are valid
only that
Rez < 106, a value of the plate. occur, only from to turbulent than that
the entire
For Re_ > 106, transition and the expressions layer by in does the leading boundary calculated edge of the equation
probably
to (6-75) drag
Integral
M_thods
for
Solving
the
Laminar-Boundary-Layer The tions two are principal by integral means of solving and by solutions, based original the on work
Equations the laminar-boundary-layer finite-difference exact solutions methods. are since yon (ref. equaBoth extremely integral that it
methods
means provide cumbersome. Integral formula. and was was not Von later
approximate are
was published
in 1912 in Germany for every close by satisfying in the or Such fluid to the the
boundary-layer boundary-layer region equation (eq. and result. thickness. to y=_/,,n, and equations momentum
remaining differential
only
equation
introduced, flow,
following
dO+ (20+,_) u2 dx
(6-76)
182
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
For laminar,
compressible flow,
uJ d_ + (20+_-MJ0) u, du, = pT._2_ d--_ p, at the outer (6-77)
where layer.
edge of the boundary differential a suitable 0, and layers. profile under equation form the His is asthe (6-76) work assumed "Velocity various disto was by Proauthors different was known laminar that velocity incomof
Equation for the sumed stress obtain published Pohlhausen files." have families Thwaites distributions pressible differential and and layer. the profile. flow. form placement
to an ordinary provided This that allows thickness, boundary The velocity chapter, in this
thickness,
us to calculate
shearing
at the wall,
incompressible
Although tried to
it is known
to give poor results of velocity work (ref. 8). from equations. factor with for
As a result,
improve among
distributions. those and method He relates nondimensional the that use of exact pressure a nearly followed and Pohlhausen's all for Thwaites exact collected approximate does the compared solutions the
A famous
Thwaites'
of ordinary at the wall, of velocity were among defined these boundary gradients,
to one another
To do this, It developed
evaluated
quantities
favorable
Thwaites selected a single representative relation. A unique correlation was chosen that reduced the solution of an incompressible problem to the evaluation pressible heat formation compressible One laminar Their stream of the method or pressure transfer of a single fluids by Rott is negligible, proposed best by integral layers applies axially to incompressible is that integral. and and Thwaites' the Prandtl (ref. method number 10) was extended to used to that to comwhen relate of 12). twofreepresCrabtree (ref. 9). They could solutions. to date Reshotko It handles for the (refs. flow solution 11 and over recognized is equal be
1, a trans-
Stewartson methods
boundary
dimensional
arbitrary of adverse
distribution
performs
sure gradient. A surface temperature level may be specified, and heat transfer is calculated. Cohen and Reshotko's method is based on Thwaites' correlation concept. Stewartson's transformation (ref. 10) is first applied
183
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
to the
The heat
resulting transfer,
first-order parameters transformed interdependence quantities 11. With and Young Reshotko's, different the
differential related free-stream of these carried resulting important published but from which 1. a the is then to
of dimensionless of a unique
derived
of all the
1960,
is as general to have
as Cohen values
slightly for
Finite-Difference
Methods
Solving Equations
Laminar-Boundary-Layer Finite-difference have digital work good reference recently computers. in developing of interest with come methods into this is that relatively Smith and for solving have (refs. (ref. running the because
development Another
14 and
results
Eddy-Viscosity Turbulent Before length" used stresses matical leads stitute flow. to velocity, the referencing flow, be of the by this By differential and pressure. point worked starting first should in many produced form any the discussed.
Mixing-Length Boundary-Layer
Concepts Flow for viscosity" concepts to relate mean the values are given governing values solving
of the concepts
current of
boundary-layer
and the
These
approximation
mixing
components.
which,
mean
Boussinesq coefficient
In analogy
the
of viscosity
in Stokes'
(6-78)
where mixing
rz is the coefficient,
laminar A,,
shear
stress,
in N/m stress
s or lbf/ft in turbulent
A, 0_ r_ g 0y (6-79)
184
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
where
rt is the the
turbulent concept
shear of eddy,
stress,
introduced
or virtual,
AY
, =-Thus, the eddy stress viscosity can then is analogous be expressed paa g Oy With the use of this concept, terms
(6--80)
p= u/p.
Turbulent
(6--81)
in equations
such
as
can be written
as
A similar or a virtual,
concept
can
be applied is that A,
to the and
applying
eddy-viscosity therefore, and In the free theory Prandtl's fluid good deal the 1925, Reynolds path in the concerns mean
on velocity.
relations
Prandtl since
different
hypothesis,
concept
particles.
of discussion
of turbulent
is contained
expression
--PU'V'
p l 2 Ida da --=
g }-_y dy in m or ft.
(6-82)
expression little
(eq. has
with replaced
that The
gained. However,
by the Prandtl's
calculation is roughly
of turbulent proportional
Turbulent
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
and
the
result function,
from
is assumed fluid.
of velocity.
So, mixing
is a purely about
1 than
constitutes
superiority
expression Methods
Boundary-Layer
as
with
the and
laminar-boundary-layer finite-difference Both for turbulent the first turbulent A rash calculational and the 10) (ref. boundary Tillmann, skin-friction are 18), likewise equations. proposed layers. momentum an translated is still used methods of these
for solving approximate for solving His work most was (ref.
turbulent solutions,
equations.
provide
flow are now impossible. a method layer. followed, and work in 1950 in the in many improved which current the was data equations published making used in by Geran boundary of works technique whose term used by NACA in many
to propose
for an incompressible 1931. to the Ludwieg was for (ref. in 1951 turbulent determines relation This improvements Gruschwitz. many empirical equation.
of them published
empirical
in 1949 and
relation
methods.
the turbulent-boundary-layer
He replaced thickness.
by an empirically obtained Tillmann tribution pressure translated and and, tion. flows. brodt's with 20). been power the Prior utilized law, turbulent like It applies method use
determined the
approximation
parameter
from an empirical auxiliary differential equation. The Ludwiegskin-friction formula is used to calculate the skin-friction disand gradient. whose work was (ref. does published 19), proposed not use the and in Germany solutions flows. The momentum rotationally accurate turbulent were first and velocity skin-friction in 1952 and for both method integral results, boundary treated Tucker integral profile, was by NACA Maskell's to in I955 method, both laminar is simple equato determine a separation point for flows with adverse
Truckenbrodt,
incompressible
symmetrical Truckenlayers. (ref. had the When adequately in 1957 equation usually relations.
Because
of its simplicity is still of integral work, one with and used turbulent
Compressible
methods the
to their
K_irm_tn
momentum
an assumed of several
boundary-layer empirical
186
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
pressure tiplying normal The solved heat form (ref. heat (ref.
gradient the
usually equation
the momentby mulby a distance distance.) were flow and then with
of-momentum to the
respect
simultaneously. Tucker's pressure applicable These use are (ref. suitable shear-stress profile transfer and 10) also uses the momentum expressed 18). The of Stewartson's moment-
Reshotko of-momentum
integral uncoupled the relation through and the when ago, best was
in incompressible transformation Ludwieg-Tillmann flow with concept through to simplify point method, the the until today. 22). It is where
results is used
for compressible reference-enthalpy distribution are used zero. for computer today and to Cresci It method. uncouple These This is located as the
application
of Eckert's velocity Separation becomes available used in many available of Sasman is made equations. of numerical
turbulent compressible somewhat momentum are solved disthat of pressure based on 22) 24). techturbulent (ref. turbulent than
the
methods
Reshotko-Tucker integral
no attempt introduction
equations
shear-stress is better
recent The
analysis.
Sasman-Cresci
at predicting separation (ref. 23) has developed (refs. 11 and 12) work and source is the of information
additional analysis
compressible
boundary-layer
of Herring for
Finite-Difference Turbulent Finit_difference equations large and (refs. Patankar the work Atwell 28 have have and and portion methods recently begun to date on have the
Methods Boundary-Layer for solving (refs. methods use developed equations field at the
the
boundary-layer Smith have done Ferriss, layer equation. for handling A great deal of a Bradshaw, boundary energy
to appear.
Cebeci
also developed
Spalding
turbulent is going
boundary-layer on in this
and
no method
is yet 187
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
to
any compare
of the
others. of
Two the
recent
many for
difference,
solving
the
boundary
CONCLUDING The layer able. that of selection problem This have solution can been has techniques, whole of a method requires be achieved mentioned been the some by of solution familiarity studying The to show
REMARKS suitable with some present the the of the to a particular various more boundarymethods recent of the avail-
references methods of
solution of the
of methods problem,
available, especially
boundary-layer
turbulent
flows
are involved.
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. HERMAN_ (J. KESTIN, TRANS.)" Boundary Layer Theory. McGrawHill Book Co., Inc., any edition. BIRD, R. BYRON; STEWART, WARREN E.; AND LIGHTFOOT, EDWIN N.: Transport Phenomena. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1960. PRAN_rL, L. : Motion of Fluids with Very Little Viscosity. NACA TM 452, 1928. BLASIUS, H.: The Boundary Layers in Fluids with Little Friction. NACA TM 1256, 1950. HOWARTH, L." On the Solution of the Laminar Boundary Layer Equations. Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), Set. A, vol. 164, no. 919, Feb. 18, 1938, pp. 547-579. YON K_RM_N, TH: On Laminar and Turbulent Friction. NACA TM 1092, 1946. POHLHAUSEN, K. : Approximate Integration of the Differential Equation of the Limit Surface of Laminar Motion. Zeit. f. Math. Mech., vol. 1, Aug. 1921, pp. 252-268.
SCHLICHTING,
Calculation
of the Laminar
Boundary
Layer.
Aero-
naut. Quart., vol. 1, Nov. 1949, pp. 245-280. 9. ROTT, NICHOLAS; AND CRABTREE, L. F.: Simplified Laminar Boundary-Layer Calculations for Bodies of Revolution and for Yawed Wings. J. Aeron. Sci., vol. 19, no. 8, Aug. J,952, pp. 553-565. 10. STEWARTSON, K. : Correlated Incompressible and Compressible Boundary Layers. Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), Ser. A, vol. 200, no. 1060, Dec. 22, 1949, pp. 84-100. 11. CO_EN, CLAaENCS B.; AND RESHOTXO, ELI: Similar So|utions for the Compressible Laminar Boundary Layer with Heat Transfer and Pressure Gradient. NACA TR 1293, 1956. 12. COHEN, CLARENCE B. ; ANY RESHOTKO, ELI: The Compressible Laminar Boundary Layer with Heat Transfer and Arbitrary Pressure Gradient. NACA TR 1294, 1956. 13. LVXTOS, R. E.; AND YOUNG, A. D. : Generalized Methods for the Calculation of the Laminar Compressible Boundary-Layer Characteristics with Heat Transfer and Non-Uniform Pressure Distribution. R&M-3233, Aeronautical Research Council, Gt. Britain, 1962.
188
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
14. SMITH, A. M. 0.; AND CLUTTER, DARWIN W." Solution of the Incompressible Laminar Boundary-Layer Equations. AIAA J., vol. 1, no. 9, Sept. 1963, pp. 2062-2071. 15. 16. 17. 18. SMITH, A. M. O.; ANY CLUTTER, DARWIN W.: Machine Calculation of Compressible Laminar Boundary Layers. AIA_ J., vol. 3, no. 4, Apr. 1965, pp. 639-647. KRAUSE, EGON: Numerical Solution of the Boundary-Layer Equations. AIAA J., vol. 5, no. 7, July 1967, pp. 1231-1237. LUDWIEG, HUBERT; Stress in Turbulent AND TILLMANN, W.: Investigations Boundary Layers. NACA TM 1285, of the 1950. Wall-Shearing Layer in Aircraft Laminar
of the Turbulent Boundary Rep. AERO 2443, Royal for Calculation of the
19.
E.:
of Quadrature
Symmetrical
21.
ELI; AND TUCKER, MAURICE: Approximate Calculation of the Compressible Turbulent Boundary Layer with Heat Transfer and Arbitrary Pressure Gradient. NACA TN 4154, 1957. ECKERT, E. R. G. : Engineering Relations for Friction and Heat Transfer to Sur-
in High
Velocity
Flow.
J. Aeron.
ROBERT
1955,
pp. 585-
SASMAN, PHILIP K.; AND CRESCI, Layer with Pressure Gradient 1966, pp. 19-25.
and
Heat
23.
MCNALLY, WILLIAM D.: FORTRAN Laminar and Turbulent Boundary NASA TN D-5681, 1970.
HERRING, H. JAMES; AND MELLOR, G.
24.
25.
A Method of Calculating Compressible CR-1144, 1968. CEBECI, T.; SMITH, A. M. 0.; AND MOSINSKIS, G.: Solution of the Incompressible Turbulent Boundary-Layer Equations with Heat Transfer. J. Heat Transfer, vol. 92, no. 1, Feb. 1970, pp. 133-143.
Turbulent
Boundary
Layers.
NASA
26.
SMITH,
A.
M.
0.;
AND
CEBECI,
Equations.
Rep.
CERECl, T.; ANn SMITH, A. M. O.: A Finite-Difference Method for Calculating Compressible Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers. J. Basic Eng., vol. 92, no. 3, Sept. 1970, pp. 523-535.
P.; FERRISS, D. H.; AND ATWELL, N. P.: Calculation of BoundaryLayer Development Using the Turbulent Energy Equation. J. Fluid Mech., vol. 28, pt. 3, May 26, 1967, pp. 593-616. BRADSHAW, P.: Calculation of Boundary-Layer Development Using the TurbuBRADSHAW,
28.
29.
IX: Summary.
Rep.
NPL-Aero-1287,
National
Physical
PATANKAR, S. V.; ANY SPALDING, D. B. : A Finite-Difference Procedure for Solving the Equations of the Two-Dimensional Boundary Layer. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 10, no. 10, Oct. 1967, pp. 1389-1411.
PATANKAR,
31. 32.
Layers.
SPALDING,
D. B." Heat
and
Mass
Transfer
in Boundary
COLES, D. E.; ANn HIRST, E. A., ED8.: Proceedings, Boundary Layers--1968, AFOSR-IFP-Stanford Press, 1969.
189
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
33.
BERTRAM, SP-216,
MITCHEL 1969.
H.,
ED.:
Compressible
Turbulent
Boundary
Layers.
NASA
190
INTRODUCTION
TO
BOUNDARY-LAYER
THEORY
SYMBOLS turbulent constant flow mixing in eq. (6-44) coefficient, (N) (sec)/m_; lbm/(ft) (sec)
A_r
b Cf
e, cp
m; fwidth of flat eq. (6-44) plate, ft constant in skin-friction constant specific total Blasius general component component component conversion form factor, unit vector conversion unit vector constant drag heat coefficient in eq. (6-44) pressure, N; lbf stream vector, force force force function N/kg; defined N/kg; N/kg; N/kg; by eq. (6--63) lbf/lbm lbf/lbm lbf/lbm (sec _) J/(kg)(K); Btu/(lbm)(R) at constant (6-44) lbf/lbm for a flat plate
D d
f
f
f, f.
g H i J
1; 32.17
(ft)/(lbf)
defined by eq. (6-56) in the x-direction constant, 1 ; 778 (ft) (lbf)/Btu (K); Btu/(sec) chord), (ft) (R) m; ft in the y-direction
J
k k L 1 M.
n
thermal conductivity, W/(m) unit vector in the z-direction characteristic length (e.g.,
the blade
Prandtl mixing length, m; ft length of flat plate, m; ft Mach number external to the boundary exponent dimensionless static pressure, number number number of curvature in eq. static total gas constant, Reynolds Reynolds Reynolds radius constant absolute absolute reference time, sec velocity velocity of general in x-direction, upstream velocity of blade, vector on the turbulent N/m2; J/(kg) based based based (6-25), temperature, used lbf/ft (K) velocity defined 2 ; (ft) pressure, by eq.
profile,
P p R Re Rez Re_
r
(lbf) / (lbm)
on L and
of blade
m; ft
S T T,
temperature,
To
t U Uo
U
temperature
ft/sec x-direction,
u in the
191
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
U U.
general
velocity
vector,
m/sec; at the
free-stream
velocity
V
p
m/sec; ft/sec dimensionless velocity component ft/sec component ft/sec dimensionless of general of general
by eq.
y-direction, z-direction,
tO
x-coordinate,
by eq. (6-13a)
Y Y
Z
x-coordinate, m; ft coordinate parallel to boundary surface, m; ft dimensionless y-coordinate, defined by eq. (6-13b) y-coordinate, m; ft coordinate perpendicular z-coordinate, m; ft displacement thickness, thickness, defined boundary-layer eddy viscosity
surface,
m; ft
_yuu
m2/sec;
a dimensionless quantity much less than 1 Blasius transformed y-coordinate defined by 0 momentum dimensionless dynamic dynamic Ibm/(ft)
p P P_
m; ft parameter (sec)/m at reference m2/sec; ft2/sec to lbf/ft lbf/ft lbf/ft 2 _ 2 the boundary layer, kg/mS; defined by eq. 2; lbm/(ft) temperature (sec)
kinematic
density, kg/m _; lbm/ft 3 free-stream density external lbm/ft laminar turbulent shear function Blasius constant stress a shear shear stress, stress, N/m2; N/mS; N/m_; (6-34) m2/sec;
T! Tt Tw _0
at the wall,
ft_/sec
60
Superscripts" time
t
average component
fluctuating
192
CHAPTER 7
Boundary-Layer Losses
By Herman .Prust, r. W J
The builds are blade the the surfaces, mixing by for primary up on the the trailing friction cause blade loss edge, fluid. means of losses resulting and the in a turbine surfaces. the flow from from loss loss is the of the the of the fluid boundary viscous blades with the fluid layer these over past that losses the the from
and end-wall
In particular,
pressure-drag
resulting downstream
flow of fluid
resulting
boundary-layer 6 presented the the surface friction, layer. The blade-section blade plus discussed. in blade-row of fluid through in this ideal based from used discussion chapter
high-velocity can be
an introduction boundary-layer analytical theory boundary end-wall design the chapter express kinetic on kinetic unity, and in chapter station distributions trailing-edge, covers
to boundary-layer buildup and and mixing herein Methods from the the experimental losses refers for twoenergy the kinetic flow with
A fundamental loss resulting final energy energy through by the and 7-1. expressions loss the
is to minimize blade the energy energy this 2. row. loss are in terms of the
Therefore, in fluid
for loss developed These part Efficiency coefficients definition with the and the of the
of kineticactual
coefficients
blade-row velocity
pressure
distributions
will be introduced
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
boundary
only. same
boundary yields a
surface,
7-1 (a)
locations
,_---- $ --.--_
Station 0
r la
r"
'-1
(a)
.... --
Station 0
_-r]
I'--'--'I
rq
Station i
Station 2
(b)
FIovr_
7-1.--Station
(a) Station locations. (b) Pressure and velocity distributions. locations and associated press_Ire and
velocity
distributions.
194
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
to in this station, 7-1 (b). boundary pressure stream flow from the
to the blade as indicated edge of the varies There Total across friction where with the too, pressure result
row. blade.
in velocity from pressure pl_ at the station loss has the the the is, of course,
Velocity edge.
surfaces.
free-stream static
P']8.1,,= po' to the static is assumed la, only the blade where in figure entire constant loss occurs. blade wake across row but constant the surface trailing little
occurred. boundary-
edge, mixing by
occurred.
Station
2 is located velocity
of the has
taken
place. and
order been
simplify
analysis
is a universal static
convenience
in component
in actual
variation flow
can be accounted
a com-
a hypothetical
convenience.
BOUNDARY-LAYER When between in the velocity surface _:,u. the these a real the region in to fluid adjacent the free-stream of the flows the to over the a surface, surface. region V:, at
PARAMETERS a loss results between by from full and parameters thickness, here; kinetic-energy zero energy form As shown varies the due to both the figure layers 7-2, velocity resulting factor) friction of fluid the on fluid the from Some others will of were height
fluid
and
surface
and friction
introduced
195
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
,- Full boundary
W)odty, v
=;/
layer height.
_full
////////.4, Surface
_'//////////_
FmuRz
7-2.--Typical
boundary-layer
velocity
profile.
The
displacement by
thickness
5, which
is indicative
of the
loss in mass
flow, is defined
(0V)s,=L
where $ V
P
(pV) f. dY_0
_lul!
(pV)
dY
(7-1)
in direction
()f.
Equation ary layer
conditions the loss in mass ideal flow which displacement flow of the would pass fluid in the for bounda length _ yields
states
is equal equal
to the to the
through
(or an area)
thickness.
Solving
dy_
(7-2) momentum
O, which
loss, is defined
fs:.u
(pVV/,)
dy_
fo_,,u
pV 2 dY (7-3) states
loss
is equal
196
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
ideal
momentum equal
of the to the 8=
ideal
flow which
would
pass
through
a length
(or
an area)
momentum
thickness. dY-
Solving PV_
fa'"' -o
pV (pV)t. can
fo s_'" similarly
(pV )i.
The energy
loss
in kinetic defined
energy by
be
expressed
in
terms
of an
thickness
_0
(pVV_,)
dY-
_0
boundary
is equal
a length
(or an area)
thickness.
for ff yields
[6/.,, =-o
,V
dy_
fo sf"'z
,V 3 dY (pV3)s.
(7--fi)
Substituting dimensionless
equations distance
(7-2) y as
and
(7-4)
into equation
(7-7)
and defining
yyields
1
Y _futt
(7-8)
(pV)I,
H =
1
(7-9)
(or)f,
An energy factor E is defined as E= _8 Substituting yields equations (7-6), (7-4), and
(or'),,,
(7-10)
(7-8)
into
equation
(7-10)
197
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
ff E= fo
pV (pV)/,
dy-
fo 1 -- pV 3
(pV3)I. dy
(7-11)
(pV)j, pV
dy-- f[
Velocity profile
profiles type
for turbulent
flow
are
of the
V _yn (7-12)
the
of the power
often
between
that as the
expressed
6 (eq. is consistent
is expressed however,
expressed equations
follow
for n will depend equations and energy (7-9) n and the derived 5A_. 5n+1
exponent. this velocity form, and The in terms ) can be integrated flow can be velocity 1 are critical factors for turbulent free-stream in reference
V/Vcr.
F'-(7-13)
H= 1 (n+l)(2n+l) and
A_,
-_--Jl*
(3n+l)(4n+l)
(5n+1)(6n+l)
2
E.__
(n_l_l)(3n_q_l)--I1 (n+l)(2n+l)
t-
(5n+l)(6n+l) (7-14)
where (7-15)
As._"/-
_+1
1 (_-)
2 _
198
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
and
of specific and
heat
heat
at
at the V/V,r
1) flow
incompressible
zero, equations
H_.c=2n+l and 2(2n+1) E_._ = 3n+l for turbulent from factor exponent presented They drag the compressible
(7-16)
(7-17)
Values
of the
form
and
energy
factors
flow
are shown in figure 7-3 for V/V_r varying from 0 to 1.5. It can be seen that the form does The refer certain tained where simpler the ideal parameters parameters" the energy factor. For any constant just type instance, physical pass on the is almost independent boundary-layer to a boundary aerodynamic directly the and from more so and layer work. the of V Vr. parameters on any For to the could are momentum
n varying more than factor and useful can however, row, it is part thickness thickness thickness. of can in
energy
general
be ob-
boundaries blade
meaningful
to express herein
through
expressed defined
"dimensionless trailing-edge
of zero
Free-stream criticalvelocity
-V/21.o
,,,,
_ 1.4-7
,-0
1.8 E"
-\\\
I
2
\
rL00 1
1.4
I
3 4 Form factor. H 5
FIGURE 7-3.--Effect
of compressibility (Data
factor
with form
factor.
199
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
"%..\
Station _ _'_'_ ____-_ _ J
t 8
Ys
ala region.
thickness that
parameters thicknesses. flow conditions parameters and energy that for one
must
represent
the
sum
quantities losses
as indicated
suction-surface
loss plus
pressure-surface
Stot=$,A-_p Otot-- O,-.FOp q/tot= _,A-_ where and defined thicknesses the subscripts tot, s, and value, as p denote total Thus, the value, suction-surface of the
value, previously
pressure-surface boundary-layer
respectively.
in terms
thicknesses,
dimensionless
boundary-layer
are expressed
($*=
s cos a O,o,
8 cos c_
(7-21)
0* =
(7-22)
_/ tot
_* ....
8 COS 8 COS 0t (_)(pVa)l. a
(7-23)
200
BOUNDARY-LAYER LOSSES
where dimensionless dimensionless dimensionless
8 O_
0*
thickness thickness
thickness direction, (7-23) as fractions trailing-edge 1, beyond the deg the losses respective is assumed station edge. in flow, ideal la, momenquantiwithin
blade fluid
express
to be zero.
equations
be subscripted
to apply
at either
or station
BLADE-ROW As mentioned kinetic-energy friction, the kinetic-energy previously, loss coefficients. and loss coefficients
In this section,
methods expressing
for evaluating
trailing-edge,
will be presented. Losses _la, defined energy of the as the of the loss in kinetic actual
Surface-Friction The energy kinetic-energy as a fraction be expressed as loss of the in coefficient ideal terms
kinetic
blade-row
boundary-layer
dimensionless
_11a8
COS
O_la(pWa)
fs,la
_1_= (s cos oq_--_*_s cos axe--t) where 7-4 Since trailing t is the for the this blade-row trailing-edge in the only region the thickness, of the to station as t t* S COS _la
(pV3)i,
aa (Refer of the
is referenced is expressed
la, just
the blade-row
edge,
surface-friction
If a trailing-edge
dimensionless
(7-25)
equation
(7-24)
reduces
to
ela
--
In order necessary
the
loss
coefficient of the
values
dimensionless
thickness
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
and either
the
thickness determining density the density required total data upstream and
$1". These
can be evaluated herein. loss are po', the values, Instead, related the p0'blade-exit P'lo for one express which thickas to friction directly.
Experimental it is impractical pressure pressure static loss consist data functions. pressure
determination.--In
the total-pressure
loss survey
blade space. Since the dimensionless boundary-layer thicknesses the losses of the blade row as a fractional part of the ideal quantities could ness pass through the blade in terms row, the dimensionless flow across one displacement blade
8
can be expressed
of the
pitch
s cos _o(pV)_,,_.
in the tangential direction,
_l_a
I--t*--
fo
pV
,.
(7-28)
In a similar nesses
manner,
the as
dimensionless
momentum
and
energy
thick-
can be expressed
01*=
(pV2)1o,1,,
1 V pV
= fo and
[1-(V-_f,),,]
(_),d
(u)
(7-29)
l_a --
(pf.V}.),.
pVd
Assuming 202 that the total temperature T' and the static pressure
(7-30)
p_, in
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
the
boundary
layer relation,
are the
same
stream,
the
density From
ratio the
(p/p/,) isentropic
l, can be related
to the
pressure
P'ljPo'
as follows:
(p_V.T
--7 \p 1_,.,., ' (from (7-31) the by ideal equation gas law,
'
T'I,=T_o.la=To'),
division
of equation
(7-32)
-P_s,/ - \po' ] ,. The (p/p') isentropic write velocity relation, ratio (V/Vs,)la as follows: equations can From (1-51) be and related (1-52) to the pressure definition
the total-temperature
of chapter
1, we can
V_ 2gJcj, T'where g J
Cp
(7-34)
constant, constant,
1;32.17
(lbm)
(ft)/(lbf) J/(kg)(K);
(lb)/Btu
equation dividing
la and again by
equations
pin _ (v-l)/v
(7-35)
With
the
density (7-28),
in terms evaluate
measured
pressures equations
by equations
it is now
possible
kinetic-energy determined
kinetic-energy
loss coefficient
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
coefficient; cascade cascade order and are taken the calculated ary-layer to tip:
that or from
on data
either
from
a two-dimensional (The annular In data are hub row, from cover a turbine.)
radius
cascade.
or rotor
a three-dimensional
for a blade
thicknesses
previously
Three-dimensional integration
ff'
h
$*_(pV)I.,I,,
cos alo r dr
(7-36)
"' (pV)/jo
k
cos al. r dr
cos. , r dr
Ol*.a_ " (pV2)f.,1,,
h
cos al_ r dr
In terms
of the measured
pressures,
these
integrals
are
expressed
as
COSalo r dr (7-39)
S,:' <,,->"'[
\p-_41
cos al. r dr
204
BOUNDARY-LAYER
I_SSES
O*a(Px_}l/v [
\po']
j cosaz_rdr
(7-4O)
\p-_0' ] j cos a,_ r dr
The
three-dimensional similar
loss
coefficient
is then
obtained
in a manner
_1_,3_ = 1 -- _*o.aD-- t_* where t_* is the trailing-edge dimensionless value thickness for the blade loss determined as experimental consuming boundary-layer computer at the solution. NASA Lewis at the mean row. coefficient
and is used to represent Analytical thickness lytical lytical discussed not layer Center another An simple, also be evaluated values methods and with are much for referenced programs
use of analytically
boundary-layer
6. The
computer
include one (ref. 2) based based on the finite difference equation used in the study thickness momentum 0.231
turbulent
boundary-layer
01a
_---
\_ccrlfa,
la
(7-43)
205
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
where parameter
X
(7-15) from forward to stagnation rear point, m; ft point, forward (sec) in reference velocity referenced the 4. It profile. equation is asIn stagnation
distance m; ft viscosity,
blade-surface (N)
distance (sec)/m_;
The sumed
a power-law
reference
obtained
n Equation surfaces equktions blade-surface channel Values form for factor both the obtained thickness evaluated turbine calculated thickness ably tained from directly parameters sufficient have to procedure reference mean-section have In (1) by the shown the The be close from (7-43) of the (7-43) must The and be (7-44)
,
are
L\-_-Iy. for
xj
1
the and suction densities values obtained 5. (7-43) and by and adjacent any
both
blade. boundary
required
flow analysis of the from form equations suction the blade blade Hla and
discussed
Ela at station
surface
boundary-layer $_ can For values, momentum were reasonobobtained calculated thickness of radii also a of Such method method made: section; would results
studied and
surfaces
In general, be as accurate 2 and parameters The the the determined blade so the losses Results following blade at 3.
equation
boundary-layer (7-36) the to be analytically variation somehow, considerable used. 5, the loss for the
end-wall from
require
effort,
simplified
is commonly of reference
obtained results.
momentum
can be represented
dimensionless
momentum
thickness
206
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES-
sc as) cos 7
_%%_,_.
I------ s-----
FIGURE
7-5.--Schematic late
of equivalent of end-wall
blade
used
to
calcu-
the (3)
area can
on the
inner area
and
outer
end
walls surface;
is
by an a conmean blade
blade,
cross
at the
section
of one
equivalent
Ab = 2ch where Ab
C
(7-45)
area m; ft m; ft end-wall
(sum
of suction-surface
and
pressure-surface
areas) h The
of one blade,
m_; ft 2
and
area
is (7-46)
Aw=2sc where
Aw
total blade
surface stagger
end
walls
(sum
of inner
and
outer
end-wall
Now,
taking
the average
momentum
the blade
radial
length
207
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
and
modifying
it to include
the
end-wall
losses
yields
(1_ displacement
scsa') thickness
(7-47) parameters
* _la,3D and
Ela
* ,mOla,3
(7-48)
5" = Hla , m01*o D 3 la,3D , Mean-section the energy boundary-layer satisfactorily dimensional tion (7-42). Trailing-Edge The with mentally kinetic-energy flow past the or analytically. determination.--Experimental values of blade loss coefficient blade trailing _te that edge can Loss represents be values and form used are used factors as is done for the energy and defined (7-48) is then form factors. 4 that (7-49). obtained
were
originally
in terms and
of individual
thicknesses, kinetic-energy
in reference
determined
Experimental
edge loss coefficient _te are obtained two-dimensional loss coefficients loss blade and trailing-edge loss, and loss. Thus, surface-friction
loss coefficients
_1_, which
(7-50)
are obboth the are were la, loss loss, of the
tained as described surface-friction same manner except measured at different based where the blade on data the
coefficients
trailing-edge
in exactly
total-pressure loss The surface-friction within the yet blade not at occurred.
static pressure loss coefficients edge at station the determine trailing-edge downstream
trailing-edge which
has
coefficients
both
measurements little
be made to station
row, corresponding
7-1, where
has occurred. reference number data for 6, experimental discontinuities. sheet-metal of surface
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
T
I _u11
FIGURE 7-6.--Schematic diagram of body in boundary layer.
and
of different pressure-drag
airfoil
trailing
It is indicated
of the past
loss due
be treated
to a body drag
of height
in a turbulent equal
approximately
of the body.
D = q_IihCD where D h drag height drag and the on body, of body, coefficient dynamic pressure q_f_ is expressed as N/m; m; ft lb/ft
(7-51)
effective
qell=h
J o
2g
dY
(7-52)
Drag
is related
to momentum
thickness
as (7-53)
D= O(pV_)I g Therefore, trailing-edge with a properly a dimensionless loss is obtained subscripted momentum by form combining of equation thickness equations (7-22) : e*, representing (7-51) and
the (7-53)
209
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
q,LrhCo
(7-54)
g The flow angle and must a, is related (7-54) dynamic to the can The pressure angle ala as discussed the effective to in chapter dynamic pressure 4 (eqs. presto
equation
free-stream
ql, For turbulent with flow, the equations the use h of velocity simple (7-12) power yields
dr
(7-55)
in the profile
boundary presented
layer
can be
expressed Combining
previously.
V/. Assuming layer tion and (1-64) that free the stream total are temperature the same 1 gives and and static the pressure ideal in the
using
of chapter
To'
P/*
7+ I
I, (7-57)
by equation
(7-15)
1-
fs
\_u/l/
a binomial
expansion
and
integrating
then
gives
_ (6n+l) A_
+.--
(7-59)
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
Substituting thickness
equation t in place
(7-59) of body
(7-54) yields
and
using
trailing-edge
0"-
L\_-_-!
2n+l
_,
(4n+
1)
+ The boundary-layer sum of the (7-60) well known, flow thickness suctionthe and and _f_u to be used pressure-surface flow. simplified (commonly
be the
cases, for
equation,
assumes
0",=0.375_The information equal edge. and 0.22 The for in reference to 0.16 for corresponding basis In such as equation trailing a case, a square
t
_futZ
ted
S COS oq
(7-61) the edge drag and coefficient 0.22 for C9 can a square contrailing of _i/_,
that
a rounded
trailing (7-61)
reported
in reference
7 and
to the same
will be available.
for incompressible
(7-62) and for compressible flow, (7-63) 1 - (1 -- Ay.) 1 , (n--_-t-_ A/. , A_, t 5-_-t, ")
6full
--
(7-60) due to
and the
(7-61) blade
give
the edge.
in
trailing
approximation,
compressible flow,
equations
for incompressible
(7-64)
( 7-65 ) 211
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
1, which
is just
of the edge
blade
trailing
edge,
and there
is no longer
a kinetic-energy
loss coefficient
*
This ideal were loss coefficient kinetic the only values This (7-61). in loss energy loss. expresses of the The the loss in kinetic flow that would energy if the as a fraction trailing-edge loss thickness loss exist
(7-66)
of the loss for 7-7 by is with friction is dis-
trailing-edge against on
coefficient in figure
equation loss
(7-66). coefficient.
coefficient
is approximately,
surface-friction
of a kinetic-energy
loss coefficient
. O2O
U_ul;
1.O i .015 .5
.olo
.!
.005
.05
.10
.D
Dimensionlesstrailing-edge thickness, t*
FIGURE 7-7.--Effect of trailing-edge blockage on kinetic-energy factor H--1.3; energy factor E-1.8; drag coefficient
Form
212
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
Combined As stated thickness combined experimental which versions obtained is just experimental in the parameters friction and
Friction of the
and
Los boundary-layer expressing by making to way, value station we obtain subscripted of _1 is then the the 1,
discussion and
coefficient
trailing-edge
_1" from
of equations as
Analytically, obtained Before The ever, with there by the boundary-layer adding they the must and trailing-edge
(7-67)
1 are loss. flow. Howflow 1, where thickness ideal
surface-friction be expressed
the friction
parameters ideal
01*a,
dimensionless of an ideal
_l*a) are
in terms must
is a trailing-edge Therefore, to
at station friction-loss
blockage
be comparable
is no blockage.
boundary-layer (with
adjusted
_* 1,/_
_*(s la
(7-68)
0* and
0* (s scsal"
(7-69)
, ,( _bl'! = _bx_ s scosa_ cos al_-- t ) where friction parameters the subscript at station f refers 1: 6x* = _I.IA-_ t. 01" = Ox,/A-O t, and
_ll* -IY l,f 'fire
due
and
trailing-edge
And
the value
of _1 is then
obtained
from
equation
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
After-Mix The after-mix loss is the total loss, and as described the has after-mix loss that
the mixing loss. The after-mix in this section, and the mixing the previously loss This downstream is impractical determined of the for experimentally would
loss coefficient loss, if desired, $_. that the com(1) (2) the for the flow had enough For the with large. where reasons: require
by subtracting measurements
be made
occurred.
The length for complete mixing, while quite long, is unknown; after-mix loss would have to be corrected for side-wall friction mixing mixed, that these use (station the of length, values reasons, either thus leading to possible po'-p2' error; error loss are or and (3) after and the small of after-mix values would be constant would obtained
possibility
of measurement of after-mix
experimentally
analytically the
before-mix
1) loss parameters. for determining of mass, momentum axial direction 1) and (station after-mix conditions are in the tangential direction, mixing. mixing Equating (station the mass 2) yields
The basic equations those for conservation and momentum before in the mixing flow rate
during after
cos
o1
d in the
=cos
a2(pV)2 direction
(7-74) we get
of momentum
tangential
f0 and from
(pV2)l
=sin in the
(7-75)
conservation
'
p_ d
+ equations survey
= gp_+cos
_ a2(oV2)_
these
for two-dimensional flow by integrating at station even 1, the with equations were available, In the case evaluated conservation
If experimental pressure
written for any before-mix location at which data used to evaluate the after-mix loss coefficient. before-mix station is not station 1, it would
not be possible
to determine
214
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
the ever,
mixing
by a little
means. is desired,
howedge, 1, it is
it is only angle
measure-
If static
boundary-layer in reference
of reference l, where
in that
before-mix
1 corresponds station
subscripted written as
(pV)ld
(7-77) equation
(7-29)
d (7-77)
(7-78) for
equations
following of the
COS
conservation
previously
oq(1--81")
sin al cos al(1 --81"--01") gpl+cos These energy reference for both For equations, equation 1 to 2 al(1-81"-01") along (TI'= obtain with T_'), _, and flow, the the the can
(pV2)s0a
simultaneously kinetic-energy
after-mix solution
compressible
incompressible
flow. for _2 is
incompressible
)+co 2
(7-82)
2(]--81*--01*)_
For steps
flow,
no explicit _:
solution
was
found,
and
the
following
to obtain
215
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
(1)
The parameters
from
(1--As.a)
at(X--*t*-01*)
(V)' _
y.,t (7-83)
C-
V =(V-f_,)t,,tsinal\ is obtained
(7-84)
(2)
The
quantity
(V,/Vc,)2
(7-s5)
('),--'_[I p2'/po'
(7-86)
is obtained
i0_I
c,
,o,
\O gc,l_
(5)
The
pressure
ratio
(p/p')_
is obtained p p
from v
(7-8s)
(6)
Finally,
_2 is obtained
from
(7-89)
(p,'_(',-"/, -\pi /
loss; and
that the
loss of of $1
mixing
216
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
include
all the
blade-row
losses
except
mixing
LOSS
CHARACTERISTICS and analytically and will be discussed of Losses experimentally loss coefficients and at three loss _1._, the stations just at the and at three reprethe mean just loss loss drag, for and within determined compared, losses and of the
be presented
of blade-row
on losses and
Distribution Figure analytically different senting blade beyond at the the (arithmetic mean 7-8, angle different trailing mean the trailing section; including taken settings losses. edge, from values for The
Comparison 8, stator
compares
determined
surface-friction friction
loss plus
trailing-edge
annulus
tra_ling-edge
analytical
.04 __
Experimental results
e2.3D"
!
?
,m v g_ t_
Trailing-
o
70
I
100 Percentstatorareasetting
I
Do
FIOURE 7-8.--Comparison
stator
of experimental
area settings.
and analytical
(Data from
217
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
,o
,Mixinq loss
End-wall loss
,.
.01 --
o
.5
I
.6
I
.7 (VNcr)i, m, 2
I ....
.8
I
.9
FIGURE 7-9.--Variation
of loss coefficients
with
velocity.
(Data
from
ref. 9.)
7-8 does
some
idea
separate is seen
mixing
from Loss
coefficient
to decrease the
slightly mixing
This figure also shows as the other blade-row In this particular ideal loss The case, loss. the energy about vary vary The will will The and loss was about
losses, of the
case,
friction of the
loss was about total loss. stator as was primarily vary with total
one-half
of the
trailing-edge trailing-edge in figure loss ratio of the design, be of 7-7. and total but confor this
In general,
end-wall
spacing.
loss breakdown
comparison
sequence. Effect A study layer 218 of the of Blade-Row of turbine in reference Geometry geometry 10. In that on Losses boundarywas
effect
loss is presented
assumption
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
made
that
blade
surface
varies
as the
inverse
of the chord
to the m power:
--_Re7
C
(7-91)
Rec
is
based using
on
blade
chord (7-47)
(7-91)
by multiplying yielded
dividing
equation
equation
three-dimensional
an equation
0,* (_)m
_1 +cos
a._ (O,ot_
(_)1-_Re__,,,
(7-92)
fC.),(",,)
where the as blade given ponent hess order Reh is a Reynolds of the c/s, and, and number momentum geometric height in reference therefore, derivative to each to _/_ in the based on blade height h. As indicated, can be expressed ratio reference The minimum of solidity. momentum was in terms h/s, value a exthree-dimensional a function solidity solidity thickness parameter Reh. The on the variables--height-to-spacing Reynolds becomes analysis. of the of the value dimensionless variables variable thickin geometric of each obtained number 9, is based of O,,,/c, as explained m is set equal 10, the respect 08* with loss for
a function
In reference
of the other With the loss around analysis shown with in the
variables optimum the from each change Figure value results number may loss. curve chord
is no minimum for height Reynolds number). known, the relative variations in momentum values were then of the a wide causes Figure from results determined. 7-10, geometry variation little 7-11 effects optimum in figures than also area. to the the The 7-11, variation (50 results and 7-12. 10 are shown in figures
minimum reference figure in each 7-10 from and be varied Comparison shape Reynolds around
of the Also
is the
nature that
associated or more)
variable. shows the percent in h/s This optimum two area. increase shows 7-10 in momentum in chord solidity but not shows that and the loss.
the
counteracting
end-wall
considerably of the
7-11
loss is more
height-to-spacing counteracting
reflects end-wall
influences
219
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
/_
_/////_/////// I ! I I
/
H n
J/,4
==o-
I \
IX,
.2 .6 LO
L4
1.8
2.2
Z6
Height-to-spacing ratio relative to optimum ratio, (htslllhlslopt FIGURE 7-10.--Variation of momentum-thickness ratio with spacing ratio. (Data from ref. 10.) variation in he_ht-t_
_<'//////////(/
I I I I
Y/'//////
///i
I
= .=_ i. 4o . \
_'_Z_ _
,/
Lo
.4
I
.6
t"--_ I _
.8 LO 1.2 Solidity ratio, (cls)/(c/s)opt
I
1.4
J
1.6
FIGURE 7-11.--Variation
ratio
with
solidity
ratio.
(Data
220
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSEF
t
//. /////Z I ! I
_Ls
4
1.6 1.4
//[
.,
I--7
L8 2.0 ratio a change in Reynolds The curve to the an inThe with in
.s
I ._
I .4
I .6
I .s
I Lo
I _2
I
].4
I
L6
HeightReynolds umberratio, RehlReh, ef n r FIGURE 7-12.--Variation of momentum-thickness ratio with height Reynolds number ratio. (Data from ref. 10.)
7-12 Reynolds
shows due
the to
number could
change
flow conditions.
shape, then, results from the Reynolds number to the m=_ crease in height Reynolds height Reynolds number of different turbomachines.
loss being inversely proportional power. These results show that results used in improved in correlating performance. the
number is sometimes
performance
REFERENCES
1.
STEWART, WARNER,
L.:
Analysis of
of
Loss Basic
Characteristics Boundary-Layer 2. McNALLY, Laminar NASA 3. PATANKAR, Layers. 4. WHITNEY, mental acteristics 1956. TN
FORTRAN Boundary
Turbulent
Arbitrary
D.
B.:
Heat
and
Mass
Transfer
in
Boundary
WARNER with
L.;
AND
MISER,
JAMES NACA
W.: RM
ExperiCharE55K24,
Boundary-Layer
a Comparison
221
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
5.
STEWART,
WARNER
L.;
WHITNEY,
J.; in
ROBERT
Y.:
Use
of
Three-Dimensional
SIGHARD W.,
HERMAN and TN
JR.; on
M. : Effect of Certain
Performance
1972. MOFFITT, on Detailed THOMAS of Losses P.; with AND BIDER, BERNARD: Turbine Design Effect Suitable Area. of for NASA Performance a Single-Stage 70-Percent
Variable
9. MOFFITT, Variable
THOMAS Stator
HERMAN
BIDER,
Suitable Area.
WARNER Losses
L.] Affected
WARREN in Blade
J.:
Analysis
Turbomachine E56F21,
Geometry.
222
BOUNDARY-LAYER
LOSSES
SYMBOLS
Ab
,41, A. C
C
parameter
by equation by equation
Cp D E
drag, N/m; lb/ft parameter defined energy factor kinetic-energy conversion form factor constant,
by equation
g H h J l
m n
blade height, m; ft height of body placed in boundary layer, conversion constant, 1 ; 778 (ft) (lb)/Btu blade surface distance from (7-91) velocity lb/ft lb/ft _ 2 profile forward to m; ft exponent turbulent absolute dynamic chord height radius, blade absolute trailing-edge distance fluid distance m; ft distance distance fraction fluid blade ratio velocity, along from from in equation boundary-layer pressure, pressure, Reynolds Reynolds m; ft spacing, m; ft K; R m; ft direction, ft/sec surface normal normal axial from at from m; ft thickness, in tangential m/sec; blade surface surface from angle volume displacement thickness, thickness, m; ft heat temperature, N/m2; N/m_; number number
exponent
P q Re_ Reh
r 8
T t
U
V
X
forward layer,
stagnation m; ft
point,
Y Y
(x o_m
layer
expressed
as
of boundary-layer axial
direction, constant
direction,
3_
pressure m; ft
223
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
m ; ft
boundary-layer Subscripts: cr eft f fs h i inc m min mix opt p ref s t te tot x 0 1 la 2 3D critical effective friction free hub ideal incompressible mean section minimum mixing optimum pressure surface reference suction surface tip trailing total edge stream
thickness,
flow conditions
axial component blade-row inlet just beyond trailing edge of blade row row just within downstream three trailing edge of blade uniform state
dimensional
dimensionless
224
CHAPTER 8
Miscellaneous Losses
By Richard. Roelke J
In the process these these nitude of these design admission must pumping loss in the a loss that loss, which design-point include losses last in the chapter, blade efficiency tip-clearance represent however, as to influence losses of normally a very in other the boundary-layer were loss and small other part losses losses associated To determine loss. turbine losses that If, are and of any the usually the In some output can design must with the the flow
channel
overall
of a turbine,
also be considered; instances, and may The be sum in the that mag-
neglected;
be of such point.
of the
turbine
turbine.
a partialare the
admission turbine
at off-design
operation
TIP-CLEARANCE Because of the the loss the the rotor thus tips, a turbine blades first of radial a given loss, causes since more causing must and the operate casing, with some nature by the some
LOSS clearance of the tip the work in between fluid leaks This that and the through tip the tips
in turbine recesses
shrouds. reaction)
of blade
reaction
pressure
higher-kinetic-energy
flow to leak
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
gap
from
the work,
side leakage
to the flow
With due
blade,
to its
Analytical leakage
by tip-clearance problem. developed, they are satisfactory. A number to determine and tests impulse these
is inherently
of the
Several empirical expressions for and some of these are summarized rather complicated, have been of tip and the author
clearance loss have been in reference 1; however, states that Lewis geometry of some exit of the none is entirely Center axial-flow results of
made
Research on of the
effect
clearance
tip-clearance single-
loss. Figure
shows
at the blade
of a 5-inch
stage turbine (ref. 2). Two that the flow in the clearance
to be noted from the angle traces are and near the tip was not fully turned,
60
4_
1 2 5.0
direction =
2'
2O
1:3
8.0
-6
4--P
-2O
-4C .5
lTr +,, I
.6
of exit flow angle with from radius ref. (Data
I
.9
Oo,+rw.,, I,
1.0
rotor tip clearances.
FIGURE
8-1.--Variation
ratio
for four
2.)
226
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
.96 _
\\
.80
.76' 0
I,
I
,12
FIGURE
even way
at the down
and that and turbine as well test turbines were clearance about of the
underturning effect flow and unloads others, from The height, that
increased
with
increasing
this
occurred efficiency.
aerodynamically decrease in figure The (ref. that the impulse figure. 8-2. solid 2) and the level For lines
output
in efficiency in (ref.
is shown
represent
3) reaction in the
turbine
turbines 8-2
estimates 2 and
(refs.
as figure
experimental
satisfactory
estimates
of tip-leakage
clearances. 227
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
1.00
99
.98
U O r-
.97
95
.95--
.o
94
_J r'-
.1 .2 .3 .4
93
-92
b-
.91--
.90 0
I
.03
FIGURE 8-3.--Tip-clearance
blades (Data
Reviewing loss large leakage creasing schemes stage the tip clearance in reference A clearer the loss ratios
the results
shown
it is apparent is appreciable for reducing the blade These at the several recessed configurations are shown affecting area, (2)
in efficiency
of tip clearance
the and
tip
recessing either
blade
height,
a tip shroud. tested with general results The factors loading flow with
of reference 8-4
to blade
height,
characteristics as compared
blade-height mixing
of (1) reduced
MISCELLANEOUS R_s_casi_
LOSSES
Flow -_.
(a)
(b)
Tip shroud-_
Flow_
_',-Rotor blade
(c) (a) Reduced blade zero-clearance FmvaE height (relative to blade height). (c) Shrouded rotor. 8-4.--Tip-clearance configurations investigated (b) Recessed casing.
for impulse
turbine
(ref.
4).
and to
of flow going and the leakage 8-5, was amount path. however,
from
the
recessed-casing
was eliminated,
reduced
of the from
unloading
was eliminated,
flow was
reduced.
at tip-clearance 229
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
"O
38
36
1
.12
FIGURE 8-5.--Effect
of tip-clearance
on turbine
efficiency. (Data
from
fractions longer
below provides
some an loss
value, increase
about
0.035 shroud in
the
shroud to
no an gap
in efficiency.
attributed clearance
increasing friction is decreased. The to other the difference extend churning In influenced accuracy. diameter the 230 into summary, by The (larger comparative are turbines. flow but the also geometries leakage
between
figure true
different and may span and respect will flow with as seen height
dependent
particular on the
design
is particularly number it should the creating loss and required for larger ratio
pressure should
recessed-casing stagnant
the blade
If it does,
overlapping
problem consistent on
loss increases
of clearance
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
For
any
given huband
the It
tip-radius blade
increasingly smaller. to
less severe
turbines.
leakage
is considered
particular leakage
it might
be worthwhile
DISK-FRICTION The addition, have the near tive rotor the nature disk-friction of fluid some disk. engine steady This loss between stream cooling flow (or windage the rotating loss) disk
circulation a small
and the
turbines
for hot applications, of lower-temperature gas outward patterns gas losses No are flows along
surface and
centerline
base rotor
qualita-
of the
throughflow timating
figure herein.
Equations
For fluid
the case
with
no throughflow, surface
as in figure is thrown
8-6(a), by
the
thin
layer action
of
outward
centrifugal
7//A//////////_
(a_
(b)
(a)
Without FmuaE
(t)) for
With rotating
throughflow. disks.
231
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
and
returns
via
the
stationary
wall effect.
to the Consider
inner an
radius, element
thereby of area
building on one
circulatory
dA = 2,rr dr where A is the area, of the in m 2 or ft 2, of one side area element area dA. The radius at the of the fluid disk, and stress
in m or ft,
shear
r produces
a resisting
dMo 2 where in the Mo is the case resisting torque, - r2rr 2 dr in N-m The
C/
or lb-ft, stress
of no throughflow.
shear
be expressed
(8-3)
where
C!
fluid
shear-stress kg/ma;
coefficient 1;32.17 _ of fluid tangential absolute velocity velocity, is m/sec, ft/sec (Ibm) (ft)/(lbf) (sec 2) lb/ft
9
P
v.
At the
V_ = too
where into w is the angular (8-3), the total velocity, torque in rad/sec. for both sides By substituting of the disk equation
(8-4)
(8-4) as
can be written
Mo=CM,op
(8-'6)
coefficient as power
The
disk-
angular
pwaa 5
--(8-7)
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
conversion equation
(equal is found
to
1,
or
778
(ft)(Ib)/Btu). is
The
form
of
in most
handbooks 5
(8--8)
disk-friction
power-loss
coefficient
N Dr
rotative speed disk rim diameter A number of investigators to be used to the changes have exponents of the from types One which thing blade that rotative published to better used values of the constant others data. Kds in have The
equation made wide doubt, existence rotor and or (8-8) a smaller mine clearer four casing the both the modes and flow
for different
assortment
of semiempirical model
to predict geometry, is
to variations
(8-7) be noted
of different casing.
in the space from loss is obtained (refs. friction may chamber regime. torque Boundary 6 and and exist. space
between
equation
for a given and investigation of chamber of the rotating and the several disk,
by having 7) to deterto present In general, the and of are as on the in nature velocity both between a
diameter effect
a higher
of flow, or flow regimes, Reynolds and number. associated Flow, are the radial
in the axial
coefficient
CM.o was
evaluated
theoretically
continuous indicates
axial
8-7(a)
of the variations
211-
(s/a)i
(8-9) R is
in m or ft, between as
wa 2p
number
R = --
(8-10)
where
u is the
dynamic
viscosity,
in (N)
(sec)/m
2 or lb/(ft)
(see). 233
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
0 Disk
r_
"_}/////////////////////A_
(a)
r(d I
(b)
FIGURE 8-7.--Velocity
(a) Flow regimes I and Ill. (t)) Flow regimes II and IV. patterns around rotating (links without
throughflow.
Regime
II:
Laminar
Flow, layers
Large on the
combined
thickthe
is less than
axial gap, and between ing fluid in which no the case. arc variations The best in the theoretical
these boundary layers there change ill veh)city occurs. radial and and tangential empirical velocity equations
CII
CM.o-1_ 112
(8-11)
where 234
CII is a function
of (s/a),
as shown
in figure
8-8(a),
and
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
3.3_
3.1
2.9 2.7
2.5
.09
.oz
0
I
.05
I
.30
(a) Flow regime II. (b) Flow regime IV. FIGURE 8-8.--Evaluation of torque coefficients. (Data from ref. 6.)
CM.o --
1/1o
(8--12)
respectively. Regime counterpart for torque III: Turbulent are 0.0622 CM,o-and 0.080 CM,o-- (s/a)1/6R1/4 respectively. 235 (8-14) (s/a) V4RV4 (8-13) Flow, I. The best Small Clearance. and The empirical turbulent equations of Regime coefficient theoretical
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
IV:
Large best
Clearance. and
The empirical
turbulent equa-
of Regime
theoretical
for torque
Civ
C_,O-RI/5 where Civ is a function of (s/a), as shown O.102(s/a) C_,o RII5 in figure 1/l 8-8(b), and
(8-15)
(8-16)
respectively. The equations several of figure the particular (8-9), values 8-9 flow regime torque (8-13), The (8-11), of s/a. indicate are that exists and from at any against (8-15), (changes the Reynolds Reynolds as shown to another. slopes in slope) of the number number in figure in the lines can be from 8-9 for lines with determined by plotting coefficient
discontinuities
transition determined
one regime
In this figure,
flow regimes
by matching
Flow regime I II
Description Laminar flow; merged boundary layers Laminarflow; separate boundarylayers Turbulentflow;merged boundary layers
Turbulent flow; separate
_'_ ,
_10 -2
III _
\ _ IV
\ \ \ _\
'_ \\
_'-
boundarylayers Ratioofaxialgap
to disk rim radius,
_,\_,, I "\\
lOI---
,L
"_ %_
- --00,
- _ ,05
FmuRE 8-9.--Theoretical
variation of torque coefficient with Reynolds throughflow. (Data from ref. 6.)
number for no
236
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
those water
shown and
in the
insert
figure.
values disk
(ref. rotated
6) in
determined
Throughflow For the the friction case of the torque rotating disk with with throughflow, This as in figure problem 8--6(b), has been
increases
the throughflow.
analyzed for low values of throughflow it is assumed that the fluid enters the angular The core AM, velocity of gas over and leaves at the the ratio velocity throughflow flowing through symbol Ko represents to the that of the angular fluid without
with regime-IV flow. In this case, chamber near the centerline with no with some disk. rate angular velocity The velocity of the K_a. rotating
rim
increase
in torque, of angular
of change
momentum
AM=2p
where
Q is the
volumetric
in the through-
M = Mo+AM
- CM'pw2aS+2
p QKowa
(8-18)
2g The An friction value of Ko is approximately of the of the power torque case: M --=It Mo 2pQK_a 1 -_ C M,op_a 5 Substituting equation M (8-16) for CM,o yields Q we _ _ -1+ throughflow
assessment
calculating
throughflow
4Ko
CM
Q
,o wa 3
(8-19)
KoR 1/5
= 1 +39.2
Ko (s/a)m defined o as
(8-20)
throughflow
number
V= _
wa
Rm
(8-21)
to the
data high;
of reference moreover,
(8-20) of s/a
predicts is not
values
somewhat
accurately 237
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
/o.o,
1.
--
1.
--
.12
1.2--
FIGURE
8-10.--Empirical
variation
with
throughflow
number.
(Data
from
given
by
(s/a)
m.
Empirically,
the
test
data
are
represented
to
within
+ 5 percent
by the relation M - 1 + 13.9Ko Mo (s/a) in figure 8-10 1/8 s/a values. T (8-22)
Equation
(8-22)
is plotted
for several
PARTIAL-ADMISSION Full-admission however, turbine so small heights, due unusual may that then axial-flow conditions choice. turbines sometimes are arise design blades
LOSSES used for most applications; rate blade losses leakage short the the is
to use partial
to partial
be less
admission
be a convenient
to reduce
power
output
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
of an existing passages). output are the emptying This loss. when The latter The
full-admission
turbine (physically
turbines chapter, blade pass the rates. in this inactive
block have
some
of the stator
In general,
partial-admission
As mentioned
channels through
filling-and-
understood,
and efficiency rotating in form loss. the equations investigations pumping(adjacent of the three in results in to, of for
compared pumping
a fluid-filled and often expressions several estimating showed power blade open the on these that
These
experimental the
on the
as evidenced or lack
by variations in the
in the exponents
Further,
by differences a generally
empirical The
Therefore, often
applicable
expression
for pumping-power
one equation
Pp = KpoU,,,al l'sD,,, ( 1 - _) where Pp K_ pumping-power pumping-power blade blade blade active value units were by an mean-section height, m; ft m; ft area in reference (lbf) rotors above losses enclosed, values. for in reference from 8 and (sec2)/(lbm) the More loss, W; speed, (ft) (lb)/sec 1/m_/_; ft/sec (lbf) (seO)/(Ibm)
(8-23)
(ft 3n)
u.
l D,,
E
of the used
is 3.63
unenclosed
combined
pumping (8-7)
a single-stage the
reported
is subtracted
remaining is significantly
Kp is found
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
reported lack The Imagine filled the inlet less entire through of the of the with blade momentum channel
in reference other
8, and
the
is attributed herein must the the be called the be pushed active nozzle Since decrease this
to primarily the sector sector. continue As arc, fluid the less has
loss model. channel leaving of the channel fluid area through reported by These as it just fluid nozzle. sector, the into, thus the the active is cut enters to flow losses cause starts that This within off from to enter scavenging sector active will sector. active this diffused
out by the
a second channel.
loss occurs.
to the blade
an overall
the rotor,
in reference
multiplying
momentum
p is the
rotor-blade
pitch,
f is the
nozzle
active that
arc acas
in m or ft. Effectively, for the sector loss. effect With of the sector loss the use of equations
coefficient
on
turbine and
(2-6)
1, and specific
geometry,
Ah' = g_ where Ah' Wu W turbine tangential relative fluid subscripts relative 1 and turbine
( W_ a-
W2 sin 02)
(s-25)
specific velocity,
work,
J/kg;
Btu/lb velocity, axial inlet m/sec; direction, and exit, ft/sec deg respectively. are), For where
0
The
2 refer (which
an impulse
partial-admission
turbines
01= -02,
Um Ah' = _-_ W, sin Ox(1 +K,_) where turbine. 240 K_ is the For rotor the relative-velocity ratio turbine, W2/W_ for the (8-26) full-admission the sector loss
partial-admission
applying
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
coefficient
(8-28)
Since
efficiency
where
Abed is the
turbine
ideal
specific turbine
work, with
in J/kg respect
or Btu/lb, to that
the
effull-
of the
nm
Ahrro Ah'
(8-30)
into equation (8--30) then
Substituting yields
equations
(8-26)
and
(8-28)
_=n The sector turbine however, increase. loss admission In the was total and loss efficiency efficiency loss only; further. rotor Also, design study due should the as more known. penalty the expressed (8-24) closely are added of the be done 9, the the
I+K,,K, 1 -I-K_ by equation earlier that the blades rotor, of rotor indicates to the (8--31) accounts
(8-31)
for the
to reduce blades
blades
is not
Therefore, cannot
of a partialaxial-flow 100 percent. as the blade were turbine The difference pumping subtracted
analytically
determined
of admissions
between
efficiencies. separately
The
disk-friction
from the total partial-admission admission losses. These other due in to leakage losses 8--11. figure over from The arc the active admission with stant of reference combined fraction, of arcs (from
loss to give what losses include the sector pumping while the to the and other 9 are plotted against
was called other partialsector loss and any loss sector. admission-arc loss remained against The partialfraction increased conspeed 241 nearly
inactive
disk-friction losses
decreasing
the range
Predicted
cfficiencies
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
.6 i.5
T
I I I
K.4
I
"I"
'Is
C
I I t % .|
0 .1 .2
gJ
I
.9
I
1.0
Fmtmm
8-11.--Variation
fraction of stator
mission
o ,a U
qJ
.1
I
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 Blade-jet peed s ratio, Urn/_ performance of partial(Data from ref. 10.) .7 .8 Ahtd .9 1.0
Fmuam 8-12.--Design-point
and full-admission
turbines.
ratio
in vol.
8-12
for a particular amounts with this arc speed reduced figure ratio
is seen. in optimum
to note
as admission
is reduced.
efficiency
is a maximum
at a blade-jet
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
irrespective Blade-pumping blade speed, admission maximum and design factored speed
and part
blade
disk-friction
which
decreasing power
decreases.
(aerodynamic at lower
blade-pumping
blade
an optimum
blade-jet
INCIDENCE The row angle. since, design shown incidence (either Flow stator incidence The 8-13. line and loss is that or rotor) would at least, The loss which at some normally all gas dashed the
LOSS occurs angle only and used when other occur when inlet the gas enters than the are optimum matched the blade a blade flow at the is profile angle (8-32)
conditions,
blade running
angles
of incidence incidence
blade
angle.
--
ab
where i ab The angle incidence fluid blade fluid for inlet angle, angle must deg from from axial axial direction, direction, deg deg angle may for stators be positive and the relative as
flow angle
be the
absolute angle
The
incidence
or negative,
in figure 8-13. The sign of the incidence cascade tests have shown that the variation for positive and negative angles.
is different
Axial direction
IB,
Vp / i -a - ob
FIOuRE
8-13.--Blade
incidence
nomenclature.
243
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Incidence angle,
FIGUaE
8-14.--Characteristics
of blade
incidence
loss.
FiauaE
8-15.--L(ical
flow
separation
on blade
surface.
general by The
of incidence about
incidence of cascade
is shown shows
incidence. at large smaller blades reaction whereas range. Another does nation cidence the blade not incidence.
be due
positive
incidence,
as indicated
area, of separation at the same in which the mean acceleration blades) have a wide blades range have from low-reaction thing occur This streamlines and the inlet
value of negative incidence. of the gas flow is large over for is that small are which the the amount 8-16. one with the at same loss losses 8-14 sketch
of negative zero
be explained at some
by the
stagnation
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
a<o
ab
F[aua_
8-16.--Curvature
of stagnation
to the
free-stream
flow.
The
incidence some
angle
-4 to -8 . Because with a small amount of the small difference magnitude of the performance incidence method Vp parallel that entry kinetic the loss any
of this,
turbine incidence,
designers
incidence of a turbine
on
importance
when
is described V.
of figure
(camber through
If it is assumed recovered
component normal
component
energy
(V,_ \-_J
V_' =2_ is
cs_ i
(8-33)
to incidence
(8-34)
to account incidence,
for the
positive
the effect
of blade-row
at zero incidence,
V12
I-l--cos"
(i-io7,_)"1
(8-35)
(minimum-loss) when
incidence used in
angle.
This
type
of
proved
satisfactory
off-design
performance 245
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND APPLICATION
such
as that
of reference
specific and
incidencen = 3 for
values been
of n = 2 for used
incidence
positive
incidence
have
satisfactorily.
REFERENCES 1. HORLOCK, JOHN H.: Axial Flow Turbines. Butterworth Inc., 1966. 2. HOLESKI, DONALD E.; AND FUTRAL, SAMUEL M., JR.: Effect of Rotor Tip Clearance on the Performance of a 5-Inch Single-StageAxial-Flow Turbine. NASA TM X-1757, 1969. 3. KOFSKEY, MILTON G.; AND NUSnAUM, WXLLIAM J.:Performance Evaluation of a Two-Stage Axial-Flow Turbine for Two Values of Tip Clearance. NASA TN I)-4388, 1968. 4. KOFSKEY, MILTON G.: Experimental Investigationof Three Tip-Clearance Configurations Over a Range of Tip Clearance Using a Single-StageTurbine of High Hub- to Tip-Radius Ratio. NASA TM X-472, 1961. 5. HONO, YONO S.; AND GROH, F. G.: Axial Turbine Loss Analysis and Efficiency Prediction Method. Rep. D4-3220, Boeing Co., Mar. 11, 1966. 6. DAILY, J. W.; AND NECE, R. E.: Chamber l)imension Effects on Induced Flow and Frictional Resistance of Enclosed Rotating Disks. J. Basic Eng., voi. 82, no. 1, Mar. 1960, pp. 217-232. 7. DAXLY, J. W.; ERNST, W. I).; AND ASnEDIAN, V. V.: Enclosed Rotating Disks with Superposed Throughflow: Mean Study and Periodic Unsteady Characteristics of the Induced Flow. Rep. R-_4-16, Massachusetts Inst. Tech. (ARO1)-2500-2, AD-443060), Apr. 1964. 8. STODOLA, A. (Louis C. LOEWENSTEIN, TRANS.): Steam and Gas Turbines. Vol. I. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1927. Reprinted by Peter Smith, 1945, pp. 200201. 9. KLASSEN, HUOH A.: Cold-Air Investigation of Effects of Partial Admission on Performance of 3.75-Inch Mean-l)iameter Single-Stage Axial-Flow Turbine. NASA TN D-4700, 1968. 10. STENNING, ALAN H.: Design of Turbines for High-Energy-Euel Low-PowerOutput Applications. Rep. 79, Dynamic Analysis and Control Lab., Massachusetts Inst. Tech., Sept. 30, 1953. ll. AINLEY, D. G.; ^ND M^THIESON, G. C. R.: An Examination of the Flow and Pressure Losses in Blade Rows of Axial-Flow Turbines. R&M-2891, Aeronautical Research Council, Gt. Britain, 1955. 12. FLAGO, E. E.: Analytical Procedure and Computer Program for Determining the Off-De._ign Performance of Axial-Flow Turbines. NASA CR-710, 1967.
246
MISCELLANEOUS
LOSSES
SYMBOLS A
t
area
of rotor m; ft to evaluate
disk,
CII Civ C/
CM
Ci.o Ci,o
no throughflow m; ft (Ibm) Btu/Ib based on ratio of inlet-total pressure Btu/lb (ft)/(lbf) (seC) J/kg; work
f
9 Ah' _h_d i J Kdl Ko Kp K. K,o Li l M N
n
conversion
1;32.17
J/kg;
constant, power-loss
1; 778 (ft) (lb)/Btu coefficient angular velocity 1/mY2; to disk angular velocity 'v2) (lbf)(seC)/(lbm)(ft impulse turbine
of rotating-core
pumping power loss coefficient, sector loss coefficient rotor blade velocity height, coefficient m; ft torque for incidence frictional lb-ft rotative exponcnt disk-friction pumping rotor-blade volumetric Reynolds radius, axial blade relative fluid blade loss, J/kg; resistance speed, tad/see; Btu/lb
for full-admission
both
sides
of rotor
disk,
N-m;
rev/min (8-35)
Pp P
loss, W;
Q
R
r
throughflow
distance speed,
rotor ft/sec
disk
and
casing,
m; ft
U V W
absolute
velocity, velocity,
m/sec/ft/sec axial
fluid relative angle measured from active fraction of stator exit area turbine dynamic
P
static kg/m'_;
viscosity,
density,
247
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
fluid
shear
stress,
N/m_; rad/sec
lb/ft
_ by equation (8-21)
throughflow angular
number
defined
velocity,
partial admission disk rim tangential _rotor inlet ],blade-row rotor exit component inlet
248
CHAPTER 9
Supersonic Turbines
ByLouis . Goldman J
A supersonic supersonic have having velocities) They have have been low relative molecular are used been studied turbines of the would of stages. Because operate in indicated used for potential turbine application and/or by use have high require It of stage is defined entering in systems weights where NASA in the and', high in open-cycle potential ratio. a small would, high at low static For chapters jet for For amount velocities, 2 and systems from design turbines be method and used. of 3 the where as one rotor. that operates fluids high ratios are with turbines (those expansion available. and systems work level, fluid and (often low primary minimum pressure may highest result because outthis and a relless of fluid ratio in a systems a
velocity
Supersonic
high-energy
for space. Supersonic puts type small atively turbines than speed high criteria could To level, and under chapter, the 0.2). ratios are more keep proper rotors because of turbine number simple.
pressure
of driving be light-weight however, speed (vol. ratios 1), the with high and at Both the
generally As
correspond a minimum the than turbine the are design ideal offset being efficiency designed
primarily
exit-kinetic-energy
consumption, supersonic
efficiency
of supersonic by
supersonic are
characteristics.
supersonic following
performance of characteristics,
(1) method
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPI.,I_ATION
stator
blades,
of supersonic turbines.
rotor
blades,
and
characteristics METHOD
CHARACTERISTICS is a general method equation. flow will for solving The equain this and (see (1) conphysical mathsimilar a
method type of motion of this Other non-steady method The involved. derivation Both
of for type.
differential supersonic of flow flow be (i.e., handled be developed (2) by dynamics one the
of a perfect
be discussed symmetric this in stresses here. 1 and method two the to other 2. by
types
of supersonic
axially
ways:
formal
mathematical
simple
dynamical The
presented method
in references Wall satisfies is the waves, shock zero. shown wave in is flow
The motion
of
parallel
through
a single
be considered
Examples
of weak As when
exwill the
compression
subsequently,
Mach
wa ye
Mach
wave
dV
" V__ctV
"// V//////
_UX/, :/;//_Wa II
X
..... 7"/////i
/
(a)
(b)
(a) FIGURE
(b)
Compression. waves.
250
SUPBRS_NIC
TURBINES
wall bends away from the flow, and a compression when the wall bends toward the flow. The bend (of the angular which wall. The fields magnitude produces bend to which when surface of Mach wave Mach wave in dO) in the wave, the sides wall one solution of it. it is realized can, therefore, The the wall which may also as a disturbance is to follow a boundary with may The the uniform solution flow flow Consider rection of mass
wave
is produced
can be considered if the flow as wave of this surface sections. as flow diof the _ to the conservation Mach curved be considered
is required
condition flow
on both
importance of straight
can be appreciated along through a weak the of initial requires a curved a series expansion standing velocity that A=
be considered
to be made
up of a finite waves.
number
approximated
through
will now
be discussed.
included in figure
V as shown
p V,, = (p+dp)
( V. +dV.)
= constant
(9-1)
where w A p V. mass flow density, velocity flow area rate, along kg/m3; kg/sec; Mach lb/ft a normal terms to Mach (i.e., dp dV.) wave, gives m/sec; ft/sec lb/sec wave, m_; ft 2
component second-order
Neglecting
V.+V dp=o
Conservation of momentum pV.V in the tangential direction gives
(9-2)
(V ,+ dV ,)
(9-3)
Ma,//
wave/ Z_Z_ n
p +dp + dV
dO
U//////////////////_
. _ /////,
FIGURE 9-2.--Flow
through
a weak
expansion
wave,
and associated
nomenclature.
251
TURBINE
_, I_E,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
where m/sec
gives
Vt or
is
the
velocity
component equation
tangent (9-1)
to
the into
Mach equation
wave,
in
ft/sec.
Substituting
(9-3)
y,,V,=
or
pV,,(V,+dVt)
(9-4)
dV,=o
This stant dV means as the is equal Conservation that flow to dV, the and tangential the wave. is directed component normal in the of velocity the direction _ to tile Mach remains velocity wave. gives crosses Consequently, normal
(9-2)
conchange
(9-6)
where g p conversion absolute constant, pressure, equation 1 ; 32.17 N/m2; (9-I) O=g Eliminating dV,_ by using (lbm) (ft)/(lbf) (sec 2)
lb/ft 2 into equation dVn (9-2) results in (9-6) and expanding yields (9-7)
Substituting
dp.-}-pVn
equation
V.--g
Equation (1-57) of chapter 1 (vol. 1) states
(9-8)
a---- _/g where process (9-8) a is speed being into equation of sound, (9-9) in here shows m/sec that V,,:a Therefore, be equal the to the component speed of velocity of sound.
considered
is isentropic,
substitution
(9-10) normal from to the figure Mach 9-2 wave that (9-11) must
Noting
Vn=V gives V, sin _V-V where and 252 M has is the meaning Mach only number. for M> The 1.
sin tt
(9-12) angle
angle
SUPF__SONrC Mach wa ve
TURBINE,S
_" _
"-- -....
du
713
/
FIGURE 9-3.--Velocity diagram for
v+dv
flow through a weak expansion wave.
in flow
angle
dO and shown
velocity geometrically
change in
velocity
relations
In the
du=dV dv=Vdo and tan where du dv Since, component component as can of dV of dV parallel normal from to initial to initial equation 1 tan/_=_/_-1_ equation (9-15) becomes dV do 1 velocity velocity (9-12), V, m/sec; V, m/sec; du dV B= _-_= _
(9-13) (9-14)
(9-15)
ft/sec ft/sec
be determined
(9-16)
V -- 4_-1 It is more ratio and 1). The convenient M*=V/VcT to can relation be if dV/V rather the speed M* evaluated between is expressed than from and Mach equation M is given of sound in at terms the of the M. critical of The
number (1-63)
Vcr is equal
condition chapter
by the
equation 253
TURBINE
l)E_IGN
AND
APPLICATION
/ M= /
2 _+i 1 7--1
M,
_ (9-18) M, _
V
where heat 7 is the at constant ratio of specific Since volume. temperature is constant), dV V Substituting finally, dO: equations (9-18) and
heat Vc,
at constant is constant
pressure (because
to the
specific total
(9-19) gives,
1 M .2-1 M, 7--1 7+1 _ dM* M* in flow wave. weak (convex) The field relation wave values wave will, sign. angle A
(9-20)
is the
between weak for would along the a Mach through combined motion
a change expansion a single have a curved surface wave. each flow for
and similar
velocity
equation Assume
will be satisfied
therefore,
Prandtl-Meyer
---,.-
V1
/""
, ve
; /
",
"-,
>'
'_
I/ /
, //
254
SUPERSONIC
TURBINES
If the
number
of segments Integration
approaches of equation
the
flow
field
becomes
continuous.
0= _1 _I/4/_--4-1 arc_
the it
that is
0=0
given
called which
Prandtl-Meyer
references Mach
the
Mach
required
number
is often
symbol 1
/,-45
I_ _r arc sin [(_--1 _A)M*_--_] "_ J --_ 1E2-arc
sin
(9-22) from V1 to V2 is That (9-23) is,
Note given
that by
the the
change change in
in flow the
direction
(50)
in going
respective
angles.
Oz-- 01: 50: The waves, the sion along derivation there wave. would decreases This means wall, has be been (M that shown for
For (9-17).
a minus the in
velocity
decreases)
a concave
hock
_\\\\\\\\\\_\\\\\
\" .... r
d61
_o 2
FIGURE
9-5.--Representation
of
flow
along
concave
wall.
255
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
fore, the
converge entropy
and increase.
form
a shock
as shown
in the shock
figure. region
The
derived of
relations,
of course,
would
be invalid
in the
because
FIGURE
9-6.--Hodograph
characteristic
curves.
256
SUPERSONIC
TURBINES
the
flow
angle on of called
the
critical
be plotted
of diagram characteristic and are of equation curves (9-22). of the passing angle
is called
dimensional value these variation An normals Mach Consider a finite on the constructed the important to wave
surface The
hodograph been
characteristics. to genratio is that corresponding flow field to be into (line by that The This example. as the 1 at 0----0 represent
of the curves.
constant
expressed
characteristics to by the initial the the wall allows After the in the wall
characteristics plane.
is best
explained
a simple point
is divided to V1
number
PI is located diagram
corresponding hodograph segment curve by drawing segment in the to use. that through S_). through
OP_ parallel drawing /)2 must Mach (shown direction plane. The the lie wave is
Point
Note
P1.
expansion
the the
normal physical
as N1 in
P_P2.
Mach
direction
procedure entirely
at best, numerical
cumbersome if it is recalled
be made
Math
waves
lo _-,___.._/
-15,-J \
Cb_
\,
(a)
Phy,_ical
(b) convex
Hodograph wall.
plane.
257
TURBINE
I)E_SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
'_,]dC h waves
0 cai (hi
General along
(b)
Limiting waves
case. at one
intersecting
tion
of
by
the
Math angle
_. Since it is
occur
corresponding to the flow The if the point, the of small or (9-21) flow design 9-8(b), past
between constructed
between
hodograph wall is so
for visualization. a single through the replaced corner-type is important throats. Equation a common as shown common it is bends. a where around of supervalid
A special shaped in figure point seen This corner, that type and
limiting
as will with
is still
Flow The method of solution generalized to handle the uniform figure amount. As finite and before, number S'_, and by the parallel 9-9. The the flow flow $3 and the direction supersonic that will S'3. Suppose
Between
Two
Walls wall can be the initially as shown the walls in region The line V_. The channel. into a 1 is OP_ flow S'_, S_ in same
used for the flow along a single flow between two walls. Consider flow both be bounded are about the by parallel hodograph of the by two walls outward walls deflected centerline dividing here flow diagram. velocity
is symmetric
of straight point
denoted
by S_ and
S_PF__
S_NIC
TURBINES
,F 2
V [
.... /!:
>_," "'/L_
u
I C'I
15v--...
c2
//
0 P7
_1-5/
J _ "" _///////_ k_V k- V 2 6 _ 3 _///////'_ ,..,,/////.
(a)
(b)
(a)
Physical
(b)
Hodograph
plane.
walls.
in the through
can wave.
is to determine
2 and are
another
direction. Consider that continuation, in modified A jump of motion is, To C1 or satisfy Similarly, from only C'2 both region if the (since sets end
the flow field 3 is separated form, of the initial Mach any wave can eq. point point region lies on a characteristic represent lie on end the point waves end and 2' must
2 and 2' by a M, and M'I. the equations P2; that C'L or C2. representplane that which
through
graphically). jump
a iump
from
characteristic of the
3 must P, of the
P3 or P1 in the hodograph out because are point this would mean compression being further of the P'2P3 the waves,
being
be ruled
physical sense
it represents M'2
expansion.
of the by the
extensions to
initial and
normals
segments of
plane.
Because
flow,
piecemeal the
channel
A new
of solution
259
TURBINE
DES,IGN
AND
APPLICATION
Consider Sa. wall. P_ must require the in because lie According that wave The The the the on 5 cannot
in wall,
field and
is parallel to field to the on in the through used in the the 6 must wall the same
to wall. and,
the
wall
5 is not
separate
field
in fields
direction. these In
hodograph
P5 and
is an expansion
expansion wave striking wave. The construction proceeds As which Mach across out fields. method," the of stream the Mach the method," seen the each as before. from velocity The wave since Another is often net. flow the the
the
flow
in the
by a number
in each
and,
therefore, This
approximately of procedure are found known flow problems. most not intersections, for will 1. be
through-
field. stream
in supersonic
properties
method" in reference
Summary The used shown (c) show intersection wave flected wave across flow for the solutions design in the figure the with
Flow
Solutions as well as others blade physical 9-10(a), expansion of an that are are is and the
and case,
summarized along
solution. the
previously of expansion
of a weak reflection
from a solid boundary, wave is at a slightly because of the higher the reflected wave. 9-10(d) direction by the any wave. shows A bend and the at the
wave wall
at
boundary.
in the
of the
The
boundary (reflected)
therefore,
additional
SfUPE./_SONI_C
TURBINES
9-10(e)
shows region
the wave
beyond The
a compression C, as shown.
of character-
through in type
Therefore,
continues
intersection.
(al 6
OD
BA
?//'//_}i"///d
;:P; ;,, .;
; ;4,:,_/_
_c_
Weak
Intersection of an expansion
from flow
9-10.--Elementary
261
TURBINE,
DESIGN
AND
APPLI_ATrON
6
It//l.I//l/l_'//.ft/lllll_ A t
"V/I/i/////
0 B : 04 - 6
6_
(dt
Z////////21//7_
_-B
/---_1'--Compression wave
O0 : 0A + 25 "////Z///I/I_ /
(e)
P : Constant
_on
wave
(fl
wave and a
at
solid
9-10.--Concluded.
that but
is not may be
in
the wave
blade 9-10(f). be
interest, condition
reflection The
boundary.
SUPERSONIC
TURBINES
along
the
flow
is isentropic, hodograph
magnitude Therefore,
along in the
the boundary
be as shown
an expansion as a compression
reflects
a free boundary
(constant
OF
BLADES of characteristics uniform, design type rotor. parallel of since Only twoit is the here. of nozzle the This the
to the design
of a channel
nozzles application
supersonic-turbine
blades,
to have of a stator
uniform
of nozzle
Nozzles A supersonic in figure sonic, (DE), Point the 9-11. wall nozzle Since must
Uniform
Parallel
it is required curve
be parallel
so that at the exit, D is the point where that Because may, only generates for the flow of the design ABCDA one half at
the wall is again parallel the wall has its maximum the throat symmetry, nozzle waves need the which is uniform, the nozzle by be replaced nozzle of the
to the initial flow. slope. It is usually parallel, axis a solid zone. off the and sonic is a streamboundary. The in the curved section
purposes, is called
flow
region
expansion
AD
expansion procedure
calculation
is the same
as was
discussed
FIGURE
9-11.--Supersonic
nozzle
producing
uniform,
parallel
flow.
263
TURBINE'
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
"Flow
DCED is curved
the the
straightenincoming waves final A be too form 9-12(a), It is a where edge was The Mach and D. long of
ing section, expansion seen flow number For for this A limiting points (corner parallel that and wall angle nozzles Only The output 3 does number the input and gives not one the _, A large type in past
in this
method and
of Elementary expansion a nozzle In throat, in the flow that waves hodograph occurs of the design been these
Solutions." The
uniform, how
parallel, much
depends exit
numbers, applications. sharp-edged flow The waves The nozzle is used. parallel
supersonic nozzle form and flow), flow half other which with to at
of nozzle uniform,
produces
described
producing of the the of the half region is half program sharp-edged portion computer coordinates for any the the
reflected diagram
Cancellation
bounding
A computer
characteristics.
includes
specific-heat
of reference
A,D
_,_
I / _,5" ]
181 I1);
(a)
Physical FIGURE
plane.
264
SUPgRSONIC
TURBINES
Stator The for tional the sharp-edged-throat design considerations nozzle for a stator
of minimum-length
(chord) as compared
supersonic to the
previously
Ideal nozzle -_
t
/ / Displacementth ickness-,
\ \ \
/ / / /
/ Diverging section-'-. / /
t_
Axial _Trection
FIow_
FIGURE
9-13.--Design
of supersonic
stator
nozzle
with
sharp-edged
throat.
265
TURBINE
D_IGN
AND
APPL_CATrON
discussed energy
are losses.
the
flow
turning
and
the
desire
to
include
flow
and
A supersonic-turbine being as and section the flow. stream method on the determined A computer sonic lines stator in figure etc.) in the local reference converging The Mach suction discussed herein The a stator (3) nozzle. (subsonic) a straight accelerates section diverging number surface the is
stator is shown stator section, section flow designed section at the on to 5 (vol.
and
section will
type to (1) a
in figure
converging
(supersonic) The be
section, converging designed losses, of by length desired by the the freethe is section
methods
of chapter
minimize the
produce
accelerates
section profile,
discussed. nozzle
program nozzles,
of sharp-edged-throat for losses, indicated method ideal to the thickness, profile is then ideal profile by the
superin dashed
is presented
thicknesses as described
as indicated boundary-layer
efficiency in chapter
is obtained
DESIGN Two rotors tion methods are caused the that The by rotor the
OF
BLADES design use any and of supersonic the method formaflow The parallel. of shock
discussed
methods to prevent
characteristics. entering
is designed is assumed
convergence
waves.
passage
Corner-Flow One method (ref. entering compression, surface cancel zontal of the the flow of designing blade parallel from The supersonic of this flow flow upper type
is given
is shown
a comer-type lower is curved 2, then by parallel undergoes the concave (pressure) so as to horia
parallel
corner-type 266
SUPERSONIC
TURBINES
flow
of the
desired on the
Mach upper
complete in fig.
the blade
blade only
to be designed,
it is symmetrical. in any
of comer
of blade
for this blade is the theoretical unusual. the This loading type
figure 9-14(b). Shown velocity distribution, distribution is not of the inlet very blade. Mach middle for a given
of velocity method
becomes
in the
of this
design
is that
rParallel flow
I t t
Parall
,_
M*
Inlet Distance alon9 chord _b) (a) (b) Hodograph diagram. rotor design Blade and passage. (c) Blade by the loading diagram method. (c)
Outlet
FIGURE 9-14.--Supersonic
corner-flow
267
TURBINE
I_ESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
The and
2 must turning
be is,
maximum (1.5
therefore, turning
Prandtl-Meyer amounts
angles. of flow
be impossible. Method supersonic the product passage rotor blades vortex (also, by this is a constant is described flow within therefore, throughmethod is
Vortex-Flow Another in reference the passage. critical out the shown The arcs, sition passage generated ated field sect. The parallel cular by field. in figure blades (2) circular arcs (lower into the upper by the inlet method 5. This ratio A typical 9-15(a). consist arcs, and lower essentially and upper) (3) flow transition arc of outlet by convert arc (see of designing method M*) field, blade and
is based
on establishing radius
In a vortex-flow
of velocity designed
velocity
and streamline
(1) arcs.
inlet The
transition
parallel
vortex transition
expansion
9-15(a)).
vortex-flow
and expansion turn and maintain the vortex waves the upper the design are
waves first the vortex flow into by and profile. in with the the
reconvert remaining on
uniform
Straight-line
segments directions for the the by type in degree the highly the to this
parallel
to the inlet
complete type of
A hodograph 9-15(b). letters The surfaces graph of flow provide bution blade The
corresponding constant-velocity are diagram. turning any is seen is shown design represented In this
9-15(a).
flows
is no limit
circular 9-15(c).
blade-loading in figure for designing is presented the the method inlet rotor of and and numbers,
as compared
corner-flow A computer method program outlet, gas. the arcs 268 The blade
rotor in
by
the
outlet the
blade
and
a plot transition
An approximate
method
for obtaining
without
characteristics
described
SUPERSONIC
TURBI_,ES
references 7 and 8. In this procedure, the vortex flow is established by making the curvature of the transition arcs one-half the curvature of the circular arcs. For very small curvatures, this method is correct. In this blade design, the lower- and upper-surface Mach numbers are specified. This permits blades of various shapes to be designed for
Straight lines Upper transition arcs Lower transition arcs Circular arcs
(a)
M*..- _H,B
A,H
L,G
X'x// )
Inlet
\
I
/
K Outlet Distance along chord
mh_7,F
Ib) (a) (b) Hodograph FIGURE diagram. 9-15.--Supersonic rotor design Blade and passage. (c) by Blade the loading vortex-flow diagram. method. (c)
269
TURBINE
I_E,SIGN
AND
APPLICATrON AA AB BD CC CD Circular arc Uppertransition arc Straight line Circular arc Lowertransition arc
k
ta) A B A B
\
D/ (b! A B B
A B
A B
(a)
Lower-surface
Prandtl-Meyer
an-
(b)
gle, 0 (M = 1) ; upper-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 59 (M = 3.5) ; total flow turning angle, 130 . (c) Lower-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 18 (M---- 1.7) ; upper-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 59 (M = 3.5) ; total flow turning angle, 130 . (e) Lower-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 21 (M-- 1.8) ; upper-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 59 (M---- 3.5) ; total flow turning angle, 120 .
Lower-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 12 (M=l.5); upper-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 59 (M = 3.5) ; total flow turning angle, 130 .
(d)
Lower-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 18 (M----1.7) ; upper-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 104 (M----10.7) ; total flow turning angle, 130 . (f) Lower-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 21 (M---- 1.8); upper-surface Prandtl-Meyer angle, 59 (M = 3.5) ; total flow turning angle, 140 . number of 2.5 ratio of 1.4. (inlet Prandtl-
SUPEJRSONIC
_URBINES
a given program figure number whereas (c)) and effects. both The procedure program including (no loss) first eters ing
of that (cf.
designed
by
the in
number
it is seen
lower-surface
Mach selection
significant problems, design A computer sections, ideal is 9-17, paramby from 2). addthe as indicated
Guidance of which
is obtained
consideration
separation
starting
later "method
chapter. characteristics" flow. vortex-flow in reference lines rotor in figure obtained profile 7 (vol.
previously is only
of ideal
(isentropie)
of supersonic-turbine for losses, indicated and the profile loss is presented by the final
9. The
dashed
the method
in figure
coefBcients
are determined
boundary-layer
in chapter
.... _--
_ --'__/'x "
._
Displacement thickness
/__/
_,.
,--Loss-free
passage
i/ Z
\ \
FIOURE
9-17.--Design
of supersonic
rotor
blade
section.
271
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
As
seen
figure HI and
9-15, EF
along The
pressure
separation. limitations
Flow on
in large The
If it is possible,
be desirable
separation lower-surface
OPERATING
OF
SUPERSONIC
the
Problems diffuser
140
120
___------------
20
t
0 20
1
40 Upper-surface
1
60 Prandtl%_eyer
t
80 an(jl,
1
l O0 '%, deg
I
120
I
140
FIGURE
9-18.--Maximum
angle 1.4.
for
supersonic
starting.
Specific-
272
SUPE_
SONI_
TURBINES
during in shape, a normal ing. wave For the inlet flow this mum rotor angles. The condition,
the
rotor would As
blade
passage
is convergent-divergent to occur it at the passage is in instant is set the the starting that by this shock of of startassumed
of supersonic
permissible through.
contraction
be large along in
to permit
Prandtl-Meyer
exists
of the
angle) procedure
established.
maximum
angle as a function
problem, diagram, in
Prandtl-Meyer
is known angles
determined
k
E
_
&
r_
_o
39
_ g &
4o
I
,// ,
__e_,
,' , , ,/ ' ,
o,o, S9 i 0
7" ,'_7,_97._/'/77"7"//'77/'I
/,
F_,...'_,
c 5
E
r_
20
I
o
30
I
l_l
i_oo
I lJ
1
50
l
70
I
90
,,
I
1
110
Upper-surface PrandtI-Mever angle, wu, deg FIGURE 9-19.--Supersonic Mach number 2.5; starting criterion Prandtl-Meyer applied to example angle, 39; inlet flow turbine. Inlet angle, 65 .
inlet
273
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
and
passage 9-18
To assure representing
starting surface ordinate the permissible is best for the seen and to on the the
given inlet
angles to values an example. conditions: . vary flow fact angle _, can the of condi-
Prandtl-Meyer starting design from following that fact due inlet inlet for the this region
supersonic
Suppose (1) _=1.4; It is first from must that Meyer For shown. 39 to remain the
(2) M,,=Mex=2.5 noted vary 104 . The transition 104). the w_,. ,,_ only dashed would starting limit indicated 0 limit turning
(_,.=_,x=39); _z is due 104 limit cannot 9-19, w_ and _,=39 for the _,
0 to 39 , and w, is
inlet angle
exceed
In figure of
as a function
previously purposes
represents permissible
considerations. the maximum in the figure. Turbine data 14. The ratio speed to in turbine 9-20, of at ratio
Performance for supersonic in speed to presents 14. For turbines divided are by reideal
references
variation (blade
supersonic-turbine
inlet-totalwhich
exit-static-pressure the any ratio data given and in ratio for the speed, falls maximum is similar turbine, fallen efficiency on at the the the off
figure
reference design
about is 9-20)
pressure The
decreased. with If
in fig.
turbine. pressure in
efficiencies envelope
would
curve.
decrease
supersonic-turbine
274
8UPF_R_)NIC Ratio of turbine-inlet total pressure to turbine-exit _ a o o static pressure 150 120 63 (design) _ "_ _
TURBII_S
.30
cCD
.2O
_3 t_
.10
.......
0
A_
1
.16
J
.20
l
.24
F,GuR_.
9--20.--Static
efficiency
of blade-jet
speed
ratio
lower The
to
expanded
It can also be seen from this figure that at pressure ratios near design, the divergent section of the nozzle performed pressure did not remain constant in the straight section. There
some overexpansion followed by some compression. havior was found in the data of reference 10.
275
TURBINE 10--
I_E_IGN
AND
APPLICATION
__ 09 --
Divergent -section
["-
.0_
07 -a
05 -L_
9
V
03 --
Ii
i
.4 of of nozzle
It
.6 nozzle exit pressure static
L
.8 ratio pressure
_
1.0 with to axial inlet distance total in nozzle pressure.
.2
276
SUPE_tSONIC
TURBINES
REFERENCES
1. 2.
3.
SHAPIRO,
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
ASCHER H. : The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow. vol. 1. Ronald Press Co., 1953. LIEPMANN, HANS WOLFGANG; AND PUCKETT, ALLEN E.: Introduction to Aerodynamics of a Compressible Fluid. John Wiley & Sons, 1947. VANCO, MICHAEL R. ; AND GOLDMAN, LOUIS J. ; Computer Program for Design of Two-Dimensional Supersonic Nozzle with Sharp-Edged Throat. NASA TM X-1502, 1968. GOLDMAN, Louis J.; AND VANCO, MICHAEL R.; Computer Program for Design of Two-Dimensional Sharp-Edged-Th_roat Supersonic Nozzle with Boundary-Layer Correction. NASA TM X-2343, 1971. BOXER, EMANUEL; STERRETT, JAMES R. ;AND WLODARSKI, JOHN; Application of Supersonic Vortex-Flow Theory to the Design of Supersonic Impulse Compressoror Turbine-Blade Sections. NACA RM L52B06, 1952. GOLDMAN, LOUIS J. ; AND SCULLIN, VINCENT J. : Analytical Investigation of Supersonic Turbomachinery Blading. I--Computer Program for Blading Design. NASA TN D-4421, 1968. STRATFORD, B. S. ; AND SANSOME, G. E. : Theory and Tunnel Tests of Rotor Blades for Supersonic Turbines. R&M 3275, Aero. Res. Council, 1962. HORLOCK, J. H. : Axial Flow Turbines: Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics. Butterworths, 1966. GOLDMAN, LOUIS J.; AND SCULLIN, VINCENT J.: Computer Program for Design of Two-Dimensional Supersonic Turbine Rotor Blades with Boundary-Layer Correction. NASA TM X-2434, 1971. MOFFITT, THOMAS P.: Design and Experimental Investigation of a SingleStage Turbine with a Rotor Entering Relative Mach Number of 2. NACA RM E58F20a, 1958. STABE, ROY G.; KLINE, JOHN F.; AND GIBBS, EDWARD H.; Cold-Air Performance Evaluation of a Scale-Model Fuel Pump Turbine for the M-1 Hydrogen-Oxygen Rocket Engine. NASA TN D-3819, 1967. MOFFITT, THOMAS P. ; AND KLAG, FREDERICK W., JR. : Experimental Investigation of Partialand Full-Admission Characteristics of a Two-Stage Velocity-Compounded Turbine. NASA TM X-410, 1960. JOHNSON, I. H.; AND DRANSFIELD, D. C.: The Test Performance of Highly Loaded Turbine Stages Designed for High Pressure Ratio. R&M 3242, Aero. Res. Council, 1962. GOLDMAN, LOUIS J.: Experimental Investigation of a Low Reynolds Number Partial-Admission Single-Stage Supersonic Turbine. NASA TM X-2382, 1971.
12.
13.
14.
277
TURBINE
I)E_IGN
AND
APPLICATIO_
SYMBOLS A
a
area
along
Mach m/sec;
mS; ft _ (lbm)(ft)/(lbf)(sec _)
of sound, number velocity pressure, of ft/sec m/sec; velocity of ft/sec rate, deg
g M M* P
conversion
N/m_;
parallel
Y)
angle,
pressure deg
to specific
heat
at
change angle,
flow
kg/m 3; lb/ft 3
Subscripts
e_
in l
ITI4IZ
maximum direction relative isentropic tangential upper direction with respect to Mach wave surface of blade
7" 8
278
CHAPTER 10
Radial-lnflow Turbines
ByHarold .Rohlik E
Radial-inflow space power turbines systems, are suitable for many where applications compact in aircraft, power sources
and other
systems
are required. Turbines of this type have a number of desirable characteristics such as high efficiency, ease of manufacture, sturdy construction, and reliability. turbines and cover In this are design performance 10-1 enters of the and ratio 8. narrow. of blade have shows the flow In There in the most chapter, compared geometry is a substantial literature. of the those areas the with and design of amount References and an turbine blade of information on radial-inflow in nature machines. its features addition, design Figure The turning long the as flow 1 to 6 are general performance axial-flow of these and In offturbine. and is described, design,
radial-inflow performance,
are discussed. a section stator takes height rotor ratios axial place through and the varies stator 0.1 to 0.5. plenum, usually pipe, inlet case or a volute surrounds while the (shown the volute in a typical leaves blade from blades, radial-inflow the rotor which about on the turbine. This is is relatively which hand, 1 to as much
axially. ratio,
in the rotor
passage,
aspect
Radial
turbine aspect
other
a tangential
of a volute,
a prewhirl
of velocity) is imparted to the gas before it enters row. This results in stator blades with little or no from figure 10-2 that the than overall the diameter rotor of a is considerably larger diameter. 279
TURBINE
DE, SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Rotor blaue
FIGURE
10-1.--Schematic
cross
section
of radial-inflow
turbine.
At little usually
the or
rotor no straight
where radial.
the
flow
velocity (W_=O),
to rotor of the
the
rotor blades
component This tangential of the more in loaded, square speed. to the is turn whirl. blading developed to stators splitter, are used spacing) or since
straight
rotor rV,
generally here where the velocity Figure shows solidity generally turbine blades 280
is rather
angular component
(where
r is the radius, varies U is blades has 10-3 that (ratio used shown in the the are
V_ is the
radius. flow,
Therefore,
exit
absolute shape the that seen. the low are The full
shows
of radial in the
turbines
between
flow passage
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINES
Stator
/- Rotor /
Volute
C-72323
FIGURE
10-2.--Radial-inflow
turbine.
to reduce the the "BLADE The that The radius, associated turbine overall diagram T" tile fig. only is due and for line p_' 2-8 in expansion an
blade loading. Splitter DESIGN" section. process turbine in a radial because and is be in chapter This the can which Tile If the the this This 10--4, turbine. expansion. be only because For rotor removed losses 2), losses. the use
blades turbine
are
discussed
further
in from
differs decrease
appreciably in with eq. for level through total turbine line p[' (as and the pressure the (2-31) the for
axial total
of the pressure
radius
change 1 (see
relative as was
temperature
decreasing
discussed it permits
2 of volume a distinct of a lower seen change in were below turbine, the the from the in an
shows change
expansion
of a radial-inflow _hown
corresponding would
relative
of ch.
difference
to rotor to both
as shown because in
in figure
radius.
TURBINR
I)F__SIGN AND
APPLICATION
Stator blade--.
/ / t
C-?1863
. _gak-
FIGURE 10-3.--Turbine
stator
and rotor
assembly.
from
the
same
rotor
inlet
total
pressure
p'_'
to
the
p_ would require an axial turbine between a rotor velocity, velocity increase the
vertical friction
p_" and p= for an axial advantage diagram inlet 0.5. energy as high if is
of a lower shown in
radial-turbine
turbine with prewhirl in the (exit-mean to inlet) of about speeds diagram, U_ and the Us is very relative three kinetic times
volute and a mean diameter The difference between the For a typical W] leaving zero-exit-whirl the UI, rotor
evident.
velocity would
U2 equaled
as in an
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINES
T1
tl
TI
2gJCp
E
F--
2gJcp
V 0
W]
W2 /
p2-.
283
TURBINE
DE'SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
OVERALL
DESIGN Optimum
CHARACTERISTICS Incidence rotor inlet, the inlet flow angle incidence leading a radial the in the "slip" rotor unloading fll
Since shown angle edge. blade. factor of the passage. ferentially gradient the show point suction that that
the
blades
angle.
There at the
sometimes
it is circumstatic-pressure shift toward flow condition stagnation is shown point tend analytiIt has to exces-
so that pattern
there
is a streamline locates _1. This flow at the so, the flow edge, been and leading U1 has inlet pattern
surface. there
flow analyses properly angle that were near the not the
when
10-6. If
relation
V_._ and
experimentally
compressors
Pressure surface
;uction urface
FIGURE
10-6.--Streamline
flow at rotor
inlet.
284
RADIAIr-INFLOW
TURBINES
been number
determined ratio
that depends
there on expressed
ratio and,
of V,. 1 to consequently,
optimum
and is often
U,
n
(total of full blades plus
(10-1) splitter
where blades).
n is
the
number
of
blades
Speed
on Design
Geometry and
and
Performance in ch. 2 of
specific
parameter equation
N_ (derived
discussed
1) is given
NQ21/2
H314
(10-2)
Q2
H
speed, rad/sec; rev/min flow rate at turbine exit, work, or head, based on inlet
m3/sec; and
(ft) (lbf)/lbm In size its most and commonly truly be used form as a (with shape the stated speed parameter speed U.S. that customary of expresses may be
units), geometric
dimensionless.
Specific similarity.
is independent
considered effect
Analytical examined
on efficiency
KUI
Q2=_-D2h2V2 H=Vj2 where K D1 D2 h2 V2 dimensional rotor inlet rotor-exit rotor-exit rotor-exit m/sec; ideal ratio, g conversion jet constant, (tip) passage fluid ft/sec speed, m/sec; based ft/sec 1 ; 32.17 (lbm) (ft)/(lbf) (sec 2) on inlet-total to exit-static diameter, height, velocity mean-section 2_ rad/rev; m; ft m; ft axial direction), diameter, m; ft (assumed to be in 60 sec/min (hh'_
v,
pressure
constant,
285
TURBINE,
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Ah_
ideal
work
based
on inlet-total
and
exit-total
pressures,
J/kg;
Btu/lb Ahid ideal work based on inlet-total and exit-static pressures, J/kg;
Btu/lb These substitutions for specific and some manipulation result in the following
expression
speed:
y.
N,=(Constant)\_-7]u The terms of equation (10-6) are \-_j/ related \U], \D,] \D.]2 (10-6) characto velocity-diagram value ratio teristics and overall geometry. Any specific speed by an infinite number of combinations of these number 7 to speed. The properties, were shroud kinetic exit flow those analysis caused The al of reference by the number 7 related stator on and the losses variations. rotor back blades to the 12 that plus zero would splitter) Other exit whirl limit angle. a minimum avoid of the was to mean-diameter The losses layers, rotor, varied equation (10-7) separation. in equa(V_,2:0), of 0.4 for assumptions and with flow blade-tothe exit statorof these determine combinations optimum were combinations examined over can be achieved terms. A large in reference of specific range
analytically a wide
considered
boundary
of rotor according
the
number
of blades
used
(10-1)
establish
included a maximum (nh/D,)2. The examined number height diameter Vc,)_. For fell seen region are large values. 286 set geometric The the
a favorable limit
(W_:2W_), Dt.2/D_,
of 0.7 for
effects by of
of geometry calculating combinations D,.2/D_ of values areas stator-exit extreme For in static dashed any curve at
and the of
characteristics losses a_, velocity against Stator-exit which boundaries and speed, the falls by for angle rotor-exit
were a large
previously stator-exit ratio hdD_, then in figure angle. of input value rotor-tip study,
stator-bladeto rotor-inlet ratios (U/ speed. points angle a small region assumed can be a static for some is
to rotor-inlet-diameter ratio static shaded a prime each the limits. The range efficiency used shown
three was
in the
all of the
in the to be for by
variation
efficiency,
as much envelope
as 45 to 50 points of all
TURBINE_
.9 _
\
.7 8
\ \ \ \
.5
.4
.3
._
0 .2
[
.4
I
.6
[
.8
t
1.0
I
1.2
I
1.4
l
0
I
20
I
40
I
60
I
80
I
lO0
l
120
I
140
I
160
I
180
10-7.--Effect
of
design-point
efficiency.
efficiencies, total represent associated primary mum the ure Most functions 10-8 specific specific height creases
and
solid
curve
it represents of efficiency there the was ratios are study to vary of some in figures flow flow
the many
efficiencies. with concern geometry of the envelope shows speed speed. to with
do not
achievable
of stator-blade is reached
rotor-inlet
diameter specific
is small speed
specific
a maximum
TURBINE
DESIGN 90-XD
AND
APPLICATI.ON
_" 8O
_o 70
60
5O .2
I
.4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 Specific speed, Ns, dimensionless
l
20
1
40
I
60
I
80
I
i00
I
120
t
la3
1
160
I
180
Specific speed, Ns, (ft3J41(Ibrn3/4)/IminJlseclJ2jIIbf3/4_ FIGUaE 10-8.--Effect of specific speed on optimum (Data from ref. 7.) stator-exit angle.
oA XZ L_"
_z
u_ C 0 0
.08
a:
.04
0 .2
I .4
I .6
1 .8
[ 1.0
l '1.2
I
l.a
I
20
I
40
I
60
I
80
I
l O0
I
120
J
140
I
160
I
180
Specific speed, Ns, (ft3/d_tlbm314t/Imin!lseclIZJ_lbf3i4_ FIGURE 10-9.--Effect of specific speed blade height to rotor-inlet and blade diameter. speed on optimum (Data from rcf. ratio 7.) of stator-
288
RADIAL-INFLOW .l
E 7-
TURBINES
.6
O
.4 _
--
.o
f-f
.2 0 .2 .4 Specific
I
.6
I
.8
I
1.0
I
1.2
I
1.4
I,
0
I
20
I
40
I
60
1
80
I
100
I
!20
I
140
I
160
I
180
FIGURE
10-10.--Effect diameter
of
specific
speed diameter.
on
ratio ref.
of 7.)
rotor-exit
tip
to rotor-inlet
14
--
L
0
I
20
FIGURE
10--I
1.--Effect
of specific (Data
speed from
blade-jet
speed
ratio.
289
TURBINE.
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
value
on the
overall
level has on
effect
in figure ratios
it is seen
of stator-
rotor-inlet
specific
of rotor-exit
[]
qb_
(a)
Specific
speed,
0.23;
30
(ft
_tZ)(lbf
3/_). Stator-exit
flow (b) (c) Specific Specific speed, speed, 0.54; 1.16; 70 150 (ft flow
3/_)(lbm
l!Z)(lbf l/2)(lbf
air). 3/4).
Stator-exit Stator-exit
FmURE
10-12.--Sections
of
radial (Data
static
efficiency.
290
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINE_
eter creases
to
diameter increasing reached. speed values ratio variation shown in figure that
is It
at
low
and that
of D,2/DI_-0.7 optimum manner The the design blade-iet similar optimum are
speed be used
to the
efficiency. to 10-11 of turbines values is largely indicated static speed viscous optimum speed. of in This For are flow the is low very
in figures 10-12
turbines. specific
of specific index
stator
.2
1.0
--
.9-p
x3
to
Loss
c <19
Stator Rotor
:>
c_
.4
I
.2 Specific
,
n
_
1 , 1,1,1
.4 .6 .8 1
I
2
1
_0 Specific
J
50
I
80
1
100
J
200
FIGURE
10-13.--Loss
distribution (Data
along from
of
maximum
static
efficiency.
291
TURBINE,
DESIGN
AND
APPI_CATION
large
of is on
the large
high
area
to
area.
Also,
the is loss, a
because
is also specific
specific
because
of the
clearance loss, and windage flow and area. The exit at high values of specific
C-69q816
C-?0-3533 to)
(a)
Design
(b) rotor. in
Rotor
with
exducer
extension.
FIGURE
10-14.--Rotor
configurations
specific-speed
study
of reference
8.
292
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINE_
Experimental effect (ref. of of specific 8) to accept blades and for area throat the the
study.--In speed a series different reduced operation. area rotor from throat area on
to blade
experimentally a turbine was fitted cut used This speed. extension, and for internal 13 back to different was also were design
the modified numbers with for vary area an inthe and the 10-14 and cut velocity
efficiency,
angles.
rotor
modifications from
throat
allowed Figure
combinations of the
the
envelopes
1.00--
9O
.8o
.2
/,_/'" . 7O
WithConfigu ration design rotor With rotor extension -With cutback rotor
I-,-
.6O 9C
.8_
t'oJ o
7{3
1
.2 .3
l
.4
l
.5
1
.6
1
.7
I
.g
I
.9
t
20
t
30
I
40
I
.50
I
1lO
60 70 80 90 lO0 t3/4 )_lbm3/4)/trnin)[sec t/2 )(Ibf 3/4) Specific speed, Ns, _f variation of efficiency from ref. 8.) with
FIGURE
10-15.--Experimental
specific
speed.
(Data
293
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
design-speed efficiency as well as the overall and-rotor ratio at measured combination design for speed. specific
with each rotor configuration, Specific speed for each statorby to varying 0.80 (48 area overall over to pressure 0.90 103 were (ft 3/4) efficiencies
varied
(lbm314)/(min)(seO when the ratio design in the (min) The design speeds) considerably turbine stators. of nearly the parallel for leakage. might In this three, ratio. specific (seC/2)
Maximum efficiencies area to rotor throat efficiencies 0.4 of about to 0.5 (51
were obtained was near the were measured (ft 3/4) (lbm31_)/
0.90 to 65
of about
that of
for though
internal Further,
be used with
to advantage total
in applications remaining
investigation, of the
a factor potential
In addition,
endwalls
minimize
of Blade-to-Shroud the loss blade and of work and the due blade was to
Clearance shroud flow must bypassing be adequate but it the must blades, to be
speed
thermal
transients,
generation of turbulence, and due to blade-to-shroud clearance previously figure 10-13, as determined discussed the specific-speed
The efficiency loss losses included in the the losses shown clearance rotor-exit in
clearance loss was based on an average from constant values of rotor-inlet and ratios. clearance turbine which of reference Increasing at 9. The shows the exit the rotor were effects clearance
inlet
and studies
at
rotor presented
efficiency results
experimentally clearance significantly increase in the Since design clearance. of passage each 294 percent fraction it is flow
of these
clearance.
greater loss in inlet clearance. of the the turning With height), increase flow can equal that
turbine efficiency than It is the exit clearance is fully that turned produces even with to the the
does a comparable that determines exit rotor blade inlet large angle. whirl, inlet
turbine
stator
clearances a 1-percent
of percent for
there
about
in efficiency
in clearance.
TURBINE6
"_E
\ .E "-4
1'-
_"'-b_-.
\ /
"<
-8
i 0
L.
_ I
4 8 12 16 20 24 Inlet clearance, percent of passageheight of inlet and exit clearances from ref. 9.) on total
] 28
FIGURE
10-16.--Effects
efficiency.
(Data
with would
the the
same relative
flow
as
a radialof rotorlarger of
clearance
(percent
height) diameter
diameter) area).
passage of the
height reasons,
BLADE The velocity for bine part in size order curves ratios and to and (figs. turbine shape, design determine computer 10-8 to speed problem. as well problem the as the involves best
DESIGN relating useful They design the discussed and can turbine be used velocity examination rotor in blade chapter geometry design to determine diagram. The profiles. 5 (vol. of internal and studies turnext flow The 2) are
10-11) are
to specific
in preliminary
a particular of any
stator
methods used
programs
for this purpose. Internal Flow Analysis design relatively chord and is usually because is relatively little the specified small straightlong because number 295
blade the
camber,
to machine
TURBINE,
I_E_IGN
AND
APPLICATION
for
a given
are desirable
as structural
supports
aerodynamic
associated
short-chord
Pressure
.9--
Suction
Pressure su rface
I
{b_
Blades Surface
and
passage.
blades
296
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINE6
blades)
is small
because conditions.
of the high
reaction
and
the resultant
favorable
boundary-layer
A two-dimensional of the described solutions. rate, a and surface rate solidity, fluid complete parallel Input in reference properties specification of local blade
flow
analysis
may
be used The
for
the
stator and
angles, magnitude
velocities
curvature
satisfactory velocity suction surfaces. Figure radial-inflow prewhirl. shown both used turning. open angle if the more in The figure The the 10-17(a) turbine
shows in
the which
stator the
passage the
a no
calculated 10-17(b). leading whether suction edge, turning before more cross than
suction-and Except edge, the the the the blade velocities pressure input than by the trailing the
pressure-surface accelerates
calculated and
free-stream will
exit
Conversely, provide
is specified of rotor blading computer various which along that in figure of blades,
Rotor.--The than of the that of (decelerations) design. for number This turbines, suitable contour, curvature. inflow
more pressure
difficult gradients
encountered
and
program
the
velocity-gradient
of directional derivatives (called quasi-orthogonals) onal plane. orthogonals of velocities then calculated based is shown and
fixed arbitrarily located intersect all streamlines section 10-18. is obtained. in the These with several of A complete program flow blade-surface primarily severe on the decelerations.
these velocities
quasisolution are an
Blade-surface
absolute
used
of obtaining
accelerations
297
TURBINE,
DE:SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Quasi orthogonal
oa
cfi
[:Z
,,,,_
ela CE
1
.2
1
l.O
FIGURE
10-18.--Meridional
turbine.
velocity
distributions,
as calculated
from
the
solution of reference 11, at a radial-inflow turbine rotor 10-20 are shown the velocity
the hub, mean, and are shown in figure distributions for the
blading, but as calculated by 10. The surface velocities solution agree fairly well with over most of the blade. It can difference The linear does method between velocity not solutions variation reflect the
method of reference the meridional-plane solution appreciable edges. solution occurs in the blade meridional-
those of the stream-function be seen, however, that an at in the the leading that and used meridional-plane actually
occurs blade
trailing
unloading
TURBINES
....
_ I F I
I
(al
....
1 t 1 I
Free-stream velocity
"_--
-.2
-.4
I
fb)
].0
.6
.2_ 0
-.2
....
____
-.4 0 .2 .4 .6 .8 l.O Meridional distance, dimensionless (c) (a) Shroud section. (50-percent streamline) (c) Hub section, surface-velocity solution. 1.2
t 1.4
(b)
Mean
section. merEdional-plane
FIGURE 10-19.--Rotor-blade
distributions.from
plane program (ref. 11) is easier and quicker to use than the streamfunction program (ref. 10) and, thus, provides a better means for rapid screening of the many design variables. A lesser difference occurs in the intermediate portion of the blade passage. In the meridional299
TURBINE
I_EISIGN
AND
APPDCATION
1.0 I .8 .6 4 .2 0 1.0 d
3
.... 1_1
1
_3b
__I__
.8 .6 .4
%
_2 C)
.2 0 q)J 1.0 .8 .6 .4 .2 0
1
._q
L
].0
I _1
1.2 1,4
dif]Te!_%lc,qle% r
Shroud
FZGURE
10-20.--Rotor-blade
surface-velocity solution.
plane
analysis,
the
flow
is assumed
to be
circumferentially
uniform,
and the mean stream mean blade surface. blade blades of blade Figures in the along than Also, surface the the elsewhere shroud considered variations that loading, 10-19 flow path. is deviates then, and
surface between the The stream-function and the defines mean somewhat illustrate the blade is more lower of high critical from blade
blades follows the prescribed solution considers blade-tostream surface The between surface. distribution
in the flow
a mean
different. the loading, heavily flow. region hub-to-shroud as well loaded and the and Therefore, as the along shorter the variations variations the shroud is flow path. shroud most
solidity
generally 300
is examined
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINE6
favorable the rotor than The This The rear high rapid high the part the
blade-surface inlet, where at in near hub the near the loading loading change loading use of the from blade inlet spacing Splitter
velocity flow the inlet the surface the long to exit decreased Blades loading If this surface, blades in figure splitter the the in rotor
distributions. radial, where primarily (rVu be reduced discussed a very path hub about and section. low the In in exit, the to _
momentum
of splitters, from
principally the
in blade turbine,
spacing
at the
75 percent.
indicated where large the by partial Such called loading area. blades
previously, flow negative blades partial splitter results However, to offset therefore, of splitter in was the built
at is
the
rotor surface
is radially
excessive, be reduced part used, per area of the unit of will, are com-
decelerations
decreased reduced
A judgment blades
be made,
be beneficial. performance 12. A turbine The splitter examined with were half When on and splitter and the by the a then of reference tested. designed
experimentally blades
removed, thereby doubling the blade loading of the rotor. Channel velocities were calculated the from large splitters side the hub increase were of in the almost location. performance ratio and the when showed the surface conditions favorable no-splitter splitters area. data very (ref. little cases. were This near rotor margin the reaction of 12) The result indicate rotor in tolerance taken loss and over in was the removed, blade to the calculated indicated meridional upstream of negative pressure
in the upstream for both cases. velocities eddy streamline, been the
extending
loading
difference removed
increase
loading
of blade-shroud
clearance
The
turbine
appreciable
conditions. 301
TURBINE,
I_E_IGN
AND
APPLICATION
OFF-DESIGN The performance characteristics different from those of axial-flow all rotor speeds, ratio turbine, 10-21. the rotor even inward. increases variation in this an section, axial-flow the however, With must with with Therefore, speed for turbine. flow rate to this be rotation, balanced there because pressure inflow in within radially the ratio The later for figure (inlet-total-
PERFORMANCE of radial-inflow turbines turbines. In an axial-flow becomes is only the true by is some of the zero only when is one. speed, force pressure This speed is very is slightly decrease are slightly turbine at the In on turbine a radialthe fluid across pressure force. to that speed rapid in in illustrated
gradient zero-flow centrifugal ratio, similar more are be useful operating used may not from the to
turbine
no flow
10-21).
of efficiency The
a radial-inflow efficiency
as blade-jet
ratio varies from the peak-efficiency the case of the radial-inflow turbine. Prediction many studies before design or in to off-design design situations. to any study examine hardware the calculation studies. In use techniques Estimated start where of methods the for off-design performance transients They system variable
is built.
modifications
components geometry.
matched
approach
is somewhat off-design
calculations,
.8
Zero speeO
.6
e_
N E Z
.2
0 1,O
[
1,2 Inlet-total-
I
1.4
1
1,6
[
1.8 ralio characteristics.
I
2.0
FIGURE
10-21.--Radial-inflow
302
RADIAL-INFLOW
TURBINE6
fixed, rotor
the depend
inlet coefficients
and
the
are blade
and pressure
calculated and experimental or design values at point. Additional losses considered for subsonic incidence developed erence reference from calculated comparing mation perimental static in figure in 13, Joss and at 14. a modified this figure variation 10-23. The the the exit kinetic-energy off-design Lewis 10--22 of over shows flow against and this a range Research computer 10-23 computer of speed performance. an accurate rate with blade-jet efficiencies loss. performance Center A radial-inflow and turbine NASA the Figures version with
the design operating flows are the rotor calculation is described is presented obtained presenting ratio flow of the Total are within and estiexand shown 1 perby pressure mass ratio. ratio results method in refin
associated
efficiencies
are generally
Experimental
Ii"
70 90 100 110 -."30 50 "- 110 Design
120
-
Calculated _"--
110
100
90
8O 1.4
I
1.5 1,6
I
1.7
I
1,8
I
1.9
I
2,0
I
2.1
Ratio of inlet total pressure to exit static pressure FIGURE 10-22.--Comparison of calculated and design operation. experimental flow rates for off-
303
TURBINE
DE'SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
and
at most are
2 percent system
of
the to
values. valuable to
The tool
accurate components.
examination of the
performance
fabrication
1.00
--
90 --
.__I__
110
80 --
90 _ _-. vu,,
Percent of design speed 5O
c o_
.70 --
1)
"5
60 --
Experimental
70 90 100 ,_ llO
50 --
Calculated
Design ! 30
JJ
90 --
,- 110
80 --
100 _'
.70 -o_
,60 -
50 --
,40--
_ 30 30 ,, .2
I
.4
I
.5
] ..... I
.6 .7
Desiqn
I
.8
J
.9
.3
Blade-jet speed ratio, U]"V i FIGURE 10-23.--Comparison of calculated and design operation. experimental efficiencies for off-
304
RAD_AL-I"NF_A)W
TURBI_S
REFERENCES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
SAWYER,
Turbine
Engineering
Handbook.
Gas
Turbine
SHEPHERD, D. G.: Principles RODOERS, C. : Efficiency and Paper 660754, SAE, 1966.
LAGNEAU,
of Turbomachinery. Macmillan Co., 1956. Performance Characteristics of Radial Turbines. to the Study of Advanced Small Radial Mar. for Tur1970. Com-
J. P.:
Contribution
Dynamics, Turbines
7.
8.
pressible Fluids. J. Eng. Power, vol. 85, no. 1, Jan. 1963, pp. 72-83. HIETT, G. F. ; AND JOHNSON, I. H.: Experiments Concerning the Aerodynamic Performance of Inward Flow Radial Turbines. Paper 13 presented at the Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics Convention, Inst. Mech. Eng., London, Apr. 1964. ROHLIK, HAROLD E.: Analytical Determination of Radial Inflow Turbine Design
KOFSKEY,
Geometry
MILTON
for
G.;
Maximum
AND NUSBAUM,
Efficiency.
WILLIAM
NASA
J.:
Performance
of
HOLESKI,
Radial-Inflow
DONALD
10.
SAMUEL M., JR.; AND of Varying the Blade-Shroud Turbine. NASA TN D-5513, KATSANIS, THEODORE: Fortran
in
Calculating
on a Blade-to-Blade 1969.
1 1. KATSANIS, THEODORE:
Stream
Use of
of a Turbomachine.
in
the
Arbitrary Meridional
WASSERBAUER,
AND
13.
FUTRAL, SAMUEL M., JR.; AND WASSERBAUER, Performance Prediction with Experimental Inflow Turbine. NASA TN D-2621, 1965.
TODD, CARROLL
Verification M.,
JR.:
A.: for
14.
to Estimate NASA TN
SAMUEL
Performance
of
A Fortran Radial-Inflow
305
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
SYMBOLS
Cp
heat
at constant
J/(kg)
(R)
D g H
work,
based
on inlet
pressures,
J/kg;
passage height, m; ft ideal work based on J/kg; Btu/lb ideal work based J K N J/kg; Btu/lb conversion constant, conversion rotative specific (lbP '4) total P number flow m; speed, jet ft of blades rate, constant, speed, speed, rad/sec; on
and and
exit-static exit-total
pressures, pressures,
(ft) (lb)/Btu 60 sec/min (ft a/4) (lbma/4)/(min) plus partial) (sec 1/_)
rad/rev; rev/min
N,
dimensionless; (full
absolute volume radius, absolute blade absolute ideal ratio, relative fluid
pressure,
N/m 2 ; lb/ft _ mS/see; K; ft/sec m/see; based ft/sec m/see; ft/sec measured measured from from meridional meridional plane, plane, ft/sec on inlet-totalto exit-static-pressure ftS/sec R
Q
r
T U V
Yj
W
Ot
absolute
flow flow
angle angle
Subscripts:
b'r
flow
condition
(sonic
velocity)
h t
U
absolute relative
total total
state state
CHAPTER 11
Turbine Cooling,
ByRaymond .Colladay S
The inlet necessity requirements. foil, bustor frequently integrity bled from for both airfoils discrete losses, efficiency. a minimum while the in the discharge of the cooling across trend towards higher to increase turbine this gases excess of turbine and around the chapter, "blade" enter 1644 compressor thrust blades, the refers the K and vanes, term to first the vane in through or vane. in the this the into overall cooling pressure cycle and rotor row In "vane" end refers airfoil. at peak order internal the This main cycle schemes to ratios walls and has turbineled to the life aircomthe air of the at in
efficiency
to meet hot
(2500 F).
components is routed then the turbine very required. blade and is dumped
hostile
compressor
locations
inevitably
thermodynamic utilize
effective
GENERAL ]n balance analysis prediction requires the flow, profile airfoil, the an any on can turbine the be which of the the heat location factor) cooling blade broken flux of of the (or meets up of the gas velocity design, vane,
DESCRIPTION one or end must wall) into from the metal make to a complete arrive at limit. parts: gas (1) stream. to energy a cooling The The This over turbulent heat 307
configuration
understanding
transition
potential-flow
(pattern
combustor
TURBINE,
I_E,SIGN
AND
APPI._CATION
or of metal
to paths
a detailed
coolant--must
Let us for a moment oversimplify dimensional model of a turbine-blade surface (see fig. 11-1). The heat flux product of a hot-gas-side difference between the pressed is the would let the as an effective adiabatic reach adiabatic if there heat-transfer gas and the gas were wall
to the
coefficient and the temperature wall. The gas temperature is exwhich (the For be the o) for convection temperature of this gas total the cooling surface
or recovery
purposes
temperature q=he(Tg'--Tw,
Therefore, where q hz heat flux, W/m_; Btu/(hr)(ft _) of hot gas, W/(m 2) (K); Btu/(hr)(ft _)
heat-transfer (R)
coefficient
Tg!
of hot gas, K; R
T_.o
TW,
Tw, i
FIOURE 11-1.--Simplified
one-dimensional
model.
308
TURBINE
CIOOLING
The
heat
removed
from
the
wall,
expressed
in
the
same
manner, (11-2)
is
q=h_(T_._--TJ) where
he
heat-transfer (OR)
w, i
coefficient
of coolant,
W/(m
_) (K);
Btu/(hr)(ft
2)
temperature
T' C The
q=where kw y 1 The As plate. number thermal coordinate wall second conductivity normal
,)
of wall, to wall
W/(m)(K); m; ft
Btu/(hr)(ft)(R)
surface,
thickness, equality he be a
m; ft holds done only in for constant by thermal design, the let for fiat-plate conductivity. the flow heat-transfer over a fiat Nusselt local
is frequently For Nu
a first-order layer,
coefficient
a correlation
turbulent is
Nu,= where distance Re, Pr The Reynolds Prandtl Reynolds along number number number
__gx 0.0296Re_" __
8Prl/3
(11-4)
surface based
from
leading
edge z
of flat
plate,
m;
ft
on distance
is defined
as (11-5)
Re_ = pugx
la
where
P _tg _t
kg/ma;
lb/ft
and
where 309
TURBINE,
])E_IGN
AND
APPLICATION
K
C_,
constant, at
1; 3600
constant (11-5)
pressure, can be
For (11-4)
equation
'/3 FPz'
-/
_'g,
# I T--1
Mx
2\(v+l)/2('_-Dm
T s
" x
where
yW ,
j
(11-7)
p',
T
total pressure of hot ratio of specific heat constant volume conversion constant J/(kg) gas constant, Mach number
to specific (sec 2)
heat
at
g R M On the general,
(lbm)
coolant
side,
a number
of cooling
schemes
can
be used,
but
in
h_=CRe/,"Pr"=C( where C Re f
We
w'_"
"]"Pr"
(11-8)
on based rate,
geometry length___ m; ft
J
For
coolant-passage turbulent Now, depicted the hot consider in figure gas convection internal the 11-2,
cooling, laminar
Since blade
cooling
is desired,
be avoided.
temperature
(going (11-1),
increases
temperature. the At
temperature outer
through T,_.o).
increases difference
(higher (Tw._-Tc')
convection
cooling
is sharply wall
reduced. temperature
The
heat
flux
removed,
otherwise
the outer
will increase.
310
WPURBINE
i
COOLING
Tg
hg(T_ - Tw,o)
_ kw / _- (Tw,o - Tw, i I
1
/ C
FIGURE 11-2.--Gas
temperature
and
effect
on temperature
drop
through
by
the
flow
limiting tempera-
as seen
figure coolant
3, where
inside this
temperature
he must
course, the
impossible Because quantity the from required The 1644 taining designs shows cooling convection air-cooling examples (figs. gas l l-4(f) Film the or K
to achieve. of limited of cooling internal air available convection the cooling hot-spot To operating film film only. cooled components by and or savings highly and restriction pressure, in cooling and while Figure compared methods and on its supply cooling nonlinear
for convection (2500 F) pressure. reasonable must potential combined cooling turbine of blades to (i)). cooling incorporate
application
atmospheres
exceed
these blade-metal
gas
conditions temperatures, cooling. the cooling the to (e)), of these the use as basic
of transpiration
convection
surface gas
stream
by directing
boundary effective
layer
a protective,
TURBINE,
I_E_IGN
AND
APPLICATION
I
1400 1600 1800 Turbine inlet temperature,
[
2O00 T_, in, K
I
22O0
I
2OOO
I
25OO Turbine inlet temperature,
I
I
3O0O Tg, in, oF
t
35OO
FIou]_.
l l-3.--Effect
of
turbine-inlet flow
pressure requirements.
and
temperature
on
coolant
the
local
film
temperature,
and
the
heat
(11-9) It is
frequently is the same The dynamic higher transfer tion objectives 312
assumed that the heat-transfer as in the non-film-coo|ed case. of film which and must minimizes blade air into tend the boundary some The losses to reduce
causes
turbine
advantages
to achieve temperatures
which
ensures yet
long-life
loss in turbine
q_UR,BINE
COOLING
Transpiration cooling currently heat-flux should and To because offset piration A typical coverage foreign scheme limit be small, of normal this cooling film
wall
is the operating
most
efficient
airwhich
significant
extreme pores
transpiration of blockage air air into aerodynamic it must than is shown of discrete
boundary cooling
latter
cooling blade
an array
as illustrated
Zn
Xn (bt
__
c:_
c>xE//Ej
(d)
JJ
(e)
(a) (c)
Convection cooling. (b) Impingement cooling. Film cooling. (d) Full-coverage film cooling. (e) Transpiration cooling. FmuaE 11-4.--Methods for turbine blade cooling.
313
TURBINE
I_E,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Radial outward airflow into chamber1, Film cooled--_ \ Convection \_ i_f// 1/// /.//// / f-Convection .
L Impingement cooled
(fl
inlet airflow
/_\lmpingement
cooled
Convection cooled
(g)
(hl
_Transpiration i,
cooled /
/-
(il
(f)
impingement-, and
and
film-cooled
blade blade
configuration.
configuration.
Full-coverage
configuration. configuration.
HEAT
TRANSFER
FROM
HOT
GAS
TO
BLADE
Equations of heat the to the surface, blade where is confined large velocity to
boundary-layer
'tURBINE
C(K)LING
and
temperature
are
present. following
to describe equations,
the
in chapter of mass
2), must
o 0%(pu)
where time-average m/sec; ft/sec component quantity value
O (pv+
(11-10)
of
velocity
component
in
direction,
()' ()
Conservation
fluctuating time-averaged
r-t-gpB_
where
T
local
shear
stress, of body
N/m2; force
B.
component
Conservation
where H J total enthalpy, J/kg; term, Btu/lb 1; 778 W/m3; (ft)(lb)/Btu Btu/(see) H are with the requires through laminar requires to (ft z) values being (i.e., _,
conversion heat-generation dependent v, and The the H, shear solution boundary of heat describing little transport diffusivity persisted
constant,
Q
The u, for
thermal diffusivity
is straightforward, the the and use One counterpart. simplicity is Prandtl's momentum. sum of the
resemblance
processes,
mixing-length and
expressed
turbulent
315
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
p/
Ou
_--_..,\
(11-13)
q=Ko[ where yr, aL ,4 The tional laminar ity), laminar static turbulent c()mponent m2/sec; enthalpy, shear ft2/sec component J/kg; stress
diffusivity m2/see
(kinematic ft2/sec
viscos-
diffusivity,
are
assumed
proporthat is,
to tile respective
gradients
in tile
variable;
'tt'v' = -- vr _-ff and O,4 v-'_g_= -- O_r _-_ ' where and the subscript heat diffusivity. (11-13) and (11-14) p and q=-Ko(aL+ar) The flow heat preceding and both reduces where boundary-layer compressible, ,r and and ar there 0_'. _-_-- Koa O/ can 0u then p be written 0u as T denotes the turbulent (:omponent
(11-15)
(11-16) of momentum
Equations
(t1-17)
(ll-lS)
equations turbulent approach (6-42). properties equations are under arc is no intern,d
as_u me t e lnperature-variable flows zero). heat assumed (inclusive variation generation, at the 'tssumed, of laminar If the in specitic the energy onset, and of the expericondiin the a later momen-
properties
cp is neglected
equation analysis, However, mental tions. variable section. Integral tum equations 316
to equation
must freq_)ently
be solved
simultaneously. isothermal
corrected
for temperature-
properties. equations.--As it an is
corrections we saw
in chapter to in
equation, from
often
convenient approach
boundary-layer parameters
integral
of integral
TURBINE
O0_LING
such
and their
rather
than
in terms equaparamz_ is
as the
and
momentum
momentum thickness
so the enthalpy
is a significant equation.
boundary-layer enthalpy
/_= fo* pu( H-- H,)dY p,u,(H,,,.o--H,) Note the that subscript the subscript e in chapter g refers 6. For to the free-stream value
low-velocity,
constant-property
A=fo_*u(T'--T',)dy u,(T_,.o--T,') The ment The equation across and the enthalpy caused integral (11-3) the boundary thermal resulting boundary integral thickness by the energy or is a measure layer. can by (for be derived the containing see for ref. either by of the eonveeted energy
(11-20) decre-
compressible
temperature-variable
q
transfer
Kp,u,(H,.
-F PgU,c
dh = ____t_A [ (l_Mg) Note zero flux with that at the if we make gradient, wall, and
_ __d__ q_ (H,_.--Ht)dx 1 du, 1 restrictive low-speed constant assumptions flow temperature reduces
(11-21)
pressure
_, then equation
(11-21)
(11-22)
coefficient
is defined
q h'.'=(T..,--T,')
then,
(11-23)
(11-24)
317
TURBII_E
I_E@IGN
AND
APPLICATION
The group of variables on the left side is dimensionless the local Stanton number Sty, which is also equal to S Nu, t_--R_p r and (6-75) that with in
and
is called
Notice tions,
from the
equations
(6-72)
integral
momentum
equation CI'_--dO 2 dx
resulted
(11-26) of kinetic boundary temperature Tt.,, would viscous energy equation: (11-27) K or by on R. For laminar for wall (resuggest number vice versa. a the wall energy layer. near This the reach heating is related into is wall if it in to
there shear
in the effective
or adiabatic
is the
dissipation
of kinetic
Tg,=T,o.=t,+r ' ' where flow, ing turbulent that temperature. sponsible allowing that should for heat lead tz is the the recovery boundary the Prandtl The for energy a given to hot-gas factor layer, Prandtl from static can temperature, be
ug2 2gJcp in to equal an is effect the ratio layer). thermal energy, wall
approximated
number dissipation)
to the kinetic
(mechanism would
to escape a high
boundary
free-stream
Prandtl and
adiabatic
temperature,
tg / _'_
u2 r 2g-_j Cp---I
Ii Tg,e _
Thermal
//
Iq " 0
FZOUR_
l l-5.--Temperature
distribution
in
high-velocity
boundary
layer.
318
TURBINE
O00LING
The (either
heat
flux to the
blade gas
is proportional temperature)
to the at the
temperature wall:
gradient
effective
or static
q=--]' As we terms ture The suitable wall never has on refined effective have of the difference. gas problem expression a cooling temperature. constant. the design The thermal stages. already The
OT, _ h -_ v=0---- g.:`(T,.e--T,_.o) to express and the case wall flux will the can be varying to coefficient which however, the actual layer yield surface surface accounted must the the heat
it is convenient coefficient temperature or the the heat-transfer h,., in this adiabatic heat
is to design
is
to
Boundary-Layer
Equations to the solution the suction or correlation a cylinder the fiatapresults primarily pressure hydrothe Blasius profile. is (11-29)
is
approximation.--The that the heat-transfer of the for blade the pertains, results often fact, a heat-transfer blade in are coefficient a the
simplest approach coefficient on by distribution region. sense, enough only for correlation
zero-pressureyields to
a first-order
surprisingly because the gradient. For dynamic energy similarity With the laminar
those of more sophisticated number St is relatively over layers be a fiat both solved in assumed h_.,=0.332 plate with the at by 6 for
edge,
discussed
velocity
temperature
to be constant, _ Re:,'12pr'z3
X
The
turbulent
counterpart
is given hz.,=0.0296_Re
by " Spr'/a Reynolds he. ,, in the assumed: 319 number. leading-edge region, (11-30)
velocity
u_. x is used
in the
heat-transfer correlation
coefficient is frequently
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLI_CATION
h,,'_=a where
a
--80__80
(11-31)
factor of leading-edge approaching from circle, m; ft edge, m/sec; ft/sec point, for deg of stagnation coefficient leading
leading-edge
The
bracketed D
is the 11-6)
heat-transfer in
diameter
a cross-flowing,
laminar
Ug,_ = =
x/
FIGURE
11-6.--Blade
leading-edge
geometry.
The to from
used
to
adjust flow of
the the
coefficient factor a,
approaching flux 'is flows. vortex thereby boundary but as turbulence when the in gradiin the on freehum-
a vane uniquely
favorable-pressure-gradient stagnation region in the direction velocities this phenomenon heat transfer will allow zero will 000, within
The highly accelerated flow at the filaments oriented with their axes increasing layer. yet, Kestin no general the turbulent (ref. 3) has correlation fluctuating studied
of stagnation turbulent
scale and intensity Transition from Reynolds the ent, stream 320 boundary it can number layer generally number turbulence
transition to 500
Reynolds
depending a Reynolds
However,
TURBINE
O00LIN_
ber
based
on It
the
distance,
x, from transition
the to use
leading the
(boundary-layer it is not for a local 0, is thickness, determining point the given that to is, it is a given
origin) parameter. as the transition, then state. comes the use number for pipe turbulence, An tion the layer immaterial
is not
Reynolds layer
number boundary
at
layer; in getting
boundary
developed
accelerated flow, fact is consistent of Reoccur=360 to Rex=300 over a turbine value for by be derived (6-76)) local the from velocity
layer never beof 0 but not with critical and high Reynolds ReD= 2000 free-stream variation equaas to laminar velocity boundary
is a "universal" 000 for a flat blade with of Ree.cr_t=200 momentum the integral suitable
a conservative expression can 6 (eq. 2). Upon blade chapter form ref. thickness
thickness
on a turbine functional
making
of the
profile equation
through (6-76),
integrating
momentum is given by
as a function
of a variable
free-stream
OL__O.67vO. Ug 3
5 /
tJo
Fx
U,Sdx)
\o. 5
where meters
x is the or feet.
surface The
distance momentum
measured thickness
from with
8,t_s at
point
of a cylinder
of diameter
D in a crossflow 0.1D
ug_ is
.'..- ?..o,5
Turbulent such
as
or
transitional
flow, The
then,
that
(ouz0/u)_200. momentum
value thickness
of x where is obtained
occurs
is denoted manner
T,cr_ t.
The by the
turbulent equation
in a similar
0T--
4.
I1
_/,g
,,,..
_g
This
assumes
to obtain
for more
computation.
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLLCATION
warranted
in the
stages
of design. more
The
integral also
realistically, in order
assumptions
integral no mass
equation across
(eq. the
(11-21)) wall
with
constant
boundary.
_p,u,cp
ax
_ _
u,
dx
_- (T_.o--T,')
dx (T=.o--T,') (11-35)
Ordinarily, solved (1i-20). equation equation Stanton proposed local istic length, in
would thickness an of
have
to whereby
be
evaluate
5 in
equation
making the
of the
data
number Reynolds
function
number function
on enthalpy
is independent
Stx----f(Re_) If ] is independent should For and give us the turbulent yields St_=0.0296 Recalling from equation (11-24) Re-_ 2 Pr - 2/3 that Stx=-_ the local Stanton by number can equations be expressed (11-37) in terms and (11 38) of the for a flat, plate dA of pressure functional flow over gradient, form. a flat plate, combining equations then the flat-plate
solution (11-4)
(11-25)
(11-37)
(11-38) enthalpy
thickness
combining
St_ = (0.0296 Hence, (11-39) free-steam flows.) integrating the for function turbulent velocity Substituting yields StyrT hg'_
l"kpe'_=C p
Pr-2/3) 1"25(0.8 Rea) - 0.2_ equation and_ (The by (11-39) (11-36) assumption, same argument into equation is given for holds
from flow
variation. equation
--0.0296
Pr-2/3(
T '
_o.z_/-o._
(11-40)
322
TURBINE
COOLING
J,=,... .
(11-41) the critical the 2.
The
integration
is
for being
hg._, details,
with
enthalpy-thickness laminar-boundary-layer IGnite-difference the are was heat several flux good and (eq. to a equations
ewduated
from
accurate solve
turbine
developed
equations
(11-12)),
of turbulent
energy
also
Conservation
z/+lo,.,+,.'t
0z
-_.v=p_
\0v/
(o,y+ o
Ov
P(_+_)
az" -9
0.v
(11-42)
wheref/r The
is a turbulent kinetic
dissipation energy
.j//_
term, as
in
W/m s or
Btu/(ft
a) (sec).
turbulent
is defined
1
2gd where in the w' is the fluctuating perpendicular equation, layer. for. evaluated
(u'2+v'2+w'2) of velocity, the the the x-y plane. mixing effects in m/sec By length ix
component to Also,
direction
including
turbulent-kinetic-energy locally in the boundqry lence can be accounted All with lion wall properties no restrictive of surface (transpir'ttion are
of fi'ee-stream
through
assumptions
the
layer variathe
or approximating temperature cooling) manner. example mmwrical turbine l l-7(a). ll-7(b)), results
made
handled
in a slraightforwar(I I;igtll'e the protile bound'n'v integration temperature, is given l,Jyer started 11 7 presents of in must the
from wine.
plots case of
tlcxihilitv
through profiles
be supplied
as a boundary
to get, the
TURBINE
IYE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
2500-700 6O0
150(]
.
_
0
I
.Ol
I
.02
[
.06
I
.07
I
O
I
.04
I
.20
I
.24
I
.1
I
.9
}
1.O
Surface
velocity
numerical m/see or
reference enthalpy,
1.0447)<
106
l l-7.--Boundary-layer
324
TURBINE
O00LIN(_
calculated through the boundary layer at discrete x locations. The boundary-layer thickness, momentum thickness, momentum-thickness Reynolds number, and heat-transfer coefficient are shown in figures 11-7(c) to 11-7(f), respectively. Notice that just upstream of the
16 --
.OO4
(c) ] 0
3.2_E
_, 2.4--
o8 I
E
60
(.3
E = E 1.6
i
b20 I
20 4O 60 Percentsurface distance boundary-layer momentum thickness. thickness. 80 100
>"
r-
.8
[)--
(c) (d)
Pressure-side
Pressure-side
325
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLI.CATION
on
the
vane, over is
the
11-7(c))
thickness caused
increase.
2400--
le)
I
1600--
%
tm
v _
8.6_ 7.0
ii '
1000 8OO "T" -7600 4OO (e)
._
5.4
3.8
2.2
0 20 40 60 Perceni surface distance 80 momentum-thickness Pressure-side FIGURE heat-transfer 11-7.--Concluded. Reynolds coefficient. number.
I
1_
Pressure-side (f)
326
_URBINE
O0_LIN_
48--
4[--
24--
8 I
.6
E E >:.
16-E >_
I .2b-
fl
(l--x=
g
c
(al
0l
g,
o m
48 -- E 8
r_
E o
e_ c21
32--
.8i--
24--
.6i--
16--
8--
0--
I
1.0
.2 .4 .6 .8 Dimensionlessboundary-layer variable
(a)
at
slot.
Free-stream enthalpy,
reference
velocity,
609.6 J/(kg)(K)
m/sec or
or
2000
reference
4.8189X108
1151.75
(b)
downstream free-stream
of
slot.
Free-stream enthalpy,
reference 4.8189X
610.8 or
ft/sec; (R).
reference
FIGURE
11-8.--Boundary-layer
profiles
along
adiabatic
wall
with
film
cooling.
327
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPL]:CATION
and
mainstream aft little from of the boundary of the figure illustrating About shapes Fluid
flow leading
from the at is
a laminar
boundary 11-7(f). an
layer
example down-
of
3 slot shown
widths
in figure
11-8 (b).
Temperature-Dependent The and these perature compared temperature temperature property or the are common relations all vary involving in earlier with properties (and, obtained occur properties solutions data account the for method obtained property (for the
dimensionless contain The a change in the the be with of constant gases) in the small variation. and
c_, which
temperature.
velocity
coefficient) layer,
if properties
evaluated?
corrected
correction
property
reference-tempera-
all transport
properties
are evaluated
at
the
reference
temperature
Tw.o+0.28 method
tg+0.22
Tg,_
(11-44)
assumes (T_e'_"{ t_ "_" _] \T-_.J properties laminar and m:=0.6, evaluated flow, a n=0.08 much
temperature.
turbulent in laminar
CONDUCTION Once coolant up 328 into the side local are heat-transfer known, problem of finite
WITHIN
THE
BLADE on the
the are
heat-conduction a number
is broken in figure
elements,
TURBINE
COOLING
FIGURE
1 l-9.--Typical
node
breakdown
for
a turbine-blade
conduction
analysis.
oj+4
_ _ I \ I \
f
iI _
I
I
\
\\
I II
ii
J+
i II
il il ......
_11
11-9,
and
is written number by
is of
finite-difference
number
high-speed,
in
boundary
element
figure
Accounting 329
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
for and
between (elements
the j-l-1
given
element
(the including
to j+5), equation
boundary,
following T
dc Ac 1 (Tj--Tc'
(Tj--
j+l)
(Tj--Tj+2)"
+ where
A_
" +_s
5 (Tj--T_+5)"--
pc_,Vj A(time)
(T']+I--TT')
(11-46)
area
between
jth
element and
and
element
or boundary
de-
by subscript between
44
subscript
The
superscript
n or n+ is used. element
l, depending
on whether
volume If the
must
The on how to an
transient
is allowed
energy
balance
yields
familiar
heat-conduction
(11-47)
COOLANT-SIDE There transfer impossible the local problem coolant can by to be many convection discuss temperature, internal to the each flow coolant, the T_, in
CONVECTION geometries and used to promote it would Essentially, he, and equation (11-2) The coolant flow path the heat be
for that
reason, scheme
is to determine
coefficient, shown
as it sounds.
can be very complex, must be known before An internal equations 330 flow network that describe
conservation distribution
_URBINE
COOLIN_
to determine there the is surface, the discussed between mined, considered Various transfer. lators" They most 11-4(b)), wall correlation
the
flow
various of to the
parts three
of the conduction
blade.
interaction (convection and three for must methods Fins to keep can the by
surface, to coolant),
After blade
air available
a given
empirical
convection
convection act
heat
added flow
cooling and
highly the
mixed
boundary area.
also
help
increasing
convection is
surface impingement
of the blade,
as seen reference
(g). One
representative
6 for impingement
NUD,
irap-_-_lq_2ReDraprl/S
(k_)
(11-48)
impingement-cooling as characteristic
Zn
number wall, m; ft
based
on hole
diameter
between
D The both
Reynolds
number
and array
the
_1 and
are the 6
impingement-hole
Reynolds gives
A least-squares-curve
Xn 2
fit of the
Xn
in reference
+b,(,)+c,
(11-49)
x. in meters or feet,
(11-50) between
in the 11-I to
direction
as functions for
of ReD.
account rows
crossflow
multiple
of impingement
where
aa and
ba are
given
in
table
TURBINE
I_E,SIGN
AND
TABLE
ll--I.--IMPINGEMENT-CooLING
Coefficient
al
bl
1
--O. 0025 0685 .5070 0.0260 --. 8259 3985 0.4696 965
a2
b2 c2
a3
b3
impingement
holes
is defined
as
Go! Zn
(11-52)
where Gcr Gh crossflow mass flux, kg/(sec) mass flux, (m 2) ; lb/(hr) kg/(sec) (ft 2) (ft 2)
impingement-hole
(m 2) ; lb/(hr)
FILM As parent reduce in fig. cooling and and Except cooling film or turbine-inlet that blade 11-3). metal The are
AND
COOLING increase, by cooling film Here, film the coolant hole, than the as for higher will the for it becomes film air and cooling (as convection surface only, hot-gas rate. either wall because be disfilm combined does average cooling same flow apto shown
convection
be augmented both 11-11. only, all percent injection temperature also the arc of holes that same
of combining in figure cooling, the same wall Notice is about gradients cooling
in a given fihn
blade
immediate a significantly
cooling cooling
alone. only
temperature coo]ing,
convection
temperature
much
or slots
transpiration
full-coverage
discrete-hole
TURBINE
COOLING
1800 L2600--v /
_ _3_1_"
_6
2200
J f__'-
_Convection _ Hotgas
coolingonly
_ ,A,'_|
1000
:_-
_ooI
0
.2 .4 .6 .8 l.O Dimensionless distancedownstreamof slot of combining coolant film and flow rate. convection cooling. Constant
FIGURE
l l-ll.--Effect
To
and
model must
the Hence,
"nonthe followgas
coefficient heat to
preceding the
discussion.
In the effective
expression
temperature
temperature
q=_hg._(T'.,,_=--Tw.o) where h,.x is the heat-transfer coefficient (he, x)I,,,_ hg, x the damped film with under gas (see form wall film having fig. by the heat-transfer out rapidly, coefficient to account without film cooling,
(11-53) and (11-54) is altered for this. called (i.e., layer the
e -Very near the by the to be wall point the effect unity. data the hot of injection, injection The itself, is usually
temperature
experimental and
of an uncooled in dimensionless
11-12)).
temperature
effectiveness
_'"'"= where outer T_, o is the wall). The injected film film
at the 333
effectiveness
a value
of 1, at
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
Y I
T,
//
_'mm /
-J ....
_.,,_"_
'(
Coolant film
I Coolingair
FIGURE ll-12.--Experimental determination of film temperature.
1_ .8 _-"_
Injection angle,
+1:- __ _
deg
o++
90 _'__----
+:_:
08 --
.1 ---
._
--%
I
1000 2000
.oz
10
I
20
_ I ,1,1,1
40 60 100 Dimensionless
I
200
, 1,1,1,!
400 (x 600 xs#gs
, I
4000
distance,
FIGURE
ll-13.--Film-cooling
effectiveness
for
slots.
slot,
far
downstream. for by air and to angle. expressions well: As film the the the The
Figure injection
11-13 from
gives slots
investigators.
surface,
decreases turbine-blade
(from
TURBINE
OOOLIN(_ O.
_I'z'_=exp
-0. 2
_s
--2.9
k,p-_2]
\p_u_s/
for small
values
of (z--z,),
and
(11-57)
values slot,
location from
of the
of the
the stagnation
n are C----2.7
for a 30 injection angle. Film distances ref. small effectiveness from the
for a 15 injection and 11-14 of holes. case, lateral (from For film
cooling distances,
up to about downstream
in this as previously
effectiveness
decreases
shown
50 --
.40--
o
A
.50
1.00
"_ E
Plain s,,ymbols denote single hole at 35v injection angle Tailed symbolsdenote single row
u:.
20--
of holes
I
O
]
9O
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Dimensionless distance downstream from injection hole, hole diameters l l-14.--Film-cooling effectiveness as function of dimensionless ratio, m/sec
FIGURE
down-
stream and lateral distances from injection holes. Mass-flux hole diameter, 1.18 cm or 0.464 in.; gas velocity, 30.5 Reynolds number, 0.22X 10 s.
335
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPI.,ICJ_TION
for slots,
and
the
same
values
are
obtained
for single
holes
as for a row
of holes. For larger lateral with downstream distance flow, hole that and because gases Very the values of the unity limited for the interaction at the data
distances, as a result row of flows injection film jet are available the
effectiveness initially increases of the spreading of the injected are larger adjacent This the for jet than holes. separates row for the Notice from single also the with holes from angle than angle persist effective wall into convection is 2 hole of as a in from hole. as
of holes
_mm is not
is due
to entrainment of film-
of hot surface.
underneath
a staggered
cooling holes. Frequently, the slot data are used for this case, an effective slot width s defined such that the total area of the equals Figure single the hole direction the area 11-15 of the (from slot. ref. main very lateral 8) shows gas local stream, film coverage, the spreading For film the the but wall mass of a film spreads A film less does not most the layer angles of injection. a 35 injection compound
diameters,
coverage.
cooling layer,
of the from
of cooling
available. it combines
cooling
efficient
cooling. The porous wall where the heat conducted continuously through the this method extremely tion or standpoint, stream In cooling from surface. order is transferred small pores. of cooling
a very effective heat exchanger, wall from the hot gas stream in counter flow as it passes
coolant
there are problems blades. The pores subject Also, the film yet cooling, spectrum
in applying tend to be
small and, contaminants a penalty essentially to used. type alleviate advantages In number
to blockage due to oxidafrom an aerodynamic-loss air is injected still cooling, the obtain cooling into some air holes pure the of gas the film issues in the trans-
normal
boundary. full-coverage
full-coverage of cooling
discrete between
piration cooling on flux over the surface, amount through of heat the wall
with essentially a continuous mass film cooling on the other end. The to tile cooling internal air flowing pastortuosity of the flow
transferred depends
convection
sages. The wall may with a low resultant maze of interconnected effectiveness. Convection exchanger 336 theory and
effectiveness
is a measure
of the
(or blade
TURBINE
O00LING
tO. 10
/
0--@
\ \
--
.25
_. 20
_. 15
o r-
I
6
'
I
(a)
d
r-
.g- -2 -.E
E
0 -/
r.
lO
30-I g
X13
L. 25
4 -6
L.20
L. 15
--
I
tb)
u_
_
"_,
-2 --
r.
25
2 4 -6
_
\ '--.30
,-- .20
I
0 5
1
10
I
15
I
20
I
25
I
30
Dimensionless distance downstream from injection hole, hole diameters (c} (a) Injection (b) Injection (c) Injection FIGURE ll-15.--Lines angle, angle, angle, 35; lateral 90; lateral 90; lateral injection, injection, injection, 90 . 35% 15 . for single-hole
effectiveness 0.5.
to transfer
f !
air by
T c.o--T c.,.
(11-58)
Since an optimum design utilizes as much of the heat sink available in the cooling air as possible for convection cooling, ,7_o,, values approaching the limit of 1 are desirable. However, the convection
337
APPLICATION
limited
by model
the the of
As Vco,v increases, one-dimensional wall metal The in figure matrix resulting the wall,
so does
pressure
An
energy equations
perature
temperature
(11-59)
kw'ed_T'_ hr. dy 2
(11-60)
where effective thermal conductivity heat-transfer of the porous wall, W/(m W/(m)(K) 3) (K) ; Btu/ ;
hv
coefficient,
The
boundary
conditions
h_(Tw.,--T'e,_.)=kw,
and
G_cp(T_ In this case, as seen of surface area. An the overall flux energy to the q=Gccp(T' Typical 1,1-16. wall They and are coolant both from
'
,--T"
'
_,)=kw 11-16,
figure
ba]ance wall,
gives,
as a third
boundary
condition
for
heat
nonlinear
interaction in terms
also be written
of a hot-gas-
heat-transfer
coefficient: q=h,,_( Tz,e-the Tw.o) heat flux expression (11-64) with local
This 338
is somewhat
different
from
TUR,BINE
OODLIN(_
Tw,o
1 "1
C,O ]w,J
Gc
T__J
c, in
Tc, i
'\.,
ay--_t
\ \ '_
dl-w d ClTw_A kw,eA dy + dy (k w, eA -_-y) y Typical element FmuRE 11-16.--Porous-wall temperature profile model.
in
that
the
gas to
and used
a "rerather
coefficient
solid-blade
the
gradient
write F ht_ Stt_ _:;--_=eF/__ Str_ 1J of convection Fis the ratio flux: (11-66) mass . (11-65) effectiveness of the coolant
where mass
the flux
as shown
F -(pu)_
(pu)
339
TURBINE
I_E_IGN
AND
APPLICATION
J
o
f J
7j
k_
.7
FIGURE
l l-17.--Correction
to
equation
(11-65)
for
wall
convection
effectiveness.
SIMILARITY It actual size than to at is often engine prototype the the actual test whether of of economic turbine environment. heat-transfer hardware application. blade this will a cooled conditions To answer and at necessity components Generally, aerodynamic lower This behave gas practice to at evaluate conditions initial tests performance temperatures raises meeting similarly the various a under similarity design valid the heat-transfer than conducted with and actualpressures question specifications actual to engine turbine engine perblade parameters as the are
performance to evaluate
other
configuration question,
co_lditions. which are formance are discussed. The number engine 340 Mach and
important in relating test performance of an actual-size film-convection-cooled number test distribution around conditions. the and vane Similarity momentum-thickness must in be these the two
distribution
TUITBINE
O00LIN_]
to
ensure and
the
same wall to to
of layer.
heat-transfer point of
temperature conditions
same
from superscript
conditions, Therefore,
w(.,,
wy'--p'_ where for the F is an approximate variation of specific
p;,.
/(RT')_,r(.
ry'
,,
(11-67) (2-128) given and by (2-129))
correction heat
/
eqs.
with
_
temperature
\(_+t)/2(_-t)
F-- _f_ _--_) Since remain the local momentum-thickness between (t) and (e) Reynolds conditions, number
unchanged
/z
o;,,.:.,
film effectiveness the to and the is to
/(,r.);.,r,,,
s
__
_,.,-1
unchanged mass-flux ratio cases.
(11-69)
between ratio
If engine
the
remain to
coolant
hot-gas
momentum-thickness
to film-ejection-
ratio
hardware
--1
(11-70)
between
temperature
341
TURBINE
I_E_IGN
AND
APPIAC_TION
4O
30
_
leD
20
a_
i0
0 250
J
500 150 1000 1250 1500
i
1750
2000
2250
25OO
Temperature, K Tq,
I
0
I
500
I
1000
I
1500
I
2000
I
3000
I
3500
FIGURE thickness
curves of distributions
constant around
The
cooling-air
flow mass-flux
rate ratio
and and
temperature momentum
are ratio.
then
set
by
the
coolant-to-gas
Requiring (11-72)
(7 ,J - L(--#u-),j
implies
(11-73)
Wg/
and
it is necessary
that
equality direction to
and in to
since
pc.o=p_. to that
conduction
compared
temperature
T_,o is related
supply
coolant
(He, o--He, (Hc.o--H_, where (11-71)). hot-gas-side 342 the viscosity Satisfying heat-transfer ratio here
,,)(t>_q(,) _,(_) ,n) (_) q(C) u_" the to mass (11-75) flow around ratio the
represents (11-71)
equations
ensures
coefficient
distribution
TURBINE
C_OLING
and engine conditions. Stanton number form *) {'Pr(')Y/a be met, on set the the independently departure Prandtl coefficient number in
The is
heat-
the
Stanton ratio
the
coolant number
heat-transfer by (*'
dimensionless
/ _'* _'*' _ number (11-77) with the for coolant-side is the Prandtl
(11-77) convec-
be set independently,
although
its departure
(11-78) coolant and Reynolds to ensure for outer engine coolant Tf._. during Reynolds the the the ejection for same two a test wall includes supply Hence, the number number temactual
by equation (based simulated through the cooled remains convenient engine, on would the there
the
perature)
is to perform
temperature only
conditions.
dimensionless known,
wall
temperatures
tempera-
ture T_, _, and the effective gas temperature sionless wall temperature _, defined as T_.,--T_.o or some used actual scaled and because Strict similar equality hardware, properly pressure. the It grouping of the since because is easier greater driving of these cooling and lower the for at high three engine heat blade convection temperature
(11-79) temperatures, of a given is, however, drop flux through at reduced reduced and cooling is commonly design. with is not
as a measure
performance
impossible
temperature to cool
at the
proportionately
TURBINE
I)E,SIGN
AND
APPI.JCATION
for
properly
scaled within of
test the
the
difference
between in
_(t) most
of experimental generated is given by in table a given air, what of the air. Since the it
dimensionless
be a significant by film
high-pressure
cooling
TABLE
STATES
Gas total
temperature
Coolant
temperature
oF
_2200 367 478 589 700 758 811 922 1033 1144 1255 1367 1478 1589 1700 1811 1922 2033 2144
_3500 200 400 600 800 905 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400
' 33. 7 4.3 6.0 7.7 9.4 10. 3 11.1 12. 9 14.6 16.4 18. 2 19. 9 21.7 23. 5 25. 3 27. 1 28. 9 30. 9 32. 8
145
188 23O 273 294 315 357 399 442 485 528 571 613 656 699 743 786 828
--199 --122 --45 31 70 107 182 259 335 413 490 568 644 721 799 878 955 1030
1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 I. 00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
' Reference
condition.
344
(X_LING
(b) Cruise
Gas K
total
temperature oF
Coolant
12200 367 478 589 700 799 811 922 1033 1144 1255 1367 1478 1589 1700 1811 1922 2033 2144
' 3500 2O0 4OO 6OO 8OO 978 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 28OO 3000 3200 3400
'13.8 1.7 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.5 4.6 5.3 6.0 6.7 7.4 8.2 8.9 9.6 10.4 11.1 11.8 12.7 13.4
1801 139 180 220 259 294 299 338 378 417 458 498 539 579 619 660 702 743 782 !
1983 --209 -- 136 --64 7 70 78 148 220 291 364 437 510 582 655 729 804 878 948 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. O0 1. O0
! ,
I Reference
condition.
REFERENCES
1. EsQAB, JACK B.:
COLLADAY, RAYMOND S.;
KAUFMAN,
ALBERT:
An Analysis
of the Capabilities and Limitations of Turbine Air Cooling Methods. NASA TN D-5992, 1970. 2. KAYS, W. M.: Convective Heat and Mass Transfer. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1966. 3. KESTIN, J.: The Effect of Free-Stream Turbulence on Heat Transfer Rates. Advances in Heat Transfer. Vol. 3. T. F. Irvine, Jr.; and J.P. Hartnett, cds., Academic Press, 1966, pp. 1-32. 4. AMBRpK, G. S. : Approximate Solution of Equations for the Thermal Boundary Layer With Variations in Boundary Layer Structure. Soviet Phys.-Tech. Phys., vol. 2, no. 9, 1957, pp. 1979-1986. 5. SPALDING, D. B.; AND PATANKAR, S. V.: Heat and Mass Transfer in Boundary Layers. Chemical Rubber Co., 1968. 6. KERCHFR, D. M.; AND TABAKOFF, W. : Heat Transfer by a Square Array of Round Effect Air Jets of Spent Impinging Perpendicular Air. J. Eng. Power, vol. to a Flat Surface Including the 92, no. 1, Jan. 1970, pp. 73-82. 345
TURBINE 7.
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
ARTT, D. W.; BROWN, A.; AND MILLER, P. P.: An Experimental Investigation Into Film Cooling With Particular Application to Cooled Turbine Blades. Heat Transfer 1970. Vol. 2. Ulrich Grigull and Erich Hahne, eds.,
Elsevier Publ. Co., 1970, pp. FC1. 7.1-FC1. 7.10. 8. GOLDSTEIN, R. J.; ECKERT, E. R. G.; ERIKSEN, V. L.; AND RAMSEY, J. W.: Film Cooling Following Injection Through Inclined Circular Tubes. Rep. HTL-TR-91, Minnesota Univ. (NASA CR-72612), Nov. 1969. 9. COLLADAY, RAYMOND S. ; AND STEPKA, FRANCIS S. : Examination of Boundary Conditions for Heat Transfer Through a Porous Wall. NASA TN D-6405, 1971. 10. L'ECUYER, MEL R.; AND COLLADAY, RAYMOND S. : Influence of Porous-Wall Thermal Effectiveness on Turbulent-Boundary-Layer Heat Transfer. NASA TN D-6837, 1972.
346
TURBINE
CODLING
SYMBOLS A surface area of one flow factor, in eqs. component in eqs. in heat eqs. coefficient., in eqs. hole, (11-8) eq. side eq. (11-49) (11-49) and (11-26) pressure, and circle, J/(kg)(K) (11-50) impingement hole, or film; Btu/(lb)(R) of volume m2; ft z (11-31) to to (11-51) N/kg; lbf/lbm (11-51) (11-57) element, m2; ft 2
coolant-passage
g al, cto, aa
area,
B_ bl, b2, b3 C
in x direction,
Cp el,
at constant (11-49)
of leading-edge m ; ft
d F
dissipation term distance between ratio mass total internal Btu/(hr) static term of coolant factor kg/(see) flux, correction conversion heat-transfer
in eq. (11-42), W/m3 ; Btu/(ft 3) (see) volume elements (see fig. 11-10), m ; ft mass used flux to hot-gas (ft 2) (lbm) (ft)/lbf) (see 2) (ft 2) (R) W/(m3)(K); mass flux in eq. (11-65) 1 ; 32.17 Btu/lb W/(m heat-transfer ; Btu/lb 1 ; 778 energy, characteristic m; ft in eqs. in eqs. lb/ft" term, W/ma; Btu/(sec)(ft a) Btu/(hr)(fC) (K) ; (ft) (lbf)/(lbm) (R) (11-8), (ll-S), (11-45), (11-45), and (ll-4S) and (11-57) (ft) (lb)/Btu sec/hr Btu/lb (K) ; Btu/(hr) length, m; ft (ft) (R) J/kg; 2) (K) ; Btu/(hr) coefficien't,
.[
G g H h hv /; I J K
(m _) ; lb/(hr)
constant, J/kg;
enthalpy,
coefficient, volumetric fit s) (R) J/kg by eq. (11-41) constant, constant, kinetic (:onductivity,
enthalpy, defined
1 ; 3600 W/(m)
,W
k I M
eo()l'mt-passage wall thickness, Xlach number exponents Nusselt exponents Prandtl P pressure, heat gas flux, constant, used number used number N/me; W/m_;
(11-56),
(2
q 1l Re
r
heat-generation
J/(kg) number
factor, number
eq.
(11-27)
St
347
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
slot gas
width, static
m;
ft K; R K; velocity ft/sec m3; ft 3 velocity ft/see to the in direction normal to surface R in direction along surface (z-
T t
%
component (y-direction),
'tO
of gas velocity in direction perpendicular rate, kg/sec; lb/sec layer plane (x-y plane), m/sec; ft/sec along surface of flow, from m; ft to surface, holes m; ft and blade inner leading between edge, m; ft distance distance between normal impingement m2/sec; ratio ft2/sec factor, eq. pressure (11-68) to specific impingement
X Xn
holes
in
Y
Zn
wall,
specific
correction
ratio of specific heat constant volume ,h enthalpy ratio cooling viscosity, momentum transfer
7/
heat
at
with cooling
film
cooling
to
heat
0
tt
l,t
momentum
viscosity),
m2/sec;
ft2/,_ec
P
T
density, kg/m3; lb/ft 3 local shear stress, N/mS; angular coefficients term defined exponent distance in eq. from wall by eq. dimensionless
stagnation
point,
deg
in eq. (11-78)
Subscripts:
a
CP
C
property
COlbY
crit 348
TURBINE
C'(YOLING
])
e
with fihn
hole
(li'uneter
as characteristic
dimension
effective hot gas hole inner impingement inlet jth clement laminar with_._, leading outer reference downstream stagnation turbulent transpiration wall local with with with value x as charttcteristic A as characteristic 0 as characteristic leading edge edge of slot a,s characteristic edge length at free-stream condition
film
g
h i
imp in
J
L
J
le
0
re]
8
stag T t
W X
A 8
oO
condition ('mid ition stale (referring component to T anti (referring p) to p, v,/, u, and w)
/ flu(:tuating
349
CHAPTER 12
of consideration
it must have
or not the
been
turbine
be determined. addition separate stator as loss to the overall performance to readily 7 (vol. the of a turbine, overall from 2). loss a breakdown is often desired. measurecannot obtained be
losses can
direct stator
they the
are
overall
performance
test
facility
and parameters
program,
the
researcher
must
in evaluatnecessary to and
facility,
the
and/or these
overall
parameters, turbine
manner
which the
operating
conditions
subject
351
PAGE _-_--'_
INTENTIONALLY 8LAtIK
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
TEST The herein. These and bine. sures, measured calculated manner in The
AND
MEASUREMENTS is expressed 2) and to specific for the to will define work, performance inlet Specific and work ranges not and be and turbine of rotative of the exit efficiency) computed discussed overall efficiency. speed turpresare is then
determined to fully
torque, turbine
speed,
determine
facility.
where ,_h' K F N J w turbine conversion torque, rotative conversion mass flow N-m; speed, rate, specific work, lb-ft rad/sec; kg/sec; rev/min 1; 778 (ft) (lb)/Btu lb/sec by the ideal temperature by equation is always ideal work, all is all efficiency where efficiency where on a pressure of outlet the axial as constant, J/kg; 1; _/30 Btu/lb (rad)(min)/(rev)(sec)
constant,
Efficiency work. Ideal and (2-48b) the is of total based the on outlet however, the or
is obtained by dividing the actual work hh' work is a function of the turbine inlet total ratio The on the is total static across outlet particular pressure useful pressure is lost. recovery Rating of only or and the 2 (vol. pressure and turbine, 1). The used is most is most efficiency recoverable. efficiency the axial as inlet to desired. Static meaningful is based shown pressure define (2-49b) pressure. of chapter
pressure
Total
meaningful
based of the
corresponding velocity component commonly discussed In the will this types and,
of the used
efficiency
is not which
efficiencies,
were
2 (vol.
test
facility the
will
and
required systems
acquisition These
be of
visual to computer
slide-rule
acquisition
EXPERI1VIENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
ing. A general discussion of data measurement, acquisition, mission, and recording systems can be found in texts such erence 1. Description of Test Facility
transas ref-
A turbine test facility consists of the research turbine, a gas supply, an exhaust system, associated piping with control valves, a power absorber, and the instrumentation needed to make the desired measurements. A schematic diagram of a turbine test facility at the NASA Lewis Research Center is shown in figure 12-1. This facility, a photograph of which is shown in figure 12-2, is used to test single-stage or multistage turbines of about 76 centimeters (30 in.) in diameter. It is generally representative of most turbine test facilities and is used here as an example for this discussion. In such a facility, removal of the turbine rotor gives the room necessary to place survey instrumentation behind the stator and, thereby, transforms the rotating rig into a stator annular cascade. Most turbine component testing is conducted with temperature or slightly heated. This is commonly air at ambient called cold-air
Vent to roof
,_i_
",
acilit valve
isolation
LBurner_j_,,,
....
--I
valve
FIGURE
12-1.--Flow
schematic
of a turbine
test
facility.
353
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
ductim
:FIGURE
12-2.--Turbine
test
facility.
testing. values N/cm was flow cation diagrams of the number smaller turbine number.
Performance based 2 or on 14.696 and power thereby are actual on similar turbine. however, turbine where pressure psia)
are
in
terms of
turbine-inlet
of pressure
be encountered Mach numbers number, turbines, was number found effects obtain
facilitates
dissimilarity;
of Reynolds
negligible. important,
turbines, inlet
varied
to
Reynolds
to figure (40-psig)
turbine the
by the
27.6-
ca}ibrated
is located line
section
air-supply
of metering
EX_PERIME,NTAL
DF_TERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
that
the
air
velocities of the
will
not
pressure
the
a range
A further
discussion
devices is presented in a subsequent Downstream of the venturi meter by vides the turbine a high operator. drop
pressure
operation
automatic line provide is the 50.8the desired 76.2 air lines to cm then entry can the control
inlet-pressure protection centimeter turbine-inlet (30 valve diverts of lower be seen After altitude (48-in.) control pressure in.)
control. A burst-disc from excessive pressure. (20-in.) pressure main control (for the The of the the the of the valve valves
safety valve and vent Further downstream valve example used to establish this (6-in.) pressure. lines to provide (These plenum. air through turbine the is turbine,
of Hg into two
15.2-centimeter turbine-inlet (20-in.) turbine turbine, laboratory and a the while entry the
permits
50.8-centimeter
dual
in fig. 12-2.) through system control These acrossthe discharged (16-in.) operator turbine-inlet to a 121.9-centimeter bypass vary the is
40.6-centimeter
permit turbine
pressure
maintained constant by automatic control. This type of pressureratio control has been most successful with small turbines. With large large its use inlet In this turbines, pipe however, between The so with to air. both burner per burners simple products performance are and generally complexity and (300 F). general, using are gasoline, to the where jet means air, fuel, and flow or natural these rates must are gas provide inexpensive added used calculations. only of large of heating the air. However, be accounted provide low, because clean of the The the has a single natural burner desired amount the second purpose as to there the is shown avoid gas, and is a slower and fig. 12-1) burner jet-engine Some air air heat from heated inlet to is and ambient (in of the icing response the in at burner of the then the inlet because control the can, mixed fuel phantom, the turbine of the volume installation turbine valve. because turbineexit. air is with flow. air the by This of to flow modified
A burner
is to elevate
problems
high-pressure is maintained
temperature
of bypassed lb/sec)
a maximum
kilograms
temperature
Electrical installations.
heaters
355
TURBINE
DEISIGN
AND
A.PPLICATION
All turbines The following be guarded (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) Low Low High High Low High High High High
test some by
must potentially
be designed unsafe
with
safety
conditions
monitoring: and dynamometer and dynamometer outlet water inlet gas gas rotor and casing gas exit gas of turbine inlet exit supply lubricating ]ubricating water oil oil
of turbine of turbine
of turbine
clearance between rig vibration shaft some monitors provide as in orbit of the provide a signal the heater
as well in order
to prevent Research
A schematic
diagram
of one
research
used
in
this test As
test facility is presented in section with instrumentation stated was velocity upstream circumferential has an of 2 dynamic A short, inlet inlet blade low, entering section measuring chords the the insertion blading. annular to 12-3). fig. flow measure turbine-inlet previously, designed and of with the as much
An enlarged indicated is from two to provide A screen ensure giving turbine area,
as feasible further
is shown blades.
to the effective
approximate
50 percent
is provided for
the
upstream
of the
of probes
significantly
passage the
is also are
of the
turbine-outlet
(measuring 2 blade-chord
Measurements
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC f Station 0
PERFORMANCE
I
I
2 ]
1
I
Stator blade-tPlenum
]'0 dynamometer
\
i
i! \
i_\ ,
\
[ -
]engths bilize(1 Both idealized The tail axial before tremely flow
downstream and uniform the as has vary. is after aml passages inlet and compared a burner Also,
of the outlet to
rotor, sections an
where
the
exit test
air turbine
is relatively are
sta-
of the preceding
latter cone
diameters length
of engine in
turbine test
passages
diflicult,
of straight,
Measurements stations There are are loe,_ted numerous in the types uxia! and
357
TURBINE
DE_TGN
AND
Measuring stations
0 diagram
1 of turbine
2 instrumentation.
FIGURE 12-4.--Schematic
variations of probes will discuss primarily turbine and outlet, In turbine size mentation probes In small ated and, usually Static 12-4, 90 apart, with blockage therefore, limits there the are on flow to obtain angle. as well general, size of the the The all turbine can turbines, could on respect the
available to make the instruments desired stator instrumentation exit, experimental of stages, For flow an values and each the inner require large of the effect size on being measuring whether passages
the desired measurements. We used in the example research of pressure, at the in figure the same the probes turbine 12-4. irrespective overall of research relative with This as This size their data. instruof the associprocess, negligible. of The temperature, inlet and located turbine
measurements is shown
as at the turbine
or number
be afforded.
be considered expansion
presence
consideration in figure and proIn order multiple individual the obindividual to used installed deto
number four
static-pressure and
outer
vides a check to minimize taps served are often pressure pressures differ,
the circumferential pressure amount of instrumentation to provide some may not flow be the a single true test, this however, circulation
distribution. and data, reading. average it is often the information taps If the of the occurs and
along
surface.
Static-pressure
EXPERIMENTAL
D_TERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
along tubes the are major 0.0254 long apart, are probe that The used adjacent
tip in
of the blade be
blade.
If among
the by
of of
be installed
or more no
research
presented approximately is desirable results probes, fig. 12-4) One is about length, for also some
problem. centimeter
pressure-tap the
(0.010
hole a hole
so as not Inlet
response
pressure.--Four at the to in in.) probe 20 . the in figure inlet area 12-5(a). diameter shown
total-pressure station the twice flow that shielding, (see which in is has to yaw of passage.
all immersed
centimeter
is such commonly
readings
total-pressure
an insensitivity
to yaw
Flow I
Flow
probes.
serve are
as used value
on
the presoften is a
turbine
turbine-inlet
performance
experimental
measurements
static 359
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
and the
total flow
temperature angle
and
obtained to
by
the at the
following turbine
equainlet:
a assumed
be zero
[-i,
where p' P
5'
V &s%jT'"-"
lb/ft 2 lb/ft 2 at constant l)ressure to specific 2)
(12-2)
total static
pressure, pressure,
N/m2;
N/mg;
ratio of specific heat constant volume conversion annulus gas total flow constant, angle constant, area, temperature, measured value m2; ft 2 J/(kg)
heat
at
g Aan R T'
1; 32.17
calculated rel)resentative
is thought is the
to
be
experimental
Inlet temperature.---Two are located at the turbine These contain of equal was radius, Provisions of all the fuel operation, matic used rakes, which a number annular and the are readings. where regulation due large to heat research in
thermoeouple rakes, spaced 180 apart, inlet measuring station (see fig. 12-4). siinilar to that situated rake at duct readings facilita.tes inlet burner temI)erature is I)rovided Reynolds This as an turbines effects. being some used small of shown ,_1 the shown the center, in figure area the in figure 12-6(a), radii 12-6(a) area-mean turbine. the average in Autopresent not in exist but refburner center
are of a type of thermocouples areas. wall of The to The the the latter the
to determine made
for individual
testing
a constant of temperature
at low
herein,
encountered
as discussed
erence 2. A large amount to the flow in order to conventional exposed good shown 170. wire accuracy in figure This modified thermocouple length at low 12-6(b) probe
of bare thermocouple make the conduction shown in figure The results. of about number. a wire excellent
wire must be exposed error negligible. The 12-6(a) modified has a ratio of for is inadequate thermocouple ratio of about
12, whictl
length-to-diameter
360
EXPERIMENTAL
DIhTERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
! / / / / / / /
I / / /
Thermocoul)le junction
Therrnocouplejunction
rake
testing, rotor
the
only
previously
is installed.
associated
blockage
on the
measurements
361
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
FIGURE
12-7.--Total-pressure
survey
probe
installed
in
test
facility.
unreliable. from pressure probe flow required The actuator driven probe as the facility. 362 the
are obtained and tip wall to inner probe, same wa_ of stem is shown determined sensing the is shown of the circumferential the that used
by interpolation taps. be and and The 12-7. the outer 12-8. the these totalThis are walls. The The example sensing motoraverage
previously
obtain
measurements
at both equipment
(fig. 12-7)
Considerations
effects
blockage,
EXPERIMENTAL
DI_TERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
r Actuator
t /
cm 0
LLLLU
element diameter, edge are discussed Although example use for Doppler velocity probes. Turbine shown and flow not herein, directly velocimeter, measurements
and measurement in reference 3. used in the particular velocity as to be made optical measuring such laser
the
blade
trailing
as the direction. 4,
techniques described
recently
type
in figure
pressure, Figure
temperature,
five of these combination measuring station 2. Each of one the tional design, side and of five equal annular number Measurement self-balancing with tubes the center of probes
are distributed circumferentially is located at the area center In general, turbine by total respect between means size
areas.
influences
permissible. angle tube is accomplished The with ranges probe used that to measure of a convenis of the a 3-tube The center two tube probe system. located shown to the
of flow
pressure. total
are exposed
pressure
static pressure. The openings in an angle of 45 with the center to the two sides of a diaphragm
the side tubes are in planes tube. These side tubes are in a balance capsule. A 363
TURBINE
I)E,SIGN
AND
KPPLIGATI,0N
FIGURE
12-9.--Combination-probe
sensing
head.
differential so the that error Exit generally but of than true they equation does if the discrepancies. an of the tubes
in is
the
capsule
by
the
diaphragm, in to the side reduce are for and gross use work
unequal.
A servo-system total-pressure determirtation values that more total in order values measurement reliable temperature. position wouhl the the
pointing
total-temperature for the to been used It has (12-1) measurement temperature occur over probe, integrated pressure, of equation does direct which from (12-2)
measuremertts of turbine to check of This and have conditions. to work be specific calculation When the exit of torque specific
efficiency,
determine
is especially variations Even to be of ideal exit flow of exit flow with deterwork, angle total is surveyed
is in a fixed range exit in order is used equation yields passage for for
large
angle results
of operating
determined
(12-2). more
values
measurement.
angle
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
the
radial In total
in the
pressure choice
and between
angle values
in
the can
exit be and
large. of exit
unless is not
calculation
Mass-Flow Flows pend pipe. orifice secondary pressure and on the All the on The are the placed usually pressure in the may device. and and measured differential element pipe through Each the
with
defluid or The
caused
a constriction
be a simple selection
of these
meters
head rate
the
computation
of the W=
AtMCEY_/2gp.,(p.,--pt)
(12-3)
where A, M C E Y p_n p_. Pt The flow area of meter velocity coefficient expansion at meter pressure pressure factor factor inlet, at meter at meter factor M:1 D, 4 kg/m3; inlet, throat, is 1 (12-4) lb/ft N/m2; N/mS; 3 lb/ft _ lb/ft 2 throat, factor m2; ft _
compressibility
velocity
in m or ft. C accounts theoretical meter. flow Although for the difference and good between the diffor caliThe meter at of the
rate
dis<.harge coefficients bration of the meter thermal throat expansion area is usually
can be made from published data, should be made to assure accurate factor E accounts from is not for equal the fact that determined measurements to the
temperature
365
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
The
compressibility
factor
for nozzles
and
venturi
meters
is
(12-5) The derivation of equation and the D#D,, orifices from having following (12-5), along with in the equation curves reference value from of showing 5. For Y can 5: reference Y as a most be
of pJpt_
y --_ l -- [ O.41q- O.3 5 ( _-_--_/. ] ! P2_-_ )' / Ventur4, venturi verging tubes fuser the tube.--Figure tube, section, are object usually usually section which cast a cylindrical and is made 12-10 consists shows the important entrance and
a diffuser angle
internal recovery
of accomplishing
a maximum
while minimizing friction loss. The total pressure loss from the tube inlet to exit is from 10 to 20 percent of the differential between in that a long, the inlet and more run the throat. The than venturi other tube head has meters, it is bulky, straight difficult of piping. to construct (particularly so as to and
disadvantages
reproducibility),
expensive
F low
"v_"
Pressure
taps
FIGURE
12-10.--Venturi
tube.
the high
venturi
and
nozzle
loss
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION Static-pressure
OF laps ,
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
Flow Din Dl
/// :: ii\\
FIGURE 12-11.--Flow nozzle.
\,\
on area throat.
ratio, The
of the flow
differential a nozzle
discharge
coefficient
orifice (fig. 12-12) head meters. Because side the and of the plate,
upstream
area occurs downstream from known as the vena contracta, pressure is obtained. than that for a flow 0.65. vena
orifice edge. This minimum area is it is at this area that the minimum loss for somewhat an orifice area an orifice is carefully sharp, and being with of flow the of the greater is about at the which acconaxial in367
This low value is due contracta rather than to make, coefficients to specifications, is possible. of the The cylindrical may
to the effective minimum at the orifice itself. in most be a high machine If the edge must must not degree shops, hole be used.
made
upstream portion
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPL]:CATION
L
f low Din Dt
taps orifice.
is extensively
Measurement an accurate consideration used by measurement in evaluating to determine Simply, the the where turbine into for of torque turbine turbine absorption heat. the it generally
In
turbine-component by are heat, no the The cradled in turn, useful and turbine devices
is of prime
converts
energy
dynamometer
provides this
a load section In
this is used or
Absorption hydraulic, (3) electric methods other brakes, is shown generally 368 than Hydraulic since in used
electromagnetic (4) airbrakes. types frequently A typical the The cradle shaft of torque called water is
and are
dynamometer.--These 12-13,
mounting
dynamometer
installations.
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AE:RODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
Disk
Shaft
Pedestal bearing
Pedestal bearing
FIGVRE
12-13.--Hydraulic
dynamometer.
(Courtesy
of Murray
Iron
Works
Co.)
directly housing friction so that housing housing absorbed Water to the valves depth the cient pacity disk to
to the through on the it is tends permits may periphery are and of the
and housing
the
developed in the
to the fluid the on the power force ring casuch 369 bearings
with
determination
turning
where valves
is increased; brake.
frictional
absorption
amount
prevent
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
cause speed.
With brake
increase of
is typical them
electrical-type for testing Some the can Care outer increase must water
dynamometers nongoverned brakes power in the are This absorption however, vicinity capability periphery. be exercised, engines.
provided tends
further as much
because staging;
particularly
of these is by
holes.
way using
increase
power absorption one disk. Eddy.current shown supported mitted rotor bearings. current, ends ing face in the on two the
of the torque on the shaft, carries the stator. of the the stator The lines
arm and measured which is supported which, rotor. of force so that are air gap when On the between enter caused as the and
by the scale. The in the starer in with are and rotor teeth the direct with opposby the the rotor them
starer
energized
machined
to produce
the rotor
principally through
through device
teeth,
is moved
of force
to sweep
/- Stator I I c_:Q(_-_I
/_ /'//
Water passages-,,
.... 'K ' It
itator Scale
Shaft bearing-_
___ _k_--7-_:_-i'---'_;
OCilile /-Shaft / o
',
L ],
-:--_:
,lorquearmI
FIGURE
12-14.--Eddy-current mometer
(Courtesy Co.)
of
Mid-West
Dyna-
370
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AE.RODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
of the
stator.
The
magnetic
attraction
rotor
and
the
causes sweeping
to try to turn the stator induce water flowing in does and rotor. any figure not the
The lines of this energy in the stator. type, eddyhas in can capability. frame It can a pump mover unit acts or be the be a
passages is called
contact
commonly
wet-gap
passages
Eddy-current required
motor-generator, versatile to drive the When the the measured torque. an researcher dynamometer. a device output unit turbine during For the it is driving,
absorb energy,
(a turbine as a motor; The seal, shaft, torque in order the total losses and driving and and to
it is absorbing
as a generator. bearing, driving This the smaller turbine of the tests the frictional turbines, these output,
determine rotor,
torque
as a function
of speed.
is then friction
added losses
to the true
obtain
represent
appreciable
turbine power. For are generally small hence, they can often
the larger jet-engine type when compared to the total be neglected. airbrake developed for 12-15. at testing The a rotor dynamometer the view airbrake with the NASA small of the consists either
is Lewis
type Research
of than
absorber 19 kW inlet
turbines
(less
A cross-sectional a stator,
airbrake a paddle
is shown
of a throttle
collector,
or airfoil type and discharge airbrake which direction momentum power output. straighteners Therefore, The and ment casing axial the in gives of an it
blading, and flow straighteners of the air. After the air enters axial diiection, of the it rotor. thereby, the from iotor rotor, the is accelerated in The the tangential the momentum air and, leaving
to ensure axial inlet collector through removes the research through passes the opposite
in an axial torque
torque
is equal
is cradled loads.
bearings, is attached
which to
designed casing
A torque
measure-
of torque. 371
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLCATION
air I '
il
-_-
t_-
1,',-I Y_::_._:.._.__--"--?i
straighteners
....
i_:_-
Throttle
valve J
[ \
stator _ _t_tteor r
i I _.J
. -J
It for
can each
of
two
sections, extremely a stator tangential while case, can the driving the the be a direction
independent
valving measure example, impart rotor in this This permits force scale. the power indicate remain involved. is not used),
configuration momentum other rotor used to capability, of can can torque acting horizontal, remotely be arm vertically, stator is of the absorb opposite
blade
to the
of rotation design. to
For
aiIbrake
(It dynamometer, dynamometer by a spring-balance of scales does force reading been and of the that force the have range. these
measurement Measurement
force.--The
measurement Such absorber forces relatively The readily and 372 a scale
regardless observable
magnitude telescopes
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
Hydrostatic (e.g., with the air) the fluid, it. current load output direct as the fluid the can of operation
either been
a liquid used
(e.g.,
mercury) force. greater the fluid. or force with devices The the
principle force
to be measured the terms facilities with on digital the The than use the that be used. the that applied. and is that and to indicated. include interfere torquemeter fiat the on twist reflecting twist of a slit, the
is impressed
in a confined
equipped These
measure which,
torque. a digital
electronics, This
suitable it is
recording. component as may capability required arise of the for abbox. wherein gear torquemeter, shaft strain power is very are electronic brush the basically surfaces shaft. onto thereupon Photocell of the close tends as a laser for two by successive unbalanced life surface gage absorber. nearly equipand consists at each The optical reflection photocells illumrepositions position optical to the the of end. a transmitted encountered measurements. is
Strain-gage testing, conventional the To strain mounted The unique through ment, with this fine turbine which operates are on wire function circumvent sorber, which
torquemeter.--Sometimes, impractical torque rotative would this on the speed necessitate problem, the principle can between property strain brushes, torque voltages parallel unit illuminated gap. the cradle is higher measurement.
of an intermediate strain-gage torque and resistance Readings appropriate short with Problems the and wire
A bonded
of the shaft,
projects each
image
reflecting
produces condition.
two photocells.
A servomechanism
the photocells is a measure Experience torquemeter This turbine these may optical torsional may be
highly
design operated
strain-gage
torquemeters systems
provide
adequate
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPL]_CATION
with used
good
correlation.
There available
are that
other also
torquemeters
commercially
Rotative-Speed One testing to give manent shaft the usually speed. For and called because 1 minute). The the larly sprocket An given currently suited with time and speed proportional the turbine system. greater result control provide electronic for most accepted greater disengaging they yield accuracy should in speed be used. are average the voltage of the is that magnetic speed remote output simplest of rotative field of which of the indicator and indication and most
Measurement accurate The electric Adc Since graduated of speed. measurements tachometer generator, is the field to its to in can with driven turbine be used a perby the The
speed.
a continuous
a rotating
armature,
is proportional
read
revolution
counter
it simultaneously an rotative
chronotachometers,
available.
for a given
speed this
counter. to the
It is particumethod, shaft. for a a turbine speed. when pressure for this, accuracy air supply the air are tends and of
high-rotative-speed
(or impulses)
pressure
power
tends to
accelerations accuracy
a steady
TURBINE The by one performance the characteristics maps. flow The turbine and
PERFORMANCE of turbines Such work ratio. work, the and discussed map are usually map of the on the used and 1). are shown presented shows, operating map for are any in terms nature on
means figure,
and flow,
conditions
of temperature
pressure.
of equivalent 374
in chapter
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
In
brief
review,
the
equivalent
conditions
are
w.q=w
--_ e _h'
(12-7)
ah;q=
and
(12-8)
Ne,=
where rection the subscript eq refers factors are defined as to the equivalent condition. The
(12-9)
cor-
o=(
(12-10) (12-11)
\_-_-t_+ 1/
( 2 y,(,-,,
where the square of the critical V_r= velocity 2----Z-_ gRT' 3,-t-1 standard psia), and sea-level temperature specific heat ratio 12-16. equivalent the discussion flow rate on ratio air Vc, is (12-13)
The
subscript (10.133
std molecular
refers N/cm
to _ or
the
of or
pressure 518.7 R), An lent flow spreads follow, variations pressure map. Also,
weight
performance work the may in is plotted data equivalent be little speed. case) this
conveniently
rotative
Lines
presented
contours a great
for completeness. be obtained turbine a range from performance are sections plotted The are not 375 of speed. the
map,
of the for
obtained
parameters following
as functions type to be
TURBINE
DESIGN
AND
APPLICATION
Percent of design equivalent speed, N/%/B Ratio of inlet-total to exit-total pressure, pb/@ Efficiency
t
90xlO3 39 37 35 85 80
IO0
105 084.4
31 70i 29 33
3. o z.8
7.6
25 _' 23 21
6oh
55[
.SO
li
f/
_._;c.;-t-'.-i'l
l,'J-5" ._'_7..I.. k Ob / 4 / / ,_..-'T
" / ?1 F;..;]..4:-I-_' ,. /"7>._ i"
2.4
-4
85
2
42.o
/
2.z
"E 19
"_
I..i.I
i 1.8
17 15 13 11
LI -'>
9 4 5 6 7 8 Product of equivalent mass flow and equivalent rotative speed, _wN/6, (kg)iradl/sec 2 7
_8 I 9 I 10 I 11 _ 12 I 13 l 14 _L.... I 15 16 I 17 I 18 i 19 I 20
lOxlO3
___L
211xl 04
Product of equivalent mass flow and equivalent rotative speed, wN/8, (Ibl(rpm)/sec
FIGURE
12-16.--Turbine
performance
map.
for
the
same
turbine
whose certain
is shown
in figure
12-16.
but
were
selected
to illustrate
Flow turbine for (small pressure a single-stage 12-17 having was stator-throat a small ratio obtained stagger and speed operwith area), and angle a
in two was
flow 12-17
with 12-18
in figures
turbine
having
stagger with
obtained
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
cases, for
the
stator speed,
were flow
a given
increases
increases
until
some
maximum produces no mass flow is the maxispeed; maximum indicates the maxiThis relathe maxi-
value is reached. increase in mass that either the In figure mum this mass that value indicates flow the rate rotor 12-17,
A further increase flow. The reason for stator or the rotor the has small which flow the stator For is for rate by the
in pressure ratio this maximum in choked. stator-throat by the speed, choked In figure of the 12-18,
of mass that
is influenced is choked.
mum mass is the usual tive mum The turbine. 12-17 total flow In would occurrence
increases with decreasing and is due to an increase decreasing incidence speed. has turbine, a first-stage been the for flow the choke. speed. losses ]arge causes
with decreasing
In some
foregoing
discussion
a multistage indicate
variation
shown A flow
stator
32
14.5_
30 31
13.5_ 14. 0_
f_
.%_
.... _---__
_:
_spee_
12.o}- /F
E ! _ II. 5-
o
o
4o
60
24 _ 23!
._ I0. 5 I, __ t 1.4 i 1.6 I _ i 2.2 o I _ 2.4 II0 I l_i 2.6 2.8 I 3.0 1 3.2 I 3.4 _ 3.6 3.8
l 22 t
21
i0.0!
1.8 2.0
Ratio o1'inlet-total to exit-total pressure, pb/p_ FIGURE 12-17.--Variation of for turbine equivalent with small mass flow stator-throat with area. total-pressure ratio
377
TURBINE
I_EISIGN
AND
&PPLZCATION
49 48 47
45
44
"E 43 "5 42 41
4O
39
17.5L
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
Ratio of inlet-total to exit-total pressure, p_/p_ FIGURE 12-18.--Variation turbine of equivalent with large mass flow stator-throat with total-pressure area. ratio for
the
type
shown blade
in
figure row,
12-18 either a
would rotor
indicate or a stator.
choking To
in
some
downstream exactly between illustrated with blade pressure downstream case stator ratio pressure tablishes 378 illustrated at continues turbine row
determine are
where this the blade in figure pressure exit choking upstream static in a turbine
choking occurred, rows would have 12-19, ratio any that where (at given blade 12-19, ratio the the turbine. blade row
measurements Such data static shown by the in turbine at choke pressure the while particular the
constunt
of a two-stage in of
increases,
continues of
second pressure
to increase,
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMA.__TCE
First rotor exit Second stator chokes Second rotor chokes I Second stator exit
I I I I I
.i
1.5 2.0 2.5
I
3.0
I
3.5
l
4.0
l
4.5
Ratio of inlet-total to exit-total pressure, pb/p_ FIGURE 12-19.--Effect of turbine total-pressure ratio two-stage tu_rbine. on hub static pressure in a
Torque As should tangential and figure creases of with tuining as speed AVu (absolute) in exit for 12-20. the resulting in the the experimentally indicated vary by directly component any For torque constant with due from rotor. speed. rotor and a given to the This (exit equation with the (2-9) mass of chapter rate 2 (vol. and with between speed pressure and the in flow higher increased torque the more rate. 379 is 1), the the rotor torque shown ratio values turning decreases amount positive of torque in inlet varies in in-
change
manner ratio
in which
pressure mass
At a given absolute
increasing increases)
becomes
a possible
TURBINE
I_E,SIGN
AND
APPLICATI,0N
4000 --
32OO , ,.o" 2400 -2800 E z _o- 3500 C _" 3000 _ __ g 1500 1290 800 -4OO -E o _ _ 2500 4OOO
g _
6o
--
o-
o
1.4 1.8 2.2
I
2.6
I
3.0
I
3.4
I
3.8
I
4.2
I
4.6
I
5.0 p_IP2
I
5.4
I
5.8
turbine
pressure
ratio
and
speed.
12-20 torque
shows
that to
as the level
increases
for
a given value.
tends
a maximum
any further increase This phenomenon on a performance to yield In figure reached. exit
ratio results in no "limiting loading" lines of loading occurs the is, when of constant
the
been turbine
loading
at the
is unity. torque curves usual flow curves just discussed used to can be plotted the from turbine are then procedure and torque construct
The mass
speeds.
ideal
efficiency
are then
calculated,
performance
be drawn.
Efficiency Another 380 convenient and widely used method of presenting turbine
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
performance _, which
efficiency equation
as a function
of blade-jet
speed
ratio
U (12-14) _/2gJ,_h_ where U Ah_ blade ideal mean-section specific work J/kg; speed, based Btu/lb 2 (vol. with static 12-21 1), where For a correlation that speed case, ratio. against turbine bladeover a was efficiency shown was m/sec; on ratio ft/sec of inlet-total to exit-static
in chapter for an
idealized
case. blade-jet
efficiencies
for a two-stage
___
_q
<_
50
30
/ / /
/
/
.1 Design value
I
.1
1
.2
I
.3 Blade-jet
I
.4 speed ratio,
I
.5 v
I
.6
I
.7
I
.8
FIGURE
12-21.--V_riation
of efficiency
with
blade-jet
speed
ratio.
381
TURBINE
I)E,SIGN
AND
A.PPLI.CATION
of speed slightly
and
The very
for
this were
12-21 as well
efficiency
turbine
turbine.
however, represented
For speed
conditions to separate
limiting
loading
is approached, at the
speed
somewhat,
especially
Although parameters,
flow we
angles should
are
not
as they
turbine over
understand
vary
3O
2O --
80
10
100
0
"0
120
_'_ -10 g
2- -2o
-30
-40
-50
-6O
1
1.4
I
1.6
I
1.8
I
2.0
I
2.2
I
2.4
Ratio of inlet-total to exit-total pressure, P_P_t FIOURE 12-22.--Variation of rotor incidence and speed. angle with turbine pressure ratio
382
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
operating row to
conditions.
The
direction loss,
of the which in
flow
entering
each
blade
determines off-design
chapter
angle, flow
as the
blade ratio
calculated single-stage
12-22.
herein
as being vector
of the The
velocity following
is in
generalized variation
figure:
tential
operating
of a turbine,
in incidence
angle
16-_" A _3 []
8--
0--
-16 --
o Q_ L.
-2_--
-32 --
-40 --
-48 --
-56 2
1
1.3
I
1.4
I
1.5
I
1.6
I
1.7
I
1.8
t
1.9
I
2.0
]
2.1
Ratio of inlet-total to exit-total pressure, p_/p_, FIGURE 12-23.--Variation of outlet flow speed. angle with turbine pressure ratio and
383
TURBINE
I)E,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
with rotor
pressure incidence
becomes becomes
greater more
as speed positive
(3)
the ratio
angle
is important
design
of whatever component amount of thrust that flow 12-23 graph. angle the direction angle for The also change is plotted the apply opposite same trends in outlet to over
may be downstream of the turbine or to the can be obtained from the outlet flow. Outlet a range and angle of speed turbine flow angle, generalizations the with pressure incidence Loss in and at one 12-24. region. majority where layers. ratio loss losses stator. The over the contours The terms of total pressure such the seen of many were were pressure the loss full data by and referred only ratio angle. pressure to made in for and ratio the in figure last being parathat
to the
difference
flow
Stator means previously total-pressure trailing of such trated affected with the
loss
is
of a total-pressure shown loss occurs edge loss as shown near by the the
equipment A typical just composite stator of the The traces be plainly behind
as that stator that all such ratio concengreatly loss can end-wall
circumferential
circumferential
yields 12-25.
total-pressure
increasing
be noted.
coefficients
Once
turbine
stator
2.0
--
it)
_=_
1.5
--
Suction
,'
surface
o -0
su rfac/
__ressure
FIGURE
12-24.--Typical
total-pressure
loss
survey
data
at
blade
exit.
384
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
Total-press ure ratio (blade exit to blade inlet_ >0.98 0 90 to 098 >0.80 to 0.90
v,
Total-pressure ratio (bladeex_t 1o Nade inlet) Pressure surface side E::3 >0 98 090 Io 098 0.80 to 0.90 >070 to 0.80
(b) Total-pressure ratio (blade exit to blade inlet} r---I >098 _zza 0,90 to 0.98 i_ 0.80 to 090 I_ 0.70 to 080 _lm >0.60 to 070 r_> Total-pressure ratio (blade exit to blade inlet) 0.98 0 90 0.80 0.70 >060 to to to to 0.98 0,90 0.80 070
I I 4
L_j
(c) (a) ity (c) ity FIGURE Ideal ratio, Ideal ratio, after-mix 0.512. after-mix 0.823. of total-pressure ratio critical veloc(d) ity critical veloc(b) ity Ideal ratio, Ideal ratio, from (d_ after-mix 0.671. after-mix 0.859. stator annular surveys. critical veloccritical veloc-
12-25.--Contours
obtained
experimentally,
turbine
loss
breakdown
Surface An important surface profiles part that of the yield blading favorable
surface
distributions. 385
TURBINE
DE'SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
for calculating During "designed the velocity in the the test for"
were
in
whether To
are made
along
blade the
section
on static-pressure from
measure-
distribution can
be determined
Vc,
v-f_'+i[-1
L_--1L-\p_-/
( P']'"-"'"7"lr"
jj
determined surface similar conditions.
(12-15)
velocity The disone. is are
Figure 12-26 shows the experimentally distributions for two stators tested under tribution Acceleration smooth, no large (force and flow shown on the in figure the maximum is well 12-26(a) velocity (diffusions) distributed along other hand, Flow on
suction
surface
decelerations
loading
on blade)
Figure considered
1.4
1.2
._
r- Suction surface
>_1.0
_ Suction surface -_
''_\
_.
i,/.....E,/
' / .Z/
I
2 _ 0 f_). "0 i .2 .4 0.. 3_. _ . surface __Pressure I_ surface '_ Pressure
I
.6 (a)
I
.4 (b)
I
.6
I
.8
I
1.0
(a)
Desirable FIGURE
(b)
Undesirable velocity
distribution.
distributions.
386
EXPERIMENTAL
DETERMINATION
OF
AERODYNAIVIIC
PERFORMANCE
to
(V/Vcr=l.2) velocity. layer to separation observed it is followed any separated and valleys peaks with on
undergoes increase
a rapid causes suction but that surthis would velocity when the a in loss
to a subsonic
surface, general,
acceleration be avoided
distributions
should
are being
REFERENCES
ERNEST 0.: Measurement Systems: Application and Design. McGraw-HiU Book Co., 1966. 2. PUTRAL, SAMUEL M.; KOFSKEY, MILTON; AND ROHLIK, HAROLD E.: Instrumentation Used to Define Performance of Small Size, Low Power Gas Turbines. Paper 69-GT-104, ASME, Mar. 1969. 3. MOFFITT, THOMAS P.; PRUST, HERMAN W.; AND SCHUM, HAROLD J.: Some Measurement Problems Encountered When Determining the Performance of Certain Turbine Stator Blades from Total Pressure Surveys. Paper 69-GT103, ASME, Mar. 1969. 4. WISLER, D. C.j AND MOSSEY, P. W.: Gas Velocity Measurements Within a
DOEBELIN,
1.
5.
Compressor Rotor Passage Using 72-WA]GT-2, ASME, Nov. 1972. ASME RESEARCH COMMITTEE ON Theory and Application, 5th ed., Engineers, 1959.
the
Laser
Doppler
Velocimeter.
Paper
Fluid Society
387
TURBINE
DE,SIGN
AND
APPLICATION
area,
m2; ft 2 coefficient m; ft factor 1;32.17 based Btuflb work, J/kg; 1 ; 9/30 factor, Btuflb (rad) (min)/(rev) by eq. (12-4) (sec) 1; 778 (ft)(lb)/Btu defined rev/min (o R) (lbm)(ft)/(lbf)(sec of inlet-total 2) to exit-static on ratio expansion constant, work J/kg; specific specific
discharge diameter, thermal conversion ideal turbine conversion conversion approach rotative absolute absolute blade absolute change tween mass pressure,
N/m S; lb/ft 2 (K) ; (ft) (lbf)/(lbm) K; R speed, m/sec; ft/sec of absolute velocity bem/sec; ft/sec component and exit, lb/sec defined by eq. (12-5) from axial pressure to or (12-6) deg heat sea-level at measured at constant total direction, to specific standard m/sec;
gas constant,
ft/sec
Y F
5'
by eq. (12-12) based based (12-10) (12-14) on turbine-inlet on and standard (12-13)
ratio
of to
defined by
by eqs. eq.
eq in std t 0 388
equivalent meter inlet standard meter sea-level throat station at turbine inlet condition
measuring
EXPERIMENTALDETERMINATION OF
1 2 Superscript: ' absolute total state measuring measuring station station at stator at turbine
AERODYNAMIC
PERFORMANCE
outlet outlet
389
REPORT
r_,_t?,.,r_ , oll_ct4_f_ i;,,l_,_ t_l_;l_._, _r-_ ,t ,_._r,t,_,r_+,_ i T_,, r. !2C,t ] _TI "_e'_. ,_,,_; _,
DOCUMENTATION
,in_ _,'_tq,_r,_ , :, :c, rmpl_llnq _,.,r r_ducln] _ncl _6 _t,,_ '_... _r._, r_.._,,._n,: ;,,_t_,_n :_f,,.,, _f _'_ _h_ 2; _h,rTrOn J'_h_n_on
PAGE
Of ,nl,_rmat_on qr% Ser_ S_'nd cP._. comment_ Directorate Reducteon regarding _ot Prolect the% Information (0104-018B), burden
_r_f,_r_r,,_,,'_,r_. ,. _,j*_,_
22202.,1_02,
_.t_n_,_ment
` Paperwork
3. REPORT
TYPE
AND
DATES
COVERED
SDecial
Publication
5. FUNDING NUMBERS
Turbine
Design
and
Application
6. AUTHOR(S)
A.
J. Glassman
Cleveland,
R-5666
9. SPONSORING/MONITORINGAGENCYNAME(S) AND AODRESS(ES) National Aeronautics and Washington, DC 20546 Space Administration
NASA-SP-290
person,
Kestutis
C.
Civinskas,
organization
code
2760,
(216)
/ AVAILABILITY
STATEMENT
12b.
Ol S T"iB U TI--'0-_0
D E'
Unclassified Subject
- Unlimited - 7
Category
13, ABqTRACT
(Maxmnum
200 words)
has an interest in turbines relatedprJrnarily to aeronautics and space applications. Airbreathing engines provide jet and turboshaft propulsion, as well as auxiliary power for aircraft. Propellantturbines provide rocket propulsion and auxiliary power for space craft. Closed-cycle turbine using inert gases, organic fluids, and metal fluids have been studied forproviding long-duration power for spacecraft. Other applications of interest for turbine engines include land-vehicle (cars, buses, trains, etc.) propulsion power and ground-based electrical power.
In view of the turbine-s_stem interest and efforts at Lewis Research Center, a course entitled "Turbine Design and Application was presented during ]968-69 as part of the ]n-house Graduate Study Program. The course was somewhat rewsed and again presented in 1_72-73. Various aspects of turbine technology were covered including thermodynamic and fluid-dynamic concepts, fundamental turbine concepts, velocity diagrams, losses, blade aerodynamic design, blade cooling, mechanical design, operation, and performance. The notes written and used for the course have been revised and edited for publication. Such apublicaLion can serve as a foundation for an introductory turbine course, a means f-or self-study, or a reference for selected topics. Any consistent set of units will satisfy the equations presented. Two commonly used cons!stent sets of units and constant values are given after the symbol definitions. These are the ST units and the U.S. customary units. A single set of equations covers both sets of units by including all constants required for the U.S. customary units and defimn 8 as unity tho_o not required for the ST units.
14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PA_GES
engines,
aircraft
engines,
automobile
400
16. PRICE CODE
A17
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT
Unclassified
Unclassified
For sale bythe NASACenter for AeroSpace Information, 800 Elkridge Landing Road, Unthicum Heights, MD 21090-2934
Form
_INSI
29B
_td
(Rev
Z39-_8
2-B9)
298 !02