Basics of Electrical and Electronics Engg

UNIT-I DC & AC Circuits

DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), Ohm’s Law and its limitations, KCL & KVL,
series, parallel, series-parallel circuits, Super Position theorem, Simple numerical problems.

AC Circuits: A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period,
frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor,
Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits, Concept of
Impedance, Active power, reactive power and apparent power, Concept of power factor (Simple
Numerical problems).

Unit - II Machines and Measuring Instruments

Machines: Construction, principle and operation of (i) DC Motor, (ii) DC Generator, Magnetization
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator, (iii) Single Phase Transformer, (iv) Three Phase Induction
Motor and (v) Alternator, Applications of electrical machines.

Measuring Instruments: Construction and working principle of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
(PMMC), Moving Iron (MI) Instruments and Wheat Stone bridge

Unit - III Energy Resources, Electricity Bill & Safety Measures

Energy Resources: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; Layout and operation of
various Power Generation systems: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & Wind power generation.

Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, Laptops,
Printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity
tariff, calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers.

Equipment Safety Measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB), merits
and demerits. Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to
avoid shock.
UNIT-I DC & AC Circuits

Electrical circuit elements

There are three most basic circuit elements that we use to form different electrical and electronic
circuits are Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor.

What is a Resistor?

An electric circuit element that introduces an electrical friction or resistance in the path of electric
current is called a resistor. The characteristic by which it oppose the flow of current is known as
resistance. The resistance of a resistor is denoted by symbol R and measured in Ohms (Ω). The
typical circuit symbol of a resistor is shown in the following figure.

The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it. Therefore, in
terms of voltage-current relationship, if the voltage across an element is directly proportional to the
current through it, then this element is called a resistor.

Types of Resistors

Resistors can be classified in different types based on different parameters.

Depending on the ohm’s law, resistors may be classified into following two types −

​ Linear Resistors
​ Non-Linear Resistors
A resistor that obeys the Ohm’s law is called a linear resistor or ohmic resistor. On the other hand,
if the resistor does not obey the ohm’s law, then it is called a non-linear resistor or unohmic resistor.

Depending on the changing of resistance value, there are two types of resistors −

​ Fixed Resistors
​ Variable Resistors

Resistors whose resistance value remains constant and can never be changed are known as fixed
resistors. Where, resistors whose value can be changed are known variable resistors.
What is an Inductor?

Inductor is basically a wire of finite length twisted into a coil. An inductor is also a basic circuit
element that is used to introduce inductance in an electrical or electronic circuit. The inductor has a
property, known as inductance, which opposes any change in the electric current. The circuit
symbol of a typical inductor is shown in the following figure.

In terms of voltage-current relationship, if a two terminal circuit element whose terminal voltage is
directly proportional to the derivative of current with respect to time, then the element is called an
inductor. Therefore, the mathematical relation between voltage current of an inductor is given by,
From this expression it is clear that the voltage across the inductor would be zero if the through it
remains constant. Hence, an inductor with DC behaves as a short-circuit coil. Also, if the current
through the inductor charges within zero time, then it gives an infinite voltage across the inductor
which is practically not possible. Consequently, the current through an inductor cannot change
abruptly.
What is a Capacitor?

An electric circuit element that has an ability of storing electrical energy in the form of electric field
is called a capacitor. The property of the capacitor by virtue of which it store electrical energy is
known as capacitance.

A simple capacitor consists of two metallic plates separated by an insulating material. This
insulating material is called dielectric and it stores the electrical energy in the form of electric field.
Depending on the type of dielectric material used, there are several types of capacitors like paper
capacitor, air capacitor, mica capacitor, ceramic capacitor, electrolytic capacitor, etc.

Types of Capacitors
May also be classified based on their polarity as −

​ Polarized Capacitors
​ Non-Polarized Capacitors

A polarized capacitor is one which has a fixed terminal polarity and its terminals are marked with
fixed positive and negative polarities. Thus, polarized capacitors can be used in DC circuits only. On
the other hand, the non-polarized capacitor is one whose terminal polarity is not fixed, thus this
type of capacitor can be used AC circuits as well.

Depending on the change in capacitance, the capacitors may be of two types namely fixed
capacitors and variable capacitors.
Ohm’s Law and its limitations
At constant temperature, the current through an ideal resistor is directly proportional to the voltage
applied across the resistor. The constant of proportionality is written as R and this is the resistance
value of the resistor. Mathematically it can be represented as
V = I.R
The main criteria for Ohm’s law are to keep the resistance constant because the proportionality
constant in the relationship is resistance R. But we know that the variation of temperature affects the
value of resistance so to keep the resistance constant during experiments of Ohm’s law the
temperature is considered constant.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
There are various limitations of the Ohm’s Law, some of which are as follows:

● Ohm’s law is not applicable to unilateral electrical elements like diodes and transistors as
they allow the current to flow through in one direction only.
● For non-linear electrical elements with parameters like capacitance, resistance, etc. the
voltage and the current won’t be constant with respect to time making it difficult to use
Ohm’s law. Non-linear elements are those which do not have current exactly
proportional to the applied voltage, which means the resistance value of those elements
changes for different values of voltage and current. Examples of non–linear elements are
thyristors, electric arcs, etc.
● The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V(+ or -). In other words, if I is
current for a certain V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude fixed,
does not produce a current of the same magnitude as I in the opposite direction. This
happens for example in the case of a diode.
● Ohm’s law is only applicable to metallic conductors. So it won’t work in the case of
non-metallic conductors.

Sample Problems on Limitations and Applications of Ohm’s Law

Problem 1: What is the current flowing in a 75 W light bulb connected to 120 V?

Solution:

We have given the value of power (P = 75W) and value of Voltage (V = 120V).

We want to find the value of current I.

Using Ohm’s law,

P = IV

⇒I=P/V
⇒ I = 75 / 120

⇒ I = 0.625 A.

Problem 2: If the resistance of an electric iron is 100 Ω and a current of 4.2 A flows through
the resistance. Find the voltage between two points.

Solution:

If we are asked to calculate the value of voltage with the value of current and resistance given to us, then cover V in the
triangle. Now, we are left with I and R or more precisely I × R.

Therefore, we use the following formula to calculate the value of V:

V=I×R

Substituting the values in the equation, we get

⇒ V = 4.2 A × 100 = 420 V

⇒ V = 420 V

Problem 3: An EMF source of 10.0 V is connected to a purely resistive electrical appliance.

An electric current of 1.0 A flows through it. Consider the conducting wires to be
resistance-free. Calculate the resistance offered by the electrical appliance.

Solution:

When we are asked to find out the value of resistance when the values of voltage and current are given, then we cover R
in the triangle. This leaves us with only V and I, more precisely V / I.

Substituting the values in the equation, we get

R=V/I

⇒ R = 10 V / 1 A = 10 Ω

⇒ R = 10 Ω

Problem 4: Find the current I through a resistor of resistance R = 3 Ω if the voltage across
the resistor is 9 V.

Solution:

Substitute R by 2 and V by 6 in Ohm’s law V = R I.

9=3I

Solve for I,

I=9/3=3A

Problem 5: In the circuit below resistors R1 and R2 are in series and have resistances of 5 Ω
and 10 Ω, respectively. The voltage across resistor R1 is equal to 4 V. Find the current
passing through resistor R2 and the voltage across the same resistor.

Solution:

We use Ohm’s law V = R I to find the current I1 passing through R1.

4 = 5 I1

Solve for I1
I1 = 4 / 5 = 0.8 A

The two resistors are in series and therefore the same current passes through them. Hence the current I2 through R2 is
equal to 0.8 A.

We now use Ohm’s law to find the voltage V2 across resistor R2.

V2 = R2 I2 = 10 (0.8) = 8 V

kirchhoff's law

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav

Kirchhoff, developed a pair of laws that
deal with the conservation of current and
energy within electrical circuits. These
two laws are commonly known as
Kirchhoff ’s Voltage and Current Law.
These laws help calculate the electrical
resistance of a complex network or
impedance in the case of AC and the current flow in different network streams. In the next section,
let us look at what these laws state.

Kirchhoff ’s First Law or Kirchhoff ’s Current Law

The total current entering a junction or a node is equal to the charge leaving the node as no charge is
lost. Put differently, the algebraic sum of every current entering and leaving the node has to be null.
This property of Kirchhoff law is commonly called conservation of charge, wherein I(exit) +
I(enter) = 0.
In the above figure, the currents I1, I2 and I3 entering the node is considered positive, likewise, the
currents I4 and I5 exiting the nodes is considered negative in values. This can be expressed in the
form of an equation:

I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0

Kirchhoff ’s Second Law or Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law

According to Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law,

The voltage around a loop equals the sum of every voltage drop in the same loop for any closed
network and equals zero.

Put differently, the algebraic sum of every voltage in the loop has to be equal to zero and this
property of Kirchhoff ’s law is called conservation of energy.
Series Circuits:

In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end to form a single

path for current flow. The total resistance in a series circuit is equal to the sum
of the individual resistors, and the total voltage drop is equal to the sum of the
individual voltage drops across those resistors.

In a series circuit, the same amount of current flows through each component
in the circuit. This is because there is only one path for the
current flow.

A series circuit’s defining characteristic is that all components in

a series circuit have the same current flowing through them.
There is only one path for the current to flow. In the circuit from
Figure, the current (I) flows clockwise to complete a full loop
from the positive battery terminal back to the negative terminal
and then through the battery following the path 1–2–3–4–1.

Parallel Circuits:

In a parallel circuit, all components share the same electrical

nodes. Therefore, the voltage is the same across all parallel
components, and the total current is the sum of all the individual
branch currents.

Individual resistors can be in parallel, but in a more general sense,

one source of resistance can be in parallel with another source of resistance. In the
following diagram, one resistor is in parallel with resistance consisting of two
resistors.

Each current pathway leading from one node to another

is called a branch. In the following diagram, I1 and I2 are
branch currents.
Superposition theorem:

Superposition theorem states that in any linear, bilateral network where more than one source is
present, the response across any element in the circuit is the sum of the responses obtained from
each source considered separately. In contrast, all other sources are replaced by their internal
resistance.

To calculate the individual contribution of each source in a circuit, the other source must be replaced
or removed without affecting the final result. This is done by replacing the voltage source with a
short circuit. While removing a voltage source, its value is set to zero. When removing a current
source, its value is set to infinite. This is done by replacing the current source with an open circuit.

Example:

Find the current flowing through 20 Ω using the superposition theorem.

Solution:

Step 1: First, let us find the current

flowing through a circuit by considering
only the 20 V voltage source. The
current source can be open-circuited,
hence, the modified circuit diagram is
shown in the following figure.

Step 2: The nodal voltage V1 can be determined using the

nodal analysis method.

The nodal equation at node 1 is written as follows:

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be found using the following equation:

I1 = V1/ 10 + 20 = 12/30

I1 = 0.4A

Step 3: Now let us find out the

current flowing through the 20
Ω resistor considering only the 4
A current source. We eliminate
the 20 V voltage source by
short-circuiting it. The modified
circuit, therefore, is given as
follows:

In the above circuit, the resistors 5 Ω and 10 Ω are

parallel to each other, and this parallel combination of
resistors is in series with the 10 Ω resistor. Therefore, the equivalent resistance will be:

Now, the simplified circuit is shown as follows:

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be determined using the current division
principle.

Substituting the values, we get, I2 = 1.6A

Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit when only 4 A current source is 1.6 A.
Step 4: The summation of currents I1 and I2 will give us the current flowing through the 20 Ω
resistor. Mathematically, this is represented as follows:

I = I1 + I2

Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation, we get

I = 0.4+1.6 = 2 A

Therefore, the current flowing through the resistor is 2 A.

PART - II: AC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit is a closed path or loop through which charges or electric current flow
continuously. It is a closed conducting path for electrons which is also known as an electrical circuit
or electrical network. In electricity, circuits can be found in various types such as open, closed, series,
parallel, etc. An AC circuit is a type of electric circuit.

Equation of AC Voltage and current

AC circuits are powered by an alternating source such as alternating

currents or voltages which are sinusoidal and change periodically in
direction and magnitude. In other words, voltage or current oscillates in a
sine wave pattern and varies with time.

Such current is represented by i = I0 Sinwt

The current repeats its value after each time interval T=2π/⍵. This is called
the time period of the current. In the condition of alternating current, half of the time this current
remains positive and gets negative for the other half of the time period.

Similarly voltage is represented as v = V0 Sinwt

● Waveform: A waveform is a graphical

representation of a signal that shows how a
physical quantity (such as voltage, current, or
sound pressure) varies with respect to time. It
provides information about the shape, amplitude,
frequency, and other characteristics of the signal.
● Time Period: The time taken for one complete oscillation to occur is called the Time Period.
It is denoted by T. Its unit is seconds.
● Frequency: Frequency is the number of vibrations or the number of occurrences of a
repeating event per unit of time.
● Amplitude: Amplitude is the maximum value of current or voltage. It is represented by either
of the two peaks of the since wave. This voltage level is also referred to as the peak voltage,
and can be either positive or negative. Positive and negative refer only to the direction of
current flow.
● Phase: In electronic signaling, a phase is the position of a wave at a point in time (instant) on
a waveform cycle. It provides a measurement of exactly where the wave is positioned within
its cycle, using either degrees (0-360) or radians (0-2π). The phase difference is the difference
in the phase angle of the two waves.

● Average value: The average value is defined as the average of all the instantaneous values of
an alternating quantity such as current or voltage over one complete cycle.
● RMS Value: The RMS value of a waveform is a measure of its effective or equivalent value in
terms of its heating or power-delivering capabilities. It is calculated as the square root of the
average of the squared values of the waveform over a complete cycle.
● Form Factor: The form factor is the ratio of the RMS value of a
waveform to its average value. It provides information about the
shape of the waveform and is used to characterize the waveform's
deviation from a pure sinusoidal shape.
IMPEDANCE:

Impedance is a combination of resistance and reactance. It is essentially anything and

everything that obstructs the flow of electrons within an electrical circuit. Hence, it affects
the generation of current through the electrical circuit. It is present in all the possible
components of the circuit and across all possible electrical circuits. Impedance is
mathematically symbolized by the letter Z and has its unit as ohm. It is a superset of both
resistance and reactance combined.

In phasor terms, impedance Z is represented as a combination of resistance R and reactance

X as:

Z=R+jX

Where reactance X is a combination of Inductive XL and capacitive XC

X = XL + XC

Types of Reactance
There are two primary types of reactance:

● Capacitive reactance (Ohms is the unit)

● Inductive reactance (Ohms is the unit)

Capacitive Reactance

When a capacitor is connected to a circuit with AC supply, there is no simultaneous

change in the capacitor voltage and capacitor current. The potential difference across the
capacitor is dependent on the AC power supply.

Xc = 1/2πfc
 Inductive Reactance

In inductive reactance, the current across an inductor changes when potential

difference develops across it. The potential difference and rate of change of current are
proportional to each other.

Xl = 2πfl

Active Power
The active power is that amount of the total electric power in an AC electric circuit which actually
consumed or utilized. It is also called as true power or real power. The active power is measured in
Watts (W). The larger units of active power are kilowatt (kW), mega-watt (MW), gigawatt (GW) and
so on.

Technically, when in an AC electric circuit the phase angle becomes zero, i.e. the power factor
becomes unity, then the power consumed in the circuit is called active power. This happens in case
of the resistive load. Thus, the active power is given by,

In practice, the active power is used to specify ratings of electrical loads such motors, bulbs, irons,
etc.

Reactive Power
The reactive power is that amount of total electrical power which remains unused in the AC electric
circuit and flows back and forth in the electrical system from load to source and viceversa. It is
denoted by letter Q and is measured in Volt Ampere Reactive (VAR).

The reactive power in AC circuit may also be defined as the product of RMS values of voltage and
current with the sine of the phase angle, i.e.,
The reactive power is also known as wattles power or quadrature power. For an inductive load, the
reactive power consumed is the lagging reactive power and that consumed by the capacitor is the
leading reactive power. Therefore, there are two AC circuit elements namely inductor and capacitor
that responsible for the flow of reactive power in the circuit.

The reactive power is responsible for operating of all electromagnetic machines such as motors,
generators, etc., because it produces required magnetic excitation in these machines.

Apparent Power
The total power produced by a source of alternating current is the apparent power. It is measured as
the product of RMS values of voltage and current. The apparent power is denoted by letter S and is
measured in Volt-Ampere (VA).

Also, the apparent power is given by phasor sum of active power and reactive power, i.e.

S=P+jQ

In practice, the apparent power is used to specify the ratings of those electrical devices that act as
sources and transmitters of power like generators, alternators, transformers, etc.
If the RMS values of current and voltage in an AC circuit are 220 V and 5
A. If there is phase difference of 60° between voltage and current.
Determine active power, reactive power and apparent power in the circuit.
Unit - III Energy Resources, Electricity Bill & Safety Measures

Energy Resources: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; Layout and operation of
various Power Generation systems: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & Wind power generation.

Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, Laptops,
Printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity
tariff, calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers.

Equipment Safety Measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB), merits
and demerits. Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to
avoid shock.

Energy Resources: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources

The two major sources of energy is classified as:

● Conventional Sources
● Non-Conventional Sources

The classification of the sources of energy is given in the below image.

Conventional Sources of Energy

Conventional Sources of Energy are also known as non-renewable sources of energy and are
available in limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power. Further, it is classified under
commercial and non-commercial energy.

Commercial Energy Sources

Coal, electricity and petroleum are known as commercial energy since the consumer needs to pay its
price to buy them.

Coal

Coal is the most important source of energy. There are more than 148790 coal deposits in India, and
between 2005-2006, the annual production went up to 343 million tons. India is the fourth-largest
coal-producing country, and the deposits are primarily found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Jharkhand and Bengal.

Oil and Natural Gas

Oil is considered liquid gold and one of the crucial energy sources in India and the world. Oil is
primarily used in planes, automobiles, trains and ships. The total oil production in India was 0.3
million tons in 1950-51, which increased up to 32.4 million tons in 2000-01. It is mainly found in
Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai.

Electricity

Electricity is a common form of energy used for domestic and commercial purposes, and it is mainly
utilized in electrical appliances like fridges, T.V, washing machines and air conditioning.

The major sources of power generation are:

● Nuclear Power
● Thermal Power
● Hydro-electric power
Thermal PowerThermal power is generated at various power stations utilizing oil and coal. It is a
vital source of electric current, and its share in the nation’s total capacity in 2004-05 was 70 percent.

Hydroelectric PowerHydroelectric power is produced by constructing dams above flowing rivers like
Damodar Valley Project and Bhakra Nangal Project. The installed capacity of hydroelectric power
was 587.4 mW in 1950-51 and went up to 19600 mW in 2004-05.

Nuclear PowerThe fuel used in nuclear power plants is Uranium, which costs less than coal. Nuclear
power plants can be found in Kaiga (Karnataka), Kota (Rajasthan), Naroura (UP) and
Kalapakam(Chennai).

Non-commercial Energy Sources

Generally, the freely available energy sources are considered non-commercial energy sources.
Examples of non-commercial energy sources include straw, dried dung, firewood./p>

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Non-conventional sources are also known as renewable sources of energy. Examples of

non-conventional sources of energy include solar energy, bioenergy, tidal energy and wind energy.

Solar Energy

Solar Energy is produced by sunlight. The photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight based on the
form of electricity that needs to be produced. The energy is utilized for cooking and distillation of
water.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is generated by harnessing the power of wind and mostly used in operating water
pumps for irrigation purposes. India stands as the second-largest country in the generation of wind
power.

Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is generated by exploiting the tidal waves of the sea. This source is yet to be tapped due
to the lack of cost-effective technology.
Layout and operation of various Power Generation systems:

Layout of Hydel power plant

Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the cleanest
methods of producing electric power. In 2012, hydroelectric power plants contributed about 16% of
total electricity generation of the world. Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of renewable
energy. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity generation is relatively low.
This article talks about the layout, basic components and working of a hydroelectric power station.

The above image shows the typical layout of a hydroelectric power plant and its basic components.

Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to ensure sufficient water
storage at height. The dam forms a large reservoir behind it. The height of water level (called as
water head) in the reservoir determines how much potential energy is stored in it.
Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to the turbine. The
amount of water which is to be released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate. When
the control gate is fully opened, maximum amount of water is released through the penstock.

Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the penstock
due to gravity.

Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The turbine is mechanically
coupled to an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and consequently the
generator gets driven. There are two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse turbine and (ii)
Reaction turbine. Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines are used for low
and medium heads.

Generator: A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically coupled to the turbine
shaft. When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the generator and electricity is generated which
is then stepped up with the help of a transformer for the transmission purpose.

Surge Tank:

Surge tanks are usually provided in high or medium head power plants when considerably long
penstock is required. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at the top. It is fitted
between the reservoir and the power house. The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to reduce
the pressure swings in the penstock. When there is sudden reduction in load on the turbine, the
governor closes the gates of the turbine to reduce the water flow. This causes pressure to increase
abnormally in the penstock. This is prevented by using a surge tank, in which the water level rises to
reduce the pressure. On the other hand, the surge tank provides excess water needed when the gates
are suddenly opened to meet the increased load demand.

Advantages Of A Hydroelectric Power Plant

■ No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity generation
 ■ Neat and clean source of energy
■ Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost
■ Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life
■ Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation

Disadvantages

■ Very high capital cost due to construction of dam

■ High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which are quite
away from the consumers

Layout of Nuclear power plant:

In a nuclear power plant, heat energy is generated by a nuclear reaction called as nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission of heavy elements such as Uranium or Thorium is carried out in a special apparatus
called as a nuclear reactor. A large amount of heat energy is generated due to nuclear fission. Rest
parts of a nuclear power plant are very similar to conventional thermal power plants. It is found that
fission of only 1 Kg of Uranium produces as much heat energy as that can be produced by 4,500
tons of high grade coal. This considerably reduces the transportation cost of fuel, which is a major
advantage of nuclear power plants. Also, there are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the
world and, hence, nuclear power plants can ensure continued supply of electrical energy for
thousands of years. About 10% of the total electricity of the world is generated in nuclear power
plants.
How Does A Nuclear Power Plant Work?

Heavy elements such as Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are subjected to nuclear fission reaction
in a nuclear reactor. Due to fission, a large amount of heat energy is produced which is transferred
to the reactor coolant. The coolant may be water, gas or a liquid metal. The heated coolant is made
to flow through a heat exchanger where water is converted into high-temperature steam. The
generated steam is then allowed to drive a steam turbine. The steam, after doing its work, is
converted back into the water and recycled to the heat exchanger. The steam turbine is coupled to
an alternator which generates electricity. The generated electrical voltage is then stepped up using a
transformer for the purpose of long distance transmission.

The image below shows basic components and layout of a nuclear power station.
Nuclear Reactor

A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear fission. Since the nuclear fission is
radioactive, the reactor is covered by a protective shield. Splitting up of nuclei of heavy atoms is
called as nuclear fission, during which huge amount of energy is released. Nuclear fission is done by
bombarding slow moving neutrons on the nuclei of heavy element. As the nuclei break up, it releases
energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of neighboring atoms. Hence, it is a
chain reaction and it must be controlled, otherwise it may result in explosion. A nuclear reactor
consists of fuel rods, control rods and moderator. A fuel rod contains small round fuel pallets
(uranium pallets). Control rods are of cadmium which absorb neutrons. They are inserted into
reactor and can be moved in or out to control the reaction. The moderator can be graphite rods or
the coolant itself. Moderator slows down the neutrons before they bombard on the fuel rods.

Two types of nuclear reactors that are widely used -

1. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) -
This type of reactor uses regular water as coolant. The coolant (water) is kept at very
high pressure so that it does not boil. The heated water is transferred through heat
exchanger where water from secondary coolant loop is converted into steam. Thus the
secondary loop is completely free from radioactive stuff. In a PWR, the coolant water
itself acts as a moderator. Due to these advantages, pressurised water reactors are most
commonly used.
2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) -
In this type of reactor only one coolant loop is present. The water is allowed to boil in
the reactor. The steam is generated as it heads out of the reactor and then flows
through the steam turbine. One major disadvantage of a BWR is that, the coolant
water comes in direct contact with fuel rods as well as the turbine. So, there is a
possibility that radioactive material could be placed on the turbine.

Heat Exchanger

In the heat exchanger, the primary coolant transfers heat to the secondary coolant (water). Thus
water from the secondary loop is converted into steam. The primary system and secondary system
are closed loop, and they are never allowed to mix up with each other. Thus, heat exchanger helps in
keeping secondary system free from radioactive stuff. Heat exchanger is absent in boiling water
reactors.

Steam Turbine

Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs due to pressure of the steam. As the
steam is passed through the turbine blades, the pressure of steam gradually decreases and it expands
in volume. The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator through a rotating shaft.

Alternator

The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus generating electrical energy. Electrical
output of the alternator is the delivered to a step up transformer to transfer it over distances.

Condenser

The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is then converted back into water in
a condenser. The steam is cooled by passing it through a third cold water loop

The advantages of nuclear power are:

● One of the most low-carbon energy sources

● It also has one of the smallest carbon footprints
● It's one of the answers to the energy gap
● It's essential to our response to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions
● Reliable and cost-effective

Disadvantages of nuclear power station:

Disposal and storage of nuclear waste.

Uranium decomposes into harmful sub atomic masses.
Accidental leakage of radiation and large-scale accidents can be catastrophic..
Installation cost is very high as compared to the other power station.

Layout of Solar power plant:

Here’s a step-by-step look at how solar panels work.

● The solar panels are built with silicon cells, metal frames and special wiring. When these
panels are grouped and placed on the rooftop, they absorb sunlight and get activated.
● The solar cells are made up of a positively charged and negatively charged layer. Once the
energy strikes a solar cell, it causes electrons and creates an electric current.
● Solar panels work on converting sunlight efficiently into electricity. However, the generated
electricity is in the DC form, which gets converted into AC easily.
● The converted electricity will then power all the appliances. The energy will run through the
electric panels and distribute to the utilities.
 ● A smart electric metre will work on measuring usage and energy generation. The component
will quantify the surplus power and send it back when required.

The working of a solar plant comprises three main elements.

1. Solar Panels
Solar panels are the heart of a power plant. They are built by a number of solar cells and are solely
responsible for the success of a plant. The panels are positioned on the roof of a building at a tilted
angle to maximize sunlight.

2. Battery Controller
A battery charge controller ensures consistent power to the batteries, which is utilitarian on days of
less sunshine or at night. This takes care of the battery and makes sure the battery does not get
discharged or overcharged.

3. Solar Power disconnects

A solar power disconnect cuts off the DC power output from the solar panel. It also looks into
problems with the solar system. This component should be strong enough to control the power on a
bright sunny day.

4. Solar cells
Solar cells are majorly responsible for the flow of electricity. The energy-generating unit is fabricated
with p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors. The solar cells absorb the energy from the sunlight
and create electrical charges, which move in response to an internal electric field.

5. Deep cycle battery storage

The solar system requires deep cycle battery storage in order to store the energy generated by solar
panels. They are robust and are responsible for charging and discharging cycles.
6. Solar power system metering
Having a solar power system metre is an optional component but can help immensely maximise the
solar system’s efficiency.

Advantages of a Solar Power Plant:

Great for the environment. It is one of the cleanest sources of energy. Renewable energy does not
produce any noise pollution or waste and therefore does not impact the environment in any way.
The cost of energy production is practically negligible as it does not need any outside supply. Besides
the investment to set up a solar power plant, there are no additional costs involved.
There is no loss of energy in its distribution. This keeps the performance at its peak.
The installation of a solar power plant is easy and versatile. It can be set up almost anywhere. The
flexibility of a solar system makes it easy to generate electricity even in remote areas.
The energy production from the sun makes it an inexhaustible energy source. This makes it available
in abundance.

Applications of Solar Energy

Some major applications of solar energy include:

1. Solar water heating

2. Solar distillation
3. Solar heating of buildings
4. Solar pumping
5. Solar furnaces
6. Solar greenhouses
7. Solar cooking
Wind power generation.

Block diagram of wind power generation:

Working of Wind Power Plant:

The wind turbine works on the principle of conversion of kinetic energy of wind to
mechanical energy used to rotate the blades of a fan connected to an electric generator.
When the wind or air touches the blades (or) vanes of the windmill it the air pressure can be
uneven, higher on one side of the blade and lower on the other. Hence, uneven pressure
causes the blades to spin around the center of the turbine. The turbine does not operate at
wind speeds above 55 mph with the use of the controller.

The rotor shaft of the turbine (ie., low speed and high speed) is interlinked with the gearbox which
converts the speed from 30 to 60 rpm into 1000 to 1800 rpm. As the gearbox consists of gears, to
transmit mechanical energy. These speeds are most suitable to the generator for the generation of
electricity. When the rotor of the turbine rotates it drives a generator through a setup gearbox
causing the generator to produce electrical energy. Windmills are available in size from 100 KW to
36 MW mainly used off-shore Now the engineers are designing 10 MW of the wind turbine.

Components of Wind Power Plant

Blades are usually made of fiberglass or balsa wood. Most turbines have either two or three blades.

Rotor: It includes the blades and the hub together. The blades spin the rotor, which is attached to a
shaft that transfers the torque it creates into the gearbox. The rotor provides pitch regulation for
power output optimization and control. Its speed is variable to maximize aerodynamic efficiency.

Pitch turns blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the rotor from turning in
winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.

Brake is a disc that can be applied aerodynamically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in
emergencies. A brake shuts down the turbine if the winds become strong enough to impact the
turbine's internal components.

Low-Speed Shaft:The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 15 to 30 rotations per minute.
Gear box connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational speeds
from about 15 to 30 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational speed
required by most generators (alternators) to produce electricity. This is an expensive and heavy part
of wind turbines.

Generator is usually an induction generator that produces 50-cycle AC electricity.

Controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off
the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because
that might damage them.

Anemometer: It measures the wind speed and transmits the data to the controller. The controller
then corrects the turbine's direction, pitch, and yaw to best harvest the available wind energy.

Wind vane measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to the wind.

Nacelle sits at the top of the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts generator,
controller, and brake. It is essentially the cover for the machinery that translates wind power into
electrical power.
High-Speed Shaft: Drives the generator Yaw drive in upward turbines face into the wind. The yaw
drive keeps the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don’t
require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind Yaw Motor powers the yaw drive

Tower is usually made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases
with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.

Applications of Wind Power Plant

● They provide electricity for rural areas with limited grid connectivity.
● Wind power plants power industrial applications, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
● They can be integrated with other renewable sources for hybrid energy systems.
● Wind power plants support off-grid installations and emergency power needs.
● They offer environmental benefits by reducing air pollution and preserving natural resources.

Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners,

PCs, Laptops, Printers, etc

MINIMUM MAXIMUM
APPLIANCE
WATTAGE WATTAGE

2 Ton Air Conditioner 1300W 2000W

2 Ton Inverter Air
1000W 2000W
Conditioner

42 Inch LCD TV 110W 130W

42 Inch LED TV 70W 90W

Air Fryer 1500W 1500W

Air Purifier 25W 30W

Amazon Echo 3W 3W

Bread Toaster (4 Slice) 1200W 2500W

Ceiling Fan (48 Inch) 60W 80W

Coffee maker 800W 1400W

Computer Monitor 25W 30W

Deep Freezer 19W 19W

Dehumidifier 240W 240W

Desktop Computer 100W 450W

Dishwasher 1200W 1500W

Domestic Water Pump 200W 1500W

Electric Heater Fan 2000W 3000W

Electric Iron 800W 1500W

Electric Kettle 1200W 3000W

Electric Stove 2000W 2000W

Espresso Coffee Machine 1300W 1500W

Exhaust Fan 12W 12W

Food Blender 300W 400W

Fridge 150W 450W

Front Load Washing

500W 2200W
Machine

Fryer 1000W 1000W

Gaming PC 300W 600W

Guitar Amplifier 20W 30W

Hair Blow Dryer 1000W 3000W

Hair Straightening Iron 75W 300W

Home Internet Router 5W 15W

Home Phone 3W 5W

Hot Water Dispenser 1200W 1300W

Humidifier 35W 40W

Induction Cooktop 1400W 2000W

Inkjet Printer 20W 30W

Iron 1000W 1000W

Laptop Computer 40W 120W

LED Light Bulb 7W 10W

Oven 1000W 2150W

Phone Charger 4W 7W

Projector 220W 270W

Refrigerator 100W 200W

Scanner 10W 18W

Set Top Box 27W 30W

 Sewing Machine 70W 80W

Steam Iron 2200W 2800W

Table Fan 10W 25W

Top Loading Washing

500W 2500W
Machine

Treadmill 280W 900W

Tube Light 22W 22W

Vacuum Cleaner 450W 900W

Washing Machine 500W 500W

Water Filter and Cooler 70W 100W

Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity tariff,
calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers.

Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy

A Watthour (Wh) is equal to the energy of one Watt steadily supplied to, or taken
from, an electric circuit for one hour. The amount of electricity that a power plant
generates or an electric utility customer uses is typically measured in kilowatthours
(kWh). One kWh is one kilowatt generated or consumed for one hour. For example,
if you use a 40-Watt (0.04 kW) light bulb for five hours, you have used 200 Wh, or 0.2
kWh, of electrical energy.

Two-part electricity tariff

Definition of Tariff

The amount of money frame by the supplier for the supply of electrical energy to various types of
consumers is known as an electricity tariff. In other words, the tariff is the methods of charging a
consumer for consuming electric power. The tariff covers the total cost of producing and supplying
electric energy plus a reasonable cost.

Two-part tariff –

In such type of tariff, the total bill is divided into two parts. The first one is the fixed charge and the
second is the running charge. The fixed charge is because of the maximum demand and the second
charge depends on the energy consumption by the load.

Calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers.

Equipment Safety Measures:
Electric Fuse- Working Principle
The Electric Fuse works on the basis of the heating effect of the Electric Current.
It is composed of a non-flammable thin metallic wire with a low melting point.
If a high amount of Electricity is passed from the Electric Fuse, there is a
production of heat which causes the Fuse to melt which leads to the opening of
the Circuit and the blockage of Current.
Once a Fuse melts, it can be changed or replaced with a new Fuse.

A Fuse is normally made up of elements like zinc, copper, aluminum and silver.

A Fuse acts as a circuit breaker and breaks the circuit in case any fault occurs in
the circuit. It acts as a protector of Electric appliances and also as a safety
measure for humans. The figure below represents a Fuse operation, Fuse barrel
and Fuse link.
Characteristics of an Electric Fuse
Here are some important characteristics of a Fuse wire.
 ● Current Rating: It is defined as the continuous conduction of maximum
current holded by the Fuse without melting. It is the capacity of current,
and is measured in Amperes. Current (Cin)=75% current (rating)
● Voltage Rating: If voltage is connected in series with the Fuse, it does not
increase voltage rating.
Hence,

V (Fuse) >V (open circuit)

● I2t Rating: It is the total energy which is carried by the Fuse element in
case of a short circuit. It measures the heat energy of the Fuse, and is
generated when the Fuse breaks out.
● Interrupting or Breaking Capacity: The maximum rating of current
without harming the interruption by the Fuse is known as interrupting
capacity of the Fuse.
Breaking capacity > maximum rated voltage

Breaking capacity < short circuit current

● Voltage Drop: The Fuse element melts whenever there is an excessive

current in the circuit, and opens the circuit. Due to this, voltage drop and
resistance change reduces.
● Temperature: The Fuse melts when the operating temperature is higher
and the current rating is lower.

Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)

A miniature circuit breaker (MCB) is an Electrical Switch that automatically

switches off the electrical circuit during an abnormal condition of the network
means an overload condition as well as a faulty condition.

Miniature Circuit Breaker – Operation

If the circuit is overloaded for a long time, the bi-metallic strip becomes
overheated and deformed. This deformation of the Bi-metallic strip causes
displacement of the latch point.

The moving contact of the MCB is arranged by means of spring pressure, with
this latch point, a little displacement of the latch causes, the release of spring
and makes the moving contact move for opening the MCB.

The current coil or trip coil is placed so that during a short circuit fault the
magneto-motive force (mmf) of the coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch
point and make the latch to be displaced.

Again, when the operating lever of the miniature circuit breaker is operated by
hand, that means when MCB goes off position manually, the same latch point is
displaced as a result of moving contact separated from fixed contact in the
same manner.

It may be due to the deformation of a bi-metallic strip, increased mmf of a trip

coil, or maybe a manual operation, the same latch point is displaced and the
same deformed spring is released, which is ultimately responsible for the
movement of the moving contact. When the moving contact is separated from
fixed contact, there may be a high chance of arc.

This arc then goes up through the arc runner and enters arc splitters and is
finally quenched. When we switch it on, we reset the displaced operating latch
to its previous on position and the MCB is ready for another switch off or trip
operation.

Advantages of circuit breaker:

● It protects from damage caused y the flow of excessive current.

● It is more reliable.
 ● It can be reset as it operates via a switch.
● It is very sensitive in operations.

Disadvantages of circuit breaker:

● Installation and repair are expensive as compared to fuse.

● Fuse reacts faster compared to C/b.

Personal safety measures

Electric shock:

Our bodies conduct electricity. If any part of your body meets live electricity an electric
current flows through the tissues, which causes an electric shock. People sometimes
call it electrocution.

EARTHING AND ITS TYPES:

Definition: The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy
directly to the earth by the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing.
The electrical earthing is done by connecting the non-current carrying part of the equipment or
neutral of supply system to the ground.

Mostly, the galvanised iron is used for the earthing. The earthing provides the simple path to
the leakage current. The shortcircuit current of the equipment passes to the earth which has
zero potential. Thus, protects the system and equipment from damage.

Types of Electrical Earthing

The electrical equipment mainly consists of two non-current carrying parts. These parts are
neutral of the system or frame of the electrical equipment. From the earthing of these two
non-current carrying parts of the electrical system earthing can be classified into two types.

· Neutral Earthing
· Equipment Earthing.
Neutral Earthing

In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by the help of the GI
wire. The neutral earthing is also called the system earthing. Such type of earthing is mostly
provided to the system which has star winding. For example, the neutral earthing is provided in
the generator, transformer, motor etc.

Equipment Earthing

Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment. The non-current carrying part of
the equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the earth by the help of the conducting
wire. If any fault occurs in the apparatus, the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help of
wire. Thus, protect the system from damage.

Importance of Earthing

The earthing is essential because of the following reasons

· The earthing protects the personnel from the shortcircuit current.

· The earthing provides the easiest path to the flow of shortcircuit current even after the
failure of the insulation.
· The earthing protects the apparatus and personnel from the high voltage surges and
lightning discharge.

Earthing can be done by electrically connecting the respective parts in the installation to some
system of electrical conductors or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level. The
earthing mat or electrode under the ground level have flat iron riser through which all the
non-current-carrying metallic parts of the equipment are connected.
When the fault occurs the fault current from the equipment flows through the earthing system to
the earth and thereby protect the equipment from the fault current. At the time of the fault, the
earth mat conductors rise to the voltage which is equal to the resistance of the earth mat
multiplied by a ground fault
The contacting assembly is called earthing. The metallic conductors connecting the parts of the
installation with the earthing are called electrical connection. The earthing and the earthing
connection together called the earthing system

PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT SHOCKS

· Never use a damaged extension cord

· Never use a defective electrical device

· Pull on the plug and not on the cable to unplug an electrical device

· Unplug the toaster before trying to dislodge stuck toast

· Before changing a lightbulb, switch the light off or unplug the lamp

· Make sure to locate electrical wires before drilling a hole in the wall

· Multi-outlets: get the right power bars

· Always unplug the iron before filling it with water

· In the bathroom, never use electrical devices if you are wet or the humidity level is high

· Do not use electrical devices or extension cords near a pool

· If one of the breakers on your distribution panel trips often, spread out your devices onto
different circuits

· Do not cut off or bend the third prong of a plug … it’s an important feature

· Never throw water on an outlet that’s on fire

· Mow the lawn safely

· Be careful when removing the cover plate of a switch or outlet