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Brief Contents

Preface xiv

1 The Science of Child Development 2

2 Genetic Bases of Child Development 48

3 Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn 72

4 Growth and Health 120

5 Perceptual and Motor Development 156

6 Theories of Cognitive Development 188

7 Cognitive Processes and Academic Skills 226

8 Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition 272

9 Language and Communication 302

10 Emotional Development 344

11 Understanding Self and Others 374

12 Moral Understanding and Behaviour 404

13 Gender and Development 442

14 Social Influences 476

Glossary 537
References 546
Name Index 586
Subject Index 607

v
 Contents   xiii

List of Boxes

FOCUS ON RESEARCH CHILDREN’S LIVES

Hereditary Bases of Children’s Peer Genetic Counselling 57
Relationships 62 Five Steps Toward a Healthy Baby 80
Impact of Prenatal Exposure to Environmental Toxins on Back to Sleep! 114
Sex Ratios 91 Preventing Osteoporosis 129
Brain Specialization for Processing of Emotional Hearing Impairment in Infancy 160
Expressions 147 Teaching Practices That Foster Cognitive Growth:
Early Visual Experiencing and Face Processing 170 Educational Applications of Piaget’s Theory 197
Understanding Others’ Intentions 217 Theory of Mind in Autism 219
Do Stereotypes and Suggestions Influence Preschoolers’ Rhyme Is Sublime Because Sounds Abound 250
Reports? 236 Providing Children with a Head Start for School 286
Making Tests Less Threatening 291 Are Cochlear Implants Effective for Young Children? 308
Why Does Exposure to Parents’ Speech Increase Children’s Determining Guidelines for Childcare for Infants and
Vocabulary? 317 Toddlers 369
Temperament Influences Outcomes in Adolescence and Encouraging Valuable Traits, not Gender Traits 471
Adulthood 359 Assessing the Consequences of China’s One-Child
Identity and Acculturation of Immigrant Youth 382 Policy 495
Benefits of Martial Arts Participation for Children 435
Development of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability 451
Education of Parents to Prevent Child Abuse 503
SPOTLIGHT ON THEORIES
A Theory of the Risks Associated with
Teenage Motherhood 84
CULTURAL INFLUENCES A Paternal Investment Theory of Girls’ Pubertal
Why Do African Canadians Inherit Sickle-Cell Timing 133
Disease? 54 The Theory of Intersensory Redundancy 163
Infant Mortality 107 Fuzzy Trace Theory 233
Adolescent Rites of Passage 131 Impaired Reading Comprehension Is Impaired Language
Cultural Practices that Influence Motor Development 178 Comprehension 297
How Do Parents in Different Cultures Scaffold Their A Shape-Bias Theory of Word Learning 315
Children’s Learning? 202 A Theory of the Structure of Temperament in Infancy 354
Grade 5 in Taiwan 262 Developmental Intergroup Theory 397
How Culture Defines What Is Intelligent 278 Social-Information-Processing Theory and Children’s
Growing up Bilingual 320 Aggressive Behaviour 432
Why Is Yoshimi’s Son so Tough? 356 Gender Schema Theory 465
Dea’s Ethnic Identity 380 The Family Economic Stress Model 527
Lies, White Lies, and Blue Lies 415
A Cross-Cultural Look at Gender Differences in Math 454
Grandmothers in Indigenous Families 492
Preface

L ike many professors-turned-textbook-authors, Robert

Kail wrote this book because none of the texts
available met the aims of the child-development classes
and nurture in development. In Children and Their Devel-
opment, four of these foundational issues are introduced in
Chapter 1, then reappear in subsequent chapters to scaf-
that he taught. This, the fourth Canadian edition, does fold students’ understanding. As we mentioned already,
so from a Canadian perspective. In the next few para- the end of the chapter includes the Unifying Themes
graphs, we want to describe those aims and how this feature, in which the ideas from the chapter are used to
book is designed to achieve them. illustrate one of the foundational themes. By reappearing
throughout the text, the themes remind students of the
Goal 1: Use effective pedagogy to promote stu-
core issues that drive child-development science.
dents’ learning. The focus on a student-friendly book
begins with the structure of the chapters. Each chapter Goal 3: Teach students that child-development
consists of three or four modules that provide a clear and science draws on many complementary research
well-defined organization to the chapter. Each module methods, each of which contributes uniquely to
begins with a set of learning objectives and a vignette scientific progress. In Module 1.4, we portray child-
that introduces the topic to be covered. Special topics development research as a dynamic process in which
that are set off in other textbooks as feature boxes are scientists make a series of decisions as they plan their
fully integrated with the main text and identified by work. In the process, they create a study that has both
a distinctive icon. Every feature ends with at least one strengths and weaknesses. Each of the remaining chap-
critical thinking question to encourage students’ engage- ters of the book contains a Focus on Research feature
ment with the material presented. Each module ends that illustrates this process by showing—in an easy-to-read,
with several questions intended to help students check question-and-answer format—the different decisions
their understanding of the major ideas in the module. that investigators made in designing a particular study.
The end of each chapter includes several additional The results are shown, usually with an annotated figure,
study aids. Unifying Themes links the ideas in the chapter so that students can learn how to interpret graphs. The
to a major developmental theme. See for Yourself sug- investigators’ conclusions are described, and we end each
gests activities that allow students to observe firsthand Focus on Research feature by mentioning the kind of
topics in child development. Resources includes books converging evidence that would strengthen the authors’
and websites where students can learn more about child conclusions. Thus, the research methods introduced in
development. Key Terms is a list of all of the important Chapter 1 reappear in every chapter, depicting research
boldfaced terms appearing in the chapter. The Summary as a collaborative enterprise that depends on the contri-
is a concise, one-page review of the chapter. The Test butions of many scientists using different methods.
Yourself questions further confirm and cement students’
Goal 4: Show students how findings from child-
understanding of the chapter material.
development research can improve children’s
These different pedagogical elements do work; stu-
lives. Child-development scientists and students alike
dents using previous editions frequently comment that
want to know how the findings of research can be used
the book is easy to read and presents complex topics in an
to promote children’s development. In Chapter 1 of
understandable way.
Children and Their Development, we describe the differ-
Goal 2: Use fundamental developmental issues as ent means by which researchers can use their work to
a foundation for students’ learning of research and improve children’s lives. In the chapters that follow, these
theory in child development. Child-development ideas come alive in the Children’s Lives feature, which
courses sometimes overwhelm students because of the provides examples of research-based solutions to com-
sheer number of topics and studies. In fact, today’s child- mon problems in children’s lives. From these features,
development science is really propelled by a concern students realize that child-development research really
with a handful of fundamental developmental issues, such matters—that parents, teachers, and policymakers can
as the continuity of development and the roles of nature use research to foster children’s development.
 Preface   xv

New to the Fourth Canadian Chapter 5 has much revised coverage of face percep-
Edition tion, noting Canadian research in this area; new cov-
erage of attention, including information on recently
The fourth Canadian edition of Children and Their Devel- described networks of attentional processes and their
opment has improvements to the Canadian perspective, development and updates to the section on ADHD.
highlighting more work by Canadian researchers. More Chapter 6 includes information on Canadian research
international research and information is also included. In on Indigenous storytelling as a form of scaffolding;
updating this textbook, we have added many new citations contains much-revised coverage of executive function
and references to research published since 2014. Demo- and of naïve psychology (now called folk psychology);
graphic information and statistics, such as birth rates have and a revised section on Theory of Mind in Autism,
been revised, where new information exists. We have also including important Canadian research in this area.
added new content to every chapter. Of particular note:
Chapter 7 includes updates on children’s use of memory
Chapter 1 has some revision of descriptions of theories strategies; new material on the impact of children’s mis-
in child development; also, updated examples of dif- conceptions on their scientific thinking; and much-
ferent research methods with expanded information revised coverage of reading and of quantitative reasoning.
on, and examples of, field experiments.
Chapter 8 has completely revised coverage of dynamic
Chapter 2 has updated information, including updates assessment (formerly, dynamic testing); updates to
regarding access to IVF in Canada; a new Focus on the Cultural Influences box, including information
Research feature on hereditary bases of peer rela- on Canadian Indigenous peoples; a new Focus on
tionships; extensively revised material on molecular Research feature on making tests less threatening to
genetics and its application; and new material about counter stereotype threat; a new Spotlight on Theory
methylation as an epigenetic mechanism. feature on the nature of impaired reading comprehen-
Chapter 3 has updated information on fetal behav- sion; and much-reorganized material on gifted children.
iour and abilities; a revised and updated Spotlight on Chapter 9 contains revised coverage of the role of sen-
Theories feature, with Canadian information; new tence cues in word learning; updated information on
material on environmental pollutants, including some cochlear implants; a new Focus on Research feature
updates to the Focus on Research feature on links on why exposure to parents’ speech increases chil-
between environmental toxins and sex ratios; infor- dren’s vocabulary; and much-revised coverage on lan-
mation on the Zika virus and its effects; additional guage acquisition in bilingual children.
information regarding prenatal development, espe-
cially sensory development; an updated section on Chapter 10 includes updates and new material on
the impact of cocaine, revised material on the impact regulation of emotion; a much-revised Spotlight on
of epidural analgesia; updated information on home Theories feature; much-revised information on tem-
versus hospital birth; additional information on pre- perament and its links to personality, including revi-
maturity and its long-term effects for the child; and sions to the Cultural Influences box; and a new Focus
updates on sudden infant death, now referred to as on Research feature on the long-term consequences
sudden unexpected infant death (SUID). of temperament.
Chapter 11 has reorganized coverage of self-recogni-
Chapter 4 includes revised material on sleep; revisions
tion, self-awareness, and self-esteem—including new
to the section on nutrition, including an updated
material on narcissism; revised information on iden-
section on ways to encourage young children to eat
tity formation and ethnic identity; and a revised sec-
healthfully; additional information on Canadian
tion on prejudice that includes new material on the
Indigenous peoples in the Cultural Influences box;
impact of discriminatory behaviour.
much-revised material on the impact of timing of
maturation on boys’ development; a new list of factors Chapter 12 contains new material on moral think-
that lead to obesity, with additional information and ing as a core domain; a much-revised Cultural Influ-
updated statistics on obesity rates in Canada; updated ences feature; new material on the role of oxytocin
Focus on Research feature on face processing, now in promoting social behaviour; an updated Spotlight
utilizing Canadian research. on Theories feature; and much-revised coverage of
xvi   Preface

victims of aggression, including new information on quizzes, tests, exams, as well as homework or practice
victimization and an effective anti-bullying program. handouts. Questions and tests can all be authored online,
allowing instructors ultimate flexibility and the ability
Chapter 13 has extensively revised coverage of gender-
to efficiently manage assessments at any time, from any-
related differences including new information on dif-
where. MyTest for Children and Their Development contains
ferences in memory and in effortful control as well
over 2000 multiple-choice, true/false, and short-answer
as depression in adolescents; and revised coverage of
essay questions, which are also available in Microsoft Word
cognitive theories of gender identity, including addi-
format (see below).
tional material on gender schemata and effects of gen-
The following supplements can be downloaded
der essentialism.
from a password-protected section of Pearson Education
Chapter 14 contains new material on cultural and Canada’s online catalogue (www.pearsoncanada.ca/).
socioeconomic influences on parenting styles; addi- Navigate to your book’s catalogue page to view a list of
tional material on intervention programs that teach those supplements that are available. See your local sales
parenting skills; updates to the feature on Grand- representative for details and access.
mothers in Indigenous families; much-revised cover- Instructor’s Resource Manual: Each chapter in the
age of adopted children, including new material on manual includes the following resources: Chapter Learn-
open adoption; new material on children’s play and ing Objectives; Lecture Suggestions and Discussion Top-
friendships; new information on links between pov- ics; Classroom Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises;
erty, stress, and children’s health; additions on the Out-of-Class Assignments and Projects; Lecture Notes;
impact of political violence and homelessness on chil- Multimedia Resources; Video Resources; and Handouts.
dren’s development; and revisions and updates to the Designed to make your lectures more effective and to
sections on contributions to school success of pro- save you preparation time, this extensive resource gath-
grams for mentoring and teacher training. ers together the most effective activities and strategies for
teaching your developmental psychology course. The
Support Materials Instructor’s Manual is in PDF format.
PowerPoint Presentations: Each chapter’s PowerPoint
Children and Their Development, Fourth Canadian Edition, presentation highlights the key points covered in the text.
is accompanied by a superb set of ancillary materials. They Image Library: This set of images, illustrations, fig-
include the following: ures, and charts from the text is provided in electronic
format for instructor use.
MEDIA SUPPLEMENTS Test Item File: The test bank in Microsoft Word
format contains over 2000 multiple-choice, true/false,
• MyVirtualChild. MyVirtualChild is an interactive and short-answer essay questions. The test bank is also
simulation that allows students to play the role of available in MyTest format (see above).
parent and raise their own virtual child. By mak-
ing decisions about specific scenarios, students can Pearson Custom Library For enrollments of at least
raise their child from birth to age 18 and learn first- 25 students, you can create your own textbook by
hand how their own decisions and other parenting choosing the chapters that best suit your own course
actions affect their children over time. MyVirtual- needs. To begin building your custom text, visit www.
Child helps students think critically as they apply pearsoncustomlibrary.com. You may also work with a
their course work to the practical experiences of dedicated Pearson Custom editor to create your ideal
raising a virtual child. You can access MyVirtual- text—publishing your own original content or mixing
Child at www.myvirtualchild.com. and matching Pearson content. Contact your local Pearson
Representative to get started.

INSTRUCTOR SUPPLEMENTS
To the Student
In this book, we’ll trace children’s development from
MyTest: Pearson MyTest is a powerful assessment-gener- conception through adolescence. Given this goal, you
ation program that helps instructors easily create and print may expect to find chapters devoted to early childhood,
 Preface   xvii

middle childhood, and the like. But this book is orga- Cultural Influences shows how culture influ-
nized differently—around topics. Chapters 2 through ences children and illustrates that develop-
5 are devoted to the genetic and biological bases of mental journeys are diverse. All children share the
human development, and the growth of perceptual and biological aspects of development, but their cultural
motor skills. Chapters 6 through 9 cover intellectual contexts differ. This feature celebrates the develop-
development—how children learn, think, reason, and mental experiences of children from different
solve problems. Chapters 10 through 14 concern social backgrounds.
and emotional development—how children acquire the
customs of their society and learn to play the social roles Children’s Lives shows how research and
expected of them. theory can be applied to improve children’s
This organization reflects the fact that when scien- development. These practical solutions to everyday
tists conduct research on children’s development, they problems show the relevance of research and theory
usually study how some specific aspect of how a child to real life, and show how results from research are
develops. For example, a researcher might study how used to create social policy that is designed to improve
memory changes as children grow or how friendship the lives of children and their families.
in childhood differs from that in adolescence. Thus, the
organization of this book reflects the way researchers Spotlight on Theories examines an influen-
actually study child development. tial theory of development and shows how it
has been tested in research.
ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS Two other elements are designed to help you focus on
AND LEARNING AIDS the main points of the text. First, whenever a key term is
Each of the chapters (except Chapter 1) includes several introduced in the text, it appears in Blue bold italic like
modules that are listed at the beginning of each chapter. this, and the definition appears in black boldface type.
Each module begins with a set of learning objectives This format should make key terms easier for you to find
phrased as questions, a mini-outline listing the major and learn. Second, summary tables appear periodically
subheadings of the module, and a brief vignette that intro- throughout the book, reviewing key ideas and providing
duces the topics to be covered in the module. The learn- a capsule account of each. For example, the following
ing objectives, mini-outline, and vignette tell you what to Summary Table shows the many study aids that we’ve
expect in the module. included in the book.

Each module in Chapters 2 through 14 includes at

least one special feature that expands or highlights a topic.
There are four different kinds of features; you can recog-
nize each one by its distinctive icon:
Focus on Research provides details on the
design and methods used in a particular
research study. Closely examining specific studies
demystifies research and shows that scientific work is
a series of logical steps conducted by real people.
xviii   Preface

Each module concludes with Check Your Learning ques- Sometimes for the sake of variety we use other
tions to help you review the major ideas in that module. terms that are less tied to specific ages, such as babies,
As you can see in the inset, there are three kinds of ques- youngsters, and elementary-school children. When we do,
tions: recall, interpret, and apply. you will be able to tell from the context what groups
are being described.
We also use very specific terminology in describ-
ing research findings from different cultural and ethnic
groups. The appropriate terms to describe different
cultural, racial, and ethnic groups change over time.
For example, the terms coloured people, Negroes, Black
Canadians, and African Canadians have all been used to
describe Canadians who trace their ancestry to Africa.
In this book, we use the term African Canadian because
If you can answer the questions in Check Your Learning it emphasizes the unique cultural heritage of this group
correctly, you are on your way to mastering the mate- of people. Following this same line of reasoning, we
rial in the module. However, do not rely exclusively use the terms European Canadian (instead of Caucasian
on Check Your Learning as you study for exams. The or white), Indigenous (instead of First Nations, Métis, Inuit,
questions are designed to give you a quick check of your Indian or American Indian), Asian Canadian, and Latin
understanding, not a comprehensive assessment of your American Canadian.
knowledge of the entire module. These labels are not perfect. Sometimes they blur
At the very end of each chapter are several addi- distinctions within ethnic groups. For example, the
tional study aids. Unifying Themes links the contents of term Hispanic Canadian ignores differences between
the chapter to the developmental themes introduced in individuals who came to Canada from Puerto Rico,
Module 1.3. See for Yourself suggests some simple activi- Mexico, and Guatemala; the term Asian Canadian blurs
ties for exploring issues in child development on your variations among people whose heritage is East Indian,
own. Resources includes books and websites where you Japanese, Chinese, or Korean. Whenever research-
can learn more about children and their development. ers identified the subgroups in their research sample,
Key Terms is a list of all the important terms that appear we use the more specific terms in describing results.
in the chapter, along with the page where each term is When you see the more general terms, remember that
defined. The Summary provides a concise review of the conclusions may not apply to all subgroups within the
entire chapter, organized by module and the primary group.
headings within the module. Finally, the Test Yourself
questions further confirm and cement your understanding
of the chapter material. A Final Word
TERMINOLOGY Robert Kail wrote the first American edition of this book
to make child development come alive for his students at
Every field has its own terminology, and child develop- Purdue. Although we can’t teach you directly, we hope
ment is no exception. We use several terms to refer to this book sparks your interest in children and their devel-
different periods of infancy, childhood, and adolescence. opment. Please let us know what you like and dislike
Although these terms are familiar, we use each to refer to about the book so that it can be improved in later editions.
a specific range of ages: You can email me, Anne Barnfield, at [email protected]—
Newborn Birth to 1 month I’d love to hear from you.
Infant 1 month to 1 year
Toddler 1 to 2 years
Preschooler 2 to 6 years Acknowledgments
School-age child 6 to 12 years
Adolescent 12 to 18 years For the Canadian editions of the book, I would like
Adult 18 years and older to thank those who helped with the original work. In
 Preface   xix

addition, I would like to thank the following reviewers for who continued the process; and, for the fourth edition,
their many helpful comments and suggestions: Christina Vereen, Ruth Chernia, and Kritika Kaushik,
who brought the book through production. I would also
Tina Bonnett, Fanshawe College
like to thank Annamarie Chalikakis for her invaluable assis-
Leanna Closson, Saint Mary’s University
tance when this whole process began and Brescia students
Sandra Hessels, Huron University College at
Kasha McEwen (with the first edition). Sileny Chamorro
Western University
(for the second edition), and Zeena Wong (who saved me
Alissa Pencer, Dalhousie University
much time with this, fourth edition!) for their assistance in
Jill Singleton-Jackson, University of Windsor
retrieving information and performing literature searches.
I must also thank Ky Pruesse for the initial concept of the My husband, Richard Van de Wetering, as ever, deserves
Canadian edition; Kimberley Veevers, Acquisitions Editor, special thanks for his patience and understanding.
who started the editing process; Martina van de Velde, —Anne M. C. Barnfield
About the Authors

Robert V. Kail is a Distinguished Professor of

Psychological Sciences at Purdue University. His undergraduate
degree is from Ohio Wesleyan University, and his PhD is from
the University of Michigan. Kail is editor of Child Development
Perspectives and the editor emeritus of Psychological Science. He
received the McCandless Young Scientist Award from the Amer-
ican Psychological Association, was named the Distinguished
Sesquicentennial Alumnus in Psychology by Ohio Wesleyan
University, and is a fellow of the Association for Psychological
Science. He has also written Scientific Writing for Psychology: Les-
sons in Clarity and Style. His research focuses on cognitive devel-
opment during childhood and adolescence. Away from the
office, he enjoys photography and working out. His website is
http://www2.psych.purdue.edu/~rk/home.html.

Anne M. C. Barnfield is an Associate Professor of

Psychology at Brescia University College. Her undergraduate
degree is from the University of London, UK, and her PhD is
from the University of Sussex, UK. Barnfield is a manuscript
reviewer for the journals Personality and Individual Differences,
Perceptual and Motor Skills, and the Human-Animal Interaction
Bulletin, as well as an occasional book reviewer for The Journal
of Asian Martial Arts. She is a member of the APA Human-
Animal Interaction Division, the Society for the Teaching of
Psychology, and the Canadian Society for Brain, Behaviour
and Cognitive Science. Her research focuses on the beneficial
influences of sport participation for children, particularly those
with special needs, and applications of Equine Assisted Ther-
apy, with a focus on anxiety disorders. Away from the office,
she enjoys karate, archery, and horseback riding. The Brescia
University College website is: http://www.brescia.uwo.ca/.
 1 The Science
of Child Development

Marzanna Syncerz/Fotolia

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Setting the Stage Foundational Themes in Doing

Theories of Child Child-Development Child-Development
Development Research Research
 Beginning as a microscopic cell, every person takes a fascinating journey designed to lead to adult-
hood. This trip is filled with remarkably interesting and challenging events. In this text, we’ll trace
this journey as we learn about the science of child development, a multidisciplinary study of all
aspects of human growth from conception to young adulthood. As an adult, you’ve already lived
the years that are at the heart of this text. We hope you enjoy reviewing your own developmental
path from the perspective of child-development research and that this perspective leads you to new
insights into the developmental forces that have made you the person you are today.
Chapter 1 sets the stage for our study of child development. We begin, in Module 1.1, by
looking at philosophical foundations for child development and the events that led to the creation
of child development as a new science. In Module 1.2, we examine theories that are central to the
science of child development. In Module 1.3, we explore themes that guide much of the research
in child development. Finally, in Module 1.4, we learn about the methods scientists use to study
children and their development.

1.1 Setting the Stage

Outline Learning Objectives
Historical Views of Children 1. What ideas did philosophers have about children and childhood?
and Childhood
2. How did the modern science of child development emerge?
Origins of a New Science
3. H
 ow do child-development scientists use research findings to improve
children’s lives?

Kendra loves her 12-month-old son, Joshua, but she is eager to return to her job as a loan officer at a local bank.
Kendra knows a woman in her neighbourhood who has cared for some of her friends’ children, and they all think she
is wonderful. But deep down, Kendra wishes she knew more about whether this type of care is really best for Joshua.
She also wishes that her neighbour’s daycare centre had a “stamp of approval” from someone who knows how to
evaluate such facilities.

K endra’s question about the best way to care for her infant son is just the most recent
in a long line of questions that she has had about Joshua since he was born. When
Joshua was a newborn, Kendra wondered if he could recognize her face and her voice. As
her son grows, she’ll continue to have questions: Why is he so shy at preschool? Should
he take classes for gifted children or would he be better off in regular classes? What can
she do to be sure that he won’t use drugs?
These questions—and hundreds more like them—touch issues and concerns that
parents such as Kendra confront regularly as they do their best to rear their children. And
parents are not the only ones asking these questions. Many professionals who deal with
children—teachers, healthcare providers, and social workers, for example—often wonder
what is best for children’s development. Does children’s self-esteem affect their success in
school? Should we believe young children when they claim they have been abused? As
well, government officials must decide what programs and laws provide the greatest ben-
efit for children and their families. How does welfare reform affect families? Are teenagers
less likely to have sex when they participate in abstinence-only programs?

3
4   Chapter 1 • The Science of Child Development

So many questions, and all of them important! Fortunately, the field of child devel-
opment, which traces physical, mental, social, and emotional development from concep-
tion to maturity, provides answers to many of them. To begin, let’s look at the origins of
child development as a science.

Historical Views of Children and Childhood

For thousands of years, philosophers have speculated on the fundamental nature of child-
hood and the conditions that foster a child’s well-being. The Greek philosophers Plato
(428–347 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE) believed that schools and parents had respon-
sibility for teaching children the self-control that would make them effective citizens. But
both philosophers, particularly Aristotle, also worried that too much self-discipline would
stifle children’s initiative and individuality, making them unfit to be leaders.
Plato and Aristotle also had ideas about knowledge and how it is acquired. Plato
believed that experience could not be the source of knowledge because human senses
are too fallible. He argued instead that children are born with innate knowledge of many
concrete objects (such as animals and people), as well as with knowledge of abstractions
(such as courage, love, and goodness). In Plato’s view, children’s sensory experiences
simply trigger knowledge that they’ve had since birth. The first time a child sees a
dog, her innate knowledge allows her to recognize it as such; no learning is necessary.
In contrast, Aristotle denied the existence of innate knowledge, believing instead that
knowledge is rooted in perceptual experience. Children acquire knowledge piece by
piece, based on the information provided by their senses.
These contrasting views resurfaced during the Age of Enlightenment. The English
philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) asserted that the human infant is a tabula rasa, or
“blank slate,” and claimed that experience moulds the infant, child, adolescent, and adult
into a unique individual. According to Locke, parents should instruct, reward, and disci-
pline young children, gradually relaxing their authority as children grow. In our opening
vignette, Locke would have advised Kendra that childcare experiences will undoubtedly
affect Joshua’s development (although Locke would not specify how).
During the following century, Locke’s view was challenged by the French philoso-
pher Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), who believed that newborns are endowed with
an innate sense of justice and morality that unfolds naturally as the child grows. During
this unfolding, children move through the same developmental stages that we recognize
today—infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Rather than emphasizing parental discipline,
Rousseau argued that parents should be responsive, and he encouraged them to be recep-
tive to their children’s needs, as he explained in his book Émile, written in 1762. Rousseau
would emphasize the value of caregivers who are responsive to Joshua’s needs.
Rousseau shared Plato’s view that children begin their developmental journey well
prepared with a stockpile of knowledge. Locke, like Aristotle two thousand years before,
believed that children begin their journey packed lightly, picking up necessary knowledge
along the way, through experience. These debates might have continued to be solely
philosophical for millennia except for a landmark event: the emergence of child develop-
ment as a science.

Origins of a New Science

The push toward child development as a science came in part from the significant role
played by children themselves during the momentous transformation of the working
 Setting the Stage • Module 1.1   5

environment in England known as the Industrial Revolution, which began in the mid-
eighteenth century. For much of recorded history, as soon as children no longer needed Q&A Question 1.1
Morgan is 18 months
constant care from adults—by about five to seven years of age—they were considered
old. Her father believes
grown up and entered the world of work. Many children worked at home, in the fields, she should have a very
or were apprenticed to learn a trade. Beginning in the mid-1700s, England moved from a structured day, one that
largely rural culture relying on agriculture to an urban-oriented society organized around includes some physical
factories, especially textile mills. Children moved with their families to cities and worked activity, time spent
reading and doing
long hours in factories and in mines under horrendous conditions and for little pay
puzzles, and, finally,
(Postman, 1982). Accidents were common, and many children were maimed or killed. In lots of reassuring hugs
textile mills, for example, the youngest children often had the hazardous job of picking and kisses. Is Morgan’s
up loose cotton from beneath huge power looms while the machines were in operation. dad a believer in
Reformers, appalled at these conditions, worked hard to enact legislation that Rousseau’s or Locke’s
would limit child labour and put more children in schools. These initiatives were the view of childhood?
(Answer is on page 7.)
subject of political debates throughout much of the 1800s; after all, factory owners were
among the most powerful people in Britain, and they adamantly opposed efforts to limit
access to plentiful cheap labour. But the reformers ultimately carried the day and, in the
process, made the well-being of children a national concern.
Another major event that set the stage for the new science of child development
was the publication of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Darwin (1859) argued that
individuals within a species differ; some individuals are better adapted to a particular
environment, making them more likely to survive and to pass along their characteristics
to future generations. Some scientists of the day noted similarities between Darwin’s
description of evolutionary change within species and the age-related changes in human
behaviour. This prompted many scientists, including Darwin himself, to write
what became known as baby biographies—detailed, systematic observations of
individual children. The observations in the biographies were often subjective, and
conclusions were sometimes reached on the basis of minimal evidence. Nevertheless, the
systematic and extensive records in baby biographies paved the way for objective, analytic
research.
Taking the lead in this new science at the dawn of the twentieth century was
G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924), who generated theories of child development based on
evolutionary theory and conducted studies to determine age trends in children’s beliefs
and feelings about a range of topics. Perhaps more importantly, Hall founded the first
English-language scientific journal in which scientists could publish findings from child-
development research. Hall also founded a child study institute at Clark University and
was the first president of the American Psychological Association.
Meanwhile, in France, Alfred Binet (1857–1911) had begun to devise the first men-
tal tests, which we’ll examine in Module 8.2. In Austria, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
startled the world by suggesting that the experiences of early childhood seemed to account
for patterns of behaviour in adulthood. And American John B. Watson (1878–1958), the
founder of behaviourism, began to write and lecture on the importance of reward and
punishment for childrearing practices. (You’ll learn more about Freud’s and Watson’s
contributions in Module 1.2.)
Psychological research in Canada also dates from the late 1800s, when psychology
was studied in departments of philosophy, a usual occurrence at that time. In 1920, the
psychology department of the University of Toronto became the first to be independent
of philosophy (Pols, 2002).
An important figure in the early study of psychology in Canada is James Mark
Baldwin (1861–1934). Baldwin, an American and a graduate of Princeton, is known for
6   Chapter 1 • The Science of Child Development

his research at the University of Toronto, where he was appointed to the department of
philosophy in 1889. There he set up the first psychology laboratory in Canada, which
began research in 1891 (Hoff, 1992). Baldwin felt that a theoretical basis for experi-
mentation was important and seems to have felt that baby biographies stifled theory,
being too focused on observation (Harris, 1985). He himself performed experimental
research, for example, on infant handedness, and tested proposals derived from his
theories.
The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) was founded in the late 1930s.
The idea was initially proposed in 1938, during the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS) meeting held in June of that year at the Château Laurier
hotel in Ottawa. At that meeting, a group of Canadian psychologists met to discuss
founding a specifically Canadian organization (Dzinas, 2000). Following this first meet-
ing, a draft constitution was drawn up, and the CPA was founded in 1939 (Dzinas, 2000;
Ferguson, 1992).
It was in 1933, however, that the emerging scientific forces in developmental
psychology came together in a new interdisciplinary organization called the Society
for Research in Child Development (SRCD). Its members included psychologists,
physicians, educators, anthropologists, and biologists, all of whom were linked by a
common interest in discovering the conditions that could promote children’s welfare
and foster their development (Parke, 2004). In the ensuing years, SRCD membership
has grown to more than 5000 and is now the main professional organization for child-
development researchers. SRCD, along with similar organizations devoted to
child-development science (e.g., International Society for the Study of Behavioural
Development, International Society on Infant Studies, Society for Research on
Adolescence) promotes multidisciplinary research and encourages the application of
research findings to improve children’s lives.
Progress in developmental psychology was halted by World War II, when most
child-development scientists in North America abandoned their research to assist the war
effort (Sears, 1975)—for example, Canadian psychologists advised the Royal Air Force in
England on training methods (English, 1992; Ferguson, 1992). Many female psychologists
also became well known during this time, taking on leading roles in both military and
non-military activities (Wright, 1992).
After the war, women became more prominent in the CPA, with some becoming
directors on the governing board of the association (Wright, 1992). Psychology as a disci-
pline grew, and by the 1950s and 1960s developmental psychology was thriving, marking
the beginning of the modern era of child-development research.
More recently, a new branch of child-development research has emerged.
Applied developmental science uses developmental research to promote healthy
development, particularly for vulnerable children and families (Lerner, Fisher,
& Giannino, 2006). Scientists with this research interest contribute to sound family
policy in a number variety of ways (Shonkoff & Bales, 2011). Some ensure that the
consideration of policy issues and options is based on factual knowledge derived from
child-development research. For example, when government officials need to address
problems affecting children, child-development experts provide useful information
about children and their development (Fasig, 2002; Shonkoff & Bales, 2011). Others
contribute by serving as advocates for children. Working with child advocacy groups,
child-development researchers alert policymakers to children’s needs and argue for
family policy that addresses those needs. Still other child-development experts evalu-
ate the impact of government policies on children and families (e.g., the effectiveness
 Foundational Theories of Child Development • Module 1.2   7

of provincial regulation of Children’s Aid Societies). Finally, one of the best ways to
sway policymakers is to create working programs. When researchers create a program
that effectively combats problems affecting children or adolescents (e.g., sudden infant
death syndrome or teenage pregnancy), this can become powerful ammunition for
Q&A Answer 1.1
influencing policy (Huston, 2008).
His emphasis on
Thus, from its origins more than 100 years ago, modern child-development science structure suggests
has become a mature discipline, generating a vast catalogue of knowledge from which that he believes in the
exciting discoveries continue to emerge. Scientists actively use this knowledge to improve importance of children’s
the lives of children, as we’ll see in the Children’s Lives features that appear throughout experiences, which
this text. The research that you’ll encounter in this textbook is rooted in a set of devel- is a basic concept
in Locke’s view of
opmental theories that provide the foundation of modern child-development research.
childhood.
These theories are the focus of the next module.

Check Your Learning

Recall What two events set the stage for the creation of child-development science?

Who were the leaders in the new field of child development before the formation of the
Society for Research in Child Development?
Interpret Explain the similarities between Rousseau’s and Plato’s views of child devel-
opment; how did their views differ from those shared by Locke and Aristotle?
Apply Suppose a child-development researcher is an expert on the impact of nutri-
tion on children’s physical and emotional development. Describe several different
ways in which the researcher might help inform public policy concerning children’s
nutrition.

1.2 Foundational Theories of Child Development

Outline Learning Objectives
The Biological Perspective 1. What are the major tenets of the biological perspective?
The Psychodynamic Perspective 2. How do psychodynamic theories account for development?
The Learning Perspective 3. What is the focus of learning theories?
The Cognitive-Developmental 4. H
 ow do cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children’s
Perspective thinking?
The Contextual Perspective 5. What are the main points of the contextual approach?

Will has just graduated from high school, first in his class. For his mother, Betty, this is a time to reflect on Will’s past
and ponder his future. Will has always been a happy, easygoing child and he has always been interested in learning.
Betty wonders why he is so perpetually good-natured and so curious. If she knew the secret, she laughs, she could
write a best-selling book and be a guest on daytime TV shows like Dr. Phil!
8   Chapter 1 • The Science of Child Development

B efore you read on, stop for a moment and think about Betty’s question. How
would you explain Will’s interest in learning, his good nature, and his curiosity?
Perhaps Betty has been a fantastic mother, doing all the right things at just the right
time. Perhaps, year after year, his teachers quickly recognized Will’s curiosity and
encouraged it. Or was it simply Will’s destiny to be this way? Each of these explana-
tions is a very simple theory; each tries to explain Will’s curiosity and good nature. In
child-development research, theories are much more complicated, but their purpose is
the same: to explain behaviour and development. In child development science, a
theory is an organized set of ideas that is designed to explain and make pre-
dictions about development.
Theories lead to hypotheses that we can test in research; in the process, each
hypothesis is confirmed or rejected. Think about the different explanations for Will’s
behaviour. Each one leads to a unique hypothesis. If, for example, teacher encourage-
ment has caused Will to be curious, we hypothesize that he would no longer be curious
if his teachers stop encouraging that curiosity. When the outcomes of research are as
hypothesized, a theory gains support. When results run counter to the hypothesis, the
theory is deemed incorrect and revised. Revised theories then provide the basis for new
hypotheses, which lead to new research, and the cycle continues. With each step along the
way, a theory comes closer to becoming a complete account. In the Spotlight on Theories
features throughout this text we’ll look at specific theories, the hypotheses derived from
them, and the outcomes of the research that tests those hypotheses.
Over the history of child development as a science, many theories have guided
research and thinking about children’s development. The earliest developmental theo-
ries were useful in generating research, and findings from that research led child-
development scientists to newer, improved, or different theories. In this module, we
describe the earlier theories that provided the scientific foundation for modern ones,
because the newer theories described later in this text are best understood in terms of
their historical roots.
Some theories share assumptions and ideas about children and development.
Grouped together, they form five major theoretical perspectives in child-development
research: the biological, psychodynamic, learning, cognitive-developmental, and contex-
tual perspectives. As you read about each perspective in the next few pages, think about
how each one differs from the others in its view of development.

The Biological Perspective

According to the biological perspective, intellectual and personality development, as
well as physical and motor development, are rooted in biology. One of the first bio-
logical theories—maturational theory—was proposed by Arnold Gesell (1880–1961).
According to maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and pre-
arranged scheme or plan within the body. In Gesell’s view, development is simply
a natural unfolding of a biological plan; experience matters little. Like Jean-Jacques
Rousseau 200 years before him, Gesell encouraged parents to let their children develop
naturally. Without interference from adults, Gesell claimed, behaviours such as speech,
play, and reasoning would emerge spontaneously according to a predetermined devel-
opmental timetable.
Maturational theory was eventually discarded because it had little to say about the
impact of environment on children’s development. However, other biological theories
give greater weight to experience. Ethological theory views development from an
evolutionary perspective. In this theory, many behaviours are adaptive—they have
 Foundational Theories of Child Development • Module 1.2   9

survival value. For example, clinging, grasping, and crying

are adaptive for infants because they elicit caregiving from
adults. Ethological theorists assume that people inherit

Sigurgeir Sigurjonsson/Nordicphotos/
many of these adaptive behaviours.
So far, ethological theory seems like maturational the-
ory, with a dash of evolution added. How does experience
fit in? Ethologists believe that all animals are biologically
programmed in such a way that some kinds of learning occur

Alamy Stock Photo

only at certain ages. A critical period in development is the
time when a specific type of learning can take place;
before or after the critical period the same learning is
difficult or even impossible.
One of the best-known examples of a critical period
comes from the work of Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989), an Newly hatched goslings
Austrian zoologist who noticed that newly hatched geese followed their mother about. follow the first moving object
He theorized that goslings are biologically programmed to follow the first moving object that they see, treating it as
“Mother,” even when it’s a
they see after hatching. Usually this was the mother, so following her was the first
human.
step in imprinting, creating an emotional bond with the mother. Lorenz tested his
theory by showing that if he removed the mother immediately after the geese hatched and
replaced it with another moving object, the goslings would follow that object and treat it
as “Mother.” As the photo shows, the replacement objects could even be humans and, in
his early experiments, included Lorenz himself. The gosling had to see the moving object
within about a day of hatching, however, or it would not imprint on the moving object. Q&A Question 1.2
In other words, the critical period for imprinting lasts about a day; when goslings experi- Keunho and Young-shin
ence the moving object outside of the critical period, imprinting does not take place. Even are sisters who moved
though the underlying mechanism is biological, experience is essential for triggering the to Toronto from Korea
when they were 15 and
programmed, adaptive behaviour.
10 years old, respectively.
Ethological theory and maturational theory both highlight the biological bases of Although both of them
child development. Biological theorists remind us that children’s behaviour is the product have spoken English
of a long evolutionary history. Consequently, a biological theorist would tell Betty that almost exclusively since
Will’s good nature and his outstanding academic record are both largely products of his their arrival in Canada,
biological endowment—his heredity. Keunho still speaks with
a bit of an accent and
occasionally makes
The Psychodynamic Perspective grammatical errors;
Young-shin’s English is
flawless—she speaks
Freud’s Theories. The psychodynamic perspective is the oldest scientific per- like a native. How could
you explain Young-shin’s
spective on child development, originating in the work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
greater skill in terms of a
in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Freud was a physician who spe- critical period? (Answer is
cialized in diseases of the nervous system. Many of his patients were adults whose dis- on page 19.)
orders seemed to have no obvious biological causes. As Freud listened to his patients
describe their problems and their lives, he became convinced that early experiences
establish patterns that endure throughout a person’s life. Using his patients’ case
histories, Freud created the first psychodynamic theory, which holds that devel-
opment is largely determined by how well people resolve certain conflicts at
different ages.
The role of conflict is evident in Freud’s descriptions of the three primary compo-
nents of personality. The id is a reservoir of primitive instincts and drives. Present
at birth, the id presses for immediate gratification of bodily needs and wants. A hungry
baby crying illustrates the id in action.
 10   Chapter 1 • The Science of Child Development

The ego, is the practical, rational com-

ponent of personality. The ego begins to emerge
during the first year of life as infants learn that they
cannot always have what they want. The ego tries
to resolve conflicts that occur when the instinctive
desires of the id encounter the obstacles of the real
Sonya Etchison/Shutterstock

world. The ego often tries to channel the id’s impul-

sive demands into more socially acceptable channels.
For example, in the photo the child without the toy
is obviously envious of the child who has the toy.
According to Freud, the id would urge the child to
grab the toy, but the ego would encourage the child
to play with the peer and, in the process, get to play
with the toy.
According to Freud’s theory, The third component of personality, the
the id would encourage the superego, is the “moral agent” in the child’s personality. It emerges during the
child on the right to grab preschool years as children begin to internalize adult standards of right and wrong. If the
the toy away from the other
child, but the superego would peer in the previous example left the attractive toy unattended, the id might tell the other
remind her that doing so child to grab it and run, but the superego would remind the child that taking another’s
would be wrong. toy is wrong.
Freud also proposed stages of development. In his theory, Freud was really concen-
trating on personality development, but this is also an example of an early stage theory.
Freud believed development was structured in psychosexual stages and that we all go
through five stages of development, each named for a particular area of the body where
attention is focused. In order, the stages are the oral, anal, phallic, latency (when drives
are quiescent), and genital (the final, mature self). Freud believed that conflicts at any stage
of development could lead to fixations, where mental energies are occupied in activities
reminiscent of that stage.
Today scientists recognize many shortcomings in Freud’s theory as a whole (e.g.,
some key ideas are too vague to be tested in research). Nevertheless, two of Freud’s
insights have had a lasting impact on child-development research and theory: first, his
conclusion that early experiences can have enduring effects on children’s development;
second, his idea that children often experience conflict between what they want to do
and what they know they should do.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. Erik Erikson (1902–1994), one of

Freud’s students, embraced Freud’s idea of conflict but emphasized the psychologi-
cal and social aspects of conflict rather than the biological and physical aspects. In
Erikson’s psychosocial theory, development comprises a sequence of stages, each
defined by a unique crisis or challenge. Erikson also proposed that development
could continue throughout life, including stages for during adulthood. The complete
theory includes eight stages, as shown in Table 1-1. The name of each stage reflects the
challenge that individuals face at a particular age. For example, the challenge for ado-
lescents is to develop an identity. Adolescents who do not meet this challenge will not
establish truly intimate relationships but will become overly dependent on their partners
as a source of identity.
Whether we call them conflicts, challenges, or crises, the psychodynamic perspec-
tive emphasizes that the journey to adulthood is difficult because the path is strewn with
obstacles. Outcomes of development reflect the manner and ease with which children
surmount life’s barriers. When children overcome early obstacles easily, they are better
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 THE BOY AND THE LARK.
music composed for merry’s museum; by
g. j. webb.

“Who taught you to sing, my pretty, sweet birds?

Who tuned your melodious throats?
You make all the woods and the vallies to ring,
You bring the first news of the earliest spring,
With your loud and your silvery notes.

“Who painted your wings, my pretty, sweet birds,

And taught you to soar in the air?
You rise and you dart through the region of light,
You look down on man from your loftiest height,
And your hearts know no troublesome care.

“And where are your fields, my beautiful birds?

 And where are your houses and barns?
You sow not the ground, and you reap not the corn,
You spring from your nests at the earliest morn,
But you care not about the wide farms.”

“’Tis God,” said a lark, that rose from the turf,

“Who gives us the good we enjoy;
He painted our wings, and he gave us our voice,
He finds us our food, and he bids us rejoice;—
We’re his creatures, my beautiful boy.”
MERRY’S MUSEUM.
VOLUME II.—No. 2.
 The Siberian Sable-Hunter.

CHAPTER II.

It is the character of young people to engage in new enterprises

with ardor: it was so with Alexis, in his fur-hunting expedition. For a
time, indeed, after parting with his father and sister, his heart was
heavy, and tears more than once dimmed his eyes. He expected to
be absent for a year at least, and who could tell what might befall
him or them, during that space of time? Such thoughts came again
and again into his mind, and as fancy is apt to conjure up fears for
those we love, he pictured to himself many possible evils that might
beset his friends at Tobolsk.
But these images gradually faded away, and the young hunter
began to be occupied with the scenes around him, and with the
conversation of his companions. These consisted of two young men
of nearly his own age, and their father, an experienced and skilful
hunter. They were all equipped with rifles, and each had a long knife
like a dagger in his belt. Their design was to travel on foot to the
eastward, a distance of more than two thousand miles, and then
proceed northward into the cold and woody regions which border the
banks of the great river Lena, as it approaches the Arctic Ocean.
Hitherto Alexis had seen little of Siberia; his curiosity was
therefore alive, and he noticed attentively everything he met. Soon
after leaving Tobolsk, the party entered upon the vast plain of
Baraba, which spreads out to an extent of several hundred miles. It
is almost as level as the sea, with slight swells, resembling waves.
Such plains are called steppes in Siberia, and they are like the
prairies of our western country, being generally destitute of trees,
except low willows, and large portions having a marshy soil. Upon
this plain the travellers met with no towns, but miserable villages of
people, their huts half sunk in the mud. They also sometimes
encountered small bands of people called Ostiacks. These seemed
to be roving people, and in a state of barbarism. The old hunter of
the party, whose name was Linsk, seemed to be well acquainted
with the habits of these people, and as the four hunters were
trudging along, he gave the following account of them, taking care to
say something of himself in the course of his story.
“The Ostiacks are one of the most numerous of the tribes of
Tartars that inhabit Siberia. They spread over the country to the north
of Tobolsk, along the banks of the Obi, and the various streams that
flow into it. They do not like to dig the soil, so they live on fish, and
by hunting wild animals. Some of them eat so much fish, that they
smell like whale oil. I have been in their tents often, and one of these
fisheating families have a flavor as strong as a cask of herrings. Bah!
how well I remember them! It seems as if I could smell them now! I
shall never get them out of my head.
“You must know that I have been a hunter for twenty-five years,
and I have made several expeditions into the north country, where
the Ostiacks chiefly dwell. It is a cold and desolate region; no trees
but pines and willows grow there; there is no grass, and very few
shrubs. Still, it was once a good country for furs; but they are nearly
gone now, and I don’t wonder at it, for these Ostiacks are such
heathens. They are not Christians, but believe in little wooden
images, which they will place on their tables, and lay around them
snuff, willow bark, fish oil, and other things which they deem
valuable. Having done this, they call upon these images, which are
their gods, to make them lucky in fishing and hunting. If the gods
don’t send them good luck, then these foolish people do give them
such a banging! They cuff their heads, and knock them off the
tables, and switch them as if they were so many naughty school-
boys.
“Now, for my part, I wonder that fish, or sables, or bears, or any
other creatures that are useful, will stay in a country where such
stupid people live. And then you must know that the Ostiacks almost
worship a bear. They think that this creature is a kind of a witch or
wicked god, and such horrid notions of it have they, that, when they
take the oath of allegiance to the Russian government, they say, to
make it very strong—‘We hope we may be devoured by bears, if we
do not keep this oath.’
“Beside all this, the Ostiacks, as you see by those whom we have
met, are little short people, not more than five feet high. A great
many of the women are fat, and such little round dumplings I never
beheld! The hair of these people is of a reddish color, and floats
down their shoulders. Their faces are flat, and altogether they look
like animals, rather than human creatures. Their houses are made of
poles, set up in a circle, and thatched with bark. In winter, the
windows are covered with expanded bladders. The fire is made on
one side of the room, and the smoke circulates above, finding its
way out as it can. Generally, there is but one room in a hut, and all
the family are tumbled into it, by night and by day.
“Now all this shows what stupid people these Ostiacks are; but
there is one thing I have to say in their praise. They understand
fishing and hunting. In chasing the bears, they show courage and
skill, and in taking the sable so as not to break his skin, they display
true genius. I once knew an old Ostiack that was nearly equal to
myself in hunting. He could see the track of an ermine, marten, or
sable, upon the snow-crust, when nobody else could; he would
follow one of these creatures for a whole day, pretending he could
see the foot-prints; but I believe the old fellow could smell like a dog.
What beautiful sables and grey foxes he did get! He once got two
sable skins which were sent to St. Petersburgh, and sold for three
hundred dollars. The emperor bought them himself, and sent the old
fellow a knife ornamented with a silver plate, and the word “Nicholas”
engraved upon it. This the emperor said was to encourage the
hunter to get fine furs. But the old hunter died soon after, and the
people said it was from mere pride, because the emperor had paid
him so much honor. He never hunted any more, but strutted about,
brandishing his knife in the air, and saying, ‘Behold! this is what
Nicholas, the Czar of all the Russias, has sent to Dwaff Khizan, the
greatest hunter of Siberia!’”
Alexis listened with interest to this long account of the Ostiacks by
old Linsk: but his heart really palpitated when the hunter told of the
rich sable furs sent to St. Petersburgh by Dwaff Khizan, and which
not only brought a great price, but won the favor of the emperor. He
immediately remembered the injunction of his sister Kathinka, to be
particular and get rich sable furs; and he also remembered that she
had spoken of sending them to the princess Lodoiska. “After all my
thinking that the girl was romantic and conceited, to fancy that she
could send furs to a princess, and attract her attention, now that we
are poor exiles in Siberia, perhaps she is right, and has more sense
then I have. At all events, I will exert myself to procure some sable
furs finer than were ever seen before. We are going to the coldest
portions of Siberia, and there it is said are the most splendid furs in
the world. It will be something to please Kathinka, and to relieve my
father from his poverty; and, beside, I should like to beat old Linsk,
vain and boastful as he is!”
With this ambitious conclusion, Alexis stepped quicker and
prouder over the level road, and, without thinking of it, had soon
advanced considerably before his party. Coming to a place where
the road divided, he took that which led to the right, as it seemed the
best. He had not gone far, however, before he heard the loud call of
Linsk. Stopping till the party came up, Alexis found that he had taken
the wrong path. “That road,” said Linsk, “leads to the great town of
Tomsk; a place which has ten thousand people in it, and I may add
that one half of them are drunkards. This is the more wonderful, for
the people have enough to do; because the country in that quarter
abounds in valuable mines. All around Tomsk there are salt lakes,
and the waters are so impregnated with minerals, that the bottoms
are covered with a coat as white as snow.
“To the south of Tomsk, a great many miles, are some mountains,
called the Altai range. In these mountains there are mines of gold
and silver, and of platina, a metal more costly than gold. The mines
are wrought by exiles; and, master Alexis, some of your countrymen
are there, as they ought to be. You ought to thank the clemency and
mercy of the emperor, for not sending you and your father there!”
“Stop! stop! old man!” said Alexis; “say no more of that! say no
more of that! My father ought to be sent to the mines! for what? For
risking his life to save his country? For giving his wealth to Poland?
For shedding his blood for liberty? Is patriotism then a crime? Shame
on the emperor who makes it so!”
“Tut, tut, tut, tut!” said Linsk, with an air of authority; “why, you talk
rebellion, as if you had drank it in with your mother’s milk. Oh dear!
oh dear! what are we all coming to, when youngsters talk such
pestilent stuff about liberty and patriotism? Why, what have we to do
with liberty and patriotism? Let us take care to obey the emperor,
and his officers, and those who are in authority, and do as the priests
tell us: that’s all we have to do. But never mind, boy; I didn’t mean to
hurt your feelings. So don’t think any more of what I said about your
father and the mines. I believe he’s an honest and noble gentleman,
though I am sorry he’s so much misled. Liberty and patriotism—
indeed! Bah! When I hear about liberty and patriotism, I always look
well to my pockets, for they sound to my ear very much like roguery
and mischief. Liberty and patriotism, forsooth! as if we common men
were like wild animals, and, as soon as we are of age, had a right to
set up for ourselves! No! no! we are Christians, and it is our duty to
honor the emperor; we are his subjects, and he may do as he
pleases with us. God bless him.”
“I suppose it would be glory enough,” said Alexis, having
recovered his good humor, “to have our heads cut off, provided it
was done by command of the emperor.”
“Certainly,” said Linsk, not discovering the irony; and here the
conversation took another turn.
“You were speaking of the mines,” said Alexis. “Do they produce
great quantities of the precious metals?”
“Yes,” said the old hunter, in reply. “The mines produce the value
of more than ten millions of dollars a year. Not only do they yield
gold, and silver, and platina, but a great deal of copper. Beside
these, many precious stones are found, such as the topaz, beryl,
onyx, garnets, diamonds, and green crystals as beautiful as
emeralds. All these mines and all the minerals belong to the Czar,
and they are wrought by his serfs and slaves, and by such exiles as
are very bad and troublesome!”
 “Those who talk about liberty and patriotism, I suppose,” said
Alexis.
“Yes,” said Linsk, snappishly.
“Well,” said Alexis, “I should like to go to that country, where there
are such rich minerals and precious stones. I think I could pick up
enough to make myself rich.”
“And get your head taken off besides,” said Linsk. “Let me tell
you, my young master, the metals and minerals belong to the
emperor, and it’s stealing for anybody to take them, and whoever
does so is sure to get punished. I know a story about that—”
“Tell it, I beg you,” said Alexis. So the hunter proceeded.
“There was once a young nobleman of Russia exiled to Siberia for
some offence to the Czar. This happened in the time of Paul, near
forty years ago. Well, when he came to Tobolsk, he was very poor,
so he thought how he might get money and become rich. At last he
heard of the mines of the mountains, and thither he went. He was
careful, however, not to let anybody know his plan. He proceeded
first to the Kolyvan mountains, but, as there were a great many
people at work there, he was afraid of being detected in his scheme;
so he proceeded farther east, until he came to a tall mountain called
the Schlangenberg, which is the loftiest of the Altai range.
“When he had got up to the very top of the mountain, being weary,
he laid himself down to get some rest, and here he fell asleep. While
in this state, a man, in the dress of a Tartar, seemed to stand before
him, and, making a low bow in the Eastern fashion, said, ‘What
would’st thou, son of a noble house?’ To this the young Russian
replied—‘Wealth—give me wealth: with this I can purchase my
liberty and return to Moscow, and live again in happiness. Give me
riches: with these I could buy the very soul of the emperor, for all he
desires is money.’
“When the young man said this, the image smiled on one side of
his face, and frowned on the other; but he answered fairly,—‘Your
wish shall be granted: follow me!’ Upon this the Russian arose and
followed the mysterious stranger. They descended to the foot of the
mountain, and entered a cave which was formed by nature in the
rocks. It was at first a dark and gloomy room, with grizzly images
around, and a fearful roar as of mighty waterfalls, tumbling amid the
gashes and ravines of the mountain. But as they advanced farther,
the scene gradually changed. The darkness disappeared, and at last
they came to a vast chamber, which seemed glittering with
thousands of lamps. The room appeared indeed like a forest turned
to crystal, the branches above uniting and forming a lofty roof, in the
gothic form. Nothing could exceed the splendor of the scene. The
floor was strewn with precious stones of every hue, and diamonds of
immense size and beauty glistened around. As the adventurer trod
among them, they clashed against his feet as if he was marching
amid heaps of pebbles. There were thousands of lofty columns, of a
pearly transparency, which seemed to send forth an illumination like
that of the moon; and these were studded with garnets, and
emeralds, and rubies.
“The Russian was delighted—nay, entranced. He walked along for
more than an hour, and still the vast room seemed to expand and
grow more gorgeous as he proceeded. The diamonds were larger,
and the light more lovely, and by-and-by there came a sound of
music. It was faint, but delicious; and our hero looked around for the
cause of it. At last he saw what seemed a river, and on going to the
border of it, he discovered that it was a stream of precious stones,
where garnets, and beryls, and diamonds, and emeralds, and rubies,
flowed like drops of water, in one gushing, flashing current; and as
they swept along, a sort of gentle but entrancing melody stole out
from them, and seemed to melt the heart with their tones.
“‘This is indeed most lovely—most enchanting!’ said the youth to
himself. ‘Well and truly has my guide performed his promise.’ Saying
this, he looked around for his guide, but he had disappeared. The
young man waited for a time, but his guide did not return. At last he
began to feel weary, and cast about for a place to lie down; but no
such place appeared. The floor of the mighty hall was covered with
precious stones, but they were so sharp and angular that they would
have cut his flesh, if he had attempted to lie upon them. Pretty soon,
hunger was added to the young man’s wants. But how could he
satisfy it? There were emeralds, and rubies, and sapphires, and
diamonds, but neither meat nor bread. At last he turned around, and
began to search for the way out of the grotto; first filling his pockets
with the richest and rarest gems he could find. But the more he
sought for the passage, the more remote he seemed to be from it.
He, however, continued to wander on, but all in vain. At last he
became frantic; he threw up his hands, and tore his hair, and ran
fiercely from place to place, making the arches ring with his frightful
screams. ‘Take your gold, take your jewels!’ said he; ‘and give me
rest, give me bread!’ And, repeating this by night and by day, the
young man continued to run wildly from place to place; and though
forty years have rolled away since he entered the enchanted cave,
he is still there, and is still unable to obtain rest or appease his
hunger!”
“Is that all?” said Alexis, as the hunter paused in his narration.
“Yes,” said Linsk; “and let it warn you and all others not to go into the
mountain, to steal the gems and the gold that belong to the
emperor.”
“The story is a good one,” said Alexis, “and no doubt it has been
used to frighten people from interfering with the emperor’s mines; but
it is an allegory, which bears a deeper meaning to my mind. It
teaches us that riches cannot bring rest or health, and that a person
surrounded with gold and gems may still be a most wretched being.
Those very gems, indeed, may be the cause of his distress, as they
may have been obtained by crime, or avarice, or other unlawful
means.”
(To be continued.)
 The Lion and the Mouse;
a fable.

A lion was once going to war; he had buckled on his sword, and
gathered his forces, and, with the monkey and the bear supporting
his long robe behind, he was proudly marching over the plain at the
head of his army. As he was proceeding, it chanced that his majesty
encountered a mouse, dancing merrily over the ground. The king
paused, and observed the little dancer with a grim smile of
satisfaction. At this the bear grumbled, and the monkey sneered, for
his majesty being in a warlike humor, they thought it meet that
everybody else should be so too; but they were both speedily
silenced by the lion, who spoke as follows:
“Why do you grumble at this pretty little fellow? See how graceful
his movements are, and how cheerful is his countenance!
Remember that everything has its use, and nothing is more useful
than that which makes us cheerful, provided it is innocent. Even we
warriors have need of cheerful excitement, for by this means we are
better fitted to discharge our solemn duties. Let us not despise, then,
even such sports, and amusements, and trifles, as come in our way,
provided always that they are as harmless as the frisks and frolics of
this little dancing-master of the meadow; and provided, too, that we
never neglect business for pleasure.”
 Merry’s Life and Adventures.

CHAPTER X.
A conversation about wealth and poverty.—​People to be respected
according to their character, not according to their
circumstances.

As Paul Raymond was one of the best friends I ever had, it is my

desire to make my reader well acquainted with him. He was tall, thin,
and bent over, his figure seeming to indicate great humility; his face
was meagre and exceedingly pale; his hair black as jet, and hanging
in long, thin curls down his neck. His eye was very large, and of a
deep blue.
The whole aspect of my friend was marked with a childlike
gentleness and timidity, though his high forehead and prominent
Roman nose bespoke a manly intellect. A worldly person, judging
only by outward form and a first sight, had passed him by with
indifference; but one who looks upon mankind as beings of soul and
mind, would have been attracted by his appearance. It was so in
some degree with myself, for when I first saw poor Paul, as he was
called in the village, I scarcely noticed him. And for years after, I saw
nothing of particular interest in his person: but now that I was on a
sick bed, and had opportunity, as well as occasion, to observe him
closer, he seemed to me very interesting, both in looks and manner.
It was one morning after he had been putting my room in order,
and, taking his book, had sat down by my bedside, that I mentioned
to Paul the change of feeling I had undergone in respect to himself.
“I cannot but wonder,” said I, “how different you seem to me now,
from what you used to do, Mr. Raymond.”
Raymond. Call me Paul, boy, call me Paul! said he. We are
friends now, and mister is always a mischief-maker between friends.
You say I seem different now from what I once did. The change is in
you, not in me. I am the same poor Paul Raymond, as before. You
are something better than before this accident happened.
Merry. How am I better? I think I am worse: I have been guilty of
folly, and, though thoughtlessly, of crime; I have been disgraced
before the whole village; my poor arm broken; I am sick and
emaciated; and after all this, you tell me that I am better than before.
R. And I tell you the truth, boy. You have suffered, it is certain; but
that suffering has been like medicine to your mind and heart. You
were well in body, you were full of health and spirits, but there was
disease within. Your heart was full of selfishness and pride; you felt
that you could take care of yourself, and you cared not for the
sympathy of others. You have now learnt a good lesson; that pride
has been humbled, and you see your dependence upon others. You
see how poor and paltry pride is; and how vain is that independence,
which leads us to think only of self, and to be regardless of the
feelings of our fellow-men. You are more humble than before, and
therefore I say you are better than before.
M. Then you think humility is a good thing?
R. Certainly, and pride a bad thing. God looks down upon the
humble man with approbation and favor, and he sends to the humble
man peace and consolation which the world cannot give or take
away. God looks down upon the proud man as a fool, a creature as
silly as the moth that buzzes in the flame of the lamp, only to perish
in his folly.
M. But this is very different from the view generally taken by
mankind. The rich, the haughty, those who are successful in life, who
know no sickness or misfortune, and who are seldom or never
visited by sorrow—these are those who are esteemed happy by the
world at large. The proud are envied and the humble are despised.
You would reverse this, and regard the humble as the happy, and the
high and haughty as the miserable.
R. Yes, and this is nearly the truth. Health is given us for good;
but, strange to say, men seem to turn it to bad account. A person
who has always good health, is usually unfeeling: he sneers at those
who are feeble, and laughs those to scorn who cannot eat and drink
and work as well as he does. He is therefore deficient in one of the
greatest of blessings, a kind and tender heart, a heart that feels for
the misfortunes and sorrows of others, and that always is seeking to
soften them.
Riches are given for good, but these too are abused. The rich
man is likely to have very little regard for the poor; he is apt almost to
feel that the poor are not human: at all events, he knows and cares
little about them. He estimates men by their wealth: if a man is rich,
he respects him; if poor, he despises him. Thus wealth begets in its
possessor a gross stupidity of mind; it blinds a man to the most
useful pleasures and important truths. It makes a man ignorant of his
real duty and his true happiness.
M. You think then that health and wealth are misfortunes.
R. Certainly not, if rightly used: they are blessings in the hands of
the virtuous, and some such there are. But in too many cases,
mankind abuse them. The fortunate are very apt to be vicious; those
who go on in an unchanging tide of success, at last fancy that they
may indulge their pride and their passions with impunity. Such
persons have hard hearts; and though the world, judging of the
outside only, call them fortunate, and envy them—still, if we look
within and see their real character, we shall pity them, as in fact poor,
and destitute, and miserable in all that constitutes real goodness,
real wealth—a good heart.
It is for this reason that the Bible—a book more full of virtue than
mankind generally think—tells us that “whom the Lord loveth, he
chasteneth.” In other words, God sends sorrow and misfortune upon
men in real kindness. He takes away health, but he gives gentleness
and humility of soul, as a compensation; he takes away worldly
wealth—houses, lands, and merchandises—but he gives charity,
good will, kindness, and sympathy, in their stead. He takes away
external and earthly riches, and gives in exchange spiritual riches, of
infinitely greater price. He takes away dollars and cents, which only
pass in this world, and are wholly uncurrent in another, and gives
coin that bears upon it an image and superscription, which not only
makes it available in time, but in eternity.
M. Most people think very differently from you, on these matters:
they seem to imagine that the rich are not only the happiest, but the
wisest and best part of mankind.
R. Shallow people may think so, but wise men do not. Our Savior
appealed to the poor, not to the rich. Poverty, not wealth, was the soil
in which he sowed the seeds of truth; and he knew all things. History
justifies Christ’s judgment of human life, for all, or nearly all great
improvements in society have been begun and carried on by the
poor. For almost all useful inventions; for almost all that is beautiful in
poetry, and music, and painting, and sculpture, and architecture; for
almost all that has contributed to diffuse truth and knowledge and
liberty among mankind—we are indebted to those who have been
born and nursed in poverty. If you were to strike out of existence all
that the poor have created, and leave only what the rich have
created, you would make this world one vast scene of desolation,
vice, and tyranny.
Look around, and remark, who are the people that are tilling the
soil and producing the comforts and luxuries of life? The poor, and
not the rich. Who are paying the taxes and supporting the
government? The poor, for they pay, in proportion to their property,
much more than the rich. Who are the supporters of religion? The
poor, for it is by their prayers, and sacrifices, and efforts, that it is
propagated, not only at home, but in foreign lands. No Christian
Mission, no Bible Society, no Society for the distribution of Tracts,
was ever begun and carried on and supported by the rich.
The simple truth is, that, as the poor are the producers of all the
substantial comforts of life, of food, raiment, houses, furniture, roads,
vehicles, ships, and merchandises, so are they the cultivators of
those spiritual staples which make up the social wealth of the world
—religion, knowledge, charity, sympathy, virtue, patriotism, liberty,
and truth. Destroy the poor, and you destroy not only the source of
worldly wealth, but of that mental, spiritual, and social wealth, which
are far higher and better.
 M. You think, then, that the poor are not only the wisest, but the
best part of mankind.
R. Certainly; but do not misunderstand me. I do not say all rich
men are bad, or that all poor ones are good. There are rich men who
are good, wise, kind, and virtuous—and those who are so, deserve
great praise, for, as a class, the rich are otherwise; and the reasons
are plain. In the first place, most men who become rich, do so by
being supremely selfish. They keep what they get, and get what they
can. A man who has no generosity, who seldom or never gives away
anything, who is greedily seeking all the time to increase his
possessions, is almost sure, in a few years, to accumulate large
stores. Such a man may be very stupid in intellect, and yet
successful in getting rich. Riches are no proof of wisdom, but they
are generally evidence of selfishness.
A man, by cultivating any passion, increases it. An avaricious
man, indulging his avarice, grows more and more so. He not only
becomes more greedy, but less regardful of the rights, feelings, and
interests of his fellow-men. Thus, as a man increases in riches, he
usually becomes vicious and depraved. His vices may not be open—
he may not break the laws of the land, but he breaks the laws of
conscience, and of God. There is hardly a spectacle more revolting
to the eye of virtue, then the bosom of the rich and avaricious man. It
is a machine, which grinds in its relentless wheels the limbs, the
bowels, the nerves, the hearts of such among his fellow-men as fall
within his grasp. He is a kind of moral cannibal, who feasts and
grows fat, not on the bodies of his species, but on their peace and
happiness.
M. You are severe.
R. But I hope not unjust: remember that Christ forgave the thief on
the cross, but declared that it was easier for a camel to pass through
the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of
heaven. He knew by what means men generally grow rich; he knew
the effect of riches on the heart; and, as a class, he denounces the
rich, as in the view of Heaven among the least favored of mankind.
They have their good things in this world, but a fearful penalty is
attached to the abuse of these good things—an abuse which is but
too tempting and too common.
But the only evil of wealth lies not in the danger which it threatens
to the future welfare of the soul; it is very apt to destroy or prevent
some of the sweetest pleasures of this life. Humility is the source of
more true happiness than wealth. A rich man may possess humility,
though he is more likely to be proud; poverty, disappointment,
sorrow, and misfortune, are the great producers of humility: and it
often happens that God, in taking away wealth and worldly
prosperity, and giving humility in return, greatly increases a person’s
true wealth and genuine peace. It is thus that he often deals with
those he loves. He thinks that a man may well afford to part with his
wealth, if he parts with pride at the same time, and obtains humility
as a reward; and surely he knows what is best for us.
Nor is peace of mind the only effect of humility. It not only wakes
up the heart of man to many kindly exercises of charity to his fellow-
men, but it clears his mind and his intellect, so that it is brighter and
stronger. Pride dims, dulls, and cheats the mind; the judgment of a
proud man is seldom good. Not only does pride beget meanness of
soul, but meanness of intellect. Greatness of mind, as well as of
soul, is usually associated with humility. For this reason it is, that you
find among the poor, who are usually humble, more true greatness of
both mind and heart, than among the rich; and it is thus that we see
the fact explained, which I have before stated, that for almost all the
great religious, benevolent, and social progress of the world, we are
indebted to the wisdom, charity, disinterestedness, and patriotism of
the poor.
M. Is it then a sin to be rich, or a virtue to be poor?
R. Certainly not: there is no virtue or vice in either poverty or
wealth. All I say is this, the usual means taken to get riches are
supreme selfishness or craft, or uncommon want of principle; and
riches, when once obtained, tend to corrupt and degrade the heart,
and stultify the mind. While, therefore, we admit that a rich man may
be wise and virtuous, still, as a class, the rich are the least to be
respected and trusted. We are borne out in this view by the