CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Tanveer Saeed
Assistant Professor
AKU-SONAM
 The Circulatory System

CVS an internal transport network.

Basic components are:
• Blood : circulating fluid
• The Heart: Pumping organ
• The great blood Vessels: Conducting
pipes.
( Arteries, Veins , Capillaries)
approximately 5 liters of blood

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Circulatory System

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 The Circulatory System
 Blood
 formed elements
 erythrocytes (red blood cells) -- hemoglobin
 leukocytes (white blood cells)
 thrombocytes (platelets)

 plasma
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 BLOOD
• specialized fluid connective tissue.
• formed elements (living “cells”)
• non-living liquid matrix plasma
• pumped by the heart through blood vessels.
• average blood volume is 5-6 L in male and 4-5 L in
females.
• Normal pH range between 7.35 and 7.45 slightly
alkaline .
• Blood’s temperature is slightly higher than body
temperature. 38C,100.4F vs. 98.6F.
• Blood’s color depends on oxygen content. (oxygen-
rich) to dark red (oxygen-poor).
• Blood is 5 times more viscous (relative to water) and
stickiest.
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 Why the blood is 5 times more
viscous and stickiest

This is primarily due to the presence of

the formed elements.
• Salinity 0.9%
• Sp.Gravity 1.057

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 Functions of Blood
Main functions of blood
• Wastes from cells to
are: elimination sites (CO2
• 1.Maintain homeostasis in to the lungs,
several ways having nitrogenous wastes to
distributors, regulatory, and the kidneys).
protective function. • Hormones from
2. Transportion: endocrine glands to
Blood transports: target tissues
• Nutrients from the digestive 3.Regulation
tract and body reserves to  Body temperature
all cells.
 PH
• Oxygen from lungs to all
cells. 4.Protection
• .  Clotting

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 WBC’s defense
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 Plasma
 yellowish clear liquid, composed of water, proteins and other
solutes.
 Water = 91%
 Proteins = 7% (all synthesized by the liver)
 Albumin = 54%, regulates osmotic pressure
 Globulins = 38%, alpha and beta globulins in transport,
 gamma globulins in defense (antibodies)
 Fibrinogen = 7%, coagulation
 Other solutes =2%
 Electrolytes - Na+, K+, Ca++, Mg++
 Nutrients - glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, monoglycerides ...
 Gases - O2, N2, CO2
 Regulatory substance - hormones, enzymes
 Vitamins
 Wastes
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 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA
• Transportation: red and white blood cells and
platelets throughout the body.
• Delivers nutrients to the body's millions of cells
and picks up cell waste products.
• Some of the plasma proteins and fats, or lipids,
are also used by the tissues for cell growth and
energy.
• The calcium ion is essential to the building of
bone, as is phosphorus, Calcium is also
essential to the clotting of blood.
• Copper is another necessary component of the
plasma.
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 CLOTTING FACTORS

• Plasma also contains clotting factors or

proteins. Most produced in the liver.
Two important examples are:
• Prothrombin
• Fibrinogen

SERUM : Plasma without clotting

factors.
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 CELLULAR CONTENT OF BLOOD
Blood has three types of
cells:
• Erythrocytes or red
cells ( RBS)

• Leukocytes or white
cells

• Thrombocytes or
platelets

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 Hemopoiesis
• Blood cell formation is known as
hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis.
All blood cells are made within :
• red bone marrow.

• All blood cells arise from the hemopoietic

stem cell or hemocytoblast

• In the process of erythropoiesis, a

hemocytoblast divides and differentiates. Its
nucleus and organelles are discarded while
Hb stores are built up to tremendous levels.
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Red Blood Cells

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 Red Blood Cells
normal-sized man has about 5 L (5.3 qt) of
blood in his body.
5.4 million/ mm3 of blood from adult male
4.8 million/ mm3 of blood from adult female
• Normal life span in the circulation is only
about 120 days.
• More than 200 billion cells are normally
destroyed/day by the spleen and liver and
must be replaced.
• Red blood cells, as well as most white cells
and platelets, are made by the bone marrow.

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FUNCTION OF ERYTHROCYTES

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 HEMOGLOBIN
• Each erythrocyte contain
280 million special red color
hemoglobin molecule.
• Hemoglobin molecule
contain 4 protein chains
called globins, each of which
is bound to 1 heme.
• Hb is made up of the protein
globin, bound to red heme
pigments.
• Hb is being synthesized in
inside the developing RBCs in
the BM. Tanveer Saeed
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 HEMOGLOBIN
• In lungs, Hb binds O2 and is referred to
as oxyhemoglobin.
• In tissues, Hb releases O2 and is
referred to as deoxyhemoglobin or
reduced hemoglobin.
• About 20% of blood’s CO2 is
transported by combining with the
amino acids in the globin portion of Hb.
• As carbaminoxyhaemoglobin

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 Erythropoiesis
• RBC formation --------erythropoiesis.
• Completes in 7 days.
Two main features of erythropoiesis are:
• Maturation of the cell: Cell decreases in size
and become anucleated.
• These changes depend on Vit B12 and folic
acid.
• Formation of haemoglobin inside the cell

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Regulation of Erythropoiesis

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 Regulation of Hemopoiesis
• A kidney hormone, erythropoietin (EPO),
controls the rate of erythropoiesis.
• If blood O2 content , the kidneys release
EPO.
• EPO stimulates RBC synthesis to .
• RBC number  and this  blood O2
content.
• O2 delivery to the kidney could change due
to RBC count, altitude, increased aerobic
activity, lung disease, or cardiovascular
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 DESTRUCTION OF RBCs
• Break down or hemolysis of aged RBCs
is carried out by phagocytic
retculoendothelial cells.
Main sites of hemolysis are:
• Spleen,Bone marrow and Liver
• Iron is released
• Biliverdin is formed from protein part
and reduced to bilirubin.
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LEUKOCYTES

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 WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• leukocytes or immune cells.
• almost colorless, considerably larger
than red cells, have a nucleus, some
have granules in their cytoplasm and are
much less numerous.
• The number increases in the presence of
infection.

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WBC's or leukocytes
 Granulocytes
• characterized by the fact that all types
have differently staining granules in their
cytoplasm on light microscopy.
• also called polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMN or PML) because of the
varying shapes of the nucleus which is
usually lobed into three segments.
• (Click for phagocytosis animation).
http://vimeo.com/4582806
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 NEUTOPHILS
• polymorphonuclear
leukocytes (PMN).
• Nucleus usually with 3-5 lobes
Fine reddish and violet granules in
cytoplasm
• ''first line of defense'' against
infectious agents, once an
inflammatory response is
initiated, neutrophils are the
first cells to be recruited to
sites of infection or injury.
Functions:
• Phagocytosis of bacteria
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 EOSINOPHILS
2-4% of circulating WBCs.
• Nucleus has 2 large lobe
connected by thin strand
Large orange pink granule in
cytoplasm take up acidic
dyes.
Differential Count
• Increase in parasitic infections,
allergies and disease of spleen
and CNS.
They have a typical lifespan
of 8-12d.
Function:
• Release enzyme that destroy
parasites
• Phagocytosis of antigen
antibody complex, allergens,
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 BASOPHIL
• Rarest of the leucocytes less
than 1% of the total WBC count.
• nucleus (usually bilobed) is
rather indistinct being hidden by
large purple or purplish black
cytoplasmic granules.
• non-phagocytic cells
• when activated, release
numerous compounds like
heparin, histamine from the
basophilic granules within their
cytoplasm.
• Mast cells----similar to basophils
• play a major role in allergic
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responses.
 LYMPHOCYTES
• \second most commonly
encountered WBC.
• With a normal frequency
of 20-45%.
• have dark, purple
compact nucleus with a
halo of light blue,
agranular cytoplasm.
• Function: is to migrate
into the connective tissue
and build antibodies
against bacteria and
viruses.
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 Two main type of lymphocytes.
B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes
Function :
B-cells are effective in destroying bacteria----plasma cells---
antibodies
T-cells attack on viruses, Fungi, and transplant cell.

T-Lymphocyte B-Lymphocyte

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 MONOCYTE

• The largest WBC is

approximately twice the size
of the surrounding
erythrocytes.
• kidney bean-shaped
nucleus with a faint, lightly
blue-staining (agranular)
cytoplasm.
• typically found in a
frequency of 4-8%.
• They attack organisms not
destroyed by granulocytes
and leukocytes.
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Type of Leukocytes

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 Platelets
Irregularly-shaped colorless bodies
much smaller than the red blood cells
30 to 40 times more numerous than the
white blood cells

4 µm in diameter
Mean count:200000-350000/ mm3 of
blood
Nucleus: Not present

Site of production: Bone marrow

Life span: 8 and 11 days

Function: blood clotting

 Hemostasis
The series of response which stop bleeding is
called hemostasis.
Three types of response occur
• Vasospasm
• Platelet plug formation:
• Coagulation
Haemostasis Cont’d

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 Plasma Clotting Factors
Factor Name Function
I Fibrinogen Converted to
fibrin
II Prothrombin Enzyme
III Tissue Co factor
Thromboplastin
IV Ca++ Co factor
V proaccelerin, Co factor
Labile factor
VII proconvertin Enzyme
VIII AHF A Co factor
IX AHF B Enzyme

X Trombokinase Enzyme

XI AHF C Enzyme

XII Hageman Enzyme

Factor
XIII Fibrin Enzyme
stabilizing
factor
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 HEMOSTASIS
• Calcium and vitamin K must be present
in blood to support the formation of
clots.
If your blood is lacking these
nutrients, what will happen?

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 ABO Blood Types
All humans and many other
primates can be typed for
the ABO blood group.
There are four principal
types: A, B, AB, and O.
There are two antigens and
two antibodies that are
mostly responsible for the
ABO types.
The specific combination of Karl Landsteiner
these four components (1868-1943)
determines an individual's
type in most cases.
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 BLOOD GROUPING
• Antigens: Present on surfaces of RBCs, also called
agglutinogens.
• Antibodies: Molecules present in the plasma also
called agglutinins are very specific.

• Agglutination: Clumping of cells

Sometimes when the blood of two people is mixed

together, it clumps or forms visible islands in the
liquid plasma--the red cells become attached to one
another. when the antibodies in the plasma bind to
the antigens on the surfaces of RBCs.

When different types of blood are mixed within the

body, the reaction canTanveer
be Saeed
a bursting of the red cells
as well as agglutination.
 ABO Blood System
ABO Red cell Antibodie Can Can
Blood Antigens s in donate to receive
Type serum groups from
groups
AB A and B None AB All
groups
A A Anti-B A and A and O
AB
B B Anti A B and B and O
AB
O None Anti-A All O
and anti- groups
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B
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 Rhesus system
• Rh factor present on RBC cell membranes of 80 %
people.
• Rh factor consists of number of antigens…of which
D is most common.
• Rh positive------- D is present
• Rh negative------ D is absent

• The Rh factor genetic information is also inherited

from our parents, but it is inherited independently of
the ABO blood type alleles. There are 2 different
alleles for the Rh factor known as Rh+ and Rh-.

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 Testing for ABO Group - Procedure

One end of a slide is labeled Anti-A, and the other Anti-B. A drop of Anti-A
test serum is added to the end marked Anti-A, and a drop of Anti-B serum is
added to the end marked Anti-B.

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 The results are read directly from the
slide. The subject is blood group A if
One drop of blood is added to each agglutination occurred with the Anti-A
end of the slide, and mixed well,
test serum; group B if agglutination
using separate wooden sticks.
occurred with the Anti-B test serum;
group AB if agglutination occurred
with both test serums, and O if there
was no agllutination in either case. In
the sample to the right, we conclude
the subject has type A blood.

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 HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF
NEWBORN
• Caused by Rh factor Ag on the fetal RBC membrane.
• If Rh factor absent on mother’s cell--- incompatibility
occurs and child has inherited from father.
• A small no. of RBC cross placenta and enter the
mother’s blood.
• Mother’s blood start making Ab against fetal Rh factor.
• These Ab pass from mother to fetus and hemolyse fetal
RBCs before birth and some afterwards.
• As placenta is more permeable near the end of the
pregnancy, fetal RBCs are able to cross the placenta
stimulating immune reaction in the mother.

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Hemolytic Disease in Newborn
 How to Prevent Erythroblastosis
fetalis
• Erythroblastosis fetalis can be prevented for women at
high risk (i.e., Rh- women with Rh+ mates or mates
whose blood type is unknown) by administering a serum
containing anti-Rh+ antibodies into the mother around
the 28th week of pregnancy and again within 72 hours
after the delivery of an Rh+ baby. This must be done for
the first and all subsequent pregnancies.
• The injected antibodies quickly agglutinate any fetal red
cells as they enter the mother's blood, thereby
preventing her from forming her own antibodies. The
serum provides only a passive form of immunization and
will shortly leave her blood stream. Therefore, she does
not produce any long-lasting antibodies.

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