Widening The Scope of Social Science Research To Cover Global Considerations: How "Practicalism" Can Help Identify New Vistas in Social Science Research

Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24JUL012
Widening the Scope of Social Science

Research to Cover Global Considerations: How
“Practicalism” can Help Identify New Vistas in
Social Science Research
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Institute for the Study of the Globalization of Science
Abstract:- We begin this paper by describing social cross-sectional studies, and longitudinal studies to the extent
sciences research techniques which are an intrinsic and they pertain to social sciences research. We also make a
an integral part of general research techniques. As a reference to several of our previously published papers on
part of this process, we also describe different types of scientific method for the social sciences such as the
research such as qualitative and quantitative research, sociological ninety ten rules, the certainty uncertainty
randomized controlled trials, experimental design, quasi- principle for the social sciences, inductive approaches and
experimental design, cross-sectional studies, and nomothetic rule building in general. We then proceed to
longitudinal studies to the extent they pertain to social develop several new concepts such as the importance of the
sciences research. We also make a reference to several of assessment of time lag in social sciences research, and
our previously published papers such as the sociological describe and explore various situations where a high time
ninety ten rules, the certainty uncertainty principle for lag is not permissible in the social sciences, is tolerable, and
the social sciences, inductive approaches and nomothetic is in fact, highly recommended. We also explore the various
rule building. We then proceed to develop several new types of research obsolescence associated with the proposed
concepts such as the importance of the assessment of concept of social sciences research time lag. Last but not the
time lag in social sciences research, and identify various least, we proceed to lay down what we believe are the
situations where a high time lag is not permissible, is lacunae and shortcomings of present day social sciences
tolerable, and is in fact, highly recommended. We also research, and what can be done to overcome them from a
explore the various types of obsolescence associated with global centric perspective. Some possible, but highly
time lag. Last but not the least, we proceed to lay down neglected applications of social science research methods
what we believe are the lacunae and shortcomings of and techniques are also proposed and presented, to the
present day social sciences research, and what can be extent they pertain to global considerations, though this only
done to overcome them from a global centric a short illustrative list. We therefore believe this would
perspective. We also present some novel applications of constitute an important paper in our globalization of science
social sciences research. We therefore believe this would movement.
constitute an important paper in our globalization of
science movement by raising awareness on the Many scholars and intellectuals have also opined that
importance of social science research techniques in the social sciences, and social science research techniques
various academic disciplines, and in daily life. have not realized their full potential, and that a lot more
work needs to be done in this area. We concur with this
I. INTRODUCTION observation completely. We reproduce some quotes below
to justify this claim. According to the American sociologist
“Research is seeing what everybody else has seen and and physician Nicholas A. Christakis, “The social sciences
thinking what nobody else has thought.” - Albert Szent-Gyorgyi offer equal promise for improving human welfare; our lives
can be greatly improved through a deeper understanding of
"Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying individual and collective behavior. But to realize this
with a purpose." - Zora Neale Hurston promise, the social sciences, like the natural sciences, need
to match their institutional structures to today's intellectual
We begin this paper by describing social sciences challenges.” There must also be a gradual movement away
research techniques which form an intrinsic and an integral from physical and natural sciences led intellectualism, to a
part of general research techniques which are used for all more diverse plurocentric intellectualism. Scholars from
scientific fields and disciplines under the sun. As a part of different parts of the world must also participate and
this process we also describe different types of research collaborate. This is only slowly and gradually happening,
including common and typical categorizations such as but has from our perspective, not yet fully happened. Social
qualitative and quantitative research, randomized controlled sciences research techniques must also mature and come of
trials, experimental design, quasi-experimental design, age. They must also break away from the research tools and
IJISRT24JUL012 www.ijisrt.com 1
techniques adopted in the physical and the natural sciences, However, all these types of “research” cannot really be
at least wherever necessary. For example, according to the considered “scientific research” unless research broadly
philosopher of science Jerome Ravetz, “As the world of contributes to the body of science and scientific knowledge,
science has grown in size and in power, its deepest problems and follows the standard steps of the scientific method, or
have changed from the epistemological to the social.” It accepted variants thereof. Scientific research typically
therefore stands to reason that it is the latter that we need to comprises two distinct levels, namely the theoretical level
analyze more deeply and explore. Solving social and and the empirical level. The theoretical level of science is
cultural problems can have a profound ripple effect on primarily concerned with the development of abstract
science and scientific enterprise as a whole; this factor and concepts regarding a phenomenon and establishing
aspect must never be overlooked. relationships between those concepts through the
mechanism of hypothesis formulation and theorization,
One is also reminded in this connection, of a high while at the empirical level, theoretical concepts and
school debate between a representative each of India, the relationships are tested and retested to see how theories can
United Kingdom, Pakistan and the Philippines that took be improved through the process of gathering and collection
place in the year 1957, probably in London. The name of the of new data.
intense debate and discussion was “roots of prejudice”.
From India, we had a young student by name Padmanabha Inductive and deductive methods are the two most
Gopinath, and from Pakistan another student by the name common techniques employed in research; we had dwelt on
Amin Jan. The student from India began by saying that the these concepts extensively previously. Scientific method is
harboured an intense fear and a hatred of Muslim, while his used both in the physical and the natural sciences, and in the
counterpart from Pakistan responded by stating that he had a social sciences. In the social sciences however, concepts are
deep-rooted prejudice against Hindus too, whom he saw as human behavior focused, and human behavior oriented, and
being intolerant and supporters of the caste system. Sara the tools to measure and quantify concepts may be
Chatt from Britain also went on record stating that she somewhat ambiguous, and inadequate. Conducting scientific
personally considered blacks, then popularly and widely, research commonly requires two types of skills viz,
though rather disparagingly, known as “negroes” to be theoretical and methodological skills. Methodological skills
repulsive. By today’s standards, these would come across as pertain to the methodologies and attendant techniques
being blanket generalizations and stereotypes, if not outright required in scientific pursuits and scientific endeavour,
racism. But what do we mean by “today’s standards”? while theoretical skills encompass mostly subject matter
Social science research techniques and social science skills, and some other allied skills which may vary from
research techniques have barely nudged forward since then, profession to profession. 1
despite the tomes and tomes of scientific research we have
produced over the past nearly twenty years including the The scientific method is a commonly and widely used
“Structured apperception test for social science research”, method in science. It is used for acquiring knowledge, and
the concepts of thought worlds, world views, mindspace, formulating hypotheses, theories, and laws. Scientific
mind-orientation, cultural orientation, etc. Social science method was been used is some shape and form from ancient
research techniques can offer us disambiguation, and the times, particularly from the times of the Ancient Greeks
accomplishment and achievement of clarity of objectives, some two thousand five hundred years ago when Socrates
but the potential for this has been barely realized. Other and other thinkers developed it. It has however been greatly
sciences have leapt and raced forward by the social sciences refined and has matured ever since, particularly from the
have stagnated, partly due to non-participation by non- period of the European renaissance and enlightenment in the
western societies. Etic approaches will have their natural seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Most of the important
limits. We need grassroots participation from people from and key steps of the scientific method have been carefully
all over the world. Unless different branches of the social and systematically laid down by scientists over the past
sciences evolve and mature with the times, they will couple of centuries. Some of the key and important features
constitute a major cultural and a scientific bottleneck. of scientific method are careful observation, systematic
Concepts such as artificial intelligence, artificial general study, objectivity precision and rigour. One must also not
intelligence, and artificial super intelligence will not reach take anything for granted, or accept anything at face value
their full potential if social and cultural bottlenecks are not without a careful consideration and examination. One must
redeemed. also be skeptical at all times. The word skepticism in science
is an extremely important concept that all researchers must
 What is Research? get their head around, and understand thoroughly. It means
What exactly is research? Research is a fairly broad doubting everything and anything, unless proof is available,
term, and may mean many things to many researchers and and can be provided. Skepticism must also always be
scientists. In its simplest and crudest connotation, it may healthy, and one must not be overly skeptical where it is not
include aspects such as researching the internet or websites possible or necessary to be skeptical. This is an important
for specific information. For many or most marketing aspect all of researchers must bear in mind at all times.
professionals, the term research is synonymous with market Healthy skepticism is often the starting point for the
research. Market research is a fairly complex term, and
encompasses a wide array of sub fields and sub disciplines 1 Groh, Arnold (2018). Research Methods in Indigenous
such as consumer behavior, market trends and technology. Contexts. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-72774-5
meaningful acquisition of all forms of knowledge, while II. SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES
skeptopathy unquestionably is not.
Research in various fields of the social sciences
There is generally no completely standardized is conducted by different types of social scientists by
scientific method in use. Even though most of the steps in adhering to a standard and a systematic plan. Social science
scientific method are common to all forms of scientific research methodologies are commonly classified
activity, variations may exist, and these are indeed into quantitative and qualitative research techniques. In case
permissible. The first step in a scientific method is often the of quantitative techniques, quantitative data and evidence
formulation of a research problem through which gaps in such as statistical analysis and mathematical modeling is
research and in current understanding are identified. extremely important, while in the case of qualitative
Research questions are also then identified. These are the research, qualitative techniques such as observation,
questions the research seeks to answer. Existing research communication, interaction, and visual analysis are
and already conducted research studies by other scientists emphasized. In all cases, research methodology must be
are also carefully and methodologically analyzed. There chosen carefully, and after taking into consideration, the
must also be a systematic observation of various aspects of nature of the research problem in question, and the practical
daily life, or of a scientific phenomenon as necessary. implications of research. In a few cases, either or both
Details notes and observations must also be made wherever method triangulation and investigator triangulation is
and whenever necessary. The next most common step adopted. A combination of two or more research techniques
involved is the generation of a preliminary or a working leads to a complex multi-strategy research design. There are
hypothesis. This kind of a hypothesis is usually extremely no laws in social science on the lines of laws observed in the
tentative, and may be modified and refined as time natural and physical sciences. A law in the social sciences,
progresses, and as more and more data becomes available. wherever it exists, is only a generalization regarding a class
Hypotheses must also of course be thoroughly examined and or a category of observations. There may indeed by social
tested, and for this, scientific experiments are necessary. and cultural exceptions to such ‘laws”, and these must not
Scientific experiments must be performed carefully, and only be documented, but also be systematically analyzed
under controlled conditions. Based on the results of the using the sociological ninety ten rule.
experiment, the hypothesis may be modified, and improved
upon. Only in very rare cases, is it completely discarded. 2 More common research methods in the social sciences
include questionnaires (which may comprise structured,
If necessary, the improved hypothesis may be tested unstructured, open-ended and close-ended forms and
again, although this is often left to the discretion of the variants), interviews (structured, unstructured, situational,
researcher. In many cases, a thorough and systematic and behavioral), surveys, focus group techniques,
examination of the research problem and the research ethnography and participant observation, focus group
question or questions may be necessary along with multiple discussion, brainstorming techniques such as the six hats
rounds of analysis. This is because real world issues are techniques, etc. Quantitative and statistical techniques may
often very complex, and cannot be understood very easily. also be used to a lesser degree, and mostly on a need to
Hypotheses evolve into theories in due course, and some of basis. Experimental design and randomized control trials are
these may evolve into laws. Research must be carried out also sometimes followed, with an assignment of subjects to
studiously and meticulously because research is often the control groups, and experimental group on a purely random
basis for further downstream research. The results of basis. Wherever necessary, statistical sampling techniques
research must also be communicated to other researchers, are also used, and common sampling methods include
and the general public so that everyone becomes aware of it. simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
This is also another important step but is sometimes ignored sampling, cluster sampling, convenience sampling, quota
by scientists. Researchers must also serve the needs of sampling, etc. 5 6
society very well; therefore, the needs of science and society
must be borne in mind at all times. Therefore, researchers III. TIME LAG IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
may need to prioritize research on the basis of what is RESEARCH
important to society. In other words, the concept of
practicalism, which we deem to be an improved variant of We believe the concept of a time lag (Which we refer
the older but much more widely and commonly used term to as “Time lag in social sciences research”) is an extremely
pragmatism must be borne in mind. 3 4 important concept is social sciences research, (unlike in the
physical and the natural sciences where this does not either
2 Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, occur, or is relatively less important) and may happen due to
conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative the following factors. This will naturally skew the results of
research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson
3 Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research 5 Glenn Firebaugh, Seven Rules for Social Research,
design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, Princeton University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-691-13567-0
California: Sage Publications 6 Arnold A. Groh, Research Methods in Indigenous
4 Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Contexts, New York: Springer, 2018, ISBN 978-3-319-
Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand 72774-5
Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
research, and make them less conclusive or authoritative. to an extreme degree. Mendel’s work took some decades
Disclaimers are seldom clearly spelt out by researchers, and to be uncovered by Carl Correns, Hugo de Vries,
end users may fallaciously assume that the conclusions of William Bateson and others. We had published a paper
the study will hold good for eternity. Course-corrections are “Reducing the ‘latency period’ for the acceptance of new
seldom done, and even if they are done, they are half- scientific ideas: Positioning the ‘latency period’ for the
hearted and inconclusive. The time lag in social sciences acceptance of scientific ideas as an indicator of scientific
research can be computed fairly easily and straightforwardly maturity”, some years ago which may be read in this
if it is broken down into the following logical steps and context.
components:  Time taken for new research to be cited. New research
may not be cited immediately as other researchers may
 Time gap between the time research begins and ends – cite only from well-established researchers, and non-
this is particularly large in case of protracted studies controversial research may not be taken up for
such as fieldwork. Fieldwork of the type advocated and evaluation immediately. Novel research findings may
espoused by the Polish-British anthropologist and either be ignored, or brushed under the carpet for a long
ethnologist Bronislaw Malinowski (Noted for his study time. Most researchers may even lack imagination or
“Argonauts of the western Pacific”) and the English critical thinking or critical evaluation skills; they may
social anthropologist AR Radcliffe Brown (The only follow the herd blindly and mindlessly regardless of
Andaman islanders: A study in social anthropology) in whether a paradigm is well-rounded or not, and whether
the 1920’s had typically taken around eighteen months. it makes sense in all contexts, and under all
However, many modern ethnographic studies are of a circumstances.
much shorter duration, and most are even carried out  Time taken for longitudinal analysis, which must be
closer to the ethnographer’s home territory, obviating the carried out wherever applicable. In the case of a
need for extensive travel. In general social sciences longitudinal study, researchers repeatedly examine the
research techniques are more time consuming that non same individuals or data to detect or identify any
social sciences research techniques, though this is by no changes that might have occurred over a period of time.
means a hard and a fast rule. They also seek or attempt to ratify research findings
 Time taken to collate results. This has traditionally been through newer data. Given that the entire process is time-
a time consuming and labour intensive activity. This based, it is likely to be highly time consuming, and take
would depend based on the nature and the complexity of several months, if not years. Longitudinal analysis may
the study. However, the use of computers and more encompass panel studies, cohort studies, and the
recent techniques such as machine learning and artificial retrospective historical method.
learning can bring down the time frame greatly.  Time taken to carry out a cross-sectional analysis
 Time taken to analyze results. This would depend based including analysis of data. Cross-sectional studies refer
on the nature and the complexity of the study. However, to observational studies that analyze data from different
the use of computers and more recent techniques such as segments of a population at a single point in time. Even
machine learning and artificial learning can bring down though this is not a time-based study, it is bound to
the time frame greatly. There will always be a human consume time, nevertheless. Cross-sectional research
element involved, and not everything can be automated. may include descriptive research and analytical research.
 Time taken to publish results. Most researchers may  Time taken for further studies and corroboration of
want to have their findings published in a peer-reviewed results to be carried out using inductive approaches
journal, and the process can be both tedious and which study a large number of instances and then
laborious. This is especially true is the journal is a proceed to make generalizations, by adopting a specific
prestigious one like Nature or Scientific American where to general approach. Inductive approaches are generally
the rejection rate is extremely high. time consuming and labour intensive as we had
 Time taken to wait for similar studies to be performed or explained, but may as a matter of fact be extremely
carried out in order to ratify findings. Many researchers necessary in some cases, in the interest of reliability of
may want to corroborate their findings before they can results.
proceed any further. Relatively less research is carried  Time taken for studies to be carried out using deductive
out in some areas of the social sciences, and this would approaches which is bound to take some time, though
depend on factors such as the practicality or real-world not as long as inductive approaches. Deductive
utility of the issue, the cost and time considerations, and approaches proceed from the general to the specific.
of course, researcher interest. These are accompanied by the popular and the
 Time taken to awareness to be generated on new studies. commonly used hypothetico-deductive approach which
This process may often take several months or years; is bound to take time. This method involves formulating
however, new technology such as the internet, online a hypothesis, and proceeding to test it with more and
journals, and open access journals may have brought additional data until the hypothesis is refined.
down the time frame considerably. The days of  Time taken for establishment of general laws and
researchers having to wait for decades for his research to principles is likely to be time consuming. Researchers
be accepted may eventually come to an end, but we have adopt nomothetic approaches as contrasted with
some more time to wait; scientific ideologies still persist idiographic or stand alone approaches, or the deductive
nomological model, in some cases. These approaches hold good for the most part. Therefore, the obsolescence
and techniques are used to develop laws and law like or data will have a cascading effect and impact on the
generalizations. This model is also sometimes referred to relevance of research outcomes and research results.
as Hempel's model, the Hempel–Oppenheim model, the
Popper–Hempel model, or the covering law model, in  When Studies with a Smaller time Lag must be Adopted
some cases. Research methods, research techniques and research
 Time taken for the research to be widely cited or used in strategies with a smaller time lag must be adopted under the
downstream research. This includes early adopters and following circumstances:
laggards. This process is usually as follows. There are
usually some lead adopters and implementers of a new  When results are required immediately because they deal
research item or study, and these people are mostly of with pressing topics and issues of the day. Therefore, the
the adventurous sort and kind. This is followed usually researcher cannot afford to wait indefinitely.
by a large number of mainstream researchers. We then  When analysis of results needs to be performed
have laggards who often stick out like a sore thumb. immediately because it deals with an urgent, pressing or
These people may shun new research and new ideas, and a burning issue.
shy away from adopting them.  When other third parties may need to use the results of
the study immediately, and therefore the results also
This may not really matter in the physical and the need to be published immediately.
natural sciences, but it does indeed matter in the social  When there are cost and budgetary constraints, and there
sciences, and obsolescence can skew results in a way it is therefore, simply no other alternative. For example,
cannot skew results in the natural and physical sciences. there may be urgent deadlines to be met. In some other
This is because social and cultural data becomes easily cases, budgetary constraints may be either self-imposed,
redundant and obsolete. This is something with researchers or decided and dictated by external parties and agencies
must always bear in mind, but a facet of research that has such as funders, collaborators, and sponsors.
not been adequately highlighted.  When there are resources constraints, and there is
therefore, simply no other alternative. Resources for the
IV. TYPES OF OBSOLESCENCE most part, may be highly skilled and possess specialized
knowledge or expertise. In many research projects, skill
 The Following are the Types of Obsolescence that are availability and resource availability is a major concern
Commonly Observed. and constraint.
 Whenever underlying social or cultural data may change
 Data obsolescence: For example, Edmund Leach’s study rapidly or fundamentally, and may also become obsolete
of political systems in highland Burma may have quickly.
become obsolete, as the social data may have become  When studies with a larger time lag can be used
obsolete, or the social conditions there may have
changed. Ditto for Jonathan Parry’s study of death in  Research methods, research techniques and research
Benares, or MN Srinivas’ study of the people of Coorg. strategies with a larger time lag must be adopted under
This type of obsolescence rarely manifests itself in the the following circumstances:
physical or the natural sciences, but is extremely
important for the social sciences. This aspect of course  Establishing laws and generalizations. This is because
merits and warrants further study, scrutiny, and general principles and laws do not generally become
investigation. obsolete. They can perpetuate into eternity. In such as
 Method obsolescence E.g. Techniques used in case, a lot of patience and perseverance is commonly
acculturation studies may become outdated. For example required, and researchers must not be in a hurry to push
we have the widely used Berry’s acculturation model or get the job done.
which delineates for scenarios which as assimilation,  Identifying patterns e.g. cultural universals and cultural
integration, separation and marginalization. This model near universals, patterns of acculturation, patterns of
may however, be eventually superseded and supplanted cultural interaction, patterns of deculturation, etc. We
by improved acculturation models. Similarly, we have have been discussing this off and on in our previous
proposed methods such as ‘Structured and Annotated papers.
Participant-driven Appraisal’, or long-term ethnography  Wherever longitudinal studies need to be carried out. In
all components and aspects of which may not naturally this case, data is repeatedly retested and reexamined over
have been used by earlier researchers. Research methods
a period in time. These typically include panel studies,
and techniques may also improve gradually with the
cohort studies, and historical or retrospective studies.
passage of time, and see refinement.
 Whenever cross-sectional research needs to be carried
 Obsolescence of results and analysis (for example, out. This may encompass both descriptive and analytical
results may no longer be relevant) either because the research. Cross-sectional studies typically study and
social and cultural data upon which they are based are
analyze more populations, and therefore take longer to
obsolete and outdated, or because, methods and data
execute.
collation, data gathering and data analysis are outdated.
The assumptions used in research may also no longer
 Wherever cross-cultural research needs to be carried out. nature, and is therefore natural, systemic issues, we
Cross-cultural research may require or involve the believe must be isolated and tackled.
creation of cross-cultural teams, taking both emic and  Theoretical perspectives are seldom explored, and
etic perspectives, etc. it may also require the examination theories and models are seldom rigorously tested through
of data or several concepts from the point of view of social science research techniques. For example, what
other cultures. Cross-cultural research in the true sense kind of economic models are the most successful in
of the term is seldom carried out today, and this must driving economic growth, delivering social justice, and
become the signature of twenty-first century social boosting employment generation? We must have
sciences research from our perspective. This is necessary answers to all these questions through better fieldwork,
people people from different cultures may often tend to ethnography, grounded research, and other commonly
think in different ways. As Polish mathematician and widely practiced social science research techniques.
Stanislaw Ulam once put it, ‘thoughts are steered in In most cases, the absence of awareness of research
different ways.” methodology is a widespread issue.
 Where underlying data is not likely to change until the  Social science research is also seldom used for
results of the study are published and are used for further developing and conceptualizing new concepts. It is
downstream research. seldom used for disambiguation. Disambiguation is a
 When downstream research is likely to be impervious to process by which ambiguities are removed, and concepts
minor changes in data and conclusions which may occur are made crystal clear by systematically and
before and after the research is published. methodologically investigating ground realities. We
 Where cost or budgetary constraints are not a primary believe that the term “disambiguation” must be made
consideration. These constraints may be either self or more common in social sciences, and must also be used
internally-imposed, or externally imposed. much more widely than presently. This must become one
 Where there is no resource crunch particularly of skilled of the core objectives of a social science researcher. Of
and trained resources, and such resources are readily course, bona fide social sciences research techniques
available. must be used as a vehicle in all such endeavours, and
 Whenever underlying social or cultural data may not novel ones developed wherever necessary.
change rapidly or fundamentally, and may also not  There is often no intention to solve practical and real-
become obsolete quickly. This observation is more true world problems plaguing people in different parts of the
of static data and static cultures. world, and the principle of practicalism is not followed.
Therefore, real-world issues, problems and
It is the second type of research that is particularly considerations are not taken as the starting point of
lacking, and must be amplified and magnified on a war social sciences research, and research priorities not
footing. Therefore, our common complaints are as follows. adopted accordingly. This principle is seldom adopted by
We have of course a large number of them, (well over social science research institutions, and in most
twenty distinct complaints) but only those aspects and disciplines taken as a whole. This is largely or partly
element pertinent to a particular research question must be because Eurocentric notions or dogmas prevail.
considered. Needless to say, all these can help us hew a new  Social science research techniques are not employed
trajectory, and this will herald a new epoch in social uniformly in all fields of research – examples being
sciences research: Economics, linguistics, or studies in socio-cultural
change where social science research techniques
 Research is mostly Eurocentric, and there is no cultural (particularly those based on fieldwork or ethnography)
flavor; i.e. cultural differences are not often completely are seldom conscientiously or diligently applied. We had
captured. Research considerations are also Eurocentric, proposed the concept of econoethnography is a previous
and research questions or research problems are mostly paper on “Anthropological Economics” that we had
Eurocentric; therefore, concerns pertaining to the rest of published in the year 2020. Similarly, linguistic
the world are seldom adequately addressed. Cross- ethnography is also not widely practiced, or at least not
cultural research design is also seldom adopted, and as widely as it should be, though the concept does indeed
points of view of different peoples inhabiting the earth, exist.
at least those backed up by adequate and sufficient data  Qualitative research is not done as often – or as
are not taken. This must be done to the extent it is vigorously and rigorously as it should be. For example,
necessary and practical, however long it may take. studying qualitative aspects of cultural change is often
 There is no long-term perspective and a long-term not done. Quantification techniques for example, do
approach to research. Most research chases short-terms indeed exist, but there is little awareness about them at a
and short-term considerations, with possible stray or practical, grassroots level. This is because non-social
minor exceptions such as in population studies where sciences still dominate in the popular consciousness and
projections are made to the year say, 2050 or 2100. psyche, and qualitative research is relatively less
There is also no “institutional coherentism”, a concept common in the physical and natural sciences. Most fields
that we spoke about some time ago. Academic of the social sciences have not broken away from the
careerism, and academic rivalry are often excessive in mould of physical and natural sciences completely, at
academia. While some of this can be attributed to human
least from the point of view of research method and compatible with scientific method. According to the
research techniques. French philosopher and physician Georges Canguilhem,
 Ethnography and fieldwork are seldom carried out, even a "scientific ideology" is “the discourse that precedes a
where they could be of great use in social sciences science in the process of foundation that itself relies on
research or when they are absolutely necessary. Instead, an existing science whose methodology and suppositions
shortcuts such as questionnaire methods are commonly it emulates”. Examples of scientific ideology could be
and widely used, because they yield quick and easy Eurocentrism, Indocentirsm, Afrocentrism,
results, but where there is a risk of a bias or a significant Sinocentrism, or even scientific racism, Hindutva, or
error margin. Concepts such as long-term ethnography Dravidian nationalism all of which lead to scientific bias,
(we had proposed this concept two years ago) are or and impact research outcomes negatively. Even Marxist
course new, and may take some time to catch on, and historiography we believe, is a form of a scientific
become widespread or popular. We do believe they ideology though its negative impact on science, society
would add value, and bring many new benefits to the and the education system must be quantified. These
table. ideologies self-propagate, and may even often skew
 Novel areas of application are seldom systematically results to an extreme degree. The impact of scientific
explored. Examples of novel areas could be the ideologies, we argue could be potentially far, far higher
ethnography of enculturation, the ethnography of in the social sciences, then in the physical or the natural
acculturation, or the ethnography of linguistic sciences. Ideologies along with their associated
enculturation. The presence or absence of a scientific pseudoscientific components could be quantified through
temper in a given context or society, can also be studied techniques such as QEPIS or quantification of poor and
using this method. The process of decultruation may also ideologically driven scholarship and APSA or analysis
be systematically studied and explored. of pseudoscientific approaches. We had proposed these
 There is no effort to identify patterns, or derive previously and would invoke them again for the benefit
generalizations or laws in most cases. Much has been of our readers.
spoken about this especially in the context of machine  A fully representative sampling strategy is not adopted
learning and social sciences, but probably a lot more (either consciously or subconsciously), and all segments
effort needs to be put in popularize this concept in many of the population are not evenly sampled. A
fields of the social sciences. We have dealt with this representative sample is a subset of a total or a larger
issue extensively previously. Refer our papers on population that seeks to take into consideration or
linguistics, and the theories of and sociocultural change. accurately reflect all the characteristics of the larger
Also refer the other papers we have been publishing over group. It may be noted here, that there are different
the years, as and when necessary. approaches to sampling in research, and the most
 Scenario based and probabilistic approaches to social common ones are stratified sampling, quota sampling,
science research are not commonly followed. However, cluster sampling and systematic sampling.
there are indeed some exceptions, and scenario-based  Certain types of detailed analyses are seldom carried out.
projections are carried out in demographics, and Examples of this are root cause analysis and a cause and
population studies, where low variant, medium variant, effect analysis which can also be extremely important in
and high medium variant projections are made for some cases. This kind of an analysis is often carried out
expected populations in different points in time in the or executed by means of a fishbone diagram, or an
future. Ishikawa diagram. Analyses must always be carried out
 There are no goal-seek approaches commonly and in their respective cultural and social contexts, and the
widely used in many fields of social science research: temptation of oversimplification and hasty generalization
For example, we may ask: “What types of pedagogical must be avoided at all times.
techniques lead to the best learning outcomes?” or  There is a hasty generalization sometimes adopted. This
“What types of second language teaching learn to be best is often seen as a logical fallacy in science, but becomes
learning outcomes?” or even, “How many qualified and more pronounced and important in the social sciences.
trained teachers we need to complete adult education This could be particularly damaging in most fields of the
programs and achieve the goal of universal literacy by social sciences, more than in the physical or the natural
the year 2025?”. The term goal seek is more commonly sciences, as a larger quantum of diverse data may be
used in reference to the excel spreadsheet where it is an required before generalizations can be made. Social and
extremely important feature, but it is also used in relation cultural data is often diverse – much more diverse than
to research methodology. Our complaint is that it is not in most fields of the physical and the natural sciences –
as commonly or widely used in social sciences research The fact that this diversity may not be self-evident, and
as it perhaps should be, and most people are not even may not be unearthed except through intensive and
aware as to what it is all about. extensive research must also be borne in mind at all
 There is often a confirmation bias involved, and many of times.
these are driven either from cultural bias or prejudice, or  Other types of scientific fallacies also sometimes persist.
from “scientific ideology”. Scientific ideologies may be We also have formal fallacies such as an appeal to
scientific or pseudoscientific. They however, may make probability, argument from fallacy, base rate fallacies,
a pretense to be science, or make a pretense to be conjunction fallacies, non-equator fallacies, and masked
man fallacies. We also then have propositional fallacies,
quantification fallacies, formal syllogistic fallacies,  Much more importantly, there is often no understanding
informal fallacies, etc. we may ignore or brush under the as to where, when and how social science research
carpet, negative data, or even some cases, falsely believe techniques should be applied, and where, when and how
that correlation implies causation. There are many other social science research techniques should not be applied.
kinds of scientific fallacies, and we have discussed and Many people are indeed still muddled and confused.
debated them at length off and on. In more extreme That is why many people also fear to tread either
cases, buddy reviewing may be adopted, and ad cautiously or non-cautiously. But our principle here is
hominem attacks made. that it can be applied almost in any situation and scenario
 In most cases, the risk and uncertainty factors associated under the sun, any situation and scenario which pertains
with social science research studies are not clearly spelt and relates to the social and cultural world, and where
through qualifiers, disclaimers and caveats out so that change and improvement is possible. Make no mistake,
people can gauge outcomes and results associated with this can be a no holds barred endeavour, and a no holds
research more realistically. barred exercise.
 Experimental groups and control groups are often not
identified as in the case of randomized control trials, and V. PEDAGOGY
subjects are not often assigned randomly. Sometimes,
only quasi-experimental research design is adopted, and Pedagogy, a term which is derived from the Greek
subjects are assigned through arbitrary and non-arbitrary word paidagogia or the science of learning, most is
criteria, and self-selection. commonly understood as the science of teaching
 In many cases variables are not clearly defined, and and learning, (also the methodology of education) and how
dependant and independent variables are also not clearly this process influences, and is turn influenced by, various
defined. There is often no assessment or an social and political factors, and the psychological and
identification of predictor variables and response emotional development of learners. The theory and practice
variables, output variables or the target variables. The of pedagogy must vary greatly based on different social,
relationship between all these are sometimes not clearly political, and cultural contexts, and we must not fall into a
defined. Eurocentric trap or a Eurocentric rut under any
 In many cases, lead and lag indicators are also not circumstances. Pedagogy as a formal science and an
captured and holistically studied. This technique often academic discipline, also studies the process of learning in
comes into play while studying sociocultural change, but relation to various objectives and outcomes such as the
is not as widely used as it perhaps should be. Lead preservation and transmission of knowledge, and the
indicators seek to anticipate future trends and indicators, fostering and inculcation of specialized skills. In fieldwork
while lag indicators analyze the past, and look for carried out in 2018, the Author noted that many people,
outcomes. even after studying till class ten, were not aware of basic
 All the newer and novel research techniques that we scientific concepts. They did not know how old the earth
have proposed over the years such as the sociological was for example, or that dinosaurs existed. Some did not
ninety ten rule and the certainty uncertainty principle for know that the earth went around the sun, and that other extra
the social sciences have not yet of course taken off, solar planets existed. They did not know about the history of
though we anticipate they will sometime in the future. other countries or regions. Most did not know the basics or
They could hold great benefit for social sciences fundamentals of scientific method, or how to distinguish
research. We look forward to many more such research science from pseudoscience. They did not know basic
techniques being developed in the future, as there is English words even after studying till class twelve. Research
enormous potential. For example, we have the Monte must also therefore be tied to research questions and
Carlo method in the mathematical sciences and several research outcomes, and social science research techniques
others, but social science research techniques appear to must be widely employed in pedagogy, much more than
be strangely frozen in a time warp. they presently are as follows. We present below only areas
 Self-directed research such as auto ethnography has not of study that are presently generally ignored by mainstream
yet come of age, and as per this approach, an individual researchers due to the prevalent Eurocentric biases: 7 8 9 10 11
studies his or her own culture; this approach can indeed
have some advantages when combined with traditional
ethnography and the ‘Structured and Annotated 7 Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of Education,
Participant-driven Appraisal’, a concept we had Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
proposed way back in 2018. These approaches may 8 Bruner, J. S. (1971). The Relevance of Education. New
indeed have some drawbacks, as researchers from some York, NY: Norton
parts or regions of the world may not be fully aware of 9 Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction.
social science research methods and techniques. A more Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belkapp Press.
reasonable approach is a collaborative approach, where 10 Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York:
both outsiders and insiders collaborate in research Continuum
strategies, and capturing research outcomes. 11 Karl Rosenkranz (1848). Pedagogics as a System.
Translated 1872 by Anna C. Brackett, R.P. Studley
Company
 Learning outcomes of students based or a fairly large non empowered languages. We must also in parallel, do
and representative sample drawn from a single context away with obsolete first language acquisition theories.
must be systematically and meticulously assessed.  Second language acquisition patterns must be studied in
Changes to patterns over time must also be suitably different contexts using a fairly large and representative
captured. samples, and meaningful conclusions drawn there from.
 Learning outcomes by sociocultural group must also be This becomes extremely important because people
assessed wherever possible and practicable. We had particularly in many developing countries are commonly
defined the concept of sociocultural group previously in educated in an alien tongue such as English or French.
a paper on anthropological economics, and had also This kind of analysis would provide more meat and
extended it elsewhere. To sum up and recapitulate, a ammunition to the “Education in the mother tongue
sociocultural group is one which is carefully defined versus education in a dominant language” debate. This
after a thorough consideration of social and cultural was not of major concern in the west, and was therefore
factors, and typically takes into account and conveniently ignored and sidelined. However, it is of
consideration customs, traditions, mores, lifestyles, great importance in determining learning and economic
habits, beliefs, and cultural patterns present in a group. It outcomes in many developing countries in Asia and
also seeks to understand human behaviour and mind- Africa. We must also in parallel, do away with obsolete
orientation from a socio-cultural perspective, and second language acquisition theories.
understand how these impact educational, employment  Patterns of lexical development in children both for first
and economic factors as well. and second languages can also be studied with the level
 Learning outcomes by socioeconomic group must also of granularity and detail that is practically possible, as
be systematically assessed as applicable. We had defined this could constitute an extremely important input for
the concept of sociocultural group previously in a paper syllabus design. Reinforcing or compensatory
on anthropological economics, and had also extended it mechanisms can then we carefully and systematically
elsewhere. A socio-economic group may be defined as a worked out, by designing the school syllabus
group that lies at the interaction of social and economic accordingly.
factors. A socioeconomic class is a class which is  Developing theories on first language acquisition:
determined taking into account, a group’s economic and Theories must be grounded on research and must be
social status in relation to other socioeconomic groups. developed only after extension fieldwork, and
Characteristics that determine socioeconomic status investigation. However, this is not the case presently as
typically include factors such as employment, education, current theorization processes often involve leaps of
and income. fantasy and imagination let loose and imagination run
 Learning outcomes based on religion, ethnicity etc must amok. Needless to say, present theories are of limited
also be naturally studied, as this would be an extremely practical value, and limited practical appeal. This is
useful exercise to undertake. An analysis of the variation something we must set right as a part of our
must also be carried out along with a meaningful cause globalization of science movement.
and effect analysis and a root cause analysis. This must  Developing theories on second language acquisition:
precede remediation exercises. Theories must be grounded on research and must be
 Learning outcomes based on parents linguistic ability developed only after extension fieldwork, and
may also be carried out. An analysis of the variation investigation. However, this is not the case presently as
must also be carried out along with a meaningful cause current theorization processes often involve leaps of
and effect analysis and a root cause analysis so that fantasy and imagination let loose and imagination run
remedial action can be instituted. This would, we amok. Needless to say, present theories which we had
believe, be an extremely useful and an important metric. reviewed in the past, (Examples being the noticing
 Learning outcomes based on gender can also be carried hypothesis, the output hypothesis, and the interaction
out wherever necessary, as this could constitute and hypothesis) are of limited practical value, and limited
extremely interesting analysis with major downstream practical appeal. This is something we must set right as a
implications for bridging the gender divide. An analysis part of our globalization of science movement.
of the variation must also be carried out along with a  Impact of syllabus on practical learning outcomes must
meaningful cause and effect analysis and a root cause also be assessed wherever necessary; we had developed
analysis. A joke is currently doing the rounds that while theories of pedagogical content earlier, and these can
girls were traditionally relegated to the background in also be referenced. Syllabi must therefore be practical,
the educational sphere, they are now outperforming boys easy to understand, and must be highly relevant in the
with a vengeance. context of the wider world so that learning outcomes are
 First language acquisition patterns must be studied in maximized.
different contexts using a fairly large and representative  Impact of bilingual textbooks on learning outcomes must
samples, and meaningful conclusions drawn there from. also be assessed wherever necessary; we had developed
This would include an analysis of both native English theories of pedagogical context earlier, and these can
speakers and non-native English speakers, and speakers also be referenced. This exercise must take into account
of major and minor languages, what we can call fully and consideration, a typical student’s fluency and
empowered languages, partly empowered languages, and
comfort level with both the languages, or either of the include computers, robots, and artificial intelligence
languages. based teaching assistants or agents. Iris, India's first AI-
 Impact of illustrated text books on learning outcomes generated school teacher robot, was developed by
(for example) must also be assessed wherever necessary; Makerlabs Edutech under the ATL project of NITI
we had developed theories of pedagogical content Aayog, and was unveiled recently in a Kerala school. It
earlier, and these can also be referenced wherever was subsequently launched in Assam as well. Powered
applicable and necessary. Therefore, as a crude rule of by advanced robotics and generative AI technology, Iris
thumb, learning outcomes will always be enhanced by features an in-built voice assistant as well for an
more child-friendly and learner-friendly approaches to enriching student experience.
learning and teaching. Of this, syllabus and the  Use of different teaching methods and teaching
presentation of text books and learning materials would techniques: Impact on language learning and technical
constitute an important learning part. skills: Impact on language learning and technical skills
 An assessment of transferable skills approach, and its of different teaching methods and teaching techniques
impact on first language acquisition patterns must also must be carefully and systematically assessed. We have
be carried out wherever necessary. A transferable skill concepts such as the just in time method, the experiential
approach refers to a mechanism where education in the method, and the case study method here. The
early years is imparted in the mother tongue or the native development of such theories must also be based on a
language, and later shifts over gradually to English as the grounded approach, and real world data from different
students become more emotionally mature. In countries parts of the world must be considered. They must not be
such as Africa, the situation wherever applicable and Eurocentric under any circumstances.
relevant, becomes rather more complicated, and the  Use of computer based learning: The impact on language
French language, which is believed to be in general learning and technical skills can be systematically
decline and retreat worldwide, also enters the mix. computed using metrics such as the return on investment
 An assessment of transferable skills approach, and its including time and effort investment. This is because
impact on second language acquisition patterns must computers cost money; additionally, power supply,
also be carried out wherever necessary. A transferable particularly in rural areas may not be reliable.
skill approach refers to a mechanism where education in  Use of artificial intelligence in teaching: The impact on
the early years is imparted in the mother tongue, and language learning and technical skills can be
later shifts over gradually to English as the students systematically computed using metrics such as the return
become more emotionally mature. In countries such as on investment including time and effort investment.
Africa, the situation wherever applicable and relevant,  Will lexical development of non-dominant languages by
becomes rather more complicated, and the French importing a large number of English words boost
language, which is believed to be in general decline and people’s technical skills? This is a question that can be
retreat worldwide, also enters the mix. systematically addressed and answered through the use
 Some subjects in are taught in English, some in local of social sciences research techniques.
language: The impact of this technique on first language  Will lexical development of non-dominant languages by
acquisition must be systematically assessed. This importing a large number of English words boost
approach has been tried out in Malaysia. Initially people’s English fluency eventually? This is another
Malaysia attempted to switch over from English to question that can be systematically addressed and
Malay or Bahasa Malaysia entirely, but this impacted the answered through the use of social sciences research
student’s professional and educational prospects. Hence, techniques.
this intermediary arrangement was constituted. Contrary  Will lexical development of non-dominant languages by
to popular perception learning and teaching in the attempting to create words based on people’s own
mother tongue, also known as the native language, does cultural preferences boost people’s technical skills? This
have some benefits, as children may learn some subjects is yet another question that can be systematically
better and faster. addressed and answered through the use of social
 Some subjects in English, some in local language: sciences research techniques.
Impact on second language acquisition. This approach  How will creating complex and artificial new words in
has been tried out in Malaysia. Initially Malaysia non-dominant languages impede people’s intellectual
attempted to switch over from English to Malay entirely, development? Or will it impede and hinder learning
but this impacted the student’s professional and processes? This is yet another question on everyone’s
educational prospects. Hence, this intermediary minds and lips. Social sciences research techniques can
arrangement. Contrary to popular perception learning come in handy here.
and teaching in the mother tongue, also known as the  How is linguistic proficiency linked to economic
native language, does have some benefits, as children outcomes? Are nations with a higher linguistic
may learn some subjects better and faster. proficiency more economically prosperous? What is the
 Use of different teaching tools and teaching aids: Impact exact correlation between the two? How does linguistic
on language learning and technical skills of different empowerment and the lexical development of languages
teaching tools and teaching aids must be assessed. help?
Example of teaching tools and teaching aids could
Additionally, concepts such as language dynamics Ethnographic methods are not as widely used in the
which we have already discussed and debated upon at a very study of economic systems as they perhaps should be, and
great level of depth over several years, can be empirically we still perhaps have some more time to go before they can
tested and verified using bona fide social science research become completely mainstream in the field of economics,
techniques. Leaning outcomes can be assessed based on a and are used in economic planning processes. Studies of
correlation or input and output factors. Similarly, theories of economic systems, even if they have been executed by
social and cultural change can also be easily and anthropologists and sociologists, have primarily focused on
competently tested. Theories of mindspace, thought worlds, the so-called “illiterate” and primitive societies. The
world views, mind orientation and cultural orientation etc technique has not been productively and beneficially put to
can be tested though the use of appropriate social science use to solve pressing economic problems and challenges
research techniques. Techniques such as the sociological faced by mainstream modern societies, leave alone those in
ninety ten rule, and the certainty uncertainty principle for developing countries. Auto-ethnography is also surely but
the social sciences can also be effectively implemented, steadily beginning to take off in many parts of the world,
along with pre-existing methods such as linguistic though this field is often plagued by the absence of the
ethnography. Research must be tied to research questions necessary skills and competence by researchers. We must
and research outcomes. There is plenty of scope here; we also collate this concept with the other concepts in
have barely scratched the surface, and the tip of the iceberg. ethnography we have been advocating all along. The Indian
12 1314
anthropologist TN Madan’s study of the Kashmiri Pundits,
and DN Majumdar’s study of Himalayan polyandry
The term ‘linguistic ethnography’ refers to a growing constitute some of the more prominent studies in the field,
body of research being primarily carried out by but these studies did not primarily address economic
ethnographers and linguists that seeks to combines both systems. Other studies carried out by noted researchers
linguistic and ethnographic approaches in an attempt to Andre Beteille and Karin Kapadia in South India, and FG
investigate how language is used in social and cultural Bailey in Eastern India, have attempted to study caste and
contexts, and linguistic processes operate in a wide range of class, but have not investigated economic systems
situations and contexts. A significant body of research has extensively.
been produced under this field based on the foundational
work of scholars such as the American professor of The Dutch sociologist Jan Breman has probed
anthropology and education Frederick Erickson, American Agrarian relations in South Gujarat between the Anavil
linguist John Gumperz and the prominent linguist and Brahmins and the Dublas, and the Hali system, but this
sociolinguist Dell Hymes, all of whom made stellar encompasses only one small aspect of the study of
contributions to the field. However, linguistic ethnography economics systems of a region, and cannot be considered to
has not yet blossomed, flourished and reached a level of be multi-faceted. Other similar or relevant studies have
maturity that it needs to. We believe linguistic ethnography included a study in community and rural development in
can be used to study all the topics of research mentioned in North India by the Indian anthropologist and sociologist
this paper, plus many more. The technique and methodology Shyama Charan Dube, a study of resource management
of participant observation can be put to practical use here, among the arctic people’s by the Canadian professor of
though we believe research durations may often be shorter natural resources Fikret Berkes, a study of occupational
than in the case of traditional, old-fashioned ethnography. 15 patterns among the Bakkarwals of Jammu and Kashmir by
the Indian anthropologist Aparna Rao, and a study of Tolai
economic growth by the British Austrian social
anthropologist and economist Scarlett Epstein, but these
12 Towards a comprehensive compendium of factors have only probed and investigated one or a few aspects of
impacting language dynamics in post-globalized scenarios: traditional economies, and may deemed to be restricted in
Presenting principles, paradigms and frameworks for use in scope. Thus, the scope for “econoethnography” is immense,
the emerging science of language dynamics Sujay Rao and it has the potential to be a game changer. 16
Mandavilli ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences
Volume 6, Issue 3 (April –June 2020) VI. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS CHANGE
13 Observations on language spread in multi-lingual
societies: Lessons learnt from a study of Ancient and The term "Religion" as most people understand it
Modern India Sujay Rao Mandavilli, Elk Asia Pacific today, refers to a wide range and variety of social-cultural
Journal, 2015 systems, which commonly and typically include various
14 On the origin and spread of languages: Propositioning types of beliefs, belief systems, holy texts, ethics, morals,
Twenty-first century axioms on the evolution and spread of religious practices, and scriptures, sanctified holy places,
languages with concomitant views on language dynamics
Sujay Rao Mandavilli, ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social 16 Introducing Anthropological Economics: The quest for
Science Volume 3, Number 1 (2016) an Anthropological basis for Economic theory, growth
15 An Introduction to Linguistic Ethnography: models and policy development for wealth and human
Interdisciplinary Explorations, Sara Shaw, Fiona welfare maximization, Sujay Rao Mandavilli, ELK Asia
Copland & Julia Snell, Springer Pacific Journal of Social Sciences Volume 6, Issue 3 (April
–June 2020)
and institutions that typically relate to the general belief in a only educated Muslims become apostates?”, “Will Muslims
God or a supernatural entity. There may however be only become less religious?”, “How long will the transition
exceptions to all these concepts as some religions exclude from religion to irreligion take?”, “How long will the
the idea of a God. Religion has been known in a wide transition from religion to apostasy take? We can also
variety of geographical contexts and situations, and has been additionally study the following aspects, often through a
attested since ancient and pre-historic times. As a matter of careful extrapolation of trends:
fact, there have been very few known human societies
without some form of an organized or at least an informal  Can past data be extrapolated to understand the process
religion. In the past few centuries, technology has of religious transformation? Can the pace of change be
progressed at a rapid and a brisk pace; however, it has not reliably estimated?
obliterated religion completely. Religion, and the role  What are the limits to irreligion and apostasy? Can
played by it in society, remains as deeply entrenched as ever religion be ever eradicated completely? Will a counter
before, or is only now slowly and gradually waning. ideology take root?
Globalization has also unleashed a clash of civilizations, and  Is the solution to religious fanaticism, religious
has brought different and widely differing ideologies into extremism and religious intolerance atheism, or is it a
direct contact with each other, often unleashing waves of milder form of the same religion, or a new and different
terror, in the manner foreseen by Samuel P. Huntington and religion?
others. Religious change has also been witnessed in many  What aspects accelerate the transition to irreligion? How
forms over several centuries. Historical examples of many of these changes pertain to pedagogy?
religious change have included the rise and decline of  What aspects retard the transition to irreligion? How
Buddhism in India between 300 BC and 800 AD, the revival many of these aspects pertain to pedagogy?
of Hinduism by 800 AD, the spread of Islam by various  What policies must nations develop to foster and
caliphates such as the Rashidun caliphate and the Umayyad inculcate religious tolerance, and move people away
caliphate within a few centuries after Mohammed. from religion? How will constitutions and political
Christianity also replaced paganism and other pre-Christian systems need to be amended to achieve this goal?
beliefs and traditions fairly quickly and rapidly in a matter
 What are the causes of religious fanaticism and religious
of centuries. 17 18 19 20 21
fundamentalism? These can be identified through the
case study method, but what must be the exact
Apostasy in Islam began in a big way at the turn of the
mechanisms to study all these? How can they be put in
twenty-first century. This is associated with the renunciation
place?
of religious and quasi-political beliefs associated with Islam.
 What caused specific groups to become religious
There is a fairly strong ex-Muslim movement in Iran, India
fanatics and religious fundamentalists? Can these factors
and other places, and noted apostates have included Wafa
be successfully replicated?
Sultan and Ayaan Hirsi Ali. Apostasy can be technically
studied using social science research techniques. Topics of  What factors moved people away from religious
study could include studying patterns of apostasy, studying fanaticism and religious fundamentalism? Can these
factors be successfully replicated?
patterns of apostasy by country, studying patterns of
apostasy by socioeconomic background, studying patterns of  What is the education level of religious fanatics and
apostasy by educational background, studying beliefs in religious fundamentalists? Does a higher level of
religious values such as Sharia law, etc. Questions such as education automatically make people less religious, or
the following can also be answered using social science are other changes to the education system required?
research techniques, and we can aptly throw and shed light  What sort of educational changes need to be brought
on all these: “Can all Muslims become apostates?”, “Will about to curb religious fanaticism and religious
fundamentalism, including more fundamental ones?
17 Nongbri, Brent (2013). Before Religion: A History of a Additionally, we can also employ social sciences
Modern Concept. Yale University Press. research techniques to study identity formation, and
18 Morreall, John; Sonn, Tamara (2013). "Myth 1: All individuation, concepts that we have touched upon and
Societies Have Religions". 50 Great Myths of elucidated in two separate papers in the years 2019 and
Religion. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 12–17 2023. For example, we can ask:
19 Barton, Carlin; Boyarin, Daniel (2016). "1. 'Religio'
without "Religion"". Imagine No Religion : How Modern
 What factors strengthen the process of identity
Abstractions Hide Ancient Realities. Fordham University
formation? How can we gainfully study this for different
Press. pp. 15–38 components of identity formation, and use it to draw
20 Ahmad, Ahmad Atif (2007), "Authority, Conflict, and the other meaningful conclusions as well?
Transmission of Diversity in Medieval Islamic Law by R.
 What factors dilute the process of identity formation?
Kevin Jaques", Journal of Islamic Studies, 18 (2): 246–248
How can we gainfully study this for different
[246]
components of identity formation, and use it to draw
21 Bulliet, Richard W. (April 1970), "A Quantitative
other meaningful conclusions as well?
Approach to Medieval Muslim Biographical
Dictionaries", Journal of the Economic and Social History  How can the process of identity formation be modulated
through better education? What suitable changes do we
of the Orient, 13 (2): 195–211 [200]
need to bring about to the education system to VII. CONCLUSION

accomplish this goal?
 What tools and techniques can we use to study the levels We had begun this paper by describing various social
of cognitive dissonance in individuals? How can we sciences research techniques as an intrinsic and an integral
study different types of cognitive dissonance as well? part of general research techniques. As a part of this process
 How can we use social science research techniques to we had also described different types of commonly used
study the “Ethnography of enculturation”? research such as qualitative and quantitative research,
 How can we use social science research techniques randomized controlled trials, experimental design, quasi-
including ethnography and other techniques to study the experimental design, cross-sectional studies, and
process of acculturation under various types of cultural longitudinal studies to the extent they pertain to social
scenarios that we had presented? sciences research. We had also referenced several of our
 How can we use social science research techniques previously published papers on the methodology of science
including ethnography and other techniques to study the such as the sociological ninety ten rules, the certainty
process of transculturation under various types of uncertainty principle for the social sciences, inductive
cultural scenarios that we had presented? approaches and nomothetic rule building. We had then
 How can we use social science research techniques proceeded to develop several new concepts such as the
including ethnography and other techniques to study the importance of the assessment of time lag in social sciences
process of deculturation under various types of cultural research, and had identified situations where a high time lag
scenarios that we had presented? was not permissible, was deemed to be tolerable, and other
 How can we use social science research techniques cases, where it could in fact, be highly recommended. We
including ethnography and other techniques to study the also then went on to explore the various types of
process of massculturation under various types of obsolescence that could be commonly associated with the
cultural scenarios that we had presented? concept of time lag in the social sciences. Much more
 How can we use social science research techniques importantly, we laid down what we believed were the
lacunae and shortcomings of present day social sciences
including ethnography and other techniques to study and
research, and what could be done to overcome them from a
assess the strength of individual identities?
global centric perspective. We then also presented some
Similarly, the presence or absence or a scientific practical applications of social sciences research covering
many different subfields of the social sciences. This paper
temper which reflects an objectivity, an openness and
we believe will constitute an important paper in our
curiosity, and a hunger and an insatiable appetite for
knowledge, in individuals can also be effectively gauged globalization of science movement as it will educate people
on the importance of social science research techniques, and
using social science research techniques such as interviews
and questionnaires. For all this, questionnaires and the impact they can have in making the world a better place
interviews can be reasonably employed, rather than for all of us to live in.
fieldwork, which may be less apposite in this context. In
such a case, knowledge of scientific concepts, an
individual’s, mind orientation, his or her ability to
distinguish science from pseudo science, knowledge of
scientific method, the continuing prevalence of pre-scientific
ideas may be assessed. These would only constitute broad
topics, under each of these broad heads, a detailed
questionnaire needs to be developed. These topics are only
illustrative and representative; many other practical uses will
readily present themselves as time progresses. 22 23 24
22 Diggle, John (1898). Nicoll, W. Robertson (ed.). The

Faith of Science. The Expositor (Fifth Series). Vol. VII.
London: The Expositor. pp. 451–452
23 Chacko, Priya (2011). "The search for a scientific
temper: nuclear technology and the ambivalence of India's
postcolonial modernity". Review of International
Studies. 37 (1): 185–208
24 Raza, Gauhar; Singh, Surjit (2018). "Politics, Religion,
Science and Scientific Temper". Cultures of Science. 1 (1):
39–51

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Volume 9, Issue 7, July – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24JUL012

Widening the Scope of Social Science

need to bring about to the education system to VII. CONCLUSION

22 Diggle, John (1898). Nicoll, W. Robertson (ed.). The

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