Received 21 June 2023, accepted 30 June 2023, date of publication 6 July 2023, date of current version 13 July 2023.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2023.3292576

Cooperative Awareness Messages’ Generation

Frequencies, Trigger Distributions, and
Pseudonym Changes of First Commercially
Deployed Vehicles in Real Operating Scenarios
MAXIMILIAN BAUDER 1 , TIBOR KUBJATKO2 ,
AND HANS-GEORG SCHWEIGER 1 , (Member, IEEE)
1 CARISSMA Institute of Electric, Connected and Secure Mobility, Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt, 85049 Ingolstadt, Germany
2 Institute of Forensic Research and Education, University of Žilina, 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia
Corresponding author: Maximilian Bauder ([email protected])
This work was supported by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) Fachhochschule (FH)-Impuls 2020 SAFIR
AVENUE under Grant 13FH7I05IA.

ABSTRACT Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems have been deployed in mass-produced vehicles in
Europe (Golf 8, ID.3, etc.) since 2019, promising major improvements in vehicle safety, efficiency, and
comfort. Equipped with Vehicle-to-X communication, the vehicles directly send information about their
driving status to the environment. The data are already used for many Vehicle-to-X communication use-cases
specified by the Car-2-Car Communication Consortium to achieve the above-mentioned improvements. This
study focuses on using Vehicle-2-X communication and its messages for accident analysis. For this purpose,
we investigated the advantage in temporal resolution of the continuously sent Cooperative Awareness Mes-
sage compared to the Event-Data-Recorder for accident reconstruction in the pre-crash. A high resolution of
the temporal accident scene is essential for the doubtless clarification of accidents. Therefore, we analyzed
the generation frequencies and the trigger conditions of the Cooperative Awareness Message of vehicles
available on the European market while driving in real traffic and during different parking maneuvers. Also,
the pseudonym change was analyzed. We found that the average generation frequency of the Cooperative
Awareness Message is higher than the 2.00 Hz recording frequency of the event data recorder for all
scenarios investigated. Especially on rural roads and highways, the temporal resolution is advantageous.
Since many serious accidents occur on rural roads, the use of Cooperative Awareness Messages could
significantly benefit the reconstruction of the accident scene. Thus, we recommend increasing efforts to
use the Cooperative Awareness Message as digital data for accident analysis and encourage more scientists
to deal with this topic.

INDEX TERMS Accident analysis, accident reconstruction, cooperative awareness message, cooperative
intelligent transport systems, fundamental data, real operating investigation, vehicle-2-X communication.

I. INTRODUCTION the environment (V2X) is divided into pure vehicle com-

Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITS) are in munication (V2V), communication with infrastructure (V2I),
commercial mass production in Europe since 2019 [1]. C-ITS or with people (V2P) [2], [3]. The cooperative vehicles cur-
represent means of transport with systems for direct com- rently distributed by Volkswagen in Europe use two services
munication with their environment [2]. Communication with standardized by the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI) [4]. The Cooperative Awareness Service
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and (CA) and its message (CAM) [5] is the subject of this
approving it for publication was Amin Mahmoudi . study.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
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The potential benefit of using the CAM for accident recon- In addition to the generation frequencies, the trigger
struction has already been proposed in [6]. The CAM could conditions that caused the CAM dissemination were ana-
provide information about the vehicle’s position, speed, ori- lyzed for all tests. This analysis allows conclusions about
entation, longitudinal acceleration, etc., with a maximum the triggers that are decisive for the resulting generation
sending frequency of up to 10.0 Hz if involved in an acci- frequencies in the various investigated operating scenar-
dent [6]. This data would be beneficial in reconstructing the ios. The identification and analysis of relevant triggers
accident scene, as classic connecting facts such as skid marks enable a generalization and applicability of the results while
are diminishing due to increasing vehicle automation. also facilitating the identification and discussion of pos-
Consequently, additional digital data for the clarification of sible influencing factors, such as the driver, vehicle, and
accidents is provided today by an event data recorder (EDR), environment.
which has been mandatory in every newly registered vehicle The driving and parking tests were conducted on a test
model since mid-2022 in accordance with UN-ECE R160 [7]. site and public roads in the Ingolstadt region with already
In the event of an accident, the EDR stores accident-relevant deployed vehicles using V2X technology. At the time of the
data up to five seconds before the crash [7]. According to [7], study, three Volkswagen vehicles (Golf 8, ID.3, and ID.4)
the parameters indicated speed, engine throttle, service brake, equipped with V2X technology were available on the Euro-
engine rpm, ABS activity, stability control, and steering input pean market and used for the tests.
are saved at 2.00 Hz in the pre-crash phase. A related study was found by the Car 2 Car Communication
It is apparent that the storage frequency and stored param- Consortium (C2C-CC) in 2018, as the CAM was statistically
eters contribute only a little to the reconstruction of the investigated there [10]. Test drives from two vehicle man-
accident pre-crash phase. Parameters such as the position ufacturers (Volkswagen and Renault) with their respective
and orientation of the vehicle or current accelerations are C-ITS implementations were compared. Here, the focus was
missing. Here, the CAM could assist by providing further mainly on the distribution of the actual data size of the CAM
relevant data to accident reconstruction, especially the pre- and the time interval between two messages (inverse of the
viously mentioned ones. In addition, the CAMs’ frequencies generation frequency). Similar to this study, the vehicles were
of up to 10.0 Hz could offer five times the resolution of the examined in real road traffic in urban and suburban areas as
EDR [5]. well as on a highway. But, compared to this study, no larger
The variable generation frequency of the CAM, ranging rural road sections were included. The time interval analysis
from 1.00 to 10.0 Hz, prompts inquiry into the attainable of this study shows that messages were always generated in
frequencies of cooperative vehicles in the field under realistic 100 ms intervals by checking the trigger conditions every
operating conditions and whether this affords better temporal 100 ms. The time interval is also very erratic from message to
resolution of the accident scene as compared to the EDR. message. Only 50% of the messages follow in the same time
Therefore, this study aims to analyze the generation fre- interval as the previous message. The average time interval
quencies occurring during a real road drive and parking between two messages was found between 0.33 and 0.47 s
maneuvers. The locations (urban, rural, highway) are con- and is generally very dependent on the respective driving
sidered separately to differentiate the occurring generation scenario.
frequencies locally for the real road drive. In addition, In another study [11], CAM messages were collected on
it was found in [6] that the pseudonym change could be a real-road drive, and the speed and acceleration information
problematic in exploiting the CAM as digital data. Accord- was evaluated. The aim was to detect changes in speed and
ingly, the pseudonym change during real-road driving is also braking events without additional sensors. It turns out that
investigated. speed changes can be detected well with the help of the CAM
The reason for studying parking maneuvers is the large message. Detecting braking events via acceleration informa-
occurring number of accidents and the associated high repair tion is more difficult due to the noise. However, no generation
costs. From 2.31 million traffic accidents recorded by the frequencies were investigated in this work.
police in Germany in 2021, 1.45 million were accidents In the study from Charpentier et al., published in [12]
in urban areas with property damage only [8]. Accord- and [13], the authors investigated the impact of CAM size
ing to a press release from the German insurer Allianz on latency, comparing the two competing transmission tech-
AG, almost half of these are related to parking accidents nologies WLANp and Cellular-V2X (C-V2X). Real-world
[9]. Consequently, it can be reasonably assumed that park- tests were conducted on their test site in Antwerp. The result
ing collisions are a frequent reason for accident analysis showed that the size of the message has hardly any influence
reports and cause many property damage costs in road acci- on the latency. However, it became apparent that the latency
dents. Thus, the CAM could also be a useful digital data of the C-V2X communication does not meet the acceptable
source in the event of a parking accident, explaining the latency requirements for pre-crash use cases. On the other
investigation into the generation frequency of the CAM hand, this study investigated no other parameters besides
during common parking maneuvers (backwards, forwards, latency. Furthermore, no V2X-capable vehicles on the market
sideways). were investigated.

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FIGURE 1. Plotting of the resulting generation frequencies over the trigger conditions, considering the verification of the triggers in 0.1 s time intervals
according to [5].

In [14], the accuracy of CAM message content was sys- in the literature. In addition, the pseudonym changes and
tematically investigated based on trigger conditions and the generation frequency on rural roads and during parking
compared with the accuracy requirements of V2X use cases, maneuvers, have not been investigated at all yet. This is
applications, and accident analysis. Thus, full acceleration, another novelty in the literature.
deceleration, constant straight-ahead, and curve driving tests
were conducted. Besides the accuracy of the information sent, II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND, EXPERIMENTAL AND
the generation frequencies occurring in the tests were also METHODS
investigated. It was found that high generation frequencies of A. TRIGGER CONDITIONS OF COOPERATIVE AWARENESS
5.00 or 10.0 Hz are mainly achieved at strong deceleration MESSAGE
and acceleration. The vehicle’s ground speed determines the According to [5], a CAM message is generated and sent
generation frequency in constant straight-ahead driving. In as soon as the vehicle experiences a change in heading of
the cornering tests, on the other hand, there is a high vari- 4◦ , distance of 4 m, or speed of 0.5 m/s. The trigger con-
ance in generation frequencies of 5.00 Hz or less. Based on ditions are checked every 100 ms. In addition, a CAM is
these findings, it is already possible to conclude generation sent 1000 ms after the last message if no other trigger has
frequencies for different vehicle dynamic states. However, been true. According to the trigger conditions, a speed of
these tests represent the generation frequency during a few 40 m/s (∼144 km/h), an acceleration of 5 m/s or a yaw rate
individual maneuvers. An investigation of the generation fre- of 40 ◦ /s are necessary to achieve a generation frequency of
quencies occurring in real traffic and during real driving was 10.0 Hz. The resulting generation frequencies of the trig-
not done. gers over their respective trigger conditions are shown in
Many other studies deal with system performance con- figure 1.
cerning CAM messages and the difference between the two
competing technologies (WLANp vs. C-V2X) [15], [16],
B. EXPERIMENTAL
[17], [18]. As this is not the focus of this work, they are
mentioned here but not discussed further. The test drives in this investigation were conducted during the
Also, no studies on the actual implementation of tests on the accuracy of the CAM message content, which was
pseudonym change from V2X vehicles on the market could already presented before [14]. The description of the detailed
be found. In [19], a performance evaluation of the reload of experimental set-up as well as further relevant data (e.g. soft-
entire pseudonym lists between the vehicle and a Public Key ware status of the vehicles), can be found in this publication.
Infrastructure was examined. The actual pseudonym change Only a brief description of the experimental set-up is given
while using the pseudonyms was not considered there. here for general understanding.
The related works show that several studies have already
dealt with the CAM message. In particular, the C2C-CC study 1) TEST VEHICLES DESCRIPTION
involving Volkswagen had a similar focus to this study. As the All V2X-capable vehicles that were already available on
aforementioned testing was conducted before Volkswagen’s the market at the time of the experiments were examined.
initial C-ITS deployment, it would be intriguing to observe Since Volkswagen only uses V2X technology in Europe, the
if the current market vehicles exhibit similar behavior to the Golf 8, ID.3, and ID.4 models were used for the tests. The
2018 tests. This has not been studied before and is a novelty vehicles were equipped with a V2X communication module

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FIGURE 2. a) Route driven with VW ID.4; b) Route driven with VW ID.3 und VW Golf 8; c) Change of route due to road works (green = VW ID.4,
red = VW ID.3 and purple = VW Golf 8) in Ingolstadt (ING).

from the company Commsignia [20], which received the C. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
vehicle’s CAM and forwarded it to a measurement computer 1) REAL-ROAD TEST DRIVE
via Ethernet. The Data were stored together with reference The aim of driving in a natural environment is to deter-
data using the software ROS (Robot Operating System). The mine the frequencies occurring during the ‘‘normal opera-
reference data are not required for this work. Thus, the refer- tion’’ of the vehicle. This way, statements can be made about
ence measurement system is not described further. the actual CAM generation frequencies occurring in road traf-
fic. In addition, the generation frequencies are differentiated
2) TESTING AREAS locally, and findings on generation frequencies in urban and
The measurements were realized on the test site of the rural areas and highways can be generated. Furthermore, the
CARISSMA and while driving in real traffic. The distances change of used pseudonyms is evaluated. In this context, it is
traveled in traffic can be seen in figure 2. of interest which space and time reference the pseudonym
The test drive began and ended at the Technische change has. According to figure 2, the test drive was carried
Hochschule Ingolstadt in Ingolstadt. After the start, the city out once for each vehicle since, due to the long distance,
of Ingolstadt was left via the district of Oberhaunstadt in enough measurement data could be collected with one run.
the direction of Kösching. From here, a loop was driven
via Bettbrunn, Oberdolling, Pförring, Vohburg, Geisenfeld,
2) PARKING MANEUVER
Reichertshofen, and back to Ingolstadt. Due to road works,
The typical parking maneuvers (forwards, backwards, and
there were minor and major deviations from the route. For
sideways) were performed during the parking tests. Each
example, three different ways had to be chosen when pass-
parking maneuver was conducted three times by each vehicle.
ing through Oberhaunstadt (see figure 2 c: purple, green,
The parking spaces were realized by two additional vehicles
and red). In addition, the road between Geisenfeld and
(see figure 3 a) and b)) to create a parking scenario as authen-
Reichertshofen was also closed due to road works. Thus, ID.3
tic as possible. The distances between the vehicles were
and Golf 8 took a route via Manching (see figure 2 b). The
chosen according to the recommendations for parking facil-
route selection aimed to cover all available route types (urban,
ities in Germany [21], [22]. The tests aim to determine the
rural, and highway). The route was driven with each vehicle
generation frequencies occurring during parking to analyze
between 10 and 12 o’clock in the morning. The test route of
the temporal resolution of the CAM during these maneuvers.
the VW ID.4, according to figure 2 a, is 85.3 km in total.
The occurring generation frequencies are essential if the
21.6 km were driven in urban areas, 50.2 km in rural areas and
CAMs are used in the future as connecting facts in the event
13.5 km on highway A9. The test distance of the other two test
of a parking accident.
vehicles, according to figure 2 b, is 101.1 km for the ID.3 and
100.4 km for the Golf 8. 23.3 km were driven in urban areas,
57.6 km in rural areas and 20.2 km on highway A9. Since the D. EVALUATION METHODS
driven areas are considered separately, the different lengths Only the message contents of the recorded CAMs were used
of the routes and the changes due to the road works are not to evaluate the results of this work. In the following, the
relevant to the results. applied mathematical calculation rules and methods utilized

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distances determined by Google Maps in section II-B2, the

linear approach chosen to calculate the distance is sufficiently
accurate.

3) METHOD TO DETERMINE TRIGGER CONDITIONS

According to section II-A, the trigger values are checked
for each message to identify the trigger of the respective
FIGURE 3. a) Dimensions parking space according to [21], [22] for
sideways parking; b) Dimensions parking space according to [21], [22] for message. A change in position of 4 m between two messages
forwards and backwards parking. can be checked directly by the distance value Dt , which has
already been calculated. The difference values to the previous
message (t −1) are built to check the change in speed 1vt and
to analyze the data are presented, as the parameters of interest heading 19t .
(generation frequency, distance, trigger conditions) cannot be
directly extracted from the contents of the CAMs. 1vt = vt − vt-1 ; 19t = 9t − 9 t-1 (7)
For each message, the trigger values are checked according
1) CALCULATION OF GENERATION FREQUENCY to an if-query and a run variable [Dtrig , vtrig , 9 trig , mixed trig ,
The coordinated universal timestamp (UTC) of ROS is t trig , Unknowntrig ] is incremented by one for the respective
used to calculate the generation frequencies of the vehicle’s trigger if it is true. The order of the query is decisive here since
CAMs, which is attached to each message at the reception. several trigger conditions can be true simultaneously. Thus,
First, the time difference 1t between the current timestamp all combinations of triggers are checked first (mixed trig ).
(UTCt ) and the time stamp of the previous message (UTCt-1 ) Then the individual triggers are checked. If none of the
is formed. trigger conditions is true, the frequency of the message is also
1 1 considered. If the frequency is 1.00 Hz, the time trigger has
ft = = (1) triggered the message (t trig ). The evaluation has shown that
1tt UTCt − UTC t-1
messages that do not fulfill any trigger conditions exist. These
Then the frequency is determined by dividing one by the time
are added to Unknowntrig .
difference.
Finally, the percentage distribution of the trigger condi-
tions can be calculated from the quotient of the individual run
2) CALCULATION OF DRIVEN DISTANCES
variable with the sum of all run variables. An overview of the
The distance driven is determined from the longitudinal
formula symbols used is shown in table 1.
and lateral position data. For this purpose, the differences
(1lat, 1long) at the time of the arrival of a message t and the TABLE 1. List of the formula symbols used.
previous t-1 between the lateral and longitudinal coordinates
(lat, long) are built.
1latt = latt − lat t-1 ; 1longt = longt − longt-1 (2)

Then, according to [23], the driven distance 1xt and 1yt in

meter can be calculated by
1xt = 111300 · cos(latt ) · 1longt (3)
and
1yt = 111300 · 1latt . (4)
Assuming a straight linear movement within the time interval,
the Pythagorean theorem can approximately determine the
distance Dt between the two time points. III. RESULTS
q A. REAL-ROAD TEST DRIVE
Dt = 1xt2 + 1y2t (5) No data was filtered from the measurement set to evaluate the
The sum of all distances Dt over the total driving time T real-road driving tests. Since the measurement set contains
results in the experiment’s driven distance Dges . urban and rural areas as well as the highway section, the data
of the measurement set must be assigned to the corresponding
T
X areas. The assignment was realized with the driven distance
Dges = Dt (6) Dges and an evaluation of the distances in the respective
t0 areas via Google Maps. By specifying the areas to the driven
The evaluation shows a distance of 85.2 km for ID.4, distance, it was possible to identify and classify each area on
100.9 km for ID.3, and 100.3 km for Golf 8. Compared to the the route.

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FIGURE 4. Percentage distribution of vehicle generation frequencies in the respective study areas.

Figure 4 shows the resulting generation frequencies of the

vehicles in urban and rural areas as well as during driving
on the highway. A similar frequency distribution between
the vehicles in the respective areas can be noticed. The pre-
dominant generation frequency in urban areas is 2.50 and
3.33 Hz and has a share of approx. 70% of the occurring
generation frequencies. The greatest scattering of generation
frequencies can be observed in urban areas compared to the
other investigated areas. The variance is due to the signifi-
cant influence of the traffic volume, the infrastructure, and a
greater variation of the triggers due to turning, accelerating,
or braking operations (see figure 5).
Because of higher speeds on rural roads, the predomi-
nant generation frequency increases to 5.00 Hz. This value
accounts for almost 75% of the generation frequencies that
occurred. This is plausible since a large part of the usual FIGURE 5. Trigger with trigger conditions according to CAM standard
speed limit on rural roads (70-100 km/h) in Germany is in (4,4,0.5) in the first column and with 25% reduced trigger conditions
(3,3,0.375) in the second column.
the 5.00 Hz range. In addition, the external influences from
traffic and infrastructure are low here, which illustrates the
low scattering of the generation frequencies.
More than 95% of the generation frequencies on the high- in the generation frequencies between the VW ID.4 and the
way occur at 5.00 and 10.0 Hz. Since there is no speed limit VW ID.3 and Golf 8.
on the investigated highway section during the day, more than Table 2 lists the average generation frequencies of the test
144 km/h were reached, and frequencies of 10.0 Hz were vehicles in the respective areas. In urban areas, mean frequen-
possible. Different traffic densities can explain the difference cies of approx. 3 Hz, occur. As expected, mean frequencies

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This behavior was already found in the study of the

C2C-CC [10] by examining the proportion of repetitive
generation frequencies. In the following, a Reevaluation is
performed to validate the findings of the C2C-CC for the
vehicles on the market. Figure 6 shows the result of this
evaluation. The generation frequencies of the successively
sent CAM messages were illustrated for the test vehicles via
the test environments. The figure shows only a small section
of 300 messages as a representative example.
The jumps in the generation frequencies are recognizable
by peaks. The peaks and, thus, the frequency jumps occur in
all test environments. Considering table 3, this can be further
quantified by analyzing the percentage of repeating genera-
tion frequencies. The jumps occur mainly in urban areas and
decrease towards the highway. It is also evident that the jumps
are related to the vehicle development age. Besides the high-
way, Golf 8 shows the worst result for generation frequency
FIGURE 6. Excerpt of the CAM’s successive generation frequencies of the fidelity. The generation frequency fidelity increases over ID.3
test vehicles in the respective study areas. and ID.4. With the increasing development of the vehicles
and, thus, the implemented V2X technology, the jumps seem
to decrease. The fact that approx. 50% of the frequencies
of almost 5 Hz are reached on rural roads. The range of mean are erratic, as in the study by the C2C-CC [10], can only be
frequencies is slightly increasing on highways. However, confirmed for the Golf 8 in the urban area.
mean frequencies of about 6 Hz to over 8 Hz could be
determined. TABLE 3. Mean value of the percentages of the repetitive generation
frequencies.

TABLE 2. Mean value of the generation frequencies of the vehicles in the

respective study areas.

Lastly, the pseudonym change of the vehicles in road traffic

was investigated with the data. Figure 7 shows the distance
and time driven per pseudonym. All vehicles had five dif-
The evaluation of the trigger conditions, according to the ferent pseudonyms over the whole test drive. To evaluate
CAM standard [5], is illustrated on the left pie charts. Figure 5 the reason for the change of pseudonym, the first and last
shows the distribution of trigger conditions across the study pseudonym must not be used, as the measurement was started
areas. In all areas, the distance change trigger (speed) is the or stopped here, and the local and temporal sequence is
main trigger for sending a CAM. This trigger is particularly incomplete.
significant in rural areas and highways, which explains the
low scattering of the generation frequencies. As already men-
tioned, the other triggers or a combination of triggers are
mainly found in urban areas.
Unexpected is the large proportion of unknown trigger
conditions in all investigated areas. A more detailed evalu-
ation has shown that an unknown trigger often occurs with
a jump to higher generation frequencies than the previous
message. Therefore, the trigger conditions for all messages
with unknown triggers were reduced by 25% in a second step
and reassigned. The result can be observed in the right column
of figure 5. Many of the unknown trigger conditions change FIGURE 7. Distance and time to pseudonym change per vehicle.

to the distance change trigger. This finding concludes that

jumps in the generation frequency towards higher generation Despite that, the middle three pseudonyms do not show
frequencies occur shortly before the conditions are actually an apparent reason for the pseudonym change in space and
true. This is especially true for the position change trigger. time. The time that elapses before a pseudonym change varies

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between 17.5 and 28.5 min. The range of distance driven 15% of the trigger proportions. This distribution changes with
varies from 12.1 to 28.5 km. From a security point of view, sideways parking. There, the speed changes are decisive in
it is commendable that the change of pseudonyms takes place addition to the time trigger, which is plausible since sideways
in a value range, making tracking more difficult. parking requires a smaller angle for the parking maneuver
than backwards and forwards parking. In addition, a signif-
B. PARKING MANEUVERS icant proportion of mixed trigger conditions can be seen for
Before evaluating the parking maneuvers tests, the measure- sideways parking.
ment data were filtered only to consider the actual parking Analogous to the trigger distribution in figure 5, more sig-
procedure. Accordingly, all measurement data with velocities nificant proportions (approx. 25%) of the trigger conditions
< 1 m/s in the tests were filtered out. These filters could be are unknown. If the trigger condition is reduced by 25%
determined by visual inspection of the time curves. Figure 8 and the percentages are newly calculated, the proportion of
illustrates the percentage distribution of the generation fre- unknown triggers is reduced to approx. 15%. The unknown
quencies over the tests per vehicle and parking maneuver. The shares are transferred to the heading and speed change trig-
distribution shows a significant scattering over all possible ger to approximately the same extent. Nevertheless, a larger
generation frequencies. For backwards and forwards park- percentage of unknown trigger conditions remains here com-
ing, the distribution resembles an upward-opening parabola pared to the real-road driving tests.
with high relative shares at 1.00 Hz, 3.33 Hz, and 5.00 Hz.
In contrast, larger proportions of the lower frequencies are IV. DISCUSSION
found for parking sideways. In addition, the proportion of the A diverse distribution of generation frequencies can be deter-
1.00 Hz frequency is the most frequent for each vehicle in the mined in the urban area. This result agrees with Observation
respective parking maneuvers. 9 from the C2C-CC study [10] that the generation frequency
Despite the same driver and test set-up in all tests, there depends on many factors. This only applies to the urban area
are larger differences in the distribution of the generation and should not be assumed in general. The most frequent
frequencies between the vehicles in the respective tests. For single frequencies are 2.5 and 3.33 Hz, which is plausible
example, the proportion of 1 Hz during backwards parking based on the predominant position change trigger (speed).
for ID.4 and ID.3 is over 30%, while the proportion of This finding is also consistent with Observation 10 of the
1.00 Hz generation frequency of the Golf 8 is only 17.2%. C2C-CC. Nevertheless, this again only applies to the urban
This indicates that the actual distribution of the generation area. The average generation frequency across all vehicles
frequencies also depends on the vehicle. The deviation could in the urban area is 2.95 Hz (see Table 5). This represents
be due to the slightly smaller width of the Golf 8 in contrast an improvement of almost 50% compared to the temporal
to the ID.3 and ID.4 [24], which made parking easier and resolution of the EDR in the pre-crash phase in the event of
more dynamic. Nevertheless, the same basic pattern of the an accident.
generation frequency distribution can be observed in all tests It must be noted that the generation frequencies in urban
for all vehicles. areas strongly depend on many parameters, which can be seen
Table 4 shows the mean value of the generation frequencies in the significant variance of the generation frequencies. In
for each vehicle per test. The average generation frequency addition to the influence of the environment, the driver also
for backwards parking ranges from 3 to 4 Hz. For forwards significantly influences the generation frequencies occurring
parking, average frequencies of around 3 Hz can be found. in the urban area, as his driving style also plays a role here.
When parking sideways, the average generation frequencies Since the same driver carried out the tests in this study, it is
are lower and range from 2.1 to 2.7 Hz. not yet possible to draw any conclusions about the generation
frequencies of the normal driver in the urban area. This also
TABLE 4. Mean value of the generation frequencies of the vehicles in the applies to the other test scenarios, especially if the vehicle’s
respective study areas. speed does not cause the generation frequencies of the CAM.
On the other hand, it can be assumed that the normal driver
complies with the applicable speed limit, and thus the gener-
ation frequency occurs for this speed.
Compared to the urban area, a completely different result
was found for the occurring generation frequencies on rural
roads. Approximately 75% of the generation frequencies are
Considering the trigger conditions according to figure 9, at 5.00 Hz, which is plausible due to the low traffic volume
a completely different result can be observed than in the and lack of infrastructural influence. This is further illus-
real-road driving tests. In the parking tests, the position trated by the very high proportion (> 80%) of the position
change trigger accounts for only 3 to 4% of the trigger shares. change trigger (speed). Accordingly, the average generation
The change in heading is significant for forwards and back- frequency over all vehicles on the rural road is 4.89 Hz
wards parking if the time trigger for 1.00 Hz is ignored. On the (see Table 5). The mean generation frequency of the CAM
other hand, the speed change trigger accounts for about 10 to corresponds to an improvement in the temporal resolution of

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FIGURE 8. Percentage distribution of the generation frequencies of the vehicles at the respective parking maneuvers.

TABLE 5. Summary of the mean values and standard deviations of the generation frequencies per examined operating scenario.

the pre-crash phase in the event of an accident by a factor of highways, as the limit is for two exceptions (Germany and
2.5. In addition, these frequencies can be expected in general Australia’s Northern Territory) 140 km/h and less worldwide,
since they significantly depend on the speed limits on rural which is below the threshold value of 144 km/h for 10.0 Hz
roads, and hardly any other influencing factors interfere with generation frequency for the position change trigger [25]. In
them. According to [8], almost 60% of all fatal accidents addition, the frequencies found only apply to average traffic
in Germany occurred on rural roads in 2021, although only volumes. In congested traffic, lower speeds are driven, and
21% of accidents occurred there. Improving the temporal thus generation frequencies are reached.
resolution on rural roads could thus improve the clarification Regarding the trigger conditions, it should generally be
of severe accidents with fatalities. noted that the speed of the vehicles is decisive for the
An even higher average generation frequency is found on generation frequency in all three study areas. Traffic and
highways. Due to German highways’ lack of speed limits, infrastructure (traffic lights, traffic signs) affect the vehicle’s
significant proportions of 10.0 Hz generation frequency can speed and greatly influence the realized generation frequency.
be found. 95% of the generation frequencies are at 5.00 or The driver only has a minor influence if he sticks to the
10.0 Hz. On average, a generation frequency of 7.26 Hz could applicable speed limits. A larger proportion of CAMs with
be determined for all vehicles (see Table 5). This generation unknown triggers was also found, which missed the position
frequency corresponds to an improved temporal resolution change (speed) trigger by a small margin. The unknown
of a possible accident scene of 3.5 compared to the EDR. triggers near the distance change trigger could be explained
However, it must be stated that the high proportion of 10.0 Hz by inaccuracies in GPS positioning but need to be investigated
generation frequency will not be achieved on speed-limited in more detail.

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M. Bauder et al.: CAM’ Generation Frequencies, Trigger Distributions, and Pseudonym Changes

It should generally be noted that although the determined

generation frequencies are significantly dependent on the
environment and the driver, other communication-related
parameters can influence the generation frequency.
As described in [31] and [32], the generation frequency also
depends on the channel load and the implemented security
protocols. Again, The channel load depends on the generation
frequency, the message size, and the vehicle density of com-
municating vehicles [31], [33]. The decentralized congestion
control method, specified in TS 102 682 [34], implements
a safety mechanism that reduces the generation frequency
when the channel load is high [35]. Accordingly, high channel
loads are conceivable in urban environments and motorways
due to high traffic density, making them often the chosen
FIGURE 9. Trigger with trigger conditions according to CAM Standard environment for V2X performance tests [36], [37]. Since,
(4,4,0.5) in the first column and with 25% reduced trigger conditions in this study, only a few other V2X-capable vehicles were
(3,3,0.375) in the second column for parking maneuvers.
recorded, the measured generation frequencies are indepen-
dent of the channel load. Thus, with a high market penetration
Regarding the change of pseudonyms, no clear result could of the systems and a possible co-use of the V2X bandwidth
be obtained at first. Considering the technical specification for mobile edge computing, as proposed in [32], high channel
102 941 [26] from ETSI, the second pseudonym change of loads are very likely, which can negatively influence the
ID.4 could also be due to an Authorization Ticket request, generation frequencies in urban areas, in parking, and on
resulting in a change of all other identification numbers. It is highways.
noticeable that all other pseudonym changes occur between Lastly, it should be noted that the results found are not
25 and 29 km. This may be the distance range for triggering yet statistically significant. For this, large-scale user stud-
a pseudonym change implemented by Volkswagen. ies should be conducted to determine the ‘‘normal driver’’
Since according to [27], there are no requirements in generation frequencies in the investigated driving situations
space and time on behalf of ETSI for pseudonym change, and environments. Conducting studies is especially neces-
Volkswagen’s chosen implementation cannot be measured sary for urban areas and parking maneuvers. In addition,
against it. As the report was already published in 2018, all this work has only involved vehicles from the manufacturer
relevant standards and technical specifications were searched Volkswagen, and the results depend on their implementation.
again for requirements [26], [28], [29], [30]. Nevertheless, The fact that the results can vary is shown by the reduction
no requirements for triggering a pseudonym change in space in frequency jumps towards newer models at Volkswagen
and time were still found. In [27], different approaches for itself. But, significant differences between the manufacturers
the pseudonym change are summarized. For example, the in the generation frequencies and triggers of the CAM are not
C2C-CC recommends changing the pseudonym every 800 m expected, as these are standardized. Also, studies with a high
or 2-6 min. Volkswagen’s implementation deviates from this channel load would be interesting for future work.
significantly, and the pseudonym change is carried out much
less frequently. Although ETSI has no requirements for the V. CONCLUSION
local and temporal change of pseudonyms, it is still critical This work investigated the CAM’s generation frequencies, its
to question why this is so rarely carried out compared to the causing triggers, and pseudonym changes of V2X vehicles
recommendation of the C2C-CC. Since this work does not on the European market under real operating scenarios. The
deal with IT security, this point will not be discussed further. objective is to determine if, in the event of an accident, the
In the parking tests, a moderate improvement of the mean generation frequency of the CAM offers a higher temporal
temporal resolution could be determined compared to the resolution during the accident scene than the EDR. Besides
EDR in the pre-crash phase of an accident. For backwards the extra data provided by the CAM compared to the EDR,
parking, a mean frequency of 3.39 Hz is achieved across all a higher temporal resolution of the accident scene could
vehicles and tests. For forwards parking, a mean frequency significantly contribute to its reconstruction and clarification.
of 3.09 Hz and 2.45 Hz for sideways parking could be deter- For this purpose, tests were conducted on a real driving route
mined (see Table 5). The time trigger (1.00 Hz) and the and the test area of the CARISSMA near Ingolstadt. The
heading and speed change trigger, which cause larger gen- driving route was divided into urban and rural areas as well
eration frequencies (3-10 Hz), have a large proportion of the as highways. Also, parking tests (backwards, forwards, and
trigger conditions. The more significant scattering of trigger sideways) were conducted on the test site.
conditions for all parking maneuvers indicates a substantial It was found that in all operating scenarios, the tempo-
dependence on the individual parking situation and the driver ral resolution of the accident scene of the CAM would be
for the realized generation frequency. better than that of the EDR. Particularly on rural roads and

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 M. Bauder et al.: CAM’ Generation Frequencies, Trigger Distributions, and Pseudonym Changes

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ment; Release 2, document Ts 102 941, V2.1.1, ETSI, Oct. 2021. [Online]. Czech Republic, in 2021. He is one of the leading
Available: http://www.etsi/org/standards European experts in the field of forensic sciences
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Pseudonym Change Management, document Tr 103 415, V1.1.1, ETSI, forensic engineering, technical diagnostics and repair, estimation of the value
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competence for the activity: Evaluation of critical accident sections of road
Interface Between Security Entity and Network and Transport Layer,
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by on-site inspection. To date, he has organized and carried out more than
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working; Part 4: Geographical Addressing and Forwarding for Point- Chairman of the working group of the Doctoral Studies Committee for the
to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint Communications; Sub—Part 1: Media- field of forensic engineering. As a Supervisor and a Specialist, he trained 12
Independent Functionality, document 302 636-4-1, V1.4.1, Jan. 2020. Ph.D. students, many of them are leading European experts. He is the author
[Online]. Available: http://www.etsi/org/standards or coauthor of several important methodologies for forensic activities in road
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2-X radio transmission technology need to be considered within accident has also been and is the principal investigator and responsible for several
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more than 50 scientific and technical articles. He holds the position of Deputy
V. C. M. Leung, ‘‘Joint secure offloading and resource allocation for vehic-
Director and a University Lecturer at the Institute of Forensic Research and
ular edge computing network: A multi-agent deep reinforcement learning
approach,’’ IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst., vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 5555–5569,
Education, University of Åilina (IFRE UNIZA). He is the Secretary of the
May 2023. European Association for Accident Research and Analysis (EVU), Berlin.
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[Online]. Available: https://www.etsi.org/standards HANS-GEORG SCHWEIGER (Member, IEEE)
[35] N. Lyamin, A. Vinel, D. Smely, and B. Bellalta, ‘‘ETSI DCC: Decentral- was born in Ingolstadt, in 1977. He received the
ized congestion control in C-ITS,’’ IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 56, no. 12, Dipl.-Chem. degree in chemistry from the Univer-
pp. 112–118, Dec. 2018. sity of Regensburg, Germany, in 2002, the Ph.D.
[36] L. Zhao, J. Fang, J. Hu, Y. Li, L. Lin, Y. Shi, and C. Li, ‘‘The performance
degree in electrochemistry from the Workgroup of
comparison of LTE-V2X and IEEE 802.11p,’’ in Proc. IEEE 87th Veh.
Prof. Heiner J. Gores, University of Regensburg,
Technol. Conf. (VTC Spring), Piscataway, NJ, USA, Jun. 2018, pp. 1–5.
[37] T. V. Nguyen, P. Shailesh, B. Sudhir, G. Kapil, L. Jiang, Z. Wu, D. Malladi, and the Dr.rer.nat. degree in chemistry from the
and J. Li, ‘‘A comparison of cellular vehicle-to-everything and dedicated University of Regensburg, in 2004. He joined EVA
short range communication,’’ in Proc. IEEE Veh. Netw. Conf. (VNC), Fahrzeugtechnik GmbH (Munich) as a Develop-
O. Altintas, C. Casetti, N. Kirsch, R. Lo Cigno, and R. Meireles, Eds. ment Engineer for HEV energy storage systems,
Piscataway, NJ, USA, Nov. 2017, pp. 101–108. in 2005. In this position, he was appointed as an Engineering Consultant
to BMW AG, Munich, Germany. In January 2007, he joined the HEV
Department, Continental AG, Berlin, Germany. In this company, he worked
as an Expert for lithium-ion batteries. In 2008, he was appointed as a Project
MAXIMILIAN BAUDER was born in Ingolstadt, Leader for energy storage systems at Continental AG. In this position, he was
Bavaria, Germany, in 1995. He received the leading a series of development projects for HEV and EV battery systems as
B.Eng. and M.Eng. degrees in mechanical engi- well as one basic research project for the development of 5 V lithium-ion
neering from Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt, cells. He was also a part-time Lecturer on electrochemical energy storage
Ingolstadt, in 2019 and 2021, respectively. He is systems at the Technical University of Berlin, from 2009 to 2011. He was
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in coopera- appointed as a Professor of automotive electronics and electric mobility at
tion with the University of Åilina, Slovakia. Since Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt, in 2011. He founded the research group
2021, he has been a Research Assistant at the Cen- ‘‘Safe Electromobility.’’ In 2020, this research group was transformed into
ter of Automotive Research on Integrated Safety CARISSMA Institute of Electric, Connected and Secure Mobility. Since
Systems and Measurement Area (CARISSMA), then, he is the Head of this research Institute. The primary field of his group
Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt. There, he works in the Forensic Research are energy storage systems for automotive applications, the safety of electric
Group of Prof. Dr.rer.nat. Hans-Georg Schweiger at the CARISSMA Insti- vehicles, and accident forensics. His workgroup of about 20 coworkers is
tute of Electric, Connected and Secure Mobility (C-ECOS). Currently, he is working on industry and government-financed research projects in the field
the author or coauthor of seven research articles. His research interests of automotive energy storage systems. He is also the Director of study
include accident analysis, accident research, vehicle-2-X communication, programs in the field of electric engineering and electric mobility. He is the
advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), and vehicle safety in general. author/coauthor of more than 50 research articles and he holds 20 patents.
His research interests include the influences of vehicle communication, He is a member of VDE and VHB.
automation, and electrification on accident analysis.

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