AQA Computer Science A-Level

4.9.4 The Transmission Control Protocol /

Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
Concise Notes

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Specification:

4.9.4.1 TCP/IP:
Describe the role of the four layers of the TCP/IP stack (application,
transport, network, link)
Describe the role of sockets in the TCP/IP stack
Be familiar with the role of MAC (Media Access Control) addresses
Explain what the well-known ports and client ports are used for and the
differences between them.

4.9.4.2 Standard application layer protocols:

Be familiar with the following protocols:
● FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
● HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
● HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
● POP3 (Post Office Protocol (v3))
● SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
● SSH (Secure Shell)
Be familiar with FTP client software and an FTP server, with regard to
transferring files using anonymous and non-anonymous access
Be familiar with how SSH is used for remote management
Know how an SSH client is used to make a TCP connection to a remote
port for the purpose of sending commands to this port using application level
protocols such as GET for HTTP, SMTP commands for sending email and
POP3 for retrieving email
Be familiar with using SSH to log in securely to a remote computer and
execute commands
Explain the role of an email server in retrieving and sending email
Explain the role of a web server in serving up web pages in text form
Understand the role of a web browser in retrieving web pages and web
page resources and rendering these accordingly

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4.9.4.3 IP address structure:
Know that an IP address is split into a network identifier part and a host
identifier part

4.9.4.4 Subnet masking:

Know that networks can be divided into subnets and know how a
subnet mask is used to identify the network identifier part of the IP address

4.9.4.5 IP standards:
Know that there are currently two standards of IP address, v4 and v6
Know why v6 was introduced

4.9.4.6 Public and private IP addresses:

Distinguish between routable and non-routable IP addresses

4.9.4.7 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):

Understand the purpose and function of the DHCP system

4.9.4.8 Network Address Translation (NAT):

Explain the basic concept of NAT and why it is used

4.9.4.9 Port forwarding:

Explain the basic concept of port forwarding and why it is used

4.9.4.10 Client server model:

Be familiar with the client server model
Be familiar with the Websocket protocol and know why it is used and
where it is used
Be familiar with the principles of Web CRUD Applications and REST:
● CRUD is an acronym for create, retrieve, update, delete
● REST enables CRUD to be mapped to database functions (SQL)
Compare JSON (Javascript object notation) with XML

4.9.4.11 Thin- versus thick-client computing

Compare and contrast thin-client computing with thick-client computing

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 TCP / IP

● Stands for ​transmission control protocol / internet protocol

​ ll parts of the Internet​ to enable different devices to communicate
● Used in a
● Formed from ​four distinct layers ​that form the TCP / IP stack
○ Application
○ Transport
○ Network
○ Link
● Each layer is ​responsible for a seperate part of communication​ over the Internet

Layer Role

Application ● Selects and uses the ​correct protocol​ to transmit data

● Interacts with the user with ​application software​ like a web
browser

Transport ● Establishes a ​virtual path​ between the sender and the receiver
● Splits the transmission​ into packets
● Each packet has a ​sequence number​ which identifies a packet’s
position in relation to other packets that form part of the same
message
● Also contained in each packet is the ​port number​ to be used
which ​identifies the protocol​ in use

Network ● Provides the ​correct IP addresses​ for each packet’s source and
destination
● Routers ​work within the network layer, using the IP addresses on
a packet to send it to its destination.

Link ● Controls​ physical connections between pieces of hardware​ in a

network
● Adds ​MAC addresses​ to packets which it receives from the
network layer
● The MAC addresses identify the hardware to which a packet
should be sent
● These MAC addresses ​change with every hop​ through a network

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At the receiving end
● Once a packet has been received by its intended recipient, it is ​stripped of its extra
information​ by reversing the TCP / IP stack
○ The link layer ​removes MAC addresses​ from the packet
○ The network layer ​removes IP addresses
○ The transport layer uses the packet’s ​port number​ to determine the correct
application ​to send the packet to
○ The transport layer also uses the packet’s​ sequence number ​to ensure that it
is in the ​correct position ​relative to other packets in the same transmission
○ The application layer receives the packets and ​displays the information​ to the
user accordingly

Socket addresses
● Formed of an IP address, followed by a colon, followed by the port number in use
● Identifies which application on the recipient device a packet should be sent to

Well-known ports

Protocol Port(s) Purpose

FTP ● Sending files​ between devices

(File transfer protocol) 20 & 21 ● Clients can access FTP servers
anonymously ​or ​non-anonymously

SSH ● Remote management​ of computers

(Secure shell) ● Requires a ​username / password
22
combination
● Encrypts information​ during transmission

HTTP ● Sending ​web pages in text form ​from web

80
(Hypertext transfer protocol) servers to clients

HTTPS ● Performs the same function as HTTP, but

(Hypertext transfer protocol encrypts information​ during transmission
secure) ● Keeps information sent by clients secure
443
● Helps to prevent information from being
tampered with or modified​ during
transmission

POP3 ● Retrieving emails ​from an email server

(Post office protocol 3) 110 & 995 ● Checks for and downloads​ any new
messages

SMTP 25, 587 & ● Sending ​emails

(Simple mail transfer ● Used between a client and an email server
465
protocol)

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 The structure of IP addresses

● IP addresses are split into ​two parts​:

○ a ​network identifier
○ a ​host identifier
● Computers in the same network share ​the same network identifier
● Networks can be divided into ​smaller networks​, called ​subnets
● Each subnet has a ​different ​network identifier
● The network identifier part of an IP address can be determined with a ​subnet mask
● To find a device’s network identifier:
○ convert its IP address and subnet mask to ​binary
○ perform a logical ​AND ​operation on the two binary numbers
○ convert the result to ​decimal
● The more bits that are assigned to the ​network identifier ​of an IP address, the more
different subnets​ a network can have
● The more bits that are assigned to the​ host identifier​, the more ​different devices​ can
be connected to each subnet simultaneously

IP address standards

● There are​ two types ​of IP address in common use:

○ version ​four ​(IPv4)
○ version ​six ​(IPv6)

IPv4
● IPv4 addresses are ​dotted quad numbers
● They consist of​ four parts ​that are ​separated by dots
● Each of the four parts of an IPv4 address is assigned ​one byte​ (eight bits) allowing
for numbers from ​0​to ​255​to be represented
● There are slightly ​over 4 billion​ (256​4​) ​unique IPv4 addresses
● IPv4 addresses are in ​short supply
● The number of devices on the Internet that require a routable IP address is
increasing so rapidly​ that a new version of IP address had to be created

IPv6
● IPv6 addresses are formed of ​eight blocks ​separated by ​colons
● Each block contains​ four hexadecimal characters​ (a-z and ​0​
-​9​
)
● IPv6 addresses use 128 bits which allows for ​far more​ unique permutations than
IPv4 addresses

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 Public and private IP addresses

● IP addresses can be either ​routable​ or ​non-routable​ (public or private)

● If every device that is connected to a network had its own public IP address, there
wouldn’t be enough IP addresses ​to go around
● Each home or business that requires internet access has a ​small number ​of public
IP addresses
● Most homes have ​just one ​public IP address while some businesses will have
multiple addresses
● Routable IP addresses are ​globally unique
● Millions of devices can have ​the same non-routable IP address
● Global authorities​ are responsible for assigning routable IP addresses
● This ensures that the same address is ​never issued twice

Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP)

● The number of available ​private ​IP addresses within a ​private ​network is ​limited
● DHCP is used to assign IP addresses to devices ​as they join ​a network
● DHCP uses a​ pool of available IP addresses​ to allocate IP addresses
● IP addresses are allocated ​for the duration​ of a device’s session
● Once a device leaves the network, the IP address that the device was using is
returned to the pool​ for reallocation

Network address translation (NAT)

● Routers have ​two network interface cards​, one for their private network and one for
the Internet
● Therefore, routers have two IP addresses, ​a private address​ and a​ public address
● When a computer on the private network communicates with a device on the
Internet, the device ​couldn’t respond to the computer directly​ because the
computer’s IP address is not globally unique
● NAT ​gets around this problem.​ ​When a device on the ​private network​ needs to
communicate with a device ​on the Internet​, it sends packets ​through the router​,
which:
○ makes ​a record of the packet
○ replaces the ​private IP address​ of the computer with ​its own routable IP
address
● When a response is received, it is​ sent to the router’s public IP address​, which then
forwards the response​ to the correct private IP address by ​using the record​ it made
when sending the packet

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 Port forwarding

● Port forwarding is used when a client needs to communicate with a server that is
connected to a ​private network
● The client sends packets to the ​public IP address of the router​ belonging to the
server’s private network
● The packets sent by the client contain the ​port number ​of the application running on
the server that the client wishes to access
● The private network’s router then​ forwards the packets​ to the server using NAT

The client server model

● In a network that uses the client server model, ​clients send request messages to
servers​, which ​reply to the clients with response messages
● These messages may contain
○ requested information
○ a confirmation that a requested action has been completed
○ a message explaining why the requested action hasn’t been completed

APIs
● Stands for application programming interface
● A ​set of protocols ​relating to how ​different applications ​communicate with each
other
● Define how interaction between the applications should be carried out
● Allows applications to ​make use of ​other applications

The websocket protocol

● An ​example of an API ​which operates in the ​application layer​ of the TCP / IP stack
● Can be used to provide ​a constant stream of information​ between two devices,
usually a client’s web browser and a server
● The connection created by the websocket protocol is​ full-duplex​, meaning that data
can be transmitted in ​both directions ​at the same time
● Allows for​ fast transmission of data ​by ​reducing the size​ of packet headers
● Used in video streaming, online games and instant messaging

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 Web CRUD Applications and REST
CRUD
● An acronym for ​c​reate, ​r​etrieve, ​u​pdate, ​d​elete
● Four commands that can be used to​ query online databases
● Each of the four CRUD commands has a​ SQL equivalent

CRUD SQL

Create INSERT

Retrieve SELECT

Update UPDATE

Delete DELETE

REST
● Acronym for ​re​presentational ​s​tate ​t​ransfer
● A​ design methodology ​for online database applications that are queried with a web
browser
● Uses the four ​HTTP request methods ​POST, GET, PUT and DELETE to query
databases

HTTP SQL

POST INSERT

GET SELECT

PUT UPDATE

DELETE DELETE

When a client needs to connect to a database, it follows these steps:

1. Client-server ​request ​made by the client to the web browser

2. Web browser r​ esponds ​with the requested web page
3. This text file contains ​JavaScript ​which loads an API. The API uses REST to enable
the database server to be ​queried by the client​ with the use of HTTP request
methods.
4. The client ​sends HTTP requests​ to the database server.
5. The database server ​responds ​to the client’s requests using either JSON or XML.
6. The client’s browser ​processes ​the JSON or XML and displays the response to the
user.

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XML and JSON
● Database servers deliver responses to queries using ​either XML or JSON
● XML stands for ​e​x​tensible ​m​arkup ​l​anguage
● JSON stands for ​J​ava​S​cript ​o​bject ​n​otation
● JSON is ​more compact​, ​easier to read​, ​easier to create​ and ​faster for computers to
process​ than XML
● XML is sometimes seen to be ​more flexible​ than JSON

XML JSON

{
"Department": {
<Department> "Subject": [
<Subject> {
<Name>Physics</Name> "Name": "Physics",
<Board>Edexcel</Board> "Board": "Edexcel"
</Subject> },
<Subject> {
<Name>Maths</Name> "Name": "Maths",
<Board>AQA</Board> "Board": "AQA"
</Subject> }
</Department> ]
}
}

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 Thin- and thick-client computing

● Networks can be configured as either ​thin-client ​or​ thick-client​ networks.

Thin-client networks
● The ​majority ​of the network’s processing power belongs to ​servers
● Servers ​provide services and resources ​including storage and processing
● It’s ​easy to add new clients ​and the clients themselves are ​inexpensive ​machines
● Software updates and security can be managed ​from the server, ​allowing for
greater centralised control​ of the network
● Require a powerful server ​which is ​expensive ​and ​requires expertise​ to set up and
maintain

Thick-client networks
● The clients are ​powerful enough​ ​to provide their own processing power and storage
● This independence​ eliminates the requirement for a server​, although it is ​possible
for thick-client networks can make use of a server
● Require ​more powerful clients​ than thin-client networks, making the network
expensive to set up
● The ​cost and expertise​ required in setting up and maintaining an expensive server
is done away with
● Thick-client networks are ​harder to maintain ​because there is ​no facility to issue
updates​ ​and manage security​ from a central server
● Compared to thin-client networks which suffer from ​high volumes of traffic
communicating between clients and the server, thick-client networks boast ​much
quieter communication channels ​which ​reduces the likelihood of data collisions

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