Badar 2021

Received: 13 February 2021 Revised: 3 June 2021 Accepted: 29 June 2021
DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12813
COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY
Future trends of processed meat products concerning

perceived healthiness: A review
Iftikhar Hussain Badar1,2 Haotian Liu1 Qian Chen1 Xiufang Xia1
Baohua Kong1
1College of Food Science, Northeast

Agricultural University, Harbin, China Abstract
2Department of Meat Science and The 21st-century consumer is highly demanding when it comes to the health ben-
Technology, University of Veterinary and efits of food and food products. In the pursuit of attracting these consumers and
Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
easing the rise in demand for high-quality meat products, the processed meat sec-
Correspondence tor is intensely focused on developing reformulated, low-fat, healthy meat prod-
Baohua Kong, College of Food Science, ucts. Meat and meat products are considered the primary sources of saturated
Northeast Agricultural University, 600
Changjiang Street, Xiangfang District, fatty acids in the human diet. Therefore, these reformulation strategies aim to
Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, China. improve the fatty acid profile and reduce total fat and cholesterol, which can be
Email: [email protected]
achieved by replacing animal fat with plant-based oils; it could be performed as
Funding information direct inclusion of these oils or pre-emulsified oils. However, emulsions offer a
major science and technology projects viable option for incorporating vegetable oils while avoiding the multiple issues
in Heilongjiang province, Grant/Award
of direct inclusion of these oils in meat products. Processed meat products are
Number: 2019ZX07B03; major sci-
ence and technology projects in Hei- popular worldwide and showing a gradually increasing trend of consumption.
longjiang province, Grant/Award Number: Various types of plant-based oils have been studied as fat replacers in meat prod-
2020ZX07B72
ucts. This review will focus on possible methods to reduce the saturated fatty acid
content in meat products.
KEYWORDS
animal fat substitution, emulsified meat products, emulsion, plant-based oil, saturated fatty
acid
1 INTRODUCTION in the diet, and, consequently, even if misguidedly, meat

consumption, is the association between a high intake of
Food delivers health-promoting nutrients and bioactive SFA and the incidence of physiological disorders, such as
compounds, provides energy for growth, functions as a obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood lipids, high choles-
structural component, and participates in all metabolic terol level, and cardiovascular diseases (Islam et al., 2019;
processes (Hygreeva et al., 2014). Meat and meat products Kumar et al., 2017).
as components of the human diet provide an important Recent data published by the World Health Organi-
source of proteins with high biological value and nutrients zation (WHO) showed that 39.5 million deaths out of
(i.e., vitamins, essential amino acids, fatty acids, and sol- 54.7 million global deaths are mainly due to noncom-
uble minerals) essential for biochemical and physiological municable diseases (WHO, 2018a). Such concerns have
stability (Kausar et al., 2019). However, the perception of prompted the WHO to establish future recommendations
meat fat as being high in saturated fatty acids (SFA) has for replacing SFA in meat products (López-Pedrouso et al.,
led to the belief that meat, particularly red meat, should be 2020), reinforcing dietary guidelines to reduce fat con-
avoided. The scientific rationale for decreasing fat intake sumption, especially SFA (Sacks et al., 2017). Therefore, the
Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2021;1–40. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 © 2021 Institute of Food Technologists
R 1
2 Healthiness of processed meat products. . .
formulation of healthier meat products by partial or com- state that less than 30% of total energy should come from
plete replacement of saturated fats with unsaturated fats total fat intake, less than 10% from SFA intake, and more
while maintaining the sensory attributes desired in full- than 6% from PUFA intake (WHO, 2018b).
fat meat products is one of the most critical areas of future The benefits of PUFA, particularly the long-chain PUFA,
research (Alejandre et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2017). It is also such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
one of the most challenging because fat imparts functional acid (DHA), on brain, liver, and heart health are well-
and sensory properties, improving the mouthfeel, tender- documented (Agostoni, 2008). EPA, DHA, and α-linolenic
ness, flavor, and juiciness of meat products (Barbut et al., acid are examples of ω-3 fatty acids because the first double
2016a; Wi et al., 2020). bond is between the third and fourth carbon atoms from
One proposed approach is to replace the animal fat the methyl end of the molecule (Ruxton et al., 2007). These
in meat products with a vegetable oil emulsified with fatty acids cannot be synthesized de novo by humans but
specific proteins (Delgado-Pando et al., 2010). With an must be obtained from the diet (Pérez-Palacios et al., 2019).
increasing trend and popularity of processed meat prod- Although α-linolenic acid can be converted to EPA and
ucts among consumers, meat scientists are exploring the DHA in the human body by desaturase enzymes, the con-
possible applications and benefits of structured emulsions version is inefficient and further decreased in the presence
(oleogels and emulsion hydrogels) as fat replacers in vari- of linoleic acid, which competes with α-linolenic acid for
ous meat products, including bologna, frankfurter, pâtés, enzymes required for the conversion (Sioen et al., 2006).
fermented sausages, burgers, patties, and meat batters Not only are ω-3 PUFA essential fatty acids but a
(López-Pedrouso et al., 2020). Consequently, the market high ω-3 PUFA intake reduces cardiovascular disease inci-
for emulsion-based meat products is expected to further dence, obesity, LDL-cholesterol, and fatty liver disease
burgeon as the opportunities to reformulate healthier ver- (Figure 1). Hence, it is recommended for individuals to eat
sions of existing products and create innovative healthy food rich in ω-3 fatty acids to improve overall health. It is
products are harnessed. This review paper will mainly dis- also suggested for individuals to maintain the PUFA/SFA
cuss the basic concept of emulsions, their application in ratio at more than 0.4 in daily food consumption (Ospina-E
meat products, and the role of emulsions in replacing ani- et al., 2012). Another critical point that needs to be con-
mal fat with vegetable oils to improve human health and sidered is to maintain a balanced ω-6/ω-3 ratio, essen-
consumer satisfaction. tial for human health to prevent problems such as obe-
sity (Simopoulos, 2016). In response to these concerns
about fat content, many international organizations rec-
2 IMPORTANCE OF HIGH-QUALITY ommend the partial or complete replacement of SFA and
DIETARY FAT INTAKE trans-fatty acids (Astrup et al., 2019). Conscious of the
diet–health association, the modern consumer is also
Cardiovascular diseases are prevalent and causing many demanding healthier meat products. Therefore, the refor-
deaths throughout the world (Roth et al., 2018). Limiting mulation of meat products seems like a robust strategy to
total fat intake and replacing SFA intake with polyunsatu- meet international organizations’ standards and consumer
rated fatty acids (PUFA) could be a solution to reducing the demands (Fernández-López et al., 2021).
incidence of cardiovascular diseases (Song & Shim, 2019).
It is well recognized that a reduction in SFA intake can
ultimately decrease blood LDL (low-density lipoproteins)- 3 METHODS TO INCORPORATE
cholesterol levels, leading to a decreased risk of cardio- PLANT-BASED OILS IN PROCESSED
vascular diseases. A comprehensive review of long-term MEAT PRODUCTS
randomized controlled trials undertaken by Hooper et al.
(2020) suggested that a reduction in SFA intake provided It is difficult to incorporate plant-based oils into the pro-
a 21% reduction in cardiovascular events and that 10% SFA cessed meat products; the methods that are used to par-
replacement with PUFA decreased cardiovascular events tially or wholly substitute animal fat include microencap-
by 27%. Similar results obtained in a meta-analysis revealed sulation, direct mixing, and emulsions (Paglarini et al.,
that a 10% reduction in the risk of myocardial infarc- 2020; Ruiz-Capillas & Herrero, 2021). However, these
tion or coronary heart disease death was achieved when plant-based oils have different physicochemical charac-
increasing PUFA intake by 5% of energy (Mozaffarian et al., teristics than the frequently used animal fats (i.e., pork
2010). Even a mild substitution of SFA can benefit health. backfat, pork jowl, and beef fat), so adjustment would
Replacing 1% SFA with PUFA led to an overall reduction be required in meat-processing conditions to get the
in total cholesterol and HDL (high-density lipoproteins)- desired quality attributes in these reformulated products
cholesterol levels (Wang et al., 2016). The WHO guidelines (Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2015; Wood & Enser, 2017).
Healthiness of processed meat products. . . 3
F I G U R E 1 Schematic diagram showing the significance of high-quality dietary fat intake, low SFA intake, and high PUFA intake that
reduce CVD risks, obesity, fatty liver, and LDL cholesterol and increase glucose tolerance (Lenighan et al., 2019)
These methods, individually or in combination, are exten- the fortified meat products (Bakry et al., 2016; Gómez et al.,
sively used in various types of meat products such as fresh, 2018). Some recent studies explored using microparticles in
cooked, and fermented products (Jiménez-Colmenero, meat products, including pâté, burgers, and frankfurters
2007). (Domínguez et al., 2017; Heck et al., 2017, 2018; Vargas-
Ramella et al., 2020c). Nevertheless, obtaining microparti-
cles by spray drying is not recommended in cooked meat
3.1 Microencapsulation products because wall material (i.e., maltodextrin, gum
Arabic, starch) commonly used can disintegrate on heat-
Microencapsulation is a technique in which small par- ing above 50◦ C; so, microparticles should be resistant to
ticles are enclosed by a coating wall and embedded in high temperatures (Heck et al., 2021).
a matrix (homogenous or heterogeneous) to form small
capsules for desirable properties; it can envelop liquid,
solid, or gaseous materials in a very tiny capsule, which 3.2 Direct mixing
slowly diffuse through the capsule’s wall for controlled
release under specific desired conditions (Bakry et al., Direct oil fortification in meat products showed significant
2016; Delshadi et al., 2020). That is why microencapsu- drawbacks due to more susceptibility to oxidation reac-
lation can efficiently deliver sensitive oils (rich in ω-3 tions, reduced solubility, and increased hardness issues
PUFA) to protect them from the oxidation process (Calvo resulting from small fat globules formation (Zetzl et al.,
et al., 2011). Because these oils are more prone to oxida- 2012). Recently, vegetable oils have been added directly
tive degradations due to their chemically unstable nature, to meat products such as chicken batters (Wirkowska-
when such oils are exposed to moisture, oxygen, light, Wojdyła et al., 2021), meatballs (Vieira et al., 2019;
and heat, they undergo oxidation, leading to volatile com- Öztürk & Turhan, 2020), burgers (Lu et al., 2017; Paula
pounds formation and flavor and sensory degradation of et al., 2019; Antonini et al., 2020), restructured ham-like
products (Ding et al., 2018), fermented Sausages (Bolumar cially available as soy protein isolates or concentrates
et al., 2015), and chicken nuggets (Barros et al., 2019). and widely used in food products due to an excellent
These strategies improved fatty acid profile; however, nutritional value with desired functions as a gelling agent.
these strategies affect some quality attributes (i.e., fla- Many studies (de Souza Paglarini, de Figueiredo Furtado,
vor, color, and sensory acceptance) of the reformulated Honório, et al., 2019; Utama et al., 2019; Lima et al., 2021;
products. Wirkowska-Wojdyła et al., 2021) used soy protein in emul-
Therefore, modification of liquid oils (i.e., emulsions sion formulations, which led to an improved gel network
and organogelation) is needed to create a plastic fat and enhanced cooking yield of the final products. Car-
with solid-like properties to substitute animal fats; mixing rageenan is an algal-based polysaccharide that affects the
liquid oils with meat batters after combining in protein- syneresis and hardness of emulsions. Using carrageenan
stabilized emulsions leads to a reduction in flavor degra- at high concentration decreased hardness and increased
dations. Besides using an emulsions type delivery system, syneresis and vice versa. There are several studies (Poyato
various antioxidants could be added to meat products to et al., 2014; Alejandre et al., 2019; Heck, Saldaña, et al.,
reduce oxidation reactions (Weiss et al., 2010; Jimenez- 2019; de Souza Paglarini et al., 2018; Câmara, Okuro,
Colmenero et al., 2015). Santos, et al., 2020; de Souza Paglarini et al., 2021) that
successfully utilized carrageenan in emulsion. Inulin is a
dietary fiber used in meat products to improve fatty acid
3.3 Emulsions profile without affecting juiciness and texture (Utama
et al., 2019).
An emulsion is a mixture of two completely immiscible liq- There are some limitations to using emulsions in food
uids (usually water and oil). One liquid is dispersed in the application systems, such as changes in rheological behav-
other liquid in small spherical droplets (Kim et al., 2020). iors, physical instability, and textural problems, which
Emulsions have both dispersed and continuous phases, have led to the development of structured emulsions with
and the boundary between these two phases is referred novel functional properties. These structured emulsions
to as the interface (Loi et al., 2019). There are two main can be broadly classified into hydrogelled emulsions and
types of conventional emulsions, oil-in-water (O/W) and organogelled emulsions (Figure 2). The use of hydrogelled
water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. Both have widespread use emulsions to replace animal fat is of particular interest
in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries, and O/W because both hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants can
emulsions have extensive use in the food industry (Liu be incorporated into emulsion hydrogels to promote oxida-
et al., 2018). Nevertheless, O/W emulsions are thermody- tive stability as the oil content is generally ≤50% of the total
namically unstable, with a tendency to undergo phase sep- gel (Domínguez, Bohrer, et al., 2021).
aration behaviors, such as aggregation, flocculation, and
creaming (Liu et al., 2019), so an appropriate emulsifier is
added to improve the stability. 3.3.1 Hydrogelled emulsions
Emulsifiers are surface-active substances with a
hydrophilic part and a lipophilic part (McClements, 2010; Hydrogelled emulsion systems have a complex structure
Wi et al., 2020). When added to the emulsion, they reduce in which emulsion (W/O or O/W) droplets are embedded
the surface tension between the aqueous and oil phases, within a hydrogel matrix (Alejandre et al., 2019). These
thereby promoting a thermodynamically stable and co-existing emulsion–gel structures are developed in a
homogeneous preparation (Piorkowski & McClements, two-step process. First, a liquid emulsion is formulated (de
2014). Various types of natural and synthetic emulsifiers Souza Paglarini et al., 2018). Emulsions can be formulated
are widely available, but nowadays, food manufacturers from various hydrocolloid stabilizers, such as surfactants,
tend to use natural emulsifiers, such as phospholipids, polysaccharides, proteins, and their mixtures with other
polysaccharides, and proteins, to satisfy consumer prefer- substances. The use of these polymers during emulsifica-
ence for all-natural ingredients (Given Jr, 2009; Paglarini tion or after emulsion formation can promote hydrogel
et al., 2020). Appropriate emulsifier selection depends on formation, which is the next step (Pintado et al., 2015).
the method of emulsion preparation, the presence of other In this second step, the liquid-like emulsion is converted
functional components in the emulsion, the ultimate to an emulsion gel. The gelation process may be influ-
product characteristics, and the chemical characteristics enced by the nature of the system. For protein-stabilized
of each phase (McClements & Gumus, 2016). Soy proteins, emulsions, influencing factors include the type of protein,
carrageenan, and inulin are the most widely used natural enzyme treatment, heat treatment, and acidification
emulsifiers in food products because these are cheap, (Dickinson, 2013). There are two possible ways to
readily available, and nontoxic. Soy protein is commer- convert a liquid emulsion into an emulsion gel, either by
F I G U R E 2 Schematic presentation of emulsions, hydrogelled emulsions, and organogelled emulsions. Blue-gray color represents water
phase, green represents oil phase, purple represents fat-soluble emulsifier, black represents water-soluble emulsifier, and red lines represent
network gel. White patches represent solid fat (Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2015)
gelling the continuous phase (using thermal, enzymatic, or Kim et al., 2021; Câmara et al., 2021; de Souto et al., 2021;
chemical processes) or by aggregating the emulsion Pintado et al., 2021; Bellucci et al., 2021; Öztürk-Kerimoğlu,
droplets. Hydrogelled emulsions (O/W) can also be Kavuşan, et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2021; Zhu et al., 2021)
structured in the form of a composite network based on discussed the successful improvement in the nutritional
a combination of cross-linked polymer molecules and profile of processed meat products (i.e., bologna sausages,
aggregation of emulsion droplets (Pintado et al., 2015). The frankfurters, fresh sausages, fermented sausages, betters,
solid-like rheological properties of the emulsion gel are pâté) using hydrogel emulsions to replace animal fat with
often determined by the properties of the hydrogel matrix different plant-based oils. However, few studies showed
network (Dickinson, 2012). Using hydrogelled emulsions negative impact on textural parameters, especially because
in meat products is a prospective animal fat replacer as of full fat replacements.
these emulsions could be developed with vegetable-based
ingredients, rich in unsaturated fatty acids, minerals,
fiber, vitamins, and antioxidants (Domínguez et al., 2016; 3.3.2 Organogelled emulsions
Pintado et al. 2018; Bellucci et al., 2021). Besides enhanc-
ing fatty acid composition, hydrogelled emulsions also One innovative approach to reduce the SFA content is to
improved cooking yield, oxidative stability, and sensory develop a suitable emulsion with liquid oil that behaves
properties (few exceptions of full fat replacements) of like solid fat. The method relies on various mechanisms to
the reformulated products. Recently, various studies incorporate gelators that change the oil’s physical proper-
(dos Santos et al., 2020; Lima et al., 2021; Pintado & ties, converting the liquid oil to a solid substance, which
Cofrades, 2020; Pereira et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2020; is why the rheological behavior is similar to the fat
de Carvalho, Munekata, de Oliveira, et al., 2020; Shin (Moriano & Alamprese, 2017). These novel materials are
et al., 2020; Vargas-Ramella, Munekata, et al., 2020; referred to as oleogels or organogels, and in these gels, the
continuous phase (>90% of the total gel) is oil, not water consist of a different range of meat products depend-
such as hydrogels. As a result, only lipophilic antioxidants ing on the processing technique applied and nutritional
can be added to protect against oxidation (Domínguez, composition (i.e., fat and salt content) of these products
Bohrer, et al., 2021). Oleogels have recently drawn atten- (Shan et al., 2017). As consumers demand convenience
tion due to their several advantages: safe use in food prod- and quality (i.e., taste, flavor, texture, and nutritional pro-
ucts, superior fatty acid profile, and easy fabrication (Zhao file), that is why processed meat products are trendy,
et al., 2021). being consumed by many individuals in the developed
Organogelled emulsions can be produced by embedding world, and this trend is gradually increasing (Ağar et al.,
the emulsified droplets into a continuous organogelled 2016; Shan et al., 2017; Yeung & Huang, 2018; Fernández-
matrix. In this way, functional performance can also be López et al., 2021; Antonini et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2021; Diao
controlled (Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2015). The use of β- et al., 2020; Domínguez, Munekata, et al., 2020; Skałecki
sitosterol (plant sterol) and γ-oryzanol (plant sterol ester) et al., 2021; Domínguez, Bohrer, et al., 2021). Consumers
is one of the most exciting and practicable organogela- demand healthier processed meat products in terms of
tion strategies for the food industry. When blended at a reduced salt and fat content than other ingredients. So,
1:1 molar ratio (40:60 weight ratio), these molecules self- reducing fat content, especially SFA level, is the ultimate
assemble into tubules to form strong gels in the presence goal of the processed meat industry (Plasek et al., 2020).
of a variety of edible oils. At least 2–4 g/100 g sterol is Based on the processing method involved, processed
required to form a gel. Heat is used to dissolve the β- meat products can be emulsified (i.e., bologna sausages,
sitosterol and γ-oryzanol prior to their gelation by cool- frankfurters, pâtés, meat batters) and mixed type (fer-
ing at 5◦ C during stirring (Bot & Flöter, 2011). The aggre- mented sausages, meatballs, patties). Water produces con-
gation dynamics is influenced by the type of sterol, the tinuous phase and proteins and fat produces emulsifier
sitosterol/oryzanol ratio, the cooling temperature, and the and dispersed phases in the farmer products; in contrast,
stirring conditions. Besides having excellent structuring no emulsification process is involved in the latter prod-
properties, phytosterol-based organogels are effective for ucts. Emulsion-type meat products are typically O/W-type
lowering serum LDL-cholesterol levels (Moriano & Alam- emulsion systems in which the dispersed lipid droplets are
prese, 2017). Similarly, monoglycerides, beeswax, phytos- stabilized by proteins (Choi et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2020).
terol, and ethylcellulose are widely used as organogela- Proteins are amphiphilic in nature. As surface-active
tors, which form a three-dimensional structure that agents, the lipophilic portion of the molecule adsorbs at
stabilizes the oleogels (López-Pedrouso et al., 2020). The the surface of each oil droplet with the hydrophilic part
choice of plant-based oil for organogel emulsion is essen- oriented toward the aqueous phase to form a protein layer
tial for nutritional quality (Guo et al., 2020) and oleogel (Lam & Nickerson, 2013). This action reduces the interfa-
final characteristics (i.e., rheological properties, melting cial tension at the oil–water interface. The resulting elec-
and crystallization behavior, oxidative stability). Mainly, trostatic repulsion and steric hindrance between the oil
soybean, linseed, sunflower, and olive oils are widely used droplets are responsible for the emulsion stability (Li et al.,
to develop oleogels (López-Pedrouso et al., 2020). Recently, 2019). Muscle myofibrillar proteins (MP) and sarcoplas-
several studies emerged in literature (Oh et al., 2019; mic proteins are widely used in meat emulsions because
Ferrer-González et al., 2019; Gómez-Estaca et al., 2019; da of the high emulsifying capacity of MP and the ability of
Silva et al., 2019; Shao et al., 2020; Franco et al., 2020; Mar- sarcoplasmic proteins, mainly myoglobin, to inhibit the
tins et al., 2020; Ramírez-Carrasco et al., 2020; de Carvalho, thermal denaturation of MP (Genccelep et al., 2015; Lee
Munekata, Pateiro, et al., 2020; Barbut et al., 2021; Ferro & Chin, 2019). Animal fat is an essential component of
et al., 2021) have explored the potential to use organogels in processed meat products, especially emulsion-type prod-
meat products such as burgers, fermented sausages, pâtés, ucts, due to its functions in stabilizing meat emulsions,
frankfurters, and meat batters. Using oleogels significantly product binding, improving texture, enhancing flavor and
improved the nutritional quality of the reformulated prod- cooking yield, and increasing juiciness (Kim et al., 2020).
ucts, but few studies showed negative impact on sensory Small fat globules and interfacial adsorption by adequately
and color parameters. solubilized protein are essential for remarkable emulsion
stability (Santhi et al., 2017). Guerra et al. (2011) prepared
goat mortadella formulations with 10%, 20%, and 30% pork
4 PROCESSED MEAT PRODUCTS fat in developing a value-added product using meat from
spent animals. The water holding capacity and emulsion
Processed meat products can be defined as products that stability improved as the fat percentage in the formulation
have been modified through processes such as smoking, increased. Similarly, Álvarez and Barbut (2013) showed
salting, and curing to improve quality and shelf life; they that decreasing the fat content in meat products decreased
FIGURE 3 Schematic presentation of modification of meat products, replacing animal fat with different types of plant-based oils
the product’s hardness and increased cooking loss. There- alleviate consumers’ growing health concerns of disease
fore, up to 30% of fat can be added to processed meat prod- risk (Lenighan et al., 2019; Rabadán et al., 2021). In this
ucts for improved texture and yield (Choi et al., 2010). context, the integration of vegetable oils and other plant-
However, as mentioned in Section 1, excessive intake of based components to meat product formulations offers
SFA and high cholesterol present in animal fat can cause possibilities for a healthier fatty acid profile and a source of
potential health risks, such as obesity, hypertension, coro- antioxidants, minerals, fibers, and vitamins (Pintado et al.,
nary heart diseases, and cardiovascular diseases (Chen 2018). As shown in Figure 3, some plant-based oils rich in
et al., 2020). Hence, the present review primarily focuses MUFA (i.e., canola oil, olive oil, and tiger nut oil) and
on replacing animal fat with different plant-based oils in PUFA (grapeseed oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil,
processed meat products. pumpkin seed oil, and chia oil) can be used to substitute
the animal fat in meat products. As shown in Table 1, these
plant-based oils containing low SFA and high MUFA and
5 MODIFICATION OF TRADITIONAL PUFA levels can be used to design healthier meat products
PROCESSED MEAT PRODUCTS to improve the nutritional quality (Asuming-Bediako
et al., 2014; Lu et al., 2017; Heck et al., 2021). However,
The modification of meat products by replacing SFA replacing fat with oil can affect the quality and palatability
with monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and PUFA of the final product. Several studies related to plant-based
is one of the best practical public health approaches to oils as animal fat replacers will be discussed herein.
8
TA B L E 1 Fatty acid profile (g/100 g total fatty acid) of beef fat (subcutaneous), pork backfat, and different types of plant-based oils
Animal fat Plant-based oils (rich in MUFA) Plant-based oils (rich in PUFA)
Beef fat Pork Grapeseed Sunflower Pumpkin
Fatty acids (S/C) backfat Canola oil Olive oil Tiger nut oil oil oil Linseed oil Soybean oil seed oil Chia oil
C14:0 3.54 1.19 0.06 0.03 – – – – 0.08 0.08 –
C14:1n-9 1.05 – – – – – – – – – –
C15:0 0.56 – – – – – – – – – –
C16:0 27.71 23.03 4.96 11.73 14.03 7.05 6.43 5.87 10.50 11.88 7.08
C16:1n-9 4.18 – – – – – – – – – –
C16:1n-7 – 1.89 0.18 0.84 – – – – 0.09 – –
C17:0 1.41 0.23 0.05 0.08 – – – – 0.09 – –
C17:1n-9 0.93 – – – – – – – – – –
C17:1n-7 – 0.19 0.06 0.12 – – – – 0.05 – –
C18:0 13.97 12.74 2.01 3.40 5.59 2.52 3.69 3.92 3.31 4.45 3.42
18:1t-11 3.33 – – – – – – – – – –
C18:1n-9 38.61 41.18 54.65 72.16 67.16 13.90 25.92 18.18 24.99 30.85 5.62
C18:1n-7 – 2.67 2.68 2.21 0.82 – – 0.72 1.55 – 0.79
C18:1n-11 1.47 – – – – – – – – – –
C19:0 0.59 – – – – – – – – – –
C18:2n-9 1.00 – – – – – – – – – –
C18:2n-6 – 13.68 27.44 7.70 10.15 75.30 62.69 15.05 52.10 52.15 18.77
(Continues)
Healthiness of processed meat products. . .
TA B L E 1 (Continued)
Animal fat Plant-based oils (rich in MUFA) Plant-based oils (rich in PUFA)
Beef fat Pork Grapeseed Sunflower Pumpkin
Fatty acids (S/C) backfat Canola oil Olive oil Tiger nut oil oil oil Linseed oil Soybean oil seed oil Chia oil
C18:3n-6 0.26 0.04 0.33 0.03 – 0.41 – – 0.26 0.26 –

C18:2n-9 0.57 – – – – – – – – – –
C18:3n-3 – 0.66 5.30 0.61 0.21 – – 55.36 5.70 – 63.36
C20:0 – 0.24 0.48 0.41 0.78 – 0.32 0.14 0.33 0.33 0.28
C20:1n-9 – 0.87 0.97 0.24 0.18 0.57 – 0.13 0.22 – 0.15
C20:2n-6 – 0.64 0.05 – – – – – 0.04 – –
C20:3n-3 – 0.11 – 0.24 – – – – – – –
C20:4n-6 – 0.23 – – – 0.12 – – – – –
C22:0 – 0.01 0.39 0.14 0.16 – 0.66 0.12 0.47 – 0.09
C24:0 – – 0.15 0.06 0.29 – 0.29 0.10 0.17 – 0.12
SFA 51.12 37.61 8.14 15.85 21.03 9.66 11.39 10.28 14.99 16.74 11.11
MUFA 46.12 45.93 57.74 75.33 68.61 14.50 25.92 19.19 26.69 30.35 6.67
PUFA 1.26 15.59 33.15 8.58 10.36 75.80 62.69 70.53 58.10 52.41 82.22
n-6 – 14.75 27.84 7.73 10.15 – – 15.15 52.40 – 18.82
n-3 – 0.77 5.30 0.85 0.21 – – 55.36 5.70 – 63.36
References Kelly et al., Vargas- Vargas- Vargas- Vargas- Lutterodt Dorni et al., Vargas-Ramella, Vargas- Vujasinovic Vargas-Ramella,
2013 Ramella Ramella Ramella Ramella, et al., 2011 2018 Pateiro, et al., Ramella et al., 2010 Pateiro, et al.,
et al., et al., et al., Pateiro, 2020 et al., 2020c 2020
2020c 2020c 2020c et al., 2020
9
5.1 Substitution with plant-based oils Although the results showed potential, further work was
rich in MUFA required to match the traditional sausage’s texture and sen-
sory attributes.
5.1.1 Canola oil Vieira et al. (2019) indicated the substitution of animal
fat with canola oil emulsion (citric acid as the antioxi-
Canola oil is one of the most commonly used plant-based dant) as a promising approach to enhance the PUFA/SFA
oils worldwide. It has around 57.7% MUFA (oleic acid), ratio while decreasing the ω-6/ω-3 ratio of chicken meat-
33.1% PUFA (linolenic acid/α-linolenic acid), and only balls without affecting the texture, color parameters,
about 8.14% SFA (Andre et al., 2019; Vargas-Ramella et al., oxidation, and sensory attributes. In the production of
2020c). Besides its healthy lipid profile and possible uses emulsion-type sausages, the use of canola oil in animal
in meat products (Baek et al., 2016), canola oil has been fat substitution reduced the SFA content (from 30.38%
shown to improve diastolic dysfunctions in diet-induced to 17.41%), increased MUFA (from 41.42% to 52.72%) and
obese rats (Thandapilly et al., 2017). PUFA levels (from 26.78% to 27.28%), and decreased the ω-
Partial or complete replacement of animal fat by canola 6/ω-3 (from 12.63 to 3.74) ratio. Also, improved water hold-
oil is proved to be a viable option in the development of ing capacity and emulsion stability led to a tight and sta-
healthier meat products because it achieves the ultimate ble texture, contributing to the highest score for texture in
goal of improving the product’s fatty acid profile (Table 2). sensory evaluations, besides receiving high scores for fla-
In a recent study, Alejandre et al. (2019) prepared meat vor, color, taste, and overall acceptance. In another study,
batters with an improved lipid profile and reduced lipid authors concluded that in the production of emulsion-type
oxidation by replacing beef fat with canola oil organogels sausages, canola oil as a pork backfat substitute demon-
and hydrogel emulsions. The overall SFA level decreased strated a high tendency for emulsion stability due to its
from 11.8% to around 2%, and the PUFA level increased exceptional water holding capacity and a tight and stable
from 0.3% to about 5% in the reformulated final product. texture. Furthermore, based on sensory evaluation, using
The ω-6/ω-3 ratio also decreased (from 16.2 to around 2). canola oil presented high scores for flavor, color, taste, and
Similar improvements in lipid profile were observed by final product’s acceptance and improved fatty acid profile
Utama et al. (2019) using a 50% canola–perilla O/W emul- by reducing SFA content from 61.5% to 5.99%, increasing
sion as an animal fat replacer in chicken sausage; crude MUFA and PUFA from 29.2% to 66.4%, and from 9.25% to
fat and SFA content reduced from 18.9% to 11.5% and 53.0% 27.6%, enhancing PUFA/SFA ratio from 0.15 to 4.80, and
to 9.33%, respectively. MUFA level increased by 17% and decreasing ω-6/ω-3 ratio from 17.7 to 2.78 (Baek et al., 2016).
PUFA level also increased from 3.17% to 39.2%, whereas the A soft texture but increase in cooking loss occurred with a
ω-6/ω-3 ratio decreased from 9.49 to 0.83. Similarly, Bar- reduction of beef fat level in comminuted meat products,
but et al. (2016a, 2016b, 2019, 2021) also observed similar which was alleviated somewhat with partial substitution
findings in a series of experiments. In their recent works, by pre-emulsified canola oil, possibly due to the small size
Barbut et al. (2021) found that up to 60% pork backfat of the fat globules (Youssef & Barbut, 2011).
replacement is possible to reduce SFA content (by 40%) Selani et al. (2016) improved the nutritional quality of
using canola oil emulsion in liver pâté without affecting beef burgers using a combination of canola oil and pineap-
oil retention, color parameters, and sensory properties. In ple by-product. The results showed an increase in the
their earlier work, the replacement of pork fat in liver PUFA/SFA ratio (from 0.42 to 0.64), a decrease in the ω-
pâtés with canola oil organogels containing 12% ethyl cel- 6/ω-3 ratio (from 25.05 to 7.64), and a reduction in the
lulose resulted in products with comparable sensory, tex- cholesterol (from 82.42 to 73.33 mg/100 g) content, throm-
tural, and physical properties to the traditional pork fat bogenic index (from 1.04 to 0.68), and atherogenic index
liver pâtés and reduced the overall SFA content by 62% (from 0.48 to 0.34). Although the oxidative stability of the
(Barbut et al., 2019). Similarly, they prepared meat batters burger was affected by the reformulation, the lipid oxi-
using organogels to substitute 100% beef fat. The results dation indicators remained below the acceptance thresh-
indicated a significant decrease in overall fat content but old during the shelf life (120 days). Likewise, replacing
showed increased hardness than control meat batters (Bar- 50% pork backfat with canola oil gel in beef burgers led
but & Marangoni, 2019). They also replaced the beef fat in to a 31% reduction in fat and improved fatty acid compo-
frankfurters with organogels containing sorbitan monos- sition and cooking yield. Reformulated burgers presented
tearate without modifying the textural properties of the tra- reduced SFA content (by 21%) and ω-6/ω-3 ratio (20%) and
ditional product (Barbut et al., 2016a). In another experi- a 27% increase in PUFA content. However, they showed an
ment, the authors prepared canola oil organogels with the increase in lightness and texture profile analysis attributes
addition of sorbitan monostearate and ethyl cellulose at such as hardness, gumminess, and chewiness (de Oliveira
various levels in breakfast sausages (Barbut et al., 2016b). Fagundes et al., 2017). More recent work of Oh et al.
TA B L E 2 Use of canola oil (rich in MUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat
Method of
Combination incorporation/ Animal fat Negative
constituents emulsion type Meat product substitution% Beneficial effects effectsobserved References
Kappa carrageenan Hydrogel Meat batters 100% beef fat ↑ MUFA ↑ Hardness Alejandre et al., 2019
andethyl cellulose ↓ SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↑ Lightness
↑ Oxidative stability
Inulin Soy protein Hydrogel Chicken sausages 100% beef fat Utama et al., 2019
↑ α-linolenic acid ↑ Hardness

↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↑ Chewiness
↓ Calories ↑ TBARS
↑ Cooking yield and lightness ↓ Flavor
Ethyl cellulose Organogel Liver pâtés 100% pork fat ↓ Overall SFA ↑ Oil loss Barbut et al., 2019
↓ Off-flavors perception ↑ Darker color
Ethyl cellulose and Organogel Meat batter 100% beef fat ↓ Overall fat and SFA ↑ Hardness Barbut & Marangoni, 2019
sorbitan ↓ Springiness ↑ Fat globule size
monostearate
Sorbitan monostearate Organogel Frankfurters 100% beef fat ↓ Cooking loss ↑ Hardness Barbut et al., 2016a
↓ Shear force values ↓ Juiciness
↑ Lightness ↓ Sensory acceptance
Sorbitan monostearate Organogel Breakfast sausages 100% pork fat ↓ Objective hardness ↓ Juiciness Barbut et al., 2016b
and ethyl cellulose ↓ Springiness ↓ Oiliness
↑ Lightness
Citric acid Direct mixing Chicken meatballs 100% chicken fat ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↑ Hardness Antonini et al., 2020
↑ Overall acceptance ↑ Shear force
↑ Chewiness
Hydrogel Emulsion sausages 100% pork backfat ↑ MUFA Increased lipid oxidation Baek et al., 2016
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
↑ Water holding capacity
↑ Emulsion stability
↑ Lightness
Hydrogel Comminuted meat 100% beef fat ↓ Cooking loss ↑ Hardness Youssef & Barbut, 2011
products ↑ Lightness
(Continues)
11
12
Method of
Pineapple By-product Hydrogel Beef burgers 50% beef fat ↑ PUFA/SFA ratio ↓ Oxidative stability Selani et al., 2016
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
↓ Cholesterol
↑ Improved thrombogenic and
atherogenic index
Hydroxypropyl Oleogel Patties 100% beef fat ↓ SFA ↓ Oxidative stability Oh et al., 2019
methylcellulose ↑ Cooking yield
↑ Soft texture
Alginate Hydrogel Dry-fermented deer 50% pork backfat ↑ MUFA and PUFA ↑ Total volatile Vargas-Ramella,
sausages ↓ SFA compounds Munekata, et al., 2020
↑ω-3 content ↑ Hardness
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↑ Darkness
Pork skin Hydrogel Beef burgers 50% pork backfat ↑ MUFA ↑ Hardness de Oliveira Fagundes et al.,
↓ SFA ↑ Chewiness 2017
↓ Total fat ↑ Gumminess
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Sal fat Animal fat Salami-type sausages 100% animal fat ↓ total fat ↑ Hardness Dreher et al., 2021
mimetic ↓ SFA ↓ Sensory acceptance
Inulin and bamboo Hydrogel Hot dogs 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA ↓ Sensory attributes dos Santos et al., 2020
fiber ↑ω-3 content
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Ethylcellulose Organogel Liver pâtés 60% pork fat ↓ SFA Barbut et al., 2021
↑ Sensory parameters
Milkfat and soy protein Direct mixing or Chicken batters 100% pork jowl ↓ SFA ↓ Oxidative stability Wirkowska-Wojdyła et al.,
isolates Interesterifi- ↑ Unsaturated fatty acids 2021
cation ↓ Apparent viscosity
Inulin and corn oil Hydrogel Dry-fermented 64% pork backfat ↓ SFA ↑ Peroxide value Glisic, Boskovic, et al., 2019
sausages ↑ PUFA ↑ acid number
(2019) evaluated the replacement of beef fat in meat patties batters were developed with olive oil and carrot powder by
with canola oil organogels structured with hydroxypropyl substituting 100% beef fat using an inverse (W/O) emul-
methylcellulose. When 100% of the beef tallow was substi- sion system. The fat replacement showed a 35% reduction
tuted with the organogel, the texture became softer, cook- in total fat and 46% in SFA content; an increase in MUFA
ing yield increased, and the SFA level was reduced from level from 51.2 to 72.5 and PUFA level 2.2 to 9.7 g/100 g; and
42% (beef tallow sample) to 15% (reformulated meat pat- an increase in redness, yellowness, and cohesiveness val-
ties). ues than control samples (Öztürk-Kerimoğlu, Kara, et al.,
In a study, when pork backfat (64%) was replaced 2021). Similarly, Câmara et al. (2021) found an above 56%
with inulin gelled emulsions to produce low-fat, dry- increase in PUFA levels and 47% and 74% reduction in
fermented sausages, the reformulated sausages had signif- SFA content and ω-6/ω-3 ratio, respectively, by replacing
icantly reduced SFA (from 36.78% to 28.09%) level and ω- 100% pork backfat with olive oil and chia mucilage emul-
6/ω-3 (from 11.36 to 5.87) ratio and improved PUFA (from sion in bologna sausages without affecting overall sensory
12.78% to 18.35%) content. However, an increased perox- acceptance. Chicken ham developed with pre-emulsified
ide value and total acid number after 1 month of storage or fresh olive oil to partially (50%) replace pork backfat pre-
period indicated susceptibility to lipolysis and oxidation sented lower content of SFA (by 21%) and a higher level
(Glisic, Boskovic, et al., 2019). Likewise, Vargas-Ramella, of MUFA (20%) than control. Also, thrombogenicity (28%)
Munekata, et al. (2020) also studied dry-fermented deer and atherogenicity (39%) indexes were lower in reformu-
sausages; substituting 50% pork backfat using canola and lated chicken ham (de Souto et al., 2021).
soy oils emulsions (prosella gel) led to an increase in Another work in this area centers around the healthi-
PUFA (12%) and omega-3 content (139%) and a reduction ness of dry-fermented sausages prepared with oleogels and
in SFA content (24%) and ω-6/ω-3 ratio (57%). Besides, emulsion gels using olive oil and chia oil to replace ani-
the reformulated sausages showed higher protein con- mal fat (Pintado & Cofrades, 2020). The authors empha-
tent and consumer acceptability; however, there was an sized the suitability of olive oil in developing healthy
increase in total volatile compounds, individual volatile dry-fermented sausages because of health and nutritional
compounds, hardness, and darkness of the reformulated claims that could be stated on the food label due to the
sausages. Recently, Dreher et al. (2021) developed salami- high content of α-linolenic in the final product. The pork
type sausages using canola oil and salt–fat emulsions in the backfat substitution (80%) led to a decrease in fat con-
form of fat mimetic. Increasing the salt–fat ratio negatively tent (by 25%), SFA content (53%), and ω6/ω3 ratio (92%)
affected color values, hardness, and sensory acceptance and an increase in PUFA/SFA ratio (64%). The reformu-
scores of the final product. Similarly, chicken meat batters lated sausages also displayed less hardness than the con-
were prepared by replacing 100% pork jowl. The authors trol, but the sensory attributes required improvement.
concluded, using interesterified milkfat is a viable strategy During chilled storage, these reformulated dry-fermented
to improve nutritional profile without compromising other sausages had good microbiological status and oxidative
quality attributes (Wirkowska-Wojdyła et al., 2021). In hot stability. (Pintado & Cofrades, 2020). Reduced-fat duck
dogs, pork backfat (up to 100%) was substituted using pre- meat emulsions prepared by replacing 100% pork fat with
emulsified canola oil with pork skin and inulin. The results pre-emulsified olive oil provided nutritional advantages
indicated a reduced SFA level (77%) and ω6/ω3 ratio (76%) by reducing SFA level (46%) and increasing MUFA level
but higher lightness and redness values in reformulated (63%) in the product (Kim et al., 2020). These reformulated
sausages (dos Santos et al., 2020). duck meat emulsions showed better sensory and quality
attributes such as springiness, cohesiveness, emulsion sta-
bility, chewiness, protein solubility, lipid oxidation, and
5.1.2 Olive oil cooking yield than the control (pork fat only) emulsions.
Similarly, meat emulsions were also formulated with olive
The health and nutritional advantages of olive oil can oil and egg white powder, which resulted in significantly
be principally attributed to its high content of oleic acid reduced total fat (from 11.54% to 4.01%) and SFA (from
(MUFA), which is around 75% (Vargas-Ramella et al., 50.15% to 10.96%) levels and enhanced MUFA (from 33.43%
2020c). The oil also contains a small proportion of α- to 62.64%), mainly oleic acid (from 31.79% to 62.00%), and
linolenic, linoleic, palmitic, and stearic fatty acids. It has PUFA (from 2.31% to 6.52%) contents. It also resulted in
been found that a diet rich in MUFA lowers total choles- lower values of TBA, expressible fluid, and expressible fat
terol and LDL-cholesterol (Al-Bachir & Sahloul, 2017; compared to control (Öztürk, Serdaroğlu, et al., 2017).
Kelebek et al., 2015). Low-fat pork burgers reformulated with olive, linseed,
Several studies have highlighted the health benefits of and fish oils oleogels (ethyl cellulose and beeswax) showed
olive oil as an animal fat replacer (Table 3). Recently, meat significantly improved fatty acid profile with enhanced
14
TA B L E 3 Use of olive oil (rich in MUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
Method of
incorporation/ Animal fat Negative
Combination constituents emulsion type Meat product substitution% Beneficial effects effectsobserved References
Duck skin Hydrogel Duck meat 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA Color and texture Kim et al., 2021
emulsion ↑ MUFA affected
↓ Cooking loss
↓ Lipid oxidation
Carrot powder Inverse (W/O) emulsions Meat batters 100% beef fat ↓ Total fat and SFA ↓ Redness and Öztürk-Kerimoğlu,
↑ MUFA and PUFA yellowness Kara, et al., 2021
Chia mucilage Hydrogel Bologna sausages 100% pork backfat ↓ Total fat and SFA Câmara et al., 2021
↑ MUFA
↓ Hardness
Starch Hydrogel Chicken ham 50% pork backfat ↓ SFA de Souto et al., 2021
atherogenic index
↑ MUFA and PUFA
Chia oil and beeswax Both oleogel and hydrogel Dry-fermented 80% pork backfat ↑ α-Linolenic acid ↑ TBARS Pintado & Cofrades,
Sausages ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↓ Sensory acceptance 2020
↓ SFA
↑ Microbiological safety
Ethyl cellulose and beeswax Oleogel Pork burgers 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA ↑ Lipid oxidation Gómez-Estaca et al.,
↑ MUFA 2019
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Egg white powder Hydrogel Meat emulsions 100% beef fat ↓ Fat and SFA Öztürk et al., 2017b
↓ TBA and expressible fluid
↑ MUFA
↑ Oleic acid content
↑ PUFA
Canola oil, inulin, and Hydrogel Beef burgers 100% beef fat ↓ SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↑ Hardness Afshari et al., 2017
β-glucan ↑ Improved thrombogenic and
atherogenic index
(Continues)
Method of
incorporation/ Animal fat Negative
Combination constituents emulsion type Meat product substitution% Beneficial effects effectsobserved References
Hydroxytyrosol and walnut Hydrogel Chicken sausages 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↑ Rancid odor Nieto et al., 2017a, 2017b
paste ↑ Improved thrombogenic and ↑ Lipid oxidation
atherogenic index
↑ Minerals
↑ MUFA
Inulin and gelatin Hydrogel Chicken patties 50% beef fat ↓ Total fat ↓ Sensory attributes Serdaroğlu, Nacak, &
↓ Hardness Karabıyıkoğlu, 2017
↑ Improved color
Sodium caseinate and fish oil Hydrogel or Frankfurter 50% pork backfat ↑ MUFA ↑ TBARS Domínguez et al., 2017
microencapsulation ↑ PUFA ↑ Volatile compounds
↑ ω-3 content
Chestnut flour and nutmeg Hydrogel Pâté 100% pork backfat ↑α-Tocopherol and nutritional ↑ Yellowness Domínguez et al., 2016
indexes
↑ MUFA
↓ Cholesterol
↑ Improved texture
Sodium nitrite and sodium Direct addition or protein Dry-fermented 52% pork backfat ↓ SFA ↓ Sensory acceptance Bolumar et al., 2015
ascorbate network gel sausages ↑ PUFA/SFA ratio
↓ Fat and calories
Soy protein Organogel Dry-ripened 55% pork meat ↑ Oleic acid Utrilla et al., 2014
venison ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
sausages ↑ Sensory acceptance
Konjac flour, linseed oil, and Hydrogel Beef burgers 100% pork backfat ↑ MUFA ↑ Hardness Salcedo-Sandoval et al.,
fish oil and konjac gel ↓ SFA, total fat, and calories ↑ Lipid oxidation 2013, 2015
↑ ω-3 content
Linseed oil and fish oil Konjac gel Dry-fermented 100% pork backfat ↑ MUFA and PUFA ↓ Sensory attributes Jiménez-Colmenero
sausages ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio et al., 2013
↓ Energy
Linseed oil and fish oil Hydrogel and konjac gel Liver pâtés 100% pork backfat ↓ Fat ↓ Cooking yield Delgado-Pando et al.,
↑ Protein 2012
Konjac flour Konjac gel Dry-fermented 100% pork backfat ↑ PUFA ↑ Hardness Triki, Herrero,
sausages and ↓ Fat ↑ Lipid oxidation Jiménez-Colmenero,
fresh merguez et al., 2013; Triki,
sausages Herrero,
Rodríguez-Salas,
et al., 2013
15
PUFA/SFA ratio (3.6-fold) and reduced ω-6/ω-3 ratio (23- results between reformulated merguez sausages and
fold) but higher lipid oxidation than control. Furthermore, the control (Triki, Herrero, Jiménez-Colmenero, et al.,
beeswax oleogel showed better sensory acceptability of the 2013).
final product (Gómez-Estaca et al., 2019). Likewise, Afshari In another study of dry-cured fermented sausages, fat
et al. (2017) improved the fatty acid profile of beef burg- replacement up to 52% was possible with high-pressure
ers by substituting beef fat with olive and canola oils. processed meat, but incorporating olive oil (4.3% direct
Decreases in the atherogenic index (from 1.6 to 0.5), throm- addition, or 10% within a protein network obtained by
bogenic index (from 1.8 to 0.49), SFA level (from 48% high-pressure processing) resulted in reduced total fat con-
to 19%–24%), and the ω-6/ω-3 ratio (from 8.6 to 3) were tent (from 29.6 to 22.6 g/100 g) and SFA level (from 17.0
achieved, which is the ideal nutritional quality of any food to 12.9 g/100 g) but unacceptable product because of the
product. Although modification of the fat content led to lack of oil retention within the meat matrix (Bolumar et al.,
increased hardness of the low-fat burger, this was resolved 2015). By contrast, venison sausages with up to 55% of pork
by the addition of inulin and β-glucan. Salcedo-Sandoval meat replaced with olive oil oleogels exhibited satisfac-
et al. (2015) manufactured reformulated patties with an tory physicochemical characteristics, instrumental color,
improved PUFA level and reduced SFA content. In that oxidative stability, and sensory acceptance, as well as a
study, pork fat was substituted with konjac gel and a veg- lower SFA level (from 41.04% to 13.76%), higher oleic acid
etable oil mixture (olive, linseed, and fish oils). Fat and content (from 33.47% to 79.20%), and lower ω-6/ω-3 ratio
energy values were decreased by up to 85% and 54%, respec- (from 18.98 to 12.24) than the regular venison sausages.
tively, in the reformulated patties compared with their However, the highest sensory scores were given to the
full-fat counterparts, leading to healthy meat products. sausages in which no more than 25% of the fat had been
However, animal fat replacement promoted increased lipid replaced (Utrilla et al., 2014).
oxidation and harder cooked patties as the amount of kon- Nieto et al. (2017a, 2017b) investigated pork fat replace-
jac gel was increased. When the same system was used ment in chicken sausages with pre-emulsified olive oil,
to reformulate frankfurters, the products could be labeled hydroxytyrosol, and walnut paste. The results indicated
with high ω-3 content and low-fat health claims. The fat an improvement in oxidative and emulsion stability, cook-
replacement resulted in 57%, 92%, 26%, and 64% reduction ing loss, and product stability compared to the control
in SFA level, ω-6/ω-3 ratio, atherogenic index, and throm- samples. Moreover, reformulated sausages had a higher
bogenic index, respectively, and 600% improvement in ω- amount of minerals; high MUFA (18%) and PUFA (22%)
3 content (Salcedo-Sandoval et al., 2013). Various other contents; and lower SFA (40%), ω-6/ω-3 ratio (60%),
researchers have used this konjac gel and oil mixture sys- atherogenic (38%), and thrombogenicity (72%) indexes.
tem. Jiménez-Colmenero et al. (2013) evaluated its use in Similarly, chicken patties manufactured with olive oil,
dry-fermented sausages to replace up to 100% fat. Again, inulin, and gelatin emulsion showed a decrease in hard-
there was a marked enhancement in the PUFA level (from ness but a negative effect on the cooking attributes (except
124.1 to 254.3 g/kg); a decrease in SFA level (from 375.1 fat retention) and color parameters. The authors con-
to 248.6 g/kg) and ω-6/ω-3 ratio (from 11.25 to 1.19); and cluded that beef fat replacement up to 50% is possible to
a decrease in energy (from 1778.6 to 951.6 kJ/100 g) val- reduce fat content (from 19.23% to 15.61%) without com-
ues compared with regular fat sausages, but all sensory promising sensory characteristics (Serdaroğlu, Nacak, &
attributes were also decreased. Similar findings were pre- Karabıyıkoğlu, 2017).
sented by Delgado-Pando et al. (2012). However, besides Domínguez et al. (2017) substituted 50% pork backfat
reducing fat content (by 48%) and enhancing the fatty acid with olive and fish oil emulsion in frankfurter sausages.
profile of reformulated liver pâtés, there was no effect of Modified sausages had lower SFA content (by 12%), higher
the fat replacement on the sensory attributes and shelf life MUFA (5%) and omega-3 FA (260%) contents, and lower
during chilled storage. ω-6/ω-3 ratio (75%) but higher redness values than control
Fat replacement by konjac gels incorporated with sausages. In their earlier study, combining pre-emulsified
healthy oils (olive, linseed, and fish oils) also improved the olive oil to replace 100% pork fat in pâté exhibited
PUFA content of dry-fermented sausages but increased improved textural parameters (i.e., hardness, chewiness,
lipid oxidation during chilled storage due to higher unsat- gumminess, and cohesiveness), which increased yellow-
urated fatty acid levels (Triki, Herrero, Rodríguez-Salas ness. Besides, substitution leads to increased MUFA (from
et al., 2013). Contrarily, when replacing beef fat in fresh 49.84% to 63.21%) content and α-tocopherol and nutri-
merguez sausages with a konjac gel containing olive tional indexes and decreased cholesterol (from 35.20 to
oil alone, the authors found no limitations to the shelf 26.50 mg/100 g) and SFA (from 33.05% to 25.43%) levels
life concerning lipid oxidation and comparable sensory (Domínguez et al., 2016).
5.1.3 Tiger nut oil played improved lipid profile and antioxidant capacity and
reduced volatile compounds production.
Tiger nut (tuber) is produced by a weed plant known
as Cyperus esculentus found worldwide, mainly in Nige-
ria, Egypt, and Spain (Roselló-Soto et al., 2018). Tiger nut 5.2 Substitution with plant-based oils
oil contains oleic acid up to 67% and could be an excel- rich in PUFA
lent substitute for animal fat in processed meat products
(Vargas-Ramella, Pateiro, et al., 2020). Few studies have 5.2.1 Grape seed oil
emerged in literature exploring the possible use of tiger
nut oil in meat products to substitute animal fat (Table 4). Grapes are cultivated worldwide for fresh consumption,
In recent work, Bellucci et al. (2021) replaced pork back- winemaking, and the production of by-products such as
fat (100%) in pork patties using tiger nut oil formu- grape skins and grape seeds (Sirohi et al., 2020). For oil
lated with red pitaya. The results indicated the improved extraction, grape seeds are valuable because they contain
fatty acid profile and color stability and increased cohe- 8%–15% oil with a high content of unsaturated fatty acids
siveness. Besides, the addition of antioxidants leads to (Choi et al., 2010). Grape seed oil is cholesterol free and
decreased thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) rich in linoleic acid (Lutterodt et al., 2011). It also pro-
values from 2.44 to 1.21 and carbonyl values from 6.87 to tects against peroxidation because of its high tannin con-
5.45 nmol carbonyl/mg compared to control. Likewise, tent, such as oligomeric proanthocyanidins (Cao & Ito,
Vargas-Ramella and colleagues (Vargas-Ramella, Pateiro, 2003). Therefore, as a substitute for animal fat in emulsion-
et al., 2020; Vargas-Ramella et al., 2020c) studied ani- type meat products, grape seed oil also provides additional
mal fat substitution approaches using tiger nut oil in deer human health benefits (Choi et al., 2010).
meat products such as burgers and pâtés. The authors Few studies have explored the impact of grape seed oil as
replaced pork backfat (100%) with tiger nut, chia, and lin- an animal fat replacer on meat product quality parameters
seed oil emulsions in deer burgers. Burgers with tiger nut (Table 5). In recent work in this area, Kim et al. (2020)
oil substitution showed a significant increase in MUFA manufactured meat emulsions in which 50% of animal
content (from 40.58 to 52.18 g/100 g) without compro- fat was substituted with pre-emulsified grape seed oil
mising sensory characteristics, whereas chia and linseed containing alginate and gelatin, providing an effective
oils improved the PUFA content and omega-3 fatty acid method to develop healthy meat products. The emulsions
level as well as reduced the ω-6/ω-3 ratio. However, color were more viscous than elastic and showed higher oxida-
attributes, particularly redness and TBARS values, were tive stability than the pork backfat emulsion used as the
negatively affected by fat substitution (Vargas-Ramella, control; besides, total fat content was also reduced from
Pateiro, et al., 2020). In deer pâté, 50% pork backfat was 19.34% to 17.42%. Choi et al. (2009, 2010) also discussed the
substituted with tiger nut, chia, and linseed oil using the possible strategies for optimizing pork backfat substitution
microencapsulation method. The results indicated a signif- with grape seed oil. They concluded that although adding
icant reduction in total fat and cholesterol level, increased pre-emulsified grape seed oil formulated with rice bran
redness and yellowness values, and improved texture. fiber improved some quality attributes of low-fat meat
Moreover, modified pâtés presented a 15% reduction in SFA batters and reduced the pork fat content from 30% to 5%,
content and an enhancement in MUFA (tiger nut) and it decreased the fat content of the product from 29.96 to
PUFA contents, but showed higher TBARS values, par- 21.15 g/100 g and some quality aspects were adversely
ticularly pâtés manufactured with oil rich in omega-3 FA affected. Notably, yellowness increased and emulsion
(Vargas-Ramella et al., 2020c). stability and apparent viscosity decreased with increas-
Carvalho Barros et al. (2020) also evaluated the beef ing grape seed oil concentration (Choi et al., 2010).
fat replacement up to 100% in beef burgers using pre- Interestingly, grape seed oil provided better cooking
emulsified tiger nut oil. Modified burgers exhibited yield, juiciness, and texture of meat batters than the
decreased SFA (by 22%), increased MUFA (10%) and oleic other vegetable oils (olive, corn, soybean, canola) eval-
acid (from 36.87 to 48.40 g/100 g), and improved PUFA uated. Moreover, 33% pork fat substitution presented
levels without affecting physicochemical and sensory an overall decrease in fat content of the reformulated
attributes. Also, concerning color parameters, lightness emulsion from 29.58% to 18.62% (Choi et al., 2009).
and yellowness values were increased in the reformulated Özvural and Vural (2014) highlighted the inclusion of
burgers. Similarly, de Carvalho, Munekata, de Oliveira, grape seed extract over grape seed oil and grape seed
et al. (2020) developed low-fat fresh lamb sausages using flour for improving frankfurter quality during 90 days of
pre-emulsified tiger nut oil with turmeric extract by replac- storage based on the lipid oxidation and overall accept-
ing 100% animal fat. The reformulated sausages dis- ability results. Although all three additives showed some
18
TA B L E 4 Use of tiger nut oil (rich in MUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
Method of
Combination incorporation/ Animal fat Negative effects
constituents emulsion type Meat product substitution% Beneficial effects observed References
Red pitaya Hydrogel Pork patties 100% pork backfat ↑ Improved Fatty acid profile No negative effects Bellucci et al., 2021
↑ Improved oxidative stability
↑ Improved cohesiveness
Prosella Hydrogel Deer burgers 100% pork backfat ↑ MUFA content Slight change in Vargas-Ramella, Pateiro,
↓ SFA content color parameters et al., 2020
Milk powder Microencapsulation Deer pâté 50% pork backfat ↓ Fat content No negative effects Vargas-Ramella et al.,
method ↓ SFA content 2020c
↑ MUFA content
Prosella and sodium Hydrogel Beef burgers 100% beef fat ↓ SFA content No negative effects Carvalho Barros et al.,
ascorbate ↑ MUFA content 2020
↑ Oleic acid content
Turmeric extract and Hydrogel Fresh lamb 100% animal fat ↑ Oxidative stability de Carvalho, Munekata,
Prosella powder sausages ↑ Lipid profile de Oliveira, et al., 2020
↓ Volatile compounds
TA B L E 5 Use of grape seed oil (rich in PUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
Method of
Combination incorporation/ Animal fat
constituents emulsion type Meat product substitution% Beneficial effects Negative effectsobserved References
Olive seed extracts Hydrogel Frankfurters 100% pork backfat ↑ PUFA Color parameters, pH, and Pintado et al., 2021
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio textural properties were
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio affected
↑ Polyphenols compounds
Grape seed oil and Hydrogel Frankfurters 100% beef fat ↓ Fat content Sensory attributes affected Özvural & Vural, 2014
grape seed flour ↑ Oxidative stability
↑ Storage life (90 days)
Alginate and gelatin Hydrogel Meat emulsion 50% pork backfat ↓ Fat content No negative effects Kim et al., 2020
↑ Viscous
Olive oil and canola oil Hydrogel Frankfurters 100% pork backfat ↓ Fat content No negative effects Lee et al., 2015
↓ Cholesterol
↑ Soft texture
Sunflower oil and olive Direct mixing Patties 40% pork backfat ↓ Fat content No negative effects Lu et al., 2017
oil ↓ Heterocyclic amines
Rice bran Hydrogel Meat batters 50% pork fat ↑ Cooking yield Color parameters and Choi et al., 2009, 2010
↑ Juiciness and soft texture emulsion stability affected
19
undesirable sensory effects, they also had different positive In recent work, Ferro et al. (2021) concluded that
impacts. Similarly, Pintado et al. (2021) used grape seed sunflower-based emulsion gels showed excellent poten-
and olive extracts to substitute animal fat (100%) in frank- tial as animal fat replacers to reduce SFA content (from
furters. They found that the fatty acid profile, oxidative 7.11 to 2.35 g/100 g) and improve PUFA content (from
stability, product safety, and polyphenol compounds 2.61 to 9.67 g/100 g) without affecting desired attributes
significantly improved in the reformulated product. of bologna sausages. However, emulsion stability was sig-
Reduced-fat frankfurters showed a 51% reduction in SFA nificantly affected due to this fat replacement. Similarly,
content, a 136% increase in PUFA/SFA ratio, 37% and 11% when pre-emulsified sunflower oil was formulated with
improvement in MUFA and PUFA levels, respectively, and banana by-products (dietary fiber source) to replace 50%
a 34% decrease in ω-6/ω-3 ratio. Lu et al. (2017) compared animal fat in frankfurters, the reformulated product had
grape seed oil, olive oil, and sunflower oil to substitute reduced SFA content (from 37.46 to 29.23 g/100 g) and
40% pork backfat in patties. Grape seed oil reduced higher PUFA content (from 20.57 to 33.45 g/100 g). Besides,
fat content from 10.01% to 9.68%, completely inhibited the reformulated frankfurters also showed lower cooking
heterocyclic amines formation, and achieved maximum losses, better emulsion stability and rheological properties,
inhibition capacity compared to olive oil and sunflower and improved sensory attributes than the full-fat version
oil. Conceptually similar work was carried out by Lee et al. (Pereira et al., 2020). In emulsion-type chicken sausages,
(2015). They manufactured emulsion-type pork sausages replacing up to 50% pork fat with pre-emulsified sunflower
in which the pork fat (100%) was replaced with vegetable oil (or olive oil) could compensate for the adverse effects
oil mixtures (grape seed oil, olive oil, and canola oil). The of using different breeds and meat from old laying hens
reformulated sausages exhibited up to 39% decrease in (Shin et al., 2020). In frankfurters reformulated with sun-
SFA content, 9% increase in MUFA content, 85% increase flower oil by-products to replace 50% of the animal fat,
in PUFA content, and a 75% reduction in ω-6/ω-3 ratio. there was an overall improvement in the product’s nutri-
Besides the fat reduction, the reformulated products tional profile, including a 37% reduction in fat content
showed decreased cholesterol and a soft texture, with and an increase in protein, minerals, and phenolic com-
improved water holding capacity compared with the pounds notable for their antimicrobial and antioxidant
control sausages. The authors concluded that substituting properties (Grasso et al., 2020). Further development of
animal fat with vegetable oils in the processing of emul- the sensory aspects was required, but the products were
sified pork sausages resulted in healthy meat products found acceptable from a technological perspective. Similar
without affecting product quality. technological and nutritional advantages were achieved in
bologna-type sausages by da Silva et al. (2019) using a sun-
flower oil (high-oleic) oleogel as pork backfat replacer. The
5.2.2 Sunflower oil results showed that replacing up to 50% animal fat with
oleogel was a viable option for developing low-fat bologna
Sunflower oil is of excellent quality, with around 90% of sausages with 29% and 10% reductions in fat and choles-
the fatty acids derived mainly from linoleic acid and oleic terol levels, respectively, and improved fatty acid composi-
acid (Dorni et al., 2018), making it a suitable choice as a tion without affecting oxidative stability and sensory pro-
fat replacer (Premnath et al., 2016). Both linoleic and oleic file. In another trial, sunflower oil oleogels structured with
acid help decrease cholesterol and, ultimately, reduce car- phytosterols and monoglycerides in frankfurters not only
diovascular disease risk in humans, and oleic acid also improved rheological aspects because of the strong gel net-
increases the oxidative stability of the oil during storage work that was created but also improved the lipid profile
(Carvalho et al., 2018). However, higher linoleic acid (ω-6 (increased PUFA and decreased SFA) without affecting the
PUFA) content can result in a higher ω-6/ω-3 ratio, leading sensory profile and oxidative stability (Kouzounis et al.,
to adipogenesis, systemic inflammation, lipid homeostasis, 2017). Likewise, sunflower organogels structured with phy-
and browning of adipose tissue eliciting different effects tosterols and γ-oryzanol in frankfurter sausages success-
on the body fat gain (Simopoulos, 2016), and ultimately fully reduced SFA level and increased PUFA content with-
leads to obesity due to the increased activity of the cannabi- out compromising quality attributes (i.e., pH, hardness,
noid system and arachidonic acid eicosanoid metabolites lightness, oxidation status) compared with sunflower oil
(Pisani et al., 2015). So, a balanced ω-6/ω-3 ratio is essential emulsion treatments that lowered the product acceptabil-
for human health to prevent obesity (Simopoulos, 2016). ity relative to the control (Moschakis et al., 2016; Pana-
Therefore, animal fat replacement with sunflower oil is giotopoulou et al., 2016). Incorporating sunflower oil and
critical to avoid the negative impacts due to the higher ω- fiber of makgeolli lees into frankfurters decreased the pork
6/ω-3 ratio. Many studies used sunflower oil as an animal fat levels by 10% and improved some quality aspects such
fat replacer in various types of meat products (Table 6). as cooking loss and texture profile (Choi et al., 2013). In
TA B L E 6 Use of sunflower oil (rich in PUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
Method of
Glyceryl Oleogel Bologna sausages 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA ↑ Hardness Ferro et al., 2021
monostearate ↑ MUFA
↑ PUFA
Banana by-products Hydrogel Frankfurters 50% pork backfat ↑ PUFA ↓ Textural parameters Pereira et al., 2020
↓ Cooking loss
Sodium triphosphate Hydrogel Chicken Sausages 50% pork backfat ↑ Cooking yield ↓ Water holding capacity Shin et al., 2020
↑ Lightness
↓ Hardness
Sunflower seed flour Hydrogel Frankfurters 50% pork backfat ↑ Protein and minerals Textural and color Grasso et al., 2020
↑ Phenolic compounds parameters affected
Sodium alginate and Hydrogel Chicken luncheon 100% chicken fat ↓ Fat Khalil & Ockerman, 2020
rice flour ↓ Cholesterol
↓ Calories
↑ PUFA
Ethylcellulose Organogel Pork batter 100% pork fat ↓ Fat Textural parameters Shao et al., 2020
↑ Emulsion stability affected
↑ Lightness
↓ Fat globules size
Pork skin Oleogel Bologna sausages 50% pork backfat ↑ PUFA ↑ Hardness da Silva et al., 2019
↓ Cholesterol ↑ Chewiness
↓ SFA
↓ Cooking loss
Phytosterols and Oleogel Frankfurters 50% pork backfat ↑ PUFA ↓ Sensory color and Kouzounis et al., 2017
monoglycerides ↓ SFA smell scores
↑ Rheological aspects
↑ Juiciness
Phytosterols and Organogel Frankfurters 50% pork backfat ↓ SFA Moschakis et al., 2016
γ-oryzanol ↑ PUFA
↑ Product acceptability
Rusk and rapeseed oil Hydrogel U.K.-style sausages 100% pork backfat ↑ PUFA Eating quality attributes Asuming-Bediako et al., 2014
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio slightly affected
21
other work, substituting animal fat in U.K.-style sausages (2020) showed improvement in fatty acid profile, a 29%
with pre-emulsified sunflower oil reduced the SFA con- decrease in SFA content, and a 67% increase in PUFA
tent from 38% to 14% and increased the PUFA content level; besides, they showed improvement in the PUFA/SFA
from 15% to 25%, and it also enhanced the vital nutri- (from 0.64 to 1.48) and reduction in the ω-6/ω-3 (from 10.33
tional ratios, such as increased PUFA/SFA from 0.37 to 0.87 to 0.90) ratios, whereas the drying process was affected
and decreased ω-6/ω-3 from 10.53 to 3.39, compared with by the addition of oleogelator and the level of substitu-
sausages manufactured with regular fat emulsions with- tion, causing changes in the sensory and texture proper-
out compromising the sensory profile (Asuming-Bediako ties. In their previous study, they concluded that replac-
et al., 2014). Recently, Khalil and Ockerman (2020) devel- ing 50% pork backfat using pre-emulsified linseed oil with
oped a chicken luncheon using sunflower oil to replace beeswax significantly reduced SFA (35.95 to 32.34 g/100 g),
100% chicken fat. The authors found a significant decrease cholesterol (25.08 to 17.23 mg/100 g), and ω-6/ω-3 ratio
in SFA and cholesterol levels from 48.06% to 14.30% and (from 14.92 to 1.61); however, it negatively affected sensory
232.77 to 129 mg/g, respectively, and improved PUFA con- acceptability of frankfurters (Franco et al., 2019). Burg-
tent from 6.79% to 47.20% compared to the full-fat product. ers’ preparation using hydrogel emulsion leads to a 64%
Likewise, Shao et al. (2020) reduced animal fat in pork bat- reduction in SFA content and a 26% increase in PUFA
ters with organogels of sunflower and ethylcellulose. The level, but the prepared burgers showed increased hardness
reformulated batter had low SFA content and improved and chewiness values. Sensory analysis and acceptance
emulsion stability and lightness; however, textural param- scores showed that up to 60% of pork fat could be replaced
eters such as hardness, chewiness, springiness, and gum- easily to improve functional burgers’ fatty acid profile
miness were negatively affected. (Heck, Saldaña, et al., 2019). Pâté prepared with linseed oil,
beeswax-based organogels using curcumin as the antiox-
idant showed higher PUFA (w-3) content and improved
5.2.3 Linseed oil oxidative stability (Ramírez-Carrasco et al., 2020).
Using algal extracts with pre-emulsified linseed oil
Linseed oil contains around 40%–68% α-linolenic acid, (oleogel) in pork patties led to improved oxidative stabil-
an ω-3 fatty acid that may benefit the cardiovascular ity by lowering TBARS and carbonyl content but did not
system (Choo et al., 2007). As shown in Table 7, lin- recover color and odor characteristics during the storage
seed oil is a potential ingredient in the development of (Agregán et al., 2019). In another study, substituting 60%
functional foods to reduce the ω-6/ω-3 ratio (Symoniuk pork fat using linseed-based gel with beeswax leads to a
et al., 2017). Recently, Öztürk-Kerimoğlu, Kavuşan, et al. 55% and 90% reduction in SFA level and ω-6/ω-3 ratio,
(2021) developed fermented beef sausages with linseed respectively, and an increase in ω-3 PUFA content (from
oil emulsion. Beef fat substitution leads to an improved 1.43% to 33.8%) of the reformulated pâté samples. Con-
fatty acid profile by reducing SFA (from 46.6% to 23.5%) trarily, protein, ash, and moisture contents were decreased
and cholesterol (from 67.90 to 40.54 mg/100 g) levels. (Martins et al., 2020). Similarly, linseed oil gelled emul-
It also results in improved PUFA (from 4.7% to 25.4%) sions (inulin and gelatin as oleogelators) can potentially
content and nutritional ratios, that is, PUFA/SFA, ω-6/ω- improve emulsion stability, liquid fat separation, and water
3, atherogenicity, and thrombogenicity indexes. However, holding capacity while replacing 70% of animal fat in
TBARS values, color, and rancid flavor increased com- the formulation of healthy meat products (Öztürk, Urgu,
pared to sausages with beef fat. In another study, sheep et al., 2017). In fermented sausages, 64% of the animal fat
meat sausages reformulated with 40% pre-emulsified lin- was replaced with linseed oil–inulin gelled emulsion to
seed oil had higher water holding capacity, emulsion sta- make a favorable change in the proximate composition
bility, color values (a* and b*), ash content, and protein and the fatty acid profile, with reduced SFA (from 36.78 to
content (Lima et al., 2021). However, lipid oxidation and 33.98 g/100 g), increased PUFA (from 12.74 to 19.57 g/100 g),
shear force were increased after cooking. Câmara and Pol- and a low ω-6/ω-3 (from 11.36 to 2.23) ratio (Glisic, Baltic,
lonio (2015) improved the PUFA content and reduced the et al., 2019). Contrarily, the oxidative stability was reduced
fat content from 18.64% to 11.92% of bologna sausages by and the sausages reformulated with inulin gelled suspen-
incorporating linseed oil–sodium caseinate pre-emulsion sion without linseed oil showed the highest overall con-
as a partial pork fat replacer. They concluded that the addi- sumer acceptability.
tion of linseed oil should not be above 3.95% for the final After optimization of a linseed oil gelled O/W emulsions
product’s stability and acceptability. for technological attributes, the gelled emulsion system
In a study of dry-fermented sausages prepared with lin- was incorporated into bologna-type sausages for replace-
seed oil oleogels structured with a mixture of β-sitosterol, ment of 50% of the pork backfat, which led to 33% and
beeswax, and g-oryzanol to replace animal fat, Franco et al. 94% reductions in SFA and ω-6/ω-3 ratio, respectively, and
TA B L E 7 Use of linseed oil (rich in PUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
Combination Method of incorporation/ Animal fat Negative
Peanut oil Hydrogel Fermented beef 100% beef fat ↓ SFA ↑ TBARS values, Öztürk-Kerimoğlu, Kavuşan,
sausages ↑ MUFA and PUFA color, and et al., 2021
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio rancid flavor
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
↓ Cholesterol
↓ Thrombogenicity and
atherogenicity indexes
Cassava starch, soy Hydrogel Sheep meat sausages 40% pork fat ↑ Water holding capacity Lipid oxidation Lima et al., 2020
protein, and ↑ Emulsion stability and shear force
nutmeg ↑ Color values were increased
Sodium caseinate Hydrogel Bologna sausages 60% pork fat ↓ Fat content No change in the Câmara & Pollonio, 2015
↑ PUFA product’s
↓ Hardness stability up to
3.95% level of
linseed oil
β-sitosterol, beeswax, Oleogel Dry-fermented 40% pork backfat ↑ PUFA/SFA ratio Change in sensory Franco et al., 2020
and γ-oryzanol sausages ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio and color
parameters
Beeswax Oleogel Frankfurters 50% pork backfat ↓ SFA ↓ Sensory Franco et al., 2019
↓ Cholesterol acceptability
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Chia oil and Hydrogel Burgers 60% pork backfat ↓ SFA Higher levels of Heck, Saldaña, et al., 2019
carrageenan ↑ PUFA fat replacement
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio led to increased
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio chewiness and
hardness
Algal extracts Oleogel Pork patties 100% pork fat ↓ SFA Color and odor Agregán et al., 2019
↑ Oxidative stability affected during
↓ Lipid oxidation storage
(Continues)
23
24
Combination Method of incorporation/ Animal fat Negative
Beeswax Oleogel Meat-based pâté 60% pork fat ↓ SFA Decrease in Martins et al., 2020
↑ ω-3 PUFA protein, ash,
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio and moisture
↓ Hardness contents
Beeswax and Oleogel Pâté 100% ↑ PUFA ↓ Oxidative Ramírez-Carrasco et al., 2020
curcumin ↑ ω-3 FA stability
Inulin and gelatin Hydrogel Meat emulsions 70% beef fat ↑ Emulsion stability Öztürk et al., 2017a
↑ Liquid fat separation
Inulin Hydrogel Dry-fermented 64% pork backfat ↓ SFA ↓ Oxidative Glisic, Baltic, et al., 2019
sausages ↑ PUFA stability
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio ↓ Sensory
↑ Proximate composition acceptability
Carrageenan and Hydrogel Dry-fermented 39.5% pork backfat ↑ α-Linolenic acid Alejandre et al., 2016
butylated sausages ↑ ω-3 FA
hydroxyanisole ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Alginate Hydrogel Chicken sausages 50% chicken skin ↑ α-Linolenic acid Increased Stajić et al., 2018
↓ SFA chewiness and
↑ Nutritional value hardness
↓ Thrombogenicity and Color
atherogenicity indexes parameters also
affected
Carrageenan Hydrogel Bologna-type 50% pork backfat ↓ SFA Poyato et al., 2014
sausages ↑ PUFA
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
a 66% increase in PUFA level (Poyato et al., 2014). A syn- mal fat resulted in a 47% reduction of SFA (from 93.20 to
thetic antioxidant (butylated hydroxyanisole [BHA]) was 49.30 g/kg) and an 87% increase of PUFA content (from
added to prevent oxidation. Consistent with some previ- 42.97 to 80.37 g/kg) in the final product compared with the
ous studies (Afshari et al., 2017; Heck et al., 2019), hardness control. However, sensory and microbiological data were
increased during storage. However, odor, taste, and juici- negatively impacted by fat reduction. In a similar study,
ness were comparable to the control and the traditional the authors used soybean oil emulsion with chia flour in
emulsion-type product. A similar gelled emulsion system bologna sausages. Fat substitution leads to a significant
was incorporated into dry-fermented sausages to improve decrease in SFA (from 5.13 to 3.04 g/100 g) and the ω-
the α-linolenic acid content by replacing 39.5% of the pork 6/ω-3 ratio (from 18.98 to 6.61) and an enhancement in
fat. Reformulated sausages exhibited a 24% reduction in PUFA level (from 3.53 to 6.13 g/100 g) compared to the con-
SFA content and 10% increase in PUFA level; besides, these trol sausages (de Souza Paglarini, de Figueiredo Furtado,
ω-3-enriched sausages had 2.39 g ω-3/100 g of the final Honório, et al., 2019). Further studies by the same authors
product, and the ω-6/ω-3 ratio was 1.87, which is nutri- (de Souza Paglarini et al., 2018; de Souza Paglarini, Mar-
tionally favorable (Alejandre et al., 2016). Furthermore, no tini, & Pollonio, 2019) concluded that soybean oil emulsion
differences in taste and juiciness were detected compared gels are very effective as animal fat replacers in developing
to a traditional product. Again, BHA was added to pre- healthier meat products.
vent oxidation. A related study was carried out on chicken Zhu et al. (2021) recently used soybean oil with eggplant
frankfurters using pre-emulsified linseed oil and alginate powder to replace 50% pork backfat in sausages. The sub-
to improve nutritional value. The frankfurters were for- stitution significantly decreased total fat (17%) and choles-
mulated to provide 50%–100% of the recommended daily terol (23%) contents and increased moisture level, but neg-
intake of α-linolenic acid content. The results showed a sig- atively affected the textural and sensory attributes of the
nificant reduction in SFA content (from 48.28% to 32.52%), final product. Danyliv et al. (2021) also discussed the strate-
ω-6/ω-3 ratio (from 3.15 to 0.41), and thrombogenic (from gies to reduce fat content in ground meat products. The
1.22 to 0.28) and atherogenic (from 0.83 to 0.38) indexes. results indicated a significant reduction in SFA and an
Differences in hardness, color, chewiness, and cohesive- increase in omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9 contents using
ness with increasing fat replacement (100% linseed oil) soybean and corn oil in reformulated products. In meat
were insufficient to impair product acceptance during batter, the addition of aloe gel and pod fibers in a soybean
42 days of storage (Stajić et al., 2018). oil emulsion to replace 100% animal fat resulted in reduced
fat (from 12.19% to 7.24%), lower cooking loss, higher emul-
sion stability, and decreased hardness and oxidative stabil-
5.2.4 Soybean oil ity (Kumar et al., 2021). In their previous study, they found
that the rheological properties of soybean oil emulsions
Soybean oil is extracted from soybean (Glycine max) seeds. and aloe gel were effective as animal fat replacers (up to
China is the world’s leading producer of soybean oil with 50% fat reduction vs. full-fat control) in terms of emulsion
an annual production of 17.74 million metric tons, followed stability. Additionally, aloe gel’s use enhanced the oxida-
by the United States and Argentina with 11.54 and 7.72 mil- tive stability of reduced-fat meat products during refriger-
lion metric tons, respectively, during the year 2020–2021 ated storage for 8 days (Kumar et al., 2017).
(Statista, 2021). The oil is rich in essential fatty acids, such Complementary results can be found in Cheetangdee
as ω-3 and ω-6 PUFA, as well as antioxidants, including (2017) concerning the partial replacement of pork back-
tocopherols, flavonoids, and sterols (Fernandes & Draghi, fat with pre-emulsified soybean oil. The author concluded
2016). Several approaches to use soybean oil as a fat that substitution of pork fat with soybean oil emulsion
replacer in different types of meat products have emerged enhanced the product stability of sausages, but that replac-
in recent literature (Table 8). A series of studies conducted ing soybean protein isolate with fish protein isolate as the
by de Souza Paglarini and colleagues (de Souza Paglarini emulsifier could reinforce the protein matrix, decreasing
et al. 2018, 2021; de Souza Paglarini, de Figueiredo Fur- the cooking loss and improving the texture profile with
tado, Honório, et al., 2019; de Souza Paglarini, Martini, & increasing fat substitution (25%, 35%, and 45%). In contrast,
Pollonio, 2019) showed an improved fatty acid profile of Ferrer-González et al. (2019) showed that using soybean
meat products using soybean oil as an animal fat replacer. oil oleogels as a fat replacer maintained the same over-
In a most recent study, bologna sausages elaborated with all fat content (crude fat) and, thus, the caloric content of
an inulin-based soybean oil gelled emulsion as a pork fat the control sample. However, the lipid profile improved
replacer presented an improved fatty acid profile because because of the increased PUFA level from 2.77% to 6.61%
of reduced SFA and improved unsaturated fatty acid lev- and PUFA/SFA ratio from 0.62 to 2.42. Wolfer et al. (2018)
els (de Souza Paglarini et al., 2021). Replacing 100% ani- demonstrated the potential of soybean oil–rice bran wax
26
TA B L E 8 Use of soybean oil (rich in PUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
Method of
Combination incorporation/emulsion Animal fat
constituents type Meat product substitution% Beneficial effects Negative effectsobserved References
Inulin/carrageenan Hydrogel Bologna 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA Sensory and microbiological de Souza Paglarini et al., 2018,
sausages ↑ PUFA data affected 2021; de Souza Paglarini,
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio Martini, et al., 2019
↑ Fiber content
Chia flour, Hydrogel Bologna 100% pork backfat ↓ Lipids de Souza Paglarini, de
soy protein isolate, and sausages ↓ Energy value Figueiredo Furtado, et al.,
sodium caseinate ↓ SFA 2019
↑ ω-3 PUFA
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Eggplant powder Hydrogel Pork sausages 50% pork backfat ↓ Fat Textural and sensory Zhu et al., 2021
↓ Cholesterol attributes affected
Aloe gel and pod fibers Hydrogel Meat batter 100% animal fat ↓ Fat ↑ Hardness Kumar et al., 2021
↓ Cooking loss ↓ Oxidative stability
Aloe gel Hydrogel Meat emulsions 50% animal Fat ↑ Rheological properties Hardness and springiness Kumar et al., 2017
↑ Oxidative stability values were affected
Pumpkin seed paste Oleogel Meat batters 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA Color parameters were Ferrer-González et al., 2019
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio affected
Rice bran wax Oleogel Frankfurters 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA Flavor and oxidative stability Wolfer et al., 2018
↑ Technological properties were decreased
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Rice bran wax Oleogel Bologna 41.9 % pork backfat ↓ TBARS values Tarté et al., 2020
sausages ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
↓ SFA
↑ PUFA
Fish protein isolate Hydrogel Pork sausages 45% pork backfat ↑ Oxidative stability Reduced emulsion stability Cheetangdee, 2017
↑ Soft texture
↓ Cooking loss
oleogels as animal fat replacers in comminuted meat prod-
Karabıyıkoğlu, Tepe
Ferrer-González et al.,
ucts to reduce the ω-6/ω-3 ratio from 22.85 to 6.48 without
Serdaroğlu, Nacak,
influencing technological properties, such as chewiness,
Uzlaşır et al., 2020
Vieira et al., 2019

firmness, and springiness. Frankfurter aroma was also not
et al., 2017
References
affected by replacing pork fat, but the color was lighter and
less red, and both cured frankfurter flavor and the oxida-
2019
tive stability were notably decreased. Contrarily, Tarté et al.
(2020) observed intense color (redder, darker, and more
TBARS value was markedly

saturated) in bologna sausages prepared by replacing 41.9
Negative effectsobserved
higher than the control

% pork fat with soybean oil–rice bran wax oleogels. In the
Color parameters and

↓ Sensory acceptance
reformulated sausages, the ω-6/ω-3 ratio decreased from
texture affected
13.33 to 7.31; besides, TBARS values were lower through-
↑ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
out the storage (98 days) period.
5.2.5 Pumpkin seed oil
Pumpkin is one of the most common vegetables consumed

worldwide. It has been recently recognized as a func-
↓ Total fat and energy values

tional food due to its bioactive compounds with essential
↓ Total fat and calories

nutraceutical characteristics (Aljahani & Cheikhousman,
atherogenic index
Beneficial effects
2017). Pumpkin seed oil showed health benefits against
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio
Use of pumpkin seed oil (rich in PUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
↑ Cooking yield
several diseases such as cancer, hypertension, and diabetes
↑ Soft texture
↑ Lightness
(Montesano et al., 2018); besides, it is a rich source of
↑ Viscosity
↓ Total fat
↑ PUFA
PUFA, mainly linoleic acid (Bardaa et al., 2016; Vujasinovic
et at., 2010). As shown in Table 9, it has also been found
that using pumpkin seed oil as a fat replacer has profound
effects on emulsion batter characteristics in bologna-type
100% pork backfat

sausages (Uzlaşır et al., 2020). For instance, water hold-
substitution%
ing capacity, jelly-fat separation, and viscosity increased

Animal fat
60% beef fat

30% beef fat
50% beef fat

with an increase in pumpkin seed oil, and emulsion sta-
bility decreased. Although the reformulated sausages were
softer, they were also lighter in color and less red than
those produced with beef fat. Furthermore, the TBARS
Chicken meat
emulsions
Meat batters
meatballs
value was markedly higher than the control sausages dur-

sausages
product
ing storage but remained below the acceptable threshold.

Bologna
Meat
In another study, pumpkin seed kernel flour was used as

Beef
a fat replacer in beef meatballs (Öztürk & Turhan, 2020),

which improved the cooking yield and fatty acid profile
incorporation/emulsion
by reducing SFA level (21%) and thrombogenic (40%) and

atherogenic (35%) indexes and enhancing PUFA level by
296%. The final product had a lower energy value and over-
all fat content (by about 9%–27%). Contrarily, the use of
Direct mixing
Method of
pumpkin seed kernel flour negatively influenced the color

Hydrogel
Hydrogel
Oleogel
values (redness), ω-6/ω-3 ratio, and sensory scores of beef

type
meatballs. Other researchers decreased the crude fat (from

13.28% to 8.28%) and SFA (from 4.63% to 2.46%) levels, low-
Pumpkin seed flour
ered the caloric content, and increased the PUFA content

polyphosphates
of meat batters with the use of pumpkin seed paste as an

Combination
constituents
Soybean oil
animal fat replacer (Ferrer-González et al., 2019). However,

Starch and
TA B L E 9
the color parameters (darker, less red, more yellow) were

also altered, and a harder and tougher texture was obtained
compared with the control samples. Similarly, Serdaroğlu,
Nacak, Karabıyıkoğlu, Tepe, et al. (2017) replaced 50% beef capacity and reduced liquid release without affecting pH
fat using pre-emulsified pumpkin seed oil in chicken meat and color attributes (Câmara, Okuro, Santos, et al., 2020).
emulsions. The authors found significant improvement in Likewise, they also evaluated the rheological attributes of
cooking yield and oxidative stability of the reformulated chia mucilage emulsions by replacing 50% pork backfat in
emulsion than control as well as a 20% decrease in fat con- emulsified meat products. Chia mucilage showed excellent
tent. ability to substitute SFA in emulsified meat model systems,
and mechanical attributes are resistant to heat treatment.
However, a significant increase in hardness was observed
5.2.6 Chia oil that could be overcome by changing concentrations of
the formulation (Câmara, Okuro, da Cunha, et al., 2020).
Chia belongs to Labiatae, a seed-producing annual herb Interestingly, Câmara, Geraldi, et al. (2020) also discussed
family, which contains up to 68% α-linolenic acid, the high- the effects of 100% pork backfat replacement in bologna
est amount in any plant-based source. Chia seeds gain sausages using chia mucilage emulsion gel on appetite sen-
popularity due to their high content of α-linolenic acid sations. The results showed similar appetite sensations for
and beneficial effects on human health (Coates, 2011). reformulated bologna sausages; moreover, chia mucilage
Chia seeds showed antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti- can affect protein digestibility, leading to enhanced reten-
cancer effects and are rich in polyphenols and fiber con- tion time inside the stomach.
tents (Antonini et al., 2020). Chia oil can be an excellent Similar work was also carried out by Lucas-González
option to substitute animal fat in processed meat products. et al. (2020) using chia oil emulsions combined with chest-
Several studies have been published exploring the bene- nut flour to substitute pork fat (29%) in burgers. The
ficial effects of chia oil as an animal fat replacer in meat authors found that pork fat substitution led to improved
products (Table 10). Recently, Rabadán et al. (2021) devel- fatty acid profile and cooking characteristics without
oped lamb burgers by replacing 100% lamb fat with chia affecting physicochemical attributes; however, it nega-
flour and pistachio, walnut, and poppy oils. They found tively affected the oxidative stability of the final product.
that reformulated burgers had reduced crude fat content There was a 53% reduction in SFA content, 168% enhance-
(from 10.82 to 8.57 g/100 g), decreased hardness, low calo- ment in the PUFA level, and a significant decrease (from
ries, and carbohydrate level; however, chia flour led to the 22.96 to 2.77) in the ω-6/ω-3 ratio of the reformulated burg-
darker color of burgers. Conceptually similar work carried ers. Barros et al. (2018, 2019) evaluated the use of chia
out by de Carvalho, Munekata, Pateiro, et al. (2020) com- flour to substitute chicken fat (skin) in chicken nuggets.
pared chia oil, linseed oil, and olive oil to replace 100% pork Their earlier study recommended the substitution (20%) of
backfat in lamb sausages. The overall SFA level decreased chicken fat (skin) with chia flour to reformulate chicken
from 39.33% to 31.44%, PUFA level increased from 16.31% nuggets for the improved fatty acid profile. The product
to 35.54%, and the ω-6/ω-3 ratio was reduced from 19.38 to showed an increase in PUFA content up to 50.84% com-
0.86. However, protein oxidation and hardness increased in pared with control 22.44%—particularly α-linolenic acid
the reformulated product. In an earlier study, they replaced increased up to 32.16% than control 0.89%, whereas the
animal fat (100%) with chia oil using pitanga leaf and SFA content and ω-6/ω-3 ratio reduced from 36.22% to
guarana seed extracts as antioxidants in lamb burgers. Chia 25.44% and 24.2:1 to 0.3:1, respectively. Contrarily, objective
oil combined with natural antioxidants improved fatty acid color and texture were negatively affected in the final prod-
profile and protected the burgers against lipid and protein uct (Barros et al., 2018). Similarly, they also replaced 50%
oxidation during storage time (de Carvalho et al., 2019). chicken fat (skin) using chia flour and NaCl with CaCl2 .
Similarly, Câmara and colleagues (Câmara, Geraldi, Chicken nuggets formulated with chia flour presented a
et al. 2020; Câmara, Okuro, da Cunha, et al., 2020; Câmara, higher level of α-linolenic acid and increased protein con-
Okuro, Santos, et al., 2020; Câmara, Vidal, et al., 2020) dis- tent, but the sensory acceptance was also affected (Barros
cussed the promising strategies for pork backfat replace- et al., 2019).
ments with chia gels. In bologna sausages, the addi- Herrero et al. (2017) investigated the pork backfat sub-
tion of 2% chia gel by replacing 50% pork backfat and stitution with chia flour and olive oil using infrared spec-
100% phosphate was an effective strategy in achieving the troscopy in low-fat frankfurters. The addition of chia flour
best emulsion stability with reduced fat percent (from improved protein and ash content; however, it caused dis-
16.78% to 10.48%), but color characteristics were nega- order in the lipid acyl chain, leading to more lipid–protein
tively affected (Câmara, Vidal, et al., 2020). The authors interactions, ultimately affecting the final product’s tech-
also developed low-fat emulsified meat products with chia nological properties. Pintado et al. (2018) replaced pork
mucilage and olive oil emulsions to replace 100% pork backfat (up to 85%) with chia and oats emulsions in fresh
backfat. Chia mucilage displayed excellent emulsifying sausages. The reformulated sausages had reduced total
TA B L E 1 0 Use of chia oil (rich in PUFA) to substitute animal fat in different types of meat products
Method of
incorpora-
Combination tion/emulsion Animal fat
Pistachio, walnut, and Direct mixing Lamb burgers 100% lamb fat ↓ Crude fat content Increased darker color of Rabadán et al., 2021
poppy oils ↓ Hardness burgers
↓ Calories and carbohydrates
Sodium caseinate Oleogel Lamb sausages 100% pork fat ↓ SFA content Taste, texture, and protein de Carvalho, Munekata,
oxidation were negatively et al., 2020
↑ PUFA
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio affected
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Pitanga leaf and guarana Prosella gel Lamb burgers 100% animal fat ↓ Crude content No negative effects de Carvalho et al., 2019
seed extracts ↓ Lipid oxidation
↓ Protein oxidation
Chia mucilage powder Hydrogel Bologna 50% pork backfat ↓ SFA content Color parameters affected Câmara, Vidal, et al., 2020;
sausages/meat ↑ Emulsion stability Câmara, Okuro, da
model system ↓ Hardness Cunha, et al., 2020
Collagen, carrageenan, Hydrogel Emulsified meat 100% pork backfat ↓ Fat content No negative effects Câmara, Okuro, Santos,
and whey protein products ↑ Emulsion stability et al., 2020
↓ Liquid release
Chestnut flour Hydrogel Pork burgers 29% pork fat ↓ SFA content No negative effects Lucas-González et al., 2020
↑ PUFA
↑ Cooking characteristics
↓ Hardness and chewiness
NaCl and CaCl2 Direct mixing Chicken nuggets 20% and 50% ↓ SFA content Objective color and texture Barros et al., 2018, 2019
chicken skin ↑ PUFA were affected
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio
Alginate and olive oil Hydrogel or direct Frankfurters 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA content Technological properties were Herrero et al., 2017
mixing ↑ Protein affected
Alaginate and olive oil Hydrogel Fresh sausages 85% pork backfat ↓ SFA content Shear force values and Pintado et al., 2018
↑ ω-3 FA content microbial count were
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio negatively affected
↑ Calcium and magnesium
levels
(Continues)
29
30
TA B L E 1 0 (Continued)
Method of
incorpora-
Combination tion/emulsion Animal fat
Alaginate, Hydrogel Frankfurters 100% pork backfat ↓ SFA content Color parameters were Pintado, Herrero,
transglutaminase, and ↑ ω-3 PUFA affected Jiménez-Colmenero,
gelatin ↑ Minerals et al., 2016; Pintado,
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio Herrero, Ruiz-Capillas,
↓ Energy values et al., 2016
Potato starch Hydrogel Frankfurters Pork fat ↑ Nutritional profile Sensory attributes were Fernández-López et al., 2019
↑ Oxidative stability affected
Cassava starch and Hydrogel Bologna sausages 100% pork fat ↓ SFA content Sensory attributes and Pires et al., 2020
echium oil ↑ ω-3 PUFA lightness values were
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio significantly affected
atherogenic indices
Goji puree and vegetable Direct mixing Beef burgers 100% beef fat ↓ SFA content No negative effects Antonini et al., 2020
dietary fiber ↑ PUFA
Spices Direct mixing Chicken burgers 44% pork backfat ↓ SFA content Sensory attributes and Paula et al., 2019
↑ Dietary fibers acceptance scores were
↓ Lipid oxidation affected
Carrageenan Direct mixing Restructured 100% pork backfat ↑ Improved emulsification, No negative effects Ding et al., 2018
ham-like ↑ Oxidative stability
products ↓ Purge loss
↑ Improved texture
↑ Improved fatty acid profile
Carrageenan/rosemary Hydrogel Burgers 60% and 50% pork ↓ Crude fat and SFA contents Higher levels of fat Heck, Fagundes, et al., 2019;
leaves extracts backfat ↑ PUFA replacement led to Heck, Saldaña, et al., 2019
↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio increased chewiness and
↑ PUFA/SFA ratio hardness
Linseed oil Microparticles Beef burgers 50% pork backfat ↑ ω-3 PUFA Sensory attributes and Heck et al., 2017, 2018
method ↓ ω-6/ω-3 ratio oxidative stability were
↑ Improved thrombogenic and negatively affected
atherogenic indices
fat percent (from 29.87% to 11.36%), energy content (from protein oxidation, purge loss, and texture and improved
324.95 to 160.02 kcal/100 g), and ω-6/ω-3 ratio (from 17.04 fatty acid profile without affecting overall acceptance of the
to 1.21) and higher α-linolenic acid content (from 0.13 to product.
1.08 g/100 g), PUFA/SFA ratio (from 0.20 to 0.80), and Heck and colleagues (Heck et al., 2017, 2018; Heck, Sal-
calcium and magnesium levels; however, shear force val- daña, et al., 2019; Heck, Fagundes, et al., 2019) also dis-
ues and microbial count were significantly affected. Sim- cussed the possible approaches for substituting pork back
ilar findings were witnessed in their previous study; the with chia oil. In beef burgers, the use of pre-emulsified
authors concluded that chia and olive oil could effectively chia and linseed oil improved the PUFA/SFA ratio and ω-
substitute pork backfat (100%) by reducing fat (by 44%) 6/ω-3 ratio without affecting technological properties. In
and energy content (26%) in frankfurters. Moreover, chia contrast, hardness, chewiness, color attributes, and TBARS
and olive oil improved linolenic acid and minerals contents values were negatively affected by increasing fat replace-
and reduced purge loss without compromising sensory ment (above 60%) levels (Heck, Saldaña, et al., 2019). The
attributes; however, color parameters, that is, lightness authors also conferred sensory profile and volatile com-
and redness, were affected in the final product (Pintado, pounds in burgers by substituting 50% pork fat with chia
Herrero, Jiménez-Colmenero, et al., 2016). The authors oil and rosemary leaves extracts. The reformulated burg-
included cold gelling agents (i.e., alginate, transglutami- ers showed reduced volatile compounds’ production due
nase, or gelatin) in chia oil emulsions. The frankfurters had to lipid and protein oxidation, and an increase in terpenes
good water and fat binding ability and improved oxidative resulted in a pleasant aroma (Heck, Fagundes, et al., 2019).
stability with lower SFA (by 76%) and higher ω-3 PUFA In their previous work, Heck et al. (2017) indicated the
(from 0.09 to 1.00 g/100 g) contents. In contrast to their pork backfat substitution (50%) with chia and linseed oil
previous study, frankfurters showed reduced lightness and microparticles in beef burgers as a promising approach to
redness and higher yellowness values (Pintado, Herrero, improve PUFA/SFA ratio up to 90% and to reduce throm-
Ruiz-Capillas, et al., 2016). bogenicity and atherogenicity indices up to 14.7% and
Fernández-López et al. (2019) concluded that partial 18.5%, respectively. Also, the reformulated burgers showed
pork fat substation with chia products (seeds, oil, and a healthy ω-6/ω-3 ratio and improved cooking yield and
flour) in frankfurters improved the nutritional profile fat retention; nevertheless, sensory attributes and oxidative
without affecting technological attributes. The final prod- stability were negatively affected. Furthermore, Heck et al.
uct showed better resistance to lipid oxidation; however, (2018) studied the oxidative stability of reformulated beef
negative sensory attributes were observed. Similarly, Pires burgers developed by replacing 50% pork backfat with chia
et al. (2020) improved the fatty acid profile of bologna oil. The authors highlighted that animal fat substitution
sausages using chia and echium oil to replace 100% pork reduced SFA content but showed higher TBARS values
fat. The results indicated an improvement in lipid pro- and affected sensory scores. The authors recommended
file by increasing PUFA (omega-3) content (from 0.85 to that by using rosemary extract, oxidative stability could be
40.98 g/100 g) and reducing the ω-6/ω-3 ratio from 12.12 enhanced.
to 0.61, as well as improved thrombogenic and atherogenic
indices; however, sensory attributes and lightness values
were significantly affected due to animal fat substitution. 6 CONCLUSIONS
Antonini et al. (2020) also investigated the addition of
chia seeds and goji puree in beef burgers. The results Meat and meat products are an excellent source of pro-
showed a two to three times increase in PUFA con- teins with high biological value. However, animal fat con-
tent, up to 70% increase in antioxidant abilities, and up tains a relatively high quantity of SFA, and high intakes of
to 50% decrease in polyphenols and TBARS values in SFA are linked with cardiovascular diseases. Both hydro-
reformulated cooked burgers. Paula et al. (2019) man- gel and organogels emulsions can be efficiently used to
ufactured chicken burgers using chia seed (up to 8%) substitute animal fat using plant-based oils. Various plant-
by replacing pork backfat. The results indicated a 29% based oils (canola oil, olive oil, tiger nut oil, grapeseed oil,
reduction in SFA content and a 1.46% increase in dietary sunflower oil, linseed oil, soybean oil, pumpkin seed oil,
fiber using higher concentrations of chia seeds. Further- and chia oil) can be used in the reformulation to improve
more, the reformulation resulted in reduced lipid oxida- the fatty acid profile. One promising strategy could be
tion, improved color parameters, and crispy burger grain using hydrogel emulsions because of some advantages over
texture, significantly affecting sensory acceptance. Like- organogels. Hydrogelled emulsions can be used effectively
wise, Ding et al. (2018) used chia seeds and carrageenan to to incorporate both hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants
develop low-fat restructured ham-like products. They indi- to promote oxidative stability as the oil content is gener-
cated an overall improvement in emulsification, lipid and ally ≤50% of the total gel. Also, these emulsions are more
stable because the gel-like properties of the continuous Nutrition, 47, 41–44. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mpg.0000338811.
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J. M. (2019). Fucus vesiculosus extracts as natural antioxidants for
170◦ C) to melt organogelators that may lead to enhanced
improvement of physicochemical properties and shelf life of pork
lipid oxidation; besides higher concentrations of the struc- patties formulated with oleogels. Journal of the Science of Food
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Emulsion gels provide a simple, cost-effective approach Al-Bachir, M., & Sahloul, H. (2017). Fatty acid profile of olive oil
to develop healthier meat products, such as meat batters, extracted from irradiated and non-irradiated olive fruits. Interna-
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and meat pâtés. However, this fat replacement can com-
Alejandre, M., Astiasarán, I., Ansorena, D., & Barbut, S. (2019).
promise quality, including technological and sensory prop- Using canola oil hydrogels and organogels to reduce saturated ani-
erties. Optimization of the product reformulation process mal fat in meat batters. Food Research International, 122, 129–136.
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the animal fat substitution percentage; (2) the type of prod- Alejandre, M., Poyato, C., Ansorena, D., & Astiasarán, I. (2016). Lin-
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an appropriate oil selection for improvement of the fatty mented sausages. Meat Science, 121, 107–113. https://doi.org/10.
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AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S tional juice. Nutrition & Food Science. https://doi.org/10.1108/
This research was funded by the major science and tech- NFS-07-2016-0109
nology projects in Heilongjiang province (2020ZX07B72, Álvarez, D., & Barbut, S. (2013). Effect of inulin, β-glucan and their
2019ZX07B03). We would also like to thank Dr. Fangda Sun mixtures on emulsion stability, color and textural parameters of
for the great assistance and valued suggestions in the revi- cooked meat batters. Meat Science, 94(3), 320–327. https://doi.org/
sion stage that greatly improved the manuscript. 10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.02.011
Andre, C., Buesen, R., Riffle, B., Wandelt, C., Sottosanto, J. B.,
Marxfeld, H., Strauss, V., van Ravenzwaay, B., & Lipscomb, E. A.
AU T H O R CO N T R I B U T I O N S
(2019). Safety assessment of EPA+ DHA canola oil by fatty acid
Iftikhar Badar: Data curation; Investigation; Writing-
profile comparison to various edible oils and fat-containing foods
original draft; Writing-review & editing. Haotian Liu: Con- and a 28-day repeated dose toxicity study in rats. Food and Chemi-
ceptualization; Software; Validation. Qian Chen: Concep- cal Toxicology, 124, 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2018.11.042
tualization; Formal analysis; Supervision. Xiufang Xia: Antonini, E., Torri, L., Piochi, M., Cabrino, G., Meli, M. A., & De
Conceptualization; Formal analysis; Project administra- Bellis, R. (2020). Nutritional, antioxidant and sensory properties
tion. Baohua Kong: Conceptualization; Project administra- of functional beef burgers formulated with chia seeds and goji
tion; Resources; Supervision. puree, before and after in vitro digestion. Meat Science, 161, 108021.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2019.108021
Astrup, A., Bertram, H. C., Bonjour, J. P., De Groot, L. C., de Oliveira
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Otto, M. C., Feeney, E. L., Garg, M. L., Givens, I., Kok, F. J.,
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Krauss, R. M., Lamarche, B., Lecerf, J. M., Legrand, P., McKinley,
M., Micha, R., Michalski, M. C., & Soedamah-Muthu, S. S. (2019).
ORCID WHO draft guidelines on dietary saturated and trans fatty acids:
Baohua Kong https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6417-6836 Time for a new approach? BMJ, 366, l4137. https://doi.org/10.1136/
bmj.l4137
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Received: 13 February 2021 Revised: 3 June 2021 Accepted: 29 June 2021

COMPREH ENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

Future trends of processed meat products concerning

1College of Food Science, Northeast

1 INTRODUCTION in the diet, and, consequently, even if misguidedly, meat

C18:3n-6 0.26 0.04 0.33 0.03 – 0.41 – – 0.26 0.26 –

↑ α-linolenic acid ↑ Hardness

oleogels as animal fat replacers in comminuted meat prod-

Uzlaşır et al., 2020

Vieira et al., 2019

TBARS value was markedly

higher than the control

Color parameters and

5.2.5 Pumpkin seed oil

Pumpkin is one of the most common vegetables consumed

↑ Improved thrombogenic and

↓ Total fat and energy values

↑ Water holding capacity

↓ Total fat and calories

100% pork backfat

ing capacity, jelly-fat separation, and viscosity increased

60% beef fat

50% beef fat

value was markedly higher than the control sausages dur-

ing storage but remained below the acceptable threshold.

In another study, pumpkin seed kernel flour was used as

a fat replacer in beef meatballs (Öztürk & Turhan, 2020),

by reducing SFA level (21%) and thrombogenic (40%) and

pumpkin seed kernel flour negatively influenced the color

values (redness), ω-6/ω-3 ratio, and sensory scores of beef

meatballs. Other researchers decreased the crude fat (from

ered the caloric content, and increased the PUFA content

of meat batters with the use of pumpkin seed paste as an

animal fat replacer (Ferrer-González et al., 2019). However,

the color parameters (darker, less red, more yellow) were

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