1.

Classify phase diagram in metallic engineering

1. Unary Phase Diagrams

● Single Component Systems:

○ These diagrams represent the phase behavior of a single element.
○ Example: The iron (Fe) phase diagram, showing phases like ferrite (α), austenite
(γ), and delta ferrite (δ) as functions of temperature.

2. Binary Phase Diagrams

● Two Component Systems:

○ These diagrams show the phase relationships between two elements over a
range of compositions.
○ Types include:
■ Isomorphous System: Complete solubility in both liquid and solid states.
■ Example: Copper-nickel (Cu-Ni) system.
■ Eutectic System: Limited solubility in the solid state, leading to a eutectic
point where liquid transforms into two solid phases.
■ Example: Lead-tin (Pb-Sn) system.
■ Peritectic System: A solid phase and liquid phase transform into a
different solid phase upon cooling.
■ Example: Iron-carbon (Fe-C) system.
■ Eutectoid and Peritectoid Reactions: Similar to eutectic and peritectic
but occur in the solid state.
■ Example: Fe-C system with eutectoid reaction (austenite to ferrite
and cementite).

3. Ternary Phase Diagrams

● Three Component Systems:

○ These diagrams show phase relationships between three components, often
represented in a triangular diagram.
○ Example: Ternary systems like Al-Cu-Mg used in aluminum alloys.

Important Features of Phase Diagrams:

1. Phases: Different regions in the diagram representing solid, liquid, and mixed phases.
2. Solubility Limits: Boundaries indicating the extent of solubility of one element in
another.
3. Phase Boundaries: Lines indicating the conditions under which phases coexist in
equilibrium.
4. Critical Points:
 ○ Eutectic Point: Where liquid transforms into two solid phases.
○ Peritectic Point: Where a liquid and one solid phase transform into another solid
phase.
○ Eutectoid Point: Solid phase transforms into two different solid phases.
○ Peritectoid Point: Two solid phases transform into a different solid phase.

Example: Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) Phase Diagram

● Phases:
○ Ferrite (α): BCC structure, soft and ductile.
○ Austenite (γ): FCC structure, can dissolve more carbon.
○ Cementite (Fe₃C): Hard and brittle compound.
○ Pearlite: A mixture of ferrite and cementite.
○ Ledeburite: Mixture of austenite and cementite at high carbon contents.
● Critical Points:
○ Eutectoid Point (727°C, 0.76% C): Austenite transforms to pearlite.
○ Eutectic Point (1147°C, 4.3% C): Liquid transforms to austenite and cementite.

Usage in Engineering:

● Material Selection: Understanding phase stability and properties.

● Heat Treatment: Designing processes like annealing, quenching, and tempering.
● Alloy Design: Developing new alloys with desired properties.

2. Define phase rules in metallic materials engineering

1. Unary System (Single Component):

○ Example: Pure Iron (Fe)

○
 ○
2. Binary System (Two Components):

Importance:

● Equilibrium Conditions: Predicts number of phases present under given conditions.

● Alloy Design: Helps in creating alloys with desired properties.
● Heat Treatment: Guides the design of processes by understanding phase
transformations.
● Material Selection: Ensures optimal performance by selecting appropriate phase
compositions.

Feel free to ask more questions or for further clarification on specific topics!

5. draw and label the Iron-Iron carbide diagram

6. I) Define eutectic in metallic materials engineering
A eutectic reaction in metallic materials engineering is a type of phase transformation where a
liquid phase simultaneously transforms into two distinct solid phases at a specific composition
and temperature.

Eutectic alloys have lower melting points compared to their individual components.
III) Define Peritectic in metallic materials engineering
A peritectic reaction in metallic materials engineering is a type of phase transformation where a
liquid phase and one solid phase combine to form a second solid phase upon cooling at a
specific composition and temperature.

II) Define eutectoid in metallic materials engineering

A eutectoid reaction in metallic materials engineering is a type of phase transformation

where one solid phase transforms into two different solid phases simultaneously at a
specific composition and temperature.

IV) Define Peritectoid in metallic materials engineering

A peritectoid reaction in metallic materials engineering is a type of phase transformation

where two solid phases combine to form a single new solid phase at a specific
composition and temperature.
7. classify heat treatment process in metallic materials engineering

Annealing
Annealing involves heating the steel to a suitable temperature.
Holding it at that temperature for some time. Then cooling it slowly.
There are different methods of cooling.
The main purpose of Annealing is to reduce the hardness of a
material.
Besides this, it is also used –
-To relieve the internal stress of a material
-To restore ductility to perform the further operation on the material
-To induce softness

Normalizing
Heat the steel from 30℃ to 50℃ above its upper critical temperature.
Hold it for about fifteen minutes, and then be allowed to cool down in
still air.
The homogeneous structure provides a higher yield point, ultimate
tensile strength, and impact strength with lower ductility to steel.
Main objective
-Refine grain, improve machinability, tensile strength, and structure of
weld.
-Remove cold worked stress.
-Remove dislocations due to hot working.

Quenching
Quenching mainly involves the rapid cooling of a metal to adjust the
mechanical properties of its original state. It heats the steel to 30 – 50°
above the critical range. Then the steel is rapidly cooled through a
cooling medium. The coolness from the quenching process is
distributed throughout the thickness of the material.Hardening
increase the brittleness in the metal.

Tempering
Tempering is a heat-treatment process consisting of reheating the
hardened steel to a temperature below 400℃, then cooling.
Tempering can reduce the hardness of a hardened alloy.

8. I) Describe Annealing

Definition: Annealing is a heat treatment process used to soften materials, improve

ductility, relieve internal stresses, and refine grain structure.

Reduces hardness, making the material easier to machine or form.

Types of Annealing:

● Full Annealing: Heating above the critical temperature and slow cooling.
● Process Annealing: Heating below the critical temperature to relieve stress.
● Spheroidizing: Producing spherical carbides for improved machinability.
● Stress Relief Annealing: Heating below the critical temperature to remove
internal stresses without altering the structure.

II) Describe Normalizing

Normalizing is a heat treatment process used to make a metal more uniform in structure
and properties. It involves heating the material above its critical temperature and then
cooling it in air.

9. Classify cast Iron in metallic materials engineering

Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon (typically 2-4%), and silicon (1-3%). It is classified
based on its microstructure and mechanical properties.

1. Gray Cast Iron

● Microstructure: Graphite flakes in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.

● Properties: Good machinability, high vibration damping, poor tensile strength.
● Applications: Engine blocks, machine bases, pipes.

2. White Cast Iron

● Microstructure: Cementite (iron carbide) with a pearlitic or ledeburitic matrix.

● Properties: Hard and brittle, wear-resistant.
● Applications: Abrasion-resistant surfaces, mill linings, crushers.

3. Ductile (Nodular) Cast Iron

● Microstructure: Spheroidal graphite nodules in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.

● Properties: High ductility, good tensile strength, impact resistance.
● Applications: Automotive components, pipes, gears, and crankshafts.

4. Malleable Cast Iron

● Microstructure: Tempered carbon (graphite clusters) in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.

● Properties: Good ductility, machinability, shock resistance.
● Applications: Pipe fittings, brackets, farm equipment.

5. Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI)

● Microstructure: Compacted (vermicular) graphite in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.

● Properties: Intermediate properties between gray and ductile iron; better strength
and thermal conductivity than gray iron.
● Applications: Diesel engine blocks, exhaust manifolds, brake components.
10. I) define W.C.I in metallic materials engineering

White cast iron is a type of cast iron characterized by its microstructure, which consists
primarily of cementite (iron carbide) in a pearlitic or ledeburitic matrix. It is known for its
hardness and brittleness, making it highly resistant to wear and abrasion.
define Gray C.I in metallic materials engineering

Gray cast iron, often referred to simply as gray iron (G.C.I.), is a type of cast iron
characterized by its microstructure, which primarily consists of graphite flakes dispersed
in a matrix of ferrite and pearlite.

define Noduler C.I in metallic materials engineering

Nodular cast iron, also known as ductile cast iron or nodular iron, is a type of cast iron
characterized by the presence of graphite nodules (spheroidal graphite) dispersed in a
matrix of ferrite, pearlite, or both.

Define Malleable Cast Iron in metallic materials engineerin

Malleable cast iron is a type of cast iron that undergoes a heat treatment process called
malleablizing, which converts the brittle cast iron into a more ductile and workable
material. This process involves controlled heat treatment after casting.

Classify alloying elements in metallic materials engineering

I. Austenite Stabilizing Elements:

● Nickel (Ni)
● Manganese (Mn)
● Cobalt (Co)

II. Ferrite Stabilizing Elements:

● Aluminum (Al)
● Chromium (Cr)
● Silicon (Si)
● Molybdenum (Mo)
● Tungsten (W)
● Phosphorus (P)

III. Carbide Forming Elements:

● Manganese (Mn)
● Chromium (Cr)
● Molybdenum (Mo)
● Vanadium (V)

IV. Carbide Graphitizing Elements:

 ● Silicon (Si)
● Cobalt (Co)
● Aluminum (Al)
● Nickel (Ni)

A) purpose of alloying in metallic materials engineering

Enhanced Properties: By combining different metals or adding elements to a base

metal, alloying can improve mechanical properties such as strength, hardness,
toughness, and ductility. For example, adding carbon to iron creates steel, which is
stronger and more durable than pure iron.

Customization: Alloying allows engineers to tailor materials to specific applications.

Different alloys can be created to meet requirements for corrosion resistance,
conductivity, thermal stability, and other specialized properties needed in various
industries.

Cost Efficiency: Alloys can sometimes be more cost-effective than pure metals,
especially when the desired properties are achieved with a lower amount of expensive
metals through alloying.

Control of Microstructure: Alloying influences the microstructure of metals, affecting

grain size, phase composition, and distribution of phases. This can improve the overall
performance and reliability of the material under different conditions.

Improved Machinability and Workability: Certain alloys are easier to machine or form
into shapes than pure metals, making manufacturing processes more efficient and
cost-effective.

12. Classify hot wook tool, steal and state their occuposition properties and use
in metallic materials engineering

Hot work steels are subdivided into:

● Chromium
● Tungsten
● Molybdenum hot work steels

1. Chromium Hot Work Steels

Example: H13 Tool Steel

● Composition:
○ Carbon (C): 0.32-0.45%
○ Chromium (Cr): 4.75-5.50%
○ Molybdenum (Mo): 1.10-1.75%
○ Vanadium (V): 0.80-1.20%
○ Silicon (Si): 0.80-1.20%
○ Manganese (Mn): 0.20-0.50%
○ Nickel (Ni): ≤ 0.30%
○ Phosphorus (P): ≤ 0.030%
○ Sulfur (S): ≤ 0.030%
● Properties:
○ Excellent toughness and resistance to thermal fatigue.
○ Good wear resistance.
○ Maintains hardness at high temperatures.
● Uses:
○ Die casting dies.
○ Hot forging dies.
○ Extrusion dies.
○ Plastic molds.

2. Tungsten Hot Work Steels

Example: H21 Tool Steel

● Composition:
○ Carbon (C): 0.25-0.35%
○ Tungsten (W): 8.75-10.50%
○ Chromium (Cr): 2.50-3.75%
○ Vanadium (V): 0.25-0.50%
 ○ Molybdenum (Mo): 0.90-1.50%
○ Silicon (Si): ≤ 0.50%
○ Manganese (Mn): ≤ 0.30%
○ Phosphorus (P): ≤ 0.030%
○ Sulfur (S): ≤ 0.030%
● Properties:
○ High wear resistance and hot hardness.
○ Excellent heat resistance.
○ Good toughness and thermal stability.
● Uses:
○ Hot forging dies.
○ Hot extrusion dies.
○ Tools for hot stamping.

3. Molybdenum Hot Work Steels

Example: H42 Tool Steel

● Composition:
○ Carbon (C): 0.55-0.70%
○ Molybdenum (Mo): 8.00-10.00%
○ Chromium (Cr): 4.75-6.00%
○ Vanadium (V): 1.00-1.30%
○ Silicon (Si): 0.50-1.00%
○ Manganese (Mn): ≤ 0.40%
○ Nickel (Ni): ≤ 0.30%
○ Phosphorus (P): ≤ 0.030%
○ Sulfur (S): ≤ 0.030%
● Properties:
○ Good toughness and thermal conductivity.
○ High wear resistance and thermal fatigue resistance.
 ○ Maintains hardness at elevated temperatures.
● Uses:
○ Die casting dies.
○ Hot extrusion dies.
○ Hot shear blades.

13. Explain non destructive test in metallic materials engineering

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) refers to a group of techniques used to evaluate the

properties of a material, component, or system without causing damage. These
methods are essential in ensuring the integrity and reliability of metallic materials in
various engineering applications. Here are some common NDT methods:

1. Visual Inspection (VT)

● Description: The simplest form of NDT where inspectors visually examine the
material or component for defects such as cracks, corrosion, misalignment, or
surface irregularities.
● Applications: Used in all industries, especially for initial inspection and routine
maintenance.

2. Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

● Description: Uses high-frequency sound waves to detect internal flaws or

characterize materials. Sound waves are transmitted into the material, and the
reflection (echo) is analyzed.
● Applications: Detecting internal defects, measuring thickness, and inspecting
welds in structures and pipelines.

3. Radiographic Testing (RT)

 ● Description: Utilizes X-rays or gamma rays to create images of the internal
structure of a component. Differences in material density will show as variations
in the image.
● Applications: Inspecting welds, castings, and structural components for internal
defects such as cracks, voids, and inclusions.

4. Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT)

● Description: Involves magnetizing the material and then applying ferromagnetic

particles to the surface. Surface and near-surface defects will disrupt the
magnetic field, attracting the particles and making the defects visible.
● Applications: Detecting surface and near-surface cracks in ferromagnetic
materials like iron and steel.

5. Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT)

● Description: Involves applying a liquid penetrant to the surface of a material. The

penetrant seeps into surface-breaking defects. After a set period, excess
penetrant is removed, and a developer is applied to draw out the penetrant from
the defects, making them visible.
● Applications: Detecting surface cracks, porosity, and other surface-breaking
defects in non-porous materials.

6. Eddy Current Testing (ECT)

● Description: Uses electromagnetic induction to detect surface and near-surface

defects. An alternating current is passed through a coil, generating an
electromagnetic field. Defects disrupt this field, which can be detected and
analyzed.
● Applications: Inspecting conductive materials for surface and near-surface
defects, measuring thickness, and assessing material properties.

7. Acoustic Emission Testing (AET)

 ● Description: Monitors the sound waves emitted by a material under stress. The
sound waves, or acoustic emissions, are generated by the sudden release of
energy from localized sources within the material.
● Applications: Detecting and monitoring the growth of cracks, corrosion, and other
defects in pressure vessels, tanks, and structural components.

Importance of NDT

1. Safety: Ensures the structural integrity and safety of components, preventing

failures that could lead to accidents or catastrophic events.
2. Cost-Efficiency: Identifies defects early, reducing the cost of repairs and
downtime by allowing for preventive maintenance.
3. Quality Control: Ensures that materials and components meet specified
standards and regulations, maintaining product quality and reliability.
4. Preservation: Does not damage the component being tested, allowing it to
remain in service while being inspected.

14. Explain the operating principle of X-Ray in metallic materials engineering

X-Rays or X-radiation as a form of electromagnetic radiation. They are powerful waves

of electromagnetic energy. Most of them have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10
nanometres, corresponding to frequencies in the range 3 × 1019 Hz to 3×1016 Hz and
energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.

X-Ray Generation:

● X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube, where high-energy electrons emitted from
a cathode collide with an anode, typically made of tungsten, generating X-rays.

Penetration:
 ● The X-rays are directed towards the metallic material. As they penetrate the
material, their absorption and scattering vary depending on the material’s density
and thickness.

Detection:

● On the opposite side of the material, a detector (e.g., photographic film or digital
detector) captures the X-rays that have passed through. Areas with higher
absorption appear darker, while areas with less absorption appear lighter on the
detector.

Image Formation:

● The variations in X-ray absorption create a contrast image (radiograph),

revealing the internal structure and any defects such as cracks, voids, or
inclusions within the material.
15. I) Define Induction in metallic materials engineering

Induction in metallic materials engineering refers to the process of heating metals

using electromagnetic induction. This method involves generating an alternating
magnetic field that induces electric currents (eddy currents) within the metal. The
resistance of the metal to these eddy currents causes localized heating.

Process: An alternating current is passed through a coil, creating a varying magnetic

field around the coil. When a metallic object is placed within this magnetic field, the
induced eddy currents heat the metal due to its electrical resistance.

II) Define flake herdening in metallic materials engineering

Flame hardening is a surface hardening technique used in metallic materials

engineering to increase the hardness and wear resistance of the surface of a metal
component while maintaining a tougher and more ductile core.
Process:

● A high-temperature flame produced by a gas burner (typically using acetylene or

propane mixed with oxygen) is directed onto the surface of the metal.
● The surface is rapidly heated to a temperature above the transformation range
(usually above the critical temperature for steel, where austenite forms).
● Immediately after heating, the surface is rapidly cooled or quenched using water,
oil, or air. This rapid cooling transforms the austenite to martensite, resulting in a
hard, wear-resistant surface layer.

16. state the purpose of tempering after hardening in metallic materials

engineering
Tempering is a heat treatment process performed after hardening to achieve a balance
between hardness and toughness in metallic materials. The primary purposes of
tempering are:

1. Reduce Brittleness:
○ Hardening increases the hardness of the material but also makes it brittle.
Tempering reduces this brittleness, making the material less likely to crack
or fracture under stress.
2. Relieve Internal Stresses:
○ The hardening process can introduce internal stresses within the metal.
Tempering helps to relieve these stresses, enhancing the overall structural
integrity of the material.
3. Improve Toughness:
○ Tempering increases the toughness of the material, which is its ability to
absorb energy and deform plastically without fracturing. This makes the
material more resistant to impact and shock loads.
4. Adjust Hardness:
○ While hardening increases hardness, tempering allows for precise control
over the final hardness level, tailoring it to the specific requirements of the
application.
5. Enhance Ductility:
○ By tempering, the ductility (the ability to deform without breaking) of the
material is improved, making it more workable and less prone to brittle
failure.
6. Refine Microstructure:
○ Tempering refines the microstructure of the hardened material, converting
brittle martensite into tempered martensite or other structures that offer a
better combination of strength and toughness.
Annealing: This involves heating the material to a high temperature and then slowly cooling it, typically to soften the
material, improve ductility, and relieve internal stresses.

Normalizing: Similar to annealing but involves air cooling instead of slow cooling in a furnace. It refines grain structure and
improves mechanical properties like strength and toughness.

Quenching: Involves rapid cooling of the material from high temperatures using a quenching medium (such as oil, water, or
air) to achieve high hardness and strength by producing a martensitic structure.

Tempering: After quenching, the material is reheated to a lower temperature to reduce brittleness and adjust hardness and
toughness properties.

Hardening: Generally refers to increasing the hardness of a material, often through processes like quenching and
tempering or through precipitation hardening, which involves heating to allow precipitation of fine particles in the material.

Case Hardening: Involves modifying only the outer layer of the material to increase hardness while maintaining a ductile
core. Techniques include carburizing (introducing carbon), nitriding (introducing nitrogen), and carbonitriding (introducing
both carbon and nitrogen).

Aging: Involves holding the material at an elevated temperature to allow precipitation of fine particles, which can enhance
strength and hardness, commonly used in alloys like aluminum and some steels.