INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

EPCE3204

Adama Science and Technology University

School of Electrical Engineering and Computing
Department of Electrical Power and Control Engineering

EPCE3204
 CHAPTER 6:
CONTROLLER DESIGN TECHNIQUES

2 EPCE3204
 Introduction to Design of Controllers

• Closed loop control is a process whereby one variable, namely the

variable to be controlled (controlled variable) is continuously
monitored, compared with another variable, namely the reference
variable and influenced in such a manner as to bring about
adaptation to the reference variable.
• The sequence of action resulting in this way takes place in a closed
loop in which the controlled variable continuously influences itself.
• In control engineering, a controlled system is primarily characterized
by its dynamic behavior which also determines the scope and quality
required to solve a control task. Frequently, the so-called step
response of the controlled system is used to reflect this dynamic
behavior.
• The step response reveals how the controlled variable reacts to a
change in the manipulated variable. This is determined by measuring
the controlled variable after a step change in the manipulated
variable.
3 EPCE3204
 Introduction to Design of Controllers

• A feedback control system that provides an optimum performance

without any necessary adjustment is rare.

• In building a control system, we know that proper modification of

the plant dynamics may be a simple way to meet the performance
specifications.

• This, however, may not be possible in many practical situations

because the plant may be fixed and not modifiable.

• Then we must adjust parameters other than those in the fixed plant.

4 EPCE3204
 Introduction to Design of Controllers

• In previous lectures, we have discussed root locus method for loop

gain adjustment.
• We have found that to achieve the desired system response, it is
possible to adjust the system parameters but it is often not enough.
• It is then required to reconsider the structure of the system and
redesign the system.

• The design problems, therefore, become those of improving system

performance by insertion of a compensator.
• Compensator: A compensator is an additional component or circuit
that is inserted into a control system to equalize or compensate for
a deficient performance.

5 EPCE3204
 System Compensation

• A system may be unsatisfactory in：

– Stability.
– Speed of response.
– Steady-state error.
• Which indicates the necessities of compensation.
• The design of a control system is concerned with the arrangement of
the system structure and the selection of a suitable components and
parameters.
• A compensator is an additional component or circuit that is inserted
into a control system to compensate for a deficient performance.
• Thus the design of a system is concerned with the alteration of the
frequency response or the root locus of the system in order to
obtain a suitable system performance.

6 EPCE3204
 Compensator Configurations

• Control system design and compensation

– Design: Need to design the whole controller to satisfy the
system requirement.
– Compensation: Only need to design part of the controller with
known structure.
• Three elements for compensation
– Original part of the system
– Performance requirement
» 1. Time domain criteria (step response)
▪ Overshoot, settling time, rising time, steady-state error
» 2. Frequency domain criteria
▪ crossover frequency, phase margin, gain margin

– Compensation device
7 EPCE3204
 Compensator Configurations

• Compensation schemes commonly used for feedback control

systems are:
– Series Compensation

– Parallel Compensation

8 EPCE3204
 Compensator Configurations

• Compensation schemes commonly used for feedback control

systems are:
– Series - Parallel Compensation

9 EPCE3204
 Compensator Configurations

• The choice between series compensation and parallel compensation

depends on
– the nature of the signals
– the power levels at various points
– available components
– the designer’s experience
– economic considerations and so on.

10 EPCE3204
 Commonly Used Compensators

• Among the many kinds of compensators, widely employed

compensators are the
– lead compensators
» If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network, and the
steady-state output (which is also sinusoidal) has a phase lead, then
the network is called a lead network.
– lag compensators
» If the steady-state output has a phase lag, then the network is called
a lag network.

– lag–lead compensators
» In a lag–lead network, both phase lag and phase lead occur in the
output but in different frequency regions.
» Phase lag occurs in the low-frequency region and phase lead occurs
in the high-frequency region.

11 EPCE3204
 Methods for Compensator Design

• Root Locus Based Method

– Main idea: Inserting the compensator introduces new open-loop
zeros and poles to change the closed-loop root locus to satisfy
the requirement.

• Frequency Response Based Method

– Main idea: By inserting the compensator, the Bode diagram of
the original system is altered to achieve performance
requirements.
– Original open-loop Bode diagram ＋ Bode diagram of
compensator ＋ alteration of gain ＝ open-loop Bode diagram
with compensation

12 EPCE3204
 Design based on Root-Locus Method

• Performance measures in the time domain:

– Peak time;
– Overshoot;
– Settling time for a step input;
– Steady-state error for test inputs

• These performance specifications can be defined in terms of the

desirable location of the poles and zeros of the closed-loop.
• Root locus method can be used to find a suitable compensator 𝐺𝑐 (𝑠)
so that the resultant root locus results in the desired closed-loop
root configuration.

13 EPCE3204
 Design based on Root-Locus Method

• The design by the root-locus method is based on reshaping the root

locus of the system by adding poles and zeros to the system’s open-
loop transfer function and forcing the root loci to pass through
desired closed-loop poles in the s plane.

• The characteristic of the root-locus design is its being based on the

assumption that the closed-loop system has a pair of dominant
closed-loop poles.

• This means that the effects of zeros and additional poles do not
affect the response characteristics very much.

14 EPCE3204
 Design based on Root-Locus Method

• If certain transient response (defined by % overshoot, and settling

time) is desired, and it is represented by point B.
• At the specified % overshoot, we only can obtain the settling time
represented by point A with the suitable gain adjustment.
• This can be achieved by adding poles and zeros, so that the
compensated system has a root locus that goes through the desired
point B.

15 EPCE3204
 Design based on Root-Locus Method

• Dynamic compensators (function of s) are designed to improve

– Transient response by adding a Lead compensator in the forward
path or feedback path.
– Steady-state error by adding a Lag compensator (in the forward
path or feedback path

• Compensator transfer function:

𝑠+𝑧
𝐶 𝑠 =𝐾
𝑠+𝑝
• Lead compensation if 𝑧 < 𝑝 and lag compensation if 𝑧 > 𝑝

16 EPCE3204
 Design based on Root-Locus Method

• Effects of the addition of poles

– The addition of a pole to the open-loop transfer function has the
effect of pulling the root-locus to the right, tending to lower the
system’s relative stability and slow down the 𝑡s of the response.

× × ×

× × ×

17 EPCE3204
 Design based on Root-Locus Method

• Effects of the addition of zeros

– The addition of a zero to the open-loop transfer function has the
effect of pulling the root locus to the left, tending to make the
system more stable and to speed up the 𝑡s of the response.

× × ×
× × ×

18 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation

• Mathematical model:
𝑗𝜔
𝑠 + 𝑍𝑐
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐
𝑅𝑒

𝑃𝑐 𝑍𝑐

• It is clear that the 𝑍𝑐 < 𝑃𝑐 .

• The T.F. of the lead compensator can be represented as:

1
𝑠+
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑐 𝑇
1
𝑠+
𝛼𝑇
• Where 𝛼 and 𝑇 are constants. Also, 0 < 𝛼 < 1

19 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation

• The procedure for designing a lead compensator for any control

system is:
1. From the desired performance specifications, determine the
desired location for the dominant closed-loop poles.
2. By drawing the root-locus of the uncompensated (original)
system 𝐺(𝑆), be sure that the gain adjustment alone can yield
the desired closed-loop poles.
» If not, calculate the angle deficiency 𝜃𝑐 . This angle must be
contributed by the lead compensator to reshape the new root
locus is to pass through the desired locations obtained by step #1.

3. Determine the value of 𝛼 and 𝑇 from the deficiency angle (𝜃𝑐 ).

20 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation

• Consider the system with two poles (𝑃1 & 𝑃2 ) and one zero (𝑍1 ).

• Since the point of the desired pole location does not lie on the root
locus of G(s). From the angle condition 𝜃5 − (𝜃3 + 𝜃4 ) < 180°
• Therefore, we need a phase lead compensator to add a positive
angle 𝜃𝑐 which is: 𝜃𝑐 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1
• Therefore, the angle condition of the new root locus will be:
𝜃5 − 𝜃3 + 𝜃4 + 𝜃𝑐 = 180°
21 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation – Example

• Consider the unity feedback control system:

10
𝐺(𝑆) =
𝑆 𝑆+1
• It is desired to make the system damping ratio 0.5 with undamped
natural frequency 3.0 rad/s. Design the suitable lead compensator
and draw the root locus of the compensated system.
• Draw the root locus of the original system
• At 𝐾 = 10, the closed loop poles are
located at−0.5 ± 𝑗3.1225.
• At 𝜁 = 0.5 & 𝜔𝑛 = 3 it is found that the
closed loop poles are:

22 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation – Example

• Compute the angle at the design point.

2.598 2.598
𝜃 = − 180 − tan−1 + 180 − tan−1 = −220.894
1.5 0.5

• But for the root locus the angle must be

± 180°, therefore, if we need to force the
root locus to go through the desired closed-
loop pole,

• The lead compensator must contribute

𝜃𝑐 = −180 − (−220.894) = 40.894

23 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation – Example

• Using the bisector method determines the location of the

compensator pole and zero.

• Now the compensated system become

• The value of 𝐾𝑐 is determined from the magnitude condition

24 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation – Example

• The compensated system becomes

• The root locus of the compensated system is

25 EPCE3204
 Lead Compensation – Exercise

• Design a lead compensator for the control system given below so

that the settling time (based on ±2%) is reduced to half value while
maintaining 30% overshoot.

26 EPCE3204
 Lag Compensation

• Motivation for introducing lag compensator:

– If a system exhibits satisfactory transient response characteristics
but unsatisfactory steady-state characteristics, a lag compensator
can be applied.
𝑗𝜔
• Mathematical model:
𝑠 + 𝑍𝑐 𝑅𝑒
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 
𝑠 + 𝑃𝑐
𝑍𝑐 𝑃𝑐
• It is clear that the 𝑍𝑐 > 𝑃𝑐 .

• The T.F. of the lag compensator can be represented as:

1
𝑠+
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑐 𝑇
1
𝑠+
𝛽𝑇
• Where 𝛽 and 𝑇 are constants. Also, 𝛽 > 1
27 EPCE3204
 Lag Compensation

• We select the lag compensator when the system exhibits satisfactory

transient-response characteristics but unsatisfactory steady-state
characteristics.
– Compensation in this case essentially consists of increasing the
open-loop gain without appreciably changing the transient-
response characteristics.
• This can be accomplished if a lag compensator is put in cascade with
the given feed forward transfer function.
– To avoid an appreciable change in the root locus, the angle
contribution of the lag network should a small amount.
– To assure this, we place the pole and zero of the lag network
relatively close together and near the origin of the s plane.
– Then the closed-loop poles of the compensated system will be
shifted only slightly from their original locations. Hence, the
transient-response characteristics will be changed only slightly.
28 EPCE3204
 Lag Compensation

• Before compensation: The static error constant 𝐾𝑉𝑜 , for the system
is:

• After compensation
𝑧𝑐
𝐾𝑣𝑛𝑒𝑤 = ∗ 𝑘𝑣0
𝑝𝑐

29 EPCE3204
 Lag Compensation – Example

• Consider the unity feedback control system:

• At a damping ratio of 0.491, it is required to make the velocity error

coefficient = 5, Design the suitable lag compensator & draw the root
locus of the compensated system.
• From the root locus of the uncompensated system, the closed loop
poles at 𝜁 = 0.491 are located at 𝑆 = −0.3307 ± 𝑗0.5864
– From the magnitude condition, 𝐾 = 1.06
– The static velocity error coefficient 𝐾𝑣0 = 1.06/2 = 0.53
– The required velocity error coefficient 𝐾𝑣 is 5.

30 EPCE3204
 Lag Compensation – Example

• The lag compensator can be represented as

𝑠 + 1Τ𝑇
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑐
𝑠 + 1Τ𝛽𝑇
𝑧𝑐 1Τ𝑇
𝐾𝑣 = 5 = 𝐾𝑣0 ∗ = 0.53 ∗ = 0.53 𝛽 ⇒ 𝛽 = 9.434
𝑝𝑐 1Τ𝛽𝑇
• Let 𝑇 = 2𝛽 = 2 × 9.434 = 18.868,
• the lag zero 𝑧𝑐 = 1/𝑇 = 0.053
• the lag pole 𝑝𝑐 = 1/𝛽𝑇 = 0.0056.
𝑠 + 0.053
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑐
𝑠 + 0.0056

31 EPCE3204
 Improving Steady State Error and Transient Response

• Combine the design techniques to obtain improvement in steady

state error and transient response independently.
– First improve the transient response.(lead compensation)
– Then improve the steady state response. (lag compensation)

• Other Alternatives
– Lag Lead Compensator.

32 EPCE3204
 Frequency Response Based Method

• By inserting the compensator, the Bode diagram of the original

system is altered to achieve performance requirements.

• Frequency response based compensation

– Phase lead compensation
– Phase lag compensation
– Phase lead-lag compensation

• Each requirement relates to a different region of the frequency axis

in the Bode diagram.
– The steady-state error relates to the magnitude at low frequency.
– The transient response requirement relates to the gain crossover
frequency, which usually occurs at higher frequencies.

33 EPCE3204
 Frequency Response Based Method

• Three design rules for cascade compensator:

1. The system is stable with satisfactory steady-state error, but
transient performance is not good enough.
– Compensator is used to change medium and high frequency
parts to change crossover frequency and phase margin.
2. The system is stable with satisfactory transient performance, but the
steady-state error is large.
– Compensator is used to increase gain and change lower
frequency part, but keep medium and higher frequency parts
unchanged.
3. If the steady-state and transient performance are either
unsatisfactory,
– the compensator should be able to increase gain of the lower
frequency part and change the medium and higher frequency.

34 EPCE3204
 Frequency Response Based Method

• Change of Bode Diagram

a) change of lower b) change of medium c) change of lower,

frequency part and higher frequency medium and higher
parts frequency parts

35 EPCE3204
 Phase Lead Compensation

• Transfer function 𝑗𝜔
1 1 + 𝛼𝑇𝑠
𝐺𝑐 = ×
𝛼 1 + 𝑇𝑠 𝑅𝑒

• where 𝛼 > 1 1 1
− −
𝑇 𝛼𝑇

• The magnitude and phase becomes

36 EPCE3204
Phase Lead Compensation

Determination of 𝛼

Geometry mean

37 EPCE3204
• Rules to design phase lead compensation
1. Determine K to satisfy steady-state error constraint
2. Determine the uncompensated phase margin 𝛾0
3. Estimate the phase margin 𝜙𝑚 in order to satisfy the transient
response performance constraint
4. Determine 𝛼
5. Calculate 𝜔𝑚
6. Determine T
7. Confirmation

38 EPCE3204
 Phase Lead Compensation – Example

• Given a unity-feedback system with the following open-loop transfer

function

• Design phase lead element to satisfy the following requirements:

– Steady speed error constant 𝐾𝑣 = 20
– phase margin 𝛾 ≥ 50°
– gain margin 𝐺𝑀 ≥ 10𝑑𝐵

39 EPCE3204
 Phase Lead Compensation – Example

• Uncompensated system 40

20

-20

-40

-60
0 1 2
10 10 10

-100

-120

-140

-160

Extra margin (𝟓°~𝟏𝟎°)

-180
0 1 2
10 10 10

40 EPCE3204
 Phase Lead Compensation – Example

• Determine 𝛼

41 EPCE3204
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLLERS

42 EPCE3204
 On-off control

• For some systems, on-off signaling is sufficient

• This is the simplest form of control.
– For example, a thermostat, when the heater is either on or off,
and early cruise-control systems
– Could do airflow or speed control also
– More modern systems do it
• Depending on the frequency of control, overhead of on-off, etc, this
could cause overshoots and undershoots (ripples)

43 EPCE3204
 Proportional Control

• The manipulated variable y of a P controller is proportional to the

measured error e.
• From this can be deducted that a P controller
– Reacts to any deviation without lag and
– Generates a manipulated variable in case of system deviation.
• The amplitude of the manipulated variable y is determined by the
error e and the proportional-gain coefficient 𝐾𝑃 :
𝑦 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝐾𝑃
• The term describes a linear equation whose gradient is determined
by 𝐾𝑃 .
• A high 𝐾𝑃 represents a strongly rising gradient, so that even small
system deviations can cause strong control actions.

44 EPCE3204
 Proportional Control

• P controllers exhibit the following advantages:

– Fast response to changes in the control process due to
immediate corrective action when an error occurs.
– Very stable control process, provided that KP is properly selected.
• P controllers exhibit the following disadvantages:
– Steady-state error when disturbances occur, since only system
deviation causes a change in the manipulated variable.

• In general it can be said that P controller cannot stabilize higher

order processes.
• P controller applications: P controllers are suited to noncritical
control applications which can tolerate steady-state error in the
event of disturbances:
– e.g. pressure, flow rate, level and temperature control.
45 EPCE3204
 Integral controller (I controller)

• Integral control action is used to fully correct system deviations at

any operating point.
• As long as the error is nonzero, the integral action will cause the
value of the manipulated variable to change.
1
𝑦 = 𝐾𝑖 න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐾𝑖 =
𝑇𝑛

• I controllers exhibit the following advantages:

– No error at steady state
• I controllers exhibit the following disadvantages:
– Sluggish response at high Tn
– At small Tn, the control loop tends to oscillate/may become
instable

46 EPCE3204
 Derivative controller (D controller)

• D controllers generate the manipulated variable from the rate of

change of the error and not as P controllers from their amplitude.
• Therefore, they re-act much faster than P controllers: even if the
error is small, derivative controllers generate by anticipation, so to
speak large control amplitudes as soon as a change in amplitude
occurs.
• A steady-state error signal, however, is not recognized by D
controllers, because regardless of how big the error, its rate of
change is zero. Therefore, derivative only controllers are rarely used
in practice.
• In PD controllers with proportional-plus-derivative control action,the
manipulated variable results from the addition of the individual P
and D control elements:
𝑑𝑒
𝑦 = 𝐾𝑃 ∙ 𝑒 + 𝐾𝐷 + 𝑦0 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ: 𝐾𝐷 = 𝐾𝑃 ∙ 𝑇𝑉
𝑑𝑡

47 EPCE3204
 PI controllers

• PI controllers are often employed in practice. In this combination,

one P and one I controller are connected in parallel.
• If properly designed, they combine the advantages of both controller
types (stability and rapidity; no steady-state error), so that their
disadvantages are compensated for at the same time.
𝐾𝑃
𝑦 = 𝐾𝑃 ∙ 𝑒 + 𝐾𝑖 න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ: 𝐾𝑖 =
𝑇𝑛

• PI controller will eliminate forced oscillations and steady state error

resulting in operation of on-off controller and P controller
respectively.
• However, introducing integral mode has a negative effect on speed
of the response and overall stability of the system. Thus, PI controller
will not increase the speed of response.
• PI controllers are very often used in industry, especially when speed
of the response is not an issue.
48 EPCE3204
 PID controller

• If a D component is added to PI controllers, the result is an

extremely versatile PID controller.
• As with PI controllers, the added D component if properly tuned
causes the controlled variable to reach its set point more quickly,
thus reaching steady state more rapidly.

𝑑𝑒 𝐾𝑃
𝑦 = 𝐾𝑃 ∙ 𝑒 + 𝐾𝑖 න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝐷 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ: 𝐾𝑖 = , 𝐾𝐷 = 𝐾𝑃 ∙ 𝑇𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑛

• PID controller applications:

– Control loops with second- or higher-order systems that require
rapid stabilization and do not allow steady state error.

49 EPCE3204
 The Characteristics of P, I, and D controllers

• A proportional controller (Kp) will have the effect of reducing the

rise time and will reduce, but never eliminate, the steady-state error.
• An integral control (Ki) will have the effect of eliminating the steady-
state error, but it may make the transient response worse.
• A derivative control (Kd) will have the effect of increasing the
stability of the system, reducing the overshoot, and improving the
transient response.

SETTLING
RISE TIME OVERSHOOT S-S ERROR
TIME
Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease
Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate
Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease Small Change

50 EPCE3204
 PID Tuning Methods

• Tuning is adjustment of control parameters to the optimum

values for the desired control response.
• Stability is a basic requirement. However, different systems
have different behavior, different applications have different
requirements, and requirements may conflict with one another.
• PID tuning is a difficult problem, even though there are only three
parameters and in principle is simple to describe, because it must
satisfy complex criteria within the limitations of PID control.
• There are accordingly various methods for loop tuning, some of
them:
– Manual tuning method,
– Ziegler–Nichols tuning method,
– PID tuning software methods.

51 EPCE3204