Introduction to Semiconductor Physics.

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In semiconductors, of the many empty levels above the thermally
filled levels in the conduction band, a small applied potential
difference can easily raise the electrons in the conduction band into
available energy states, resulting in a moderate current.

(Thermally
At T = 0 K, all electrons in these materials
filled levels)
are in the valence band and no energy is
available to excite them across the energy
gap.
Therefore, semiconductors are poor
conductors at very low temperatures.

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Because the thermal excitation of electrons across the narrow gap is
more probable at higher temperatures, the conductivity of
semiconductors increases rapidly with temperature, contrasting
sharply with the conductivity of metals, which decreases slowly with
increasing temperature.
Charge carriers in a semiconductor
can be negative, positive, or both.
When an electron moves from the
valence band into the conduction
band, it leaves behind a vacant site,
called a hole, in the otherwise
filled valence band.
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 The hole (electron deficient site) acts as a
charge carrier in the sense that a free
electron from a near by site can transfer
into the hole. Whenever an electron does
so, it creates a new hole at the site it
abandoned. Therefore, the net effect can
be viewed as the hole migrating through
the material in the direction opposite the
direction of electron movement. The hole
behaves as if it were a particle with a
positive charge +e. *Forming crystals by
*https://www.shindengen.com/products/semi/column/basic/semi/semi_basic.html
bonding silicon atoms in
a regular structure.
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A pure semiconductor crystal containing only one element or one
compound is called an intrinsic semiconductor. In these
semiconductors, there are equal numbers of conduction electrons and
holes. Such combinations of charges are called electron–hole pairs.
In the presence of an external electric field, the holes move in the
direction of the field and the conduction electrons move in the
direction opposite the field. Because the electrons and holes have
opposite signs, both motions correspond to a current in the same
direction.
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Figure 43.25 Movement of charges (holes and electrons) in an
intrinsic semiconductor. 6
Doped Semiconductors
When impurities are added to a semiconductor, both the band
structure of the semiconductor and its resistivity are modified. The
process of adding impurities, called doping, is important in
controlling the conductivity of semiconductors.

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 This electron is “extra”
in this structure. This is
a free electron.

Here, this state leaves a

“vacancy” where there is no
electron.
This vacancy is called a hole.
That is, the hole can also be
called a virtual particle
because it is void.
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N-type semiconductors
Semiconductors doped with donor atoms are called n-type
semiconductors because the majority of charge carriers are
electrons, which are negatively charged.

P-type semiconductors
Semiconductors doped with acceptor atoms are called p-type
semiconductors because the majority of charge carriers are
positively charged holes.

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When an atom containing five outer-shell electrons, such as arsenic,
is added to a Group IV semiconductor, four of the electrons form
covalent bonds with atoms of the semiconductor and one is left over
(Fig. 43.26a). This extra electron is nearly free of its parent atom and
can be modeled as having an energy level that lies in the energy gap,
immediately below the conduction band (Fig. 43.26b).
Figure 43.26 (a) Two
dimensional representation
of a semiconductor consisting
of Group IV atoms (gray) and
an impurity atom (yellow)
that has five outer-shell
electrons.
(b) Energy-band diagram for a
semiconductor 10
When an atom containing five outer-shell electrons, such as arsenic,
is added to a Group IV semiconductor, four of the electrons form
covalent bonds with atoms of the semiconductor and one is left over
(Fig. 43.26a). This extra electron is nearly free of its parent atom and
can be modeled as having an energy level that lies in the energy gap,
immediately below the conduction band (Fig. 43.26b).
Such a pentavalent atom in effect donates an electron to the
structure and hence is referred to as a donor atom. Because the
spacing between the energy level of the electron of the donor atom
and the bottom of the conduction band is very small (typically,
approximately 0.05 eV), only a small amount of thermal excitation
is needed to cause this electron to move into the conduction band.
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P-type semiconductors
Semiconductors doped with acceptor atoms are called p-type
semiconductors because the majority of charge carriers are
positively charged holes.
If a Group IV semiconductor is doped with atoms containing three
outer-shell electrons, such as indium and aluminum, the three
electrons form covalent bonds with neighboring semiconductor
atoms, leaving an electron deficiency—a hole—
where the fourth bond would be if an impurity-atom electron were
available to form it.

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This situation can be modeled by placing an energy level in the
energy gap, immediately above the valence band, as in Figure
43.27b. An electron from the valence band has enough energy at
room temperature to fill this impurity level, leaving behind a hole
in the valence band.
This hole can carry current in the presence of an electric field.
Because a trivalent atom accepts an electron from the valence
band, such impurities are referred to as acceptor atoms.

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Holes appear to be moving. 15
Movement of electrons and holes in semiconductor

Electrons move toward the positive pole.

At this time, current flows in the opposite
direction of the electrons’ movement.
n-type semiconductor

Electrons are what is actually moving, but the

holes appear to be moving toward the
direction of the negative pole.
p-type semiconductor

As a result, both p-type and n-type semiconductors can have

current flow, but they are not as conductive as metal.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_level 17
When conduction in a semiconductor is the result of acceptor
or donor impurities, the material is called an extrinsic
semiconductor.
The typical range of doping densities for extrinsic
semiconductors is 1013 to 1019 cm-3, whereas the electron
density in a typical semiconductor is roughly 1021 cm-3.

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 43.7 Semiconductor Devices
The electronics of the first half of the 20th century was based on
vacuum tubes, in which electrons pass through empty space
between a cathode and an anode.
The transistor was invented in 1948, leading to a shift away from
vacuum tubes and toward semiconductors as the basis of electronic
devices. There may be a new phase of electronics in the near future
using nanotechnological devices employing quantum dots and other
nanoscale structures.
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 The Junction Diode (p-n junction).
A fundamental unit of a semiconductor device is formed when a p-
type semiconductor is joined to an n-type semiconductor to form a
p–n junction.
A junction diode is a device that is based on a single p–n junction.
The role of a diode of any type is to pass current in one direction but
not the other. Therefore, it acts as a one way valve for current.
The p–n junction shown in Figure 43.28a consists of three distinct
regions: a p region, an n region, and a small area that extends several
micrometers to either side of the interface, called a depletion region.

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 The depletion region, where the ions are fixed
in position, and the mobile charge carriers are
swept out of the region by the electric field.

(a) Physical arrangement of a p–n

junction.

(b) Component Ex of the internal

electric field versus x for the p–n
Figure junction.
43.28
(c) Internal electric potential
difference ∆V versus x for the p–n
junction. 21
The mobile n-side donor electrons nearest the junction diffuse to the p side and fill
holes located there, leaving behind immobile positive ions. While this process
occurs, we can model the holes that are being filled as diffusing to the n side,
leaving behind a region of fixed negative ions. Because the two sides of the
depletion region each carry a net charge, an internal electric field on the order of 104
to 106 V/cm exists in the depletion region (see Fig. 43.28b). This field produces an
electric force on any remaining mobile charge carriers that sweeps them out of the
depletion region, so named because it is a region depleted of mobile charge carriers.
This internal electric field creates an internal potential difference ∆V0 that prevents
further diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction and thereby ensures zero
current in the junction when no potential difference is applied.
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Operation of the p-n junction
The operation of the junction as a diode is easiest to understand in
terms of the potential difference graph shown in Figure 43.28c.
Operation of the junction is of two types; (i) Forward bias, and (ii)
Reverse bias.
Forward bias: If a voltage ∆V is applied to the junction such that the
p side is connected to the positive terminal of a voltage source as
shown in Figure 43.29a, the internal potential difference ∆Vo across
the junction decreases as shown at the top of the figure; the decrease
results in a current that increases exponentially
with increasing forward voltage, or forward bias.

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(ii) Reverse bias.
For reverse bias (where the n side of the junction is connected to the
positive terminal of a voltage source), the internal potential
difference ∆Vo increases with increasing reverse bias as in Figure
43.29b; the increase results in a very small reverse current that
quickly reaches a saturation value Io.

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 Figure 43.29
(a) A p–n junction
under forward
bias.
(b) When the
battery is reversed
and the p–n
junction is under
reverse bias.
(c) The
characteristic
curve for a real
p–n junction.
(a) (b) (c)
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 Light-Emitting and Light-Absorbing Diodes
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor lasers are common examples of
devices that depend on the behavior of semiconductors. LEDs are used in LCD
television displays, household lighting, flashlights, and camera flash units.
Semiconductor lasers are often used for pointers.
When an electron excited electrically into the conduction band can easily
recombine with a hole (especially if the electron is injected into a p region). As
this recombination takes place, a photon of energy Eg is emitted.
Light-Absorbing diodes
Conversely, an electron in the valence band may absorb an incoming photon of
light and be promoted to the conduction band, leaving a hole behind (Fig. 43.30b).
This absorbed energy can be used to operate an electrical circuit.
One device that operates on this principle is the photovoltaic solar cell.
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