1

Biot Savart’s law

A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field around it. Biot-Savart law states that the magnitude of the
intensity of small magnetic field dB due to current I carrying element dl at any point P at a distance r from it
is:

 dB  I
 dB  dl
 dB  sin 
1
 dB 
r2

Combining these, we get

Idl sin 
dB 
r2

μo  idlsinθ 
Or dB 
4π  r 2 

Where θ is the angle between r and dl and μo  4π  10 7 TmA 1 is called magnetic permeability of free

space.

In vector form

 μ I  dl  r 
dB  o
4π r 3

 
So the direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing r and dl .

SI unit of magnetic field strength is tesla denoted by T and cgs unit is gauss denoted by ‘G’ where 1 T = 104
G.

Comparison of Coulomb’s law and Biot Savart’s law

 Both depend inversely on the square of the distance between the source and point.
 Magnetic field is produced by a vector source Idl i.e., current element, whereas the electric field is
produced by scalar source electric charge q.
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 Electric field is along displacement vector joining source and field point, whereas the magnetic field
is perpendicular to the plane containing displacement vector r and current element Idl
 There is an angle dependence in Biot- Savarts law which is not present in electrostatic case. The
magnetic field at any point in the direction of dl is zero.
1
 Relation between permeability of free space μo to the permittivity ε o is c   3  108 ms1
μoεo
where c is the speed of light in vacuum.

Applications of Biot Savart’s law

Magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop carrying current

Consider a circular current carrying loop carrying current I. We have to to find magnetic field at the centre of
this loop. Consider a small current element dl on the circumference of this loop. Clearly, angle between dl
and r is 90o. Applying Biot Savart’s law, we get

μo  Idlsin90o 
dB   
4π  r2 
μ Idl
 dB  o 2
4π r

Integrating both sides we get

μo Idl
 dB  
4π r 2
μ I
 B  o 2  dl
4π r
μ I
 B  o 2  2πr
4π r
μoI
 B
2r

noI
If coil has n turns, then B 
2r

Magnetic field due to arc

As complete circle is also an arc which subtends an angle 2π at

the centre so by applying the unitary method, we can find the
magnetic field at the centre of arc as follows:
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Angle Magnetic field

2π μoI
2r

1 radian  μoI  1 μoI

 2r   2π  4πr
 

Any angle θ μoI

B θ
4πr

Magnetic field due to a straight conductor

Magnetic field at point P at a perpendicular distance r from from a straight cinductor carrying current I is

μoI
B  sinφ1  sinφ2 
4πr

Special cases

When length of wire is infinite (or very long) and distance r is very
small then

 If P lies near one end , then φ1  90o and φ2  0o

μoI
so, B 
4πr

sin90o  sin0o 
μI
 B o
4πr

 If P lies near centre, then φ1  90o and φ2  90o

μoI
so, B 
4πr

sin90o  sin90o 
μI
 B o
2πr

Magnetic field on the axis of a

circular loop
Small magnetic field due to current
element Idl of circular loop of radius r at a
point P at distance x from its centre is
μo Idlsin90o μo Idl
dB  
4π s 2

4π r  x 2
2

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Component dBcosφ due to current element at point P is cancelled by equal and opposite

component dBcosφ of another diagonally opposite current element, whereas the sine components dB sinφ
add up to give net magnetic field along the axis. So net magnetic field at point P due to entire loop is

2πr μo Idl r
 dB sinφ   .
  
1/2
0 4π r 2  x 2 r 2  x 2

μoIr 2πr
B 3  dl
 
0
4π r  x 2 2 2

μoIr
B 3
.2πr

4π r  x 2 2 2

μoIr 2
 B 3
.

2 r x
2

2 2

Which is directed along the axis (a) towards the loop if current in it is in clockwise direction (b) away from
the loop if current in it is in anticlockwise direction.

Special points

 If point P is far away from the centre of the loop i.e. x >> r then magnetic field at point P is
μoIr 2 μoIπr 2 μ IA
B  3
or B  o 3 where A is the area of the circular loop.
2x 2πx 2πx
μoNI
 If circular loop has N turns then magnetic field strength at its centre is B  and at any point on
2r
μoNIr 2
the axis of circular loop is B  3


2 r 2  x2  2

Direction of magnetic field

Right hand thumb rule or right hand grip rule or

right hand palm rule
It states that if we hold a current I carrying wire in our right
hand, such that the thumb points in the direction of current,
then the curled fingers around it give us the direction of
magnetic field lines around it.

Ampere’s circuital law

It states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity over
a closed loop is μo times the total current threading the loop.
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 
 B.dl  μoI

Proof:

Consider a straight conductor carrying current as shown in the figure. Consider a circular Amperian loop of
 
radius r around the conductor. As B and dl are in same direction so angle between them is 0. Therefore

 
 B.dl
  Bdlcos0o

  Bdl

 B  dl
μoI
  2πr
2πr
 μoI
 
  B.dl  μoI

Applications of ampere’s circuital law

Magnetic field intensity at the centre of a long solenoid

Let a solenoid consists of n no. of turns per unit length and carry current I. Then magnetic field lines inside
the solenoid are parallel to its axis whereas outside the solenoid the magnetic field is zero. Line integral of
magnetic field over a closed loop PQRS shown in the figure is

  Q   R   S   P  
 B.dl   P
B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl
Q R S

Q R P
  B.dlcos0o   B.dlcos90o  0   B.dlcos90o
P Q S
Q
 B dl  0  0  0  BL
P

But by Ampere’s circuital law

 
 B.dl  μo  total current threading loop PQRS
 μo  number of turns in solenoid PQRS  I
 μonLI

Therefore

BL  μonLI  B  μonI
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Note: at the ends of the solenoid the magnetic field is B  μonI
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Force acting on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field

If a charge q is moving with velocity v in a magnetic field of intensity B such that the angle between velocity
vector and magnetic field vector is θ, then a force F acts on the particle such that

i) F  q
ii)F  v
iii) F  B
iv) F  sinθ

Combining all these, we get

F  qvB sinθ
 F  qvB sinθ

As the value of constant in this relation is 1 in SI units.

In vector form

  
 
F  q v  B , thus F is perpendicular to the plane containing v and B.

Direction of F can be found by Fleming’s left

hand rule
It states that stretch the thumb, forefinger, and central finger
of the left hand in a mutually perpendicular position such that
the forefinger is pointing towards the direction of the magnetic
field, central finger pointing towards the direction of motion of
positive charge (direction of current) then the direction of
thumb gives the direction of force acting on the particle.

Definition of 1 tesla
F
Since B 
qv sin θ
So If q  1 C, v  1 ms1, θ  90o (sin 90o  1), then B  1T
Magnetic field is said to be 1 tesla when a charge of 1 coulomb moving at a speed of 1 m/s perpendicularly
to the direction of field experiences a force of 1 newton in it.
If a charge q enters perpendicularly into a magnetic field, then its path will be circular as force always acts
in a direction perpendicular to the direction of motion of motion of the charge. Centripetal force required for
circular motion is provided by the magnetic force acting on the particle. Thus
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mv 2
 q vB
r
mv
 qB
r

Radius of the path (r)

mv
r
Bq

Velocity (v)

Bqr
v
m

Time period (T)

2πr 2π r 2πm
T  
v Bq r Bq
m

Frequency

1 Bq
v 
T 2πm

Angular frequency

Bq Bq
ω  2πv  2π  
2πm m

Kinetic energy
2
1 1  Bqr 
KE  mv 2  m 
2 2  m 
1 B2 q2r 2 1 B 2qr r 2
 KE  m 
2 m2 2 m

If charge particle enters at an angle with the direction of magnetic

field then split its velocity into rectangular components v cos θ
along the field and v sinθ perpendicular the field as shown. Due to these two components, the motion of the
charge is helical. Distance between two turns of the helix is called pitch(d) which is given by
2πm
d  v cosθ  time period  v cos θ 
Bq
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Lorentz force
Force acting on a particle in a region where both electric and magnetic fields exist is called Lorentz force.
Lorentz force is the resultant of electric and magnetic force acting on the particle.
 
F  FE  FB
  

F  qE  q v  B 
Velocity selector or velocity filter
Consider a situation as shown in the figure in a charge is moving perpendicularly to both electric and magnetic
fields such the force the force acting on charge due
to both the fields is equal and opposite i.e.

qE = qvB

E
v 
B

This result is used in velocity selectors or velocity

filters in which we have to select a particle with a particular value of velocity.

Force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

Consider a conductor of length  and area

of cross section A carrying current I placed
in a magnetic field at an angle θ as
shown. If number density of electrons in
the conductor is n then total number of
electrons in the conductor is An .

As force acting on one electron is f  ev dB sinθ where v d is the drift velocity of electrons.

So the total force acting on the conductor is

Anf  An  ev dB sinθ 

  Anev d  B sinθ

 F  IB sinθ
Direction of this force can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule.

Force between two parallel straight conductors carrying current

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When the currents are in same direction

When two current carrying conductors are placed parallel to each other, each conductor produces a magnetic
field around itself. So, one conductor is placed in the magnetic field produced by the other. Using Fleming’s
left hand rule it can be easily shown that the forces on them are such that they attract each other. Force
acting on 1st conductor is given as

F1  I1B2 sin90o
μoI2
F1  I1
2πr
F μ II
 1  o12
 2πr

Now force acting on

conductor 2 is given by

F2  I2 B1 sin90o
μoI1
F2  I2 
2πr
F μ II
 2  o12
 2πr

Therefore F1  F2

When the current is in opposite direction

the conductors will repel each other the magnitude of force will be same as derived above.

Torque acting on a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field

When a rectangular loop PQRS of sides ‘a’ and ‘b’ carrying current I is placed in uniform magentic field B,
such that area vector A makes an angle θ with direction of magnetic field, then forces on the arms QR and
SP of loop are equal, opposite and collinear, thereby perfectly cancel each other, whereas forces on arms
PQ and RS of loop are equal and opposite but not collinear, so they give rise to torque on loop.
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Force on side PQ or RS of loop is F  IbBsin90  IbB

o

Perpendicular distance between two non collinear forces r  asinθ

So, torque on the loop is

τ  F  IbBa sinθ  I  ab  B sinθ

or τ  IAB sinθ

If loop has N turns then τ  NIAB sin θ .

 
In vector form τ  M  B where M = NIA is called magnetic dipole moment of current loop abd is directed in
direction of area vector.
 
 If the plane of the loop is normal to the direction of magnetic field i.e. θ = 0o between B and A then

the loop does not experience any torque i.e. τmin  0

 
 If the plane of the loop is parallel to the direction of magnetic field i.e. θ = 90o between B and A

then the loop experience maximum torque τmax  NIAB

Moving coil galvanometer

Moving coil galvanometer is used to detect or measure small currents. It works on the principle that when an
electric current is passed through a coil placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a torque, whose magnitude
is proportional to the strength of electric current passed through it.

In order to make torque on the coil independent of angle θ between the area vector A and magnetic field B,
so that the plane of coil always remain parallel to the
field.

1) The radial magnetic field is applied by cutting the

poles of magnet concave, and
2) The core of coil is filled by soft iron

Therefore, when current is passed through a coil

suspended in radial magnetic field, it experiences a
torque NIAB and gets deflected by an angle θ where it is
balanced by restoring torque kθ, developed in
suspension strip, where k is restoring torque per unit
deflection or torsional constant of suspension strip.

Thus NIAB = kθ
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k
Or I  θ
NAB

I  Gθ
or I  θ

So by measuring deflection α, we can measure current I passing through the coil.

k
Where G  , G is called galvanometer constant.
NAB

So measuring by deflection α, we can measure current I passing through the coil.

Current sensitivity (I s )
It is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer coil when unit current is passed through it.
θ
Thus Is  . SI unit is rad/A.
I

θ 1 NAB
since   therefore, the increase current sensitivity we should
I G k

 Increase N which is not possible beyond a certain limit as it makes galvanometer bulky.
 Increase A which is not possible beyond a certain limit due to space.
 Increase B
 Decrease k, so we use phosphor bronze strip in galvanometer because it has very small k.

Voltage sensitivity ( Vs )

Is the defined as the deflection produced in galvanometer coil when unit voltage is applied across its
θ
terminals. Vs  . SI unit is rad/V.
V

Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

A galvanometer can be converted into ammeter by connecting a low shunt resistance in parallel with it, so
that most of the current by passes through the shunt resistance, enabling the galvanometer to measure much
larger currents.

Thus if a galvanometer of resistance

Rg which gives full scale deflection at
Ig is to be used to convert into an

ammeter capable of measuring a

maximum current I , we connect a
shunt resistance R in parallel with it which is obtained as
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VR  VG  I  Ig  R  IgRg
IgR g
 R
I  Ig

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting high resistance in series with it, so that most
of the voltage applied drops across it, enabling the galvanometer to measure much larger voltages.

Thus is the galvanometer of resistance R g which gives full deflection at current Ig , is to be converted into

voltmeter capable of measuring maximum voltage up to V volts, then a high resistance R is connected in
series with it which is given by

V
V  IgRg  IgR or V  IgRg  IgR or R   Rg
Ig

Figure of merit
The figure of merit of a galvanometer is a measure that indicates its sensitivity. It is defined as the current
required to produce a deflection of one scale division in the galvanometer. In other words, it tells you how
much current is needed to achieve a certain amount of movement in the needle or indicator of the
galvanometer.

Mathematically, the figure of merit (K) of a galvanometer can be expressed as:

Ig
k
n

 SI unit of k is division per ampere.