THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

Department of Mathematics and Statistics

MAT1110: Foundation Mathematics and Statistics for Social Sciences
Tutorial Sheet 1 (2023/2024)
1. (a) List down the elements of the following sets

i. A = {x : x is even, x ≤ 19, x ∈ N}. iv. D = {x : x is a prime number , 0 < x <

ii. B = {x : −3 ≤ x ≤ 23 , x ∈ Z} 10}.
iii. C = {x : 6 + x = 5, x ∈ N}

(b) Let the universal set E = {x : x ≤ 13, x ∈ N}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, C =
{5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, D = {x : x = 2k + 1, k ∈ N}, G = {x : x = 2k, k ∈ N}, and F = {1, 5, 9}.
i. List down the sets U, D and E, given that D and E are subsets of U.
Hence, find
ii. A ∩ (C ∪ G c ).
iii. A − B
iv. (A ∩ B) − C
v. F − (A ∩ D)c
(c) Let E = {x : x ∈ Z, 0 ≤ x ≤ 21} be the universal set, A = {x : x = 2k − 2, x < 20, k ∈ N},
B = {1, 3, 8, 19, 20} and C = {1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15}.
Illustrate this information on a Venn diagram. Hence, find the following;

i. Ac ∩ Bc iii. A − (B ∪ C)
ii. (A ∪ B) ∩ C iv. (A ∪ B)c

(d) List down all the subsets of each of the following.

i. A = {} iii. V = {x : x is a vowel of the english alphabet}.

ii. B = {1, 2}

2. (a) In each of the following Venn diagrams, shade

i. B ∩ (A − C)c . ii. B ∩ (A ∪ C)c .

B A B C A

U U
3. People consume tobacco using three different methods; Smoke (SM), Sniff (SN) or Chew (CH).
A survey was conducted on 70 tobacco consumers, and the results came out as follows. 56
smoked, 56 sniffed, and 50 chewed. In addition, 48 smoked and sniffed, 42 smoked and chewed,
44 sniffed and chewed.
Find the number of people who used all the three methods.
4. In a class of 100 students, 60 like Mathematics, 40 like Economics, 45 like Demography. In
addition, 20 like both Mathematics and Economics, 25 like both Economics and Demography,
30 like both Mathematics and Demography. 15 students like all the three courses.
(a) Draw a Venn diagram to represent this information.
(b) Find the number of students who like exactly one course.
(c) Find the number of students who like neither Economics nor Demography.
5. (a) If A ⊂ B, then simplify each of the following:

i. (A ∩ B)c ii. (B ∩ Ac ) ∪ A.

(b) If A and B are disjoint subsets of the universal set E, simplify each of the following:

i. Ac ∩ B. ii. A ∪ B. iii. Ac ∪ Bc .

(c) Express each of the following in its simplest form:

i. (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ Bc ) iii. Bc ∩ (A ∪ B).
ii. [(X ∩ Y )c ∪ (X − Y )]c . iv. [Ac ∪ (A ∩ Bc )]c .

6. (a) Let R be the universal set. Rewrite each of the following in set builder notation

i. A = (−5, 3) iii. C = [0, 4]

ii. B = (4, 7] iv. D = [−2, 6)

(b) Let R be the universal set and A = (−7, 3], B = (0, 8), C = {x : x ≤ 10, x ∈ R}. Find each
of the following sets and hence illustrate the answers on the number line.

i. A ∩ C c . iv. [Ac − (B − C)]c

ii. B − A. v. Ac ∩ Bc .
iii. A ∩ (B ∪ C c ).

(c) Let R be the universal set, A = (−7, 3] and B = (0, 8). Illustrate De Morgan’s laws using
sets A and B.
7. (a) Express each of the following numbers in the form ab , where a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0 and a
b
is in
its simplest form.

i. 1.25 iii. 2.2413 v. −2.71

ii. 0.666 · · · iv. 0.818181818 · · · vi. 0.0321

(b) Simplify each of the following:

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
i. 36 + 64 iii. 20 + 2 45 − 80 v. 72 − 8 3 + 3 48
√ √ √ √ √ √
3√ 28
ii. 7 3 + 12 iv. 3 27 − 48 + 2 75 vi. 2 175

(c) Rationalize the denominator in each of the following:

 √
i. √3 iii. 3 √2 v. √x−y
√
5 2+ x− y
√ 5 √
2√ √3−√7 h √
ii. iv. vi. √
x+h− x
3− 3 3+ 7

(d) Rationalize the denominator and simplify in each of the following:

√ √ √ √ √
i. √42 + 8 ii. 3+8√5 + 45 iii. √3−√7 + 21
3+ 7

8. (a) Simplify each of the following leaving the answer in standard form, a + bi, where a, b ∈ R.
2−3i
i. (2 + 3i) − (−7 + 6i) iii. (−2 + 3i)2 v. 1−2i
(−2+3i)2
ii. (3 + 4i) + (6 − 5i) iv. (2 + i)(−1 + 2i)(4 − 3i) vi. 1+2i

(b) Simplify each of the following:

i. i11 iii. i250

ii. i102 iv. i900

(c) Given that z1 = 3−2i, z2 = −1+i and z3 = 3+2i, perform each of the following operations,
leaving each answer in the form a + bi, where a, b ∈ R.
2z1 −5z3 z 2 z1 (z2 )2
i. z3
ii. z3 iii. z1

(d) Solve each of the following equations.

i. x + 6 + 2y i = 6 − 5i ii. 4x + (3y + 4) i = 21 + 7i iii. (6 + 3i) = 4i − 30(x + yi)

5−2i
(e) Given that z
= 2 + i, find z in the form a + bi, where a, b ∈ R.
 THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
MAT1110: Foundation Mathematics and Statistics for Social Sciences
Tutorial Sheet 2 (2023/2024)
1. (a) Illustrate each of the information sets on an arrow diagram.

i. {(0, −1), (2, 2), (1, −2), (3, 0), (1, 1)} iv. {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}
ii. {(1, 4), (3, 4), (7, 3)} v. {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
iii. {(4, 3), (4, 7), (3, 4)}

Which sets of ordered pairs are functions? Give a reason for your answer in each case.
(b) If the function f is defined by
(
3x + 2 for x < 0,
f(x) :=
5x − 1 for x ≥ 0,

compute f(3), f(0), and f(−4).

(c) If the function f is defined by


2 for x < 0,
f(x) := x 2 + 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4,

−1 for x > 4,

compute f(2), f(−3), f(100).

(d) For each of the following functions find, in simplest form, an expression for
f(x + h) − f(x)
h
i. f(x) = 4x + 5 iv. f(x) = 1
x
ii. f(x) = x 2 − 3x
iii. f(x) = x 2 + 7x − 4 v. f(x) = √1
x

(e) For each of the following functions, find the domain and the range.
√
i. f(x) = 4x + 5 v. f(x) = x + 4
ii. f(x) = 2x−3
1 √
vi. f(x) = 3x − 1
iii. f(x) = x − 3x
2
√
iv. f(x) = √3x−5
1
vii. f(x) = x 2 + 4

2. (a) Let f and g be two functions. Find (fog)(x) and (gof)(x), specifying the domain in each
case:
√
i. f(x) = 3x + 4, g(x) = x 2 + 1 iii. f(x) = x − 2, g(x) = 3x − 1
ii. f(x) = x 2 − x − 1, g(x) = x + 4 iv. f(x) = x−1
1
, g(x) = x2

(b) If f(x) = x 2 − 2, g(x) = x + 4, find (fog)(4) and (gof)(4).

√
3. (a) Let g(x) = x 2 − 4 and f(x) = x. Find (fog)(x) and (gof)(x), specifying the domain and
range in each case.
(b) For each of the following functions, (i) list its domain and range, (ii) form the inverse
function f −1 and list the domain and range of f −1 .
 i. f = {(1, 5), (2, 9), (5, 21)} ii. f = {(0, 0), (2, 8), (−1, −1), (−2, −8)}

(c) Show that the following functions are inverses of each other.
i. f(x) = 5x − 9, g(x) = x+95
ii. f(x) = x−1
1
for x 6= 1, g(x) = x+1
x
for x 6= 0.
(d) Given that f(x) = 2x + 3 and g(x) = 3x − 5, find

i. (fog)−1 (x) iv. (fog)−1 (2)

ii. (f −1 og −1 )(x) v. (f −1 og −1 )(4)
iii. (g −1 og −1 )(x) vi. (g −1 og −1 )(−10)
3
(e) If f(x) = x − 4 and g(x) = , solve the equation
x+1
(f ◦ g)−1 (x) = 2.
 THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
MAT1110: Foundation Mathematics and Statistics for Social Sciences
Tutorial Sheet 3 (2023/2024)
1. (a) Check whether the function given below is one-to-one:

i. f (x) = 3x − 5. iii. f (x) = x3 .

ii. f (x) = x2 . iv. f (x) = x1 .

(b) Determine which of the following functions are even, odd of neither odd nor even.

i. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 5 iv. f (x) = 5 − 5x − 3x2

ii. f (x) = 2x + 1 v. f (x) = 3x4 + x2 − 7
√
iii. f (x) = 3 x vi. f (x) = x23+2

2. (a) Determine the nature of roots of each of the following equations:

i. 2x2 − 2x + 5 = 0 ii. 6x2 + 4x − 2 = 0 iii. x2 − 4x + 4 = 0

(b) For each of the following, find the values of k for which the equation has equal roots.

i. ii.
x2 + kx + 4 = 0 kx2 + 8x + k = 0

(c) By completing the square, rewrite each of the following functions in the form
f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k.
Hence, sketch the graph, showing clearly the x and y intercepts, and the turning point. State the
range of the function.

i. f (x) = −2x2 + 4x − 5 iv. f (x) = 4x2 − 12x + 3

ii. f (x) = 4 − 3x2 v. f (x) = x2 + 10x + 25
iii. f (x) = 3x2 + 6x − 4 vi. f (x) = x2 − 12x + 36

(d) Sketch on the same axes, the following pairs of functions, clearly showing the x and y intercepts,
point(s) of intersection and the turning point.

i. y = x2 − 4x, x+y =0 ii. y = 3x2 − 2x, y = 1 − 4x iii. y = x2 , y = −x2 + 6x

3. The number of Vibrio cholerae in refrigerated water is given by

N (T ) = 20T 2 − 20T + 120, for − 2 ≤ T ≤ 14,
where T is the temperature of the water in degrees Celsius.
(a) Find the number of bacteria at 0◦ .
(b) Find the number of bacteria at 10◦ .
(c) At what temperature will the number of bacteria be minimal.
4. The profit function in dollars per day for a small scale company is given by
f (x) = −16x2 + 64x + 190,
where x is the number of products sold each day. Find the number of products (x) sold each day in
order to maximize the profit, and find this maximum profit.
 5. The length of a rectangular fence is three more than twice the width. Determine the dimensions that
will give the total area of 27m2 .
6. (a) Use long division to divide each of the following polynomials by the given divisor, and hence write
the polynomial in the form f (x) = Q(x)D(x) + R(x), where Q(x) is the quotient, D(x) the divisor
and R(x) the remainder.
i. f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5, x+1
ii. f (x) = 6x3 − 19x2 + 16x − 4, x−2
iii. f (x) = x3 + 6x2 − x + 3, 2x2 − 1
iv. f (x) = x4 + 3x2 + 1, x2 + 2x + 3
(b) Use synthetic division to divide each of the following polynomials by the given divisor, and write
the polynomial in the form
p(x) = q(x)(x − a) + r,
where q(x) is the quotient and r is the remainder.
i. p(x) = x3 − 7x2 − 4x + 28, x+2
ii. p(x) = 5x3 − 6x2 − 28x − 2, x+2
iii. p(x) = x3 − 10x2 − 31x − 30, x−3
iv. p(x) = 6x3 + x2 − 21x − 10, 2x + 1
(c) Factorize completely each of the following polynomials:

i. 4x3 − 8x2 − x + 2 iii. x3 − 2x2 + 2x − 4 v. x3 + 1

ii. 2x3 + 3x2 − 3x − 2 iv. x3 − 1 vi. x4 − 6x3 − 11x2 + 24x − 28

7. Solve each of the following equations:

(a) x3 + x2 − x − 1 = 0 (d) x2 (2x + 1) = 13x − 6

(b) 2x3 + 3x2 − 3x = 2
(c) x3 + 6x2 + 5x − 2 = 0 (e) x4 − 6x3 = 11x2 − 24x − 28

8. (a) Given that x − 1 and x + 1 are factors of f (x) = ax3 + bx2 − 3x − 7, find the value of a and of b.
(b) Let f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 6. Given that the remainders when f (x) is divided by x + 1 and x − 2
are 20 and 8 respectively, find the value of a and of b.
9. Sketch each of the following functions, clearly indicating the x and y intercepts.

(a) f (x) = x3 − 13x + 12 (d) f (x) = 4x3 − 12x2 + 5x + 6

(b) f (x) = 15 + 5x − 3x2 − x3
(c) f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 6 (e) f (x) = x3 − 6x − 5

10. (a) For each of the following rational functions, find/state the domain and the range. Hence sketch
the graph.

i. iii.
2−x x+1
f (x) = f (x) =
x+4 x−1
ii. iv.
3x + 6 2x + 5
f (x) = f (x) =
x−1 x−1

(b) Solve the following rational inequalities.

 i. iii.
2−x 8
>0 <4
x+4 x+5
ii. iv.
2x − 3 2x
≥x <4
x−6 x−3

(c) Find the partial-fraction decomposition of the following rational functions:

i. ii. iii.
1 x+7 2x2 − 9x − 35
(x + 5)(x + 4) x2 + 3x + 2 x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6

(d) i. ii.
x2 + 2 4x
(x + 2)2 (x + 3) x3 + 4x2+ 5x + 2

(e) i. ii. iii.

x2 − 1 x−3 2x
x(x2 + 1) x3 + 3x (x + 1)2 (x2 + 1)

(f) i. ii. iii.

x2 + 1 4x3 + 10x + 4 2x4 + 3x2 + 1
x2 − 1 x(2x + 1) x2 + 3x + 2

11. Solve each of the following quadratic inequalities, in each case, illustrating the solution set on the
number line.

(a) (c)
2
2x + 3x ≥ 3 x2 + 2x ≤ 8
(b) (d)
2
x − 2x − 3 < 0 x2 − 3x − 4 6= 0

12. Sketch each of the following quadratic functions. In each case, state the set of value(s) of x for which
f (x) > 0, f (x) ≤ 0.

(a) (c)
f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 3 f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 5
(b) (d)
2
f (x) = −x − 4x + 1 f (x) = −2x2 − 3x + 2
13. Solve each of the following cubic inequalities, in each case, illustrate the solution set on the number
line.

(a) (c)
4x3 − x < 6 − 9x2 x3 − x2 − 9x + 9 ≤ 0
(b) (d)
(x + 4)(x − 2)(x − 7) > 0 4x3 − 8x2 − x + 2 6= 0

14. Sketch each of the following cubic functions. In each case, state the set of value(s) of x for which
f (x) > 0, f (x) ≤ 0.

(a) (c)
3 2
f (x) = 4x + 9x − x − 6 f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 3x + 9
(b) (d)
3 2
f (x) = x − 5x − 22x + 56 f (x) = x4 + 4x3 − 12x2

15. (a) Sketch the graph of each of the following:

i. y = |2x + 3| ii. y = |x2 − 9| iii. y = |x3 + 1| iv. y = |x3 +x2 −x−1|.

(b) Solve the following:

3
i. 2x − 2
= 3. ii. |5x − 2| = |2x|.

(c) For each of the following; (i) sketch the graphs and (ii) solve the equation f (x) = g(x).
i. f (x) = |x2 − 2x|, g(x) = 41 − 2x.
ii. f (x) = −2x, g(x) = 12 x − 2 .
iii. f (x) = |5x − 4|, g(x) = 24 + 2x − x2 .
 The University of Zambia
School of Natural Sciences
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Foundation Mathematics & Statistics for Social Sciences - MAT1110

Tutorial Sheet 4 2023/2024 Academic year

1. Find the quadrant that contains the terminal side of θ if the given conditions are
true:

a) sin θ > 0 and cos θ < 0 b) tan θ < 0 and cos θ < 0 c) sin θ > 0 and cot θ < 0

d) sec θ > 0 and tan θ > 0 e) csc θ > 0 and cot θ > 0 f) cos θ > 0 and csc θ < 0

2. Without using a calculator, change each of the following to radians:

a) 420◦ b) 570◦ c) −45◦ d) −150◦

3. Without using a calculator, change each of the following to degrees:

4π π 11π 5π
a) b) c) − d) −
3 12 4 6

4. Find exact values (do not use a calculator or a table) for the following :

a) sin 225◦ b) cos 150◦ c) tan 330◦ d) csc(−135◦ ) e) sec 420◦

     
2π 4π 5π 13π 7π
f) sin g) tan h) cos − i) cot − j) sec −
3 3 3 3 6

5. Use the basic trigonometric identities to find the remaining trigonometric functional
values :
a) sin θ = 4
5
and the terminal side of θ lies in the first quadrant.
b) cos θ = − 13
5
and the terminal side of θ lies in the second quadrant.
c) tan θ = 12
5
and the terminal side of θ lies in the third quadrant.
d) csc θ = − 54 and sec θ < 0.

6. Simplify the given trigonometric expression to a single trigonometric function or

a
constant :

a) sec x−sin x tan x b) (cos2 x−1)(tan2 x+1) c) cos θ+tan θ sin θ

sec θ − cos θ tan x sin x cot x 1 + sec θ

d) e) f) g)
tan θ sec2 x − 1 cot2 x + 1 sin θ + tan θ

1
 7. Prove each of the following identities :

1 − sin x (tan x)(1 + cot2 x)

a) (tan x − sec x) =
2
b) = cot x
1 + sin x 1 + tan2 x
sin x 1 − cos x
c) (sin x − cos x) = 1−2 sin x cos x
2
d) =
1 + cos x sin x
1
e) (1 − cos α) (1+sec α) = sin α tan α f) = sec θ+tan θ
sec θ(1 − sin θ)

8. Given that cos α = 53 with α in the first quadrant, and sin β = 15

17
with β in the second
quadrant, find sin(α − β) and tan(α + β).

9. Given that tan α = − 23 with α in the second quadrant, and tan β = 3

5
with β in the
third quadrant, find tan(α − β) and tan(α + β).

10. Find the exact values without using a calculator or a table :

a) cos tan−1 24 − sin−1 45 b) sin tan−1 34 − cos−1 24
7



25

11. Prove each of the following identities :

a) sin(α+90◦ ) = cos α b) cos(α+90◦ ) = − sin α c) cos(α−π) = − cos α

 π  1 + tan α  π  tan α − 1
d) tan(α−π) = tan α e) tan α + = f) tan α − =
4 1 − tan α 4 tan α + 1
12. Solve each of the following equations for θ, if 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ . Do not use a calculator
or a table.
√
a) 2 sin θ+ 3 = 0 b) tan2 θ = 3 c) 2 cos2 θ = cos θ d) 2 cos3 θ = cos θ

e) 2 cos2 θ−sin θ−1 = 0 f) tan θ = cot θ g) cos 2x+3 sin x−2 = 0

13. Solve each of the following equations for θ, if −π ≤ θ ≤ π. Do not use a calculator
or a table.

a) 2 tan x sec x−tan x = 0 b) 2 sin2 θ+3 sin θ+1 = 0 c) sec2 x−sec x−2 = 0

d) sin x cos x−cos x = 1−sin x e) sin x = 1−cos x f) tan x+1 = sec x

14. Graph each of the following functions in the indicated interval :

 π π 5π
a) f(x) = 1−cos x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π b) f(x) = −2+sin x − , ≤x≤
2 2 2
x  3  
2π
c) f(x) = 2 cos − , −π ≤ x ≤ 5π d) f(x) = 1+sin 2x + , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
2 2 3
15. Find the period, amplitude and phase shift of the given function and draw the graph
of the function :
c) f(x) = cos 2x + π2


a) f(x) = 2 sin 2(x − π) b) f(x) = 21 cos 3(x + π)
d) f(x) = 3 sin 21 x − π2 e) f(x) = 2−3 sin x + π2 f) f(x) = −2+2 sin 2x − π2

2
16. Prove each of the following identities :

sin 2θ sin θ 1 − tan2 θ

a) +cos2 θ = 1 b) = cos 2θ c) cot θ sin 2θ = 1+cos 2θ
2 cos θ 1 + tan2 θ

sec2 θ cot2 θ − 1 cos 2θ

d) sec 2θ = e) cot 2θ = f) = cos θ−sin θ
2 − sec2 θ 2 cot θ cos θ + sin θ
17. Express :
a) cos 3θ in terms of cos θ b) sin 3θ in terms of sin θ c) cos 4θ in terms
of cos θ

18. Simplify the given trigonometric expression to a single trigonometric function or

a
constant :

a) sec x−sin x tan x b) (cos2 x−1)(tan2 x+1) c) cos θ+tan θ sin θ

19. Prove each of the following identities :

1 − sin x (tan x)(1 + cot2 x)

a) (tan x − sec x) =
2
b) = cot x
1 + sin x 1 + tan2 x

20. Solve each of the following equations for θ, if 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ . Do not use a calculator
or a table.
√
a) 2 sin θ+ 3 = 0 b) tan2 θ = 3 c) 2 cos2 θ = cos θ d) 2 cos3 θ = cos θ

21. Solve each of the following equations for θ, if −π ≤ θ ≤ π. Do not use a calculator
or a table.

a) 2 tan x sec x−tan x = 0 b) 2 sin2 θ+3 sin θ+1 = 0 c) sec2 x−sec x−2 = 0

22. Graph each of the following functions in the indicated interval :

 π π 5π
a) f(x) = 1−cos x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π b) f(x) = −2+sin x − , ≤x≤
2 2 2

3
 The University of Zambia
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Academic Year: 2023/2024
MAT1110: Quiz 1
Instructions:
• This quiz has 3 questions. Attempt all the questions.
• Duration is 60 minutes.
• Total marks are 37

Name: ............................................................... ..............TG......

Computer Number: ..........................................................................

1. (a) Given that A ⊂ B,

i. Express the following in simplest form
6/14/24
[(A ∪ B) ∪ (A ∩ B)]c .
[3]
c
ii. Hence, or otherwise, shade the region represented by [(A ∪ B) ∪ (A ∩ B)] in
the Venn diagram below [2]

B A

1
 √ √
(b) i. Simplify 63 + 24. [2]
ii. Hence, or otherwise, show that
√ √
8+ 2 1√
√ √ = a,
63 + 24 5

where a is a natural number. [3]

2.
(a) Express the following in the form ab , where a and b have no common factors.
i. 0.0125. [2]
ii. 2.5555555 · · · [3]
(b) i. Given that z = 2 − i and ω = 3 + 2i, express
z−z
ω
in the form a + bi. [4]
ii. Find the complex number z = x + iy for which

(z + i)(1 − i) = 2 + 3i.

[3 ]
(c) Let E = (−10, 8] be the universal set, and let A = (−9, 0) and B = [−1, 6).
Find each of the following, and display your answer on a number line.
i. A ∩ B. [3]
ii. Ac ∪ B c . [3]
x−1 2x
√
3. Let f (x) = x+2 , g(x) = x+1 and h(x) = x + 2.
(a) Find the domain and range of h(x). [3]
(b) Find g −1 (x). [2]
(c) Find the value(s) of x for which

(f og −1 )(x) = 2.

[4]

End of Quiz!

Page 2
 The University of Zambia
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Academic Year: 2023/2024
MAT1110 Test 1:18-05-24
Instructions:
• This test has 3 questions. Attempt all.
• Duration is 120 minutes.
• Total marks are 73

Name: ......................................................................................

Computer Number: ..........................................................................

6/14/24
TG : ........................................................................

1. (a) 100 University of Zambia students took part in Inter-University sports day as fol-
lows:
60 took part in Athletics (A), 40 took part in Basketball (B), 30 took part in Cricket
(C).
In addition, 13 took part in both Athletics and Basketball, 15 took part in both
Athletics and Cricket, and 17 took part in both Cricket and Basketball.
10 students took part in all the three sports disciplines.
i. Illustrate this information on a Venn diagram. [4]
ii. Find the number of students who took part in exact one sporting activity. [2]
iii. Find the number of students who took part in atleast two of the sporting
activity. [2]
√ √
(b) i. Simplify 28 − 3 343. [3]
ii. Show that −0.46 = ab , where b 6= 0, a and b are integers with no common factor. [3]
(c) i. Let X = [−2, 10] be the universal set.
Given that A = (−1, 7), B = [0, 8] and C = (−2, 7),
find (Ac ∩ B) ∪ C and display your answer on a number line. [5]

1
 ii. Find the value(s) of x such that
4 + x2 i = 4 + xi5 + 6i9 .
[6]
2. (a) Let f (x) = ax + b, where a and b are constants, and g(x) = 2x + 3 be two functions.
i. If (f og)(x) = (gof )(x), find a relationship between a and b. [5]
ii. Given that f −1 (7) = −1, find the values of a and b. [6]
(b) The revenue function for a sports theatre is given by
R(x) = (500 − 10x)(20 + x),
where x is the price of a ticket.
i. Find the price of a ticket so that the revenue is maximum. [4]
ii. Find this maximum revenue. [2]
(c) The length of a rectangular fence is three more than twice the width. Determine
the dimensions that will give the total area of 27m2 . [4]

3. (a) Let f (x) = 2x4 − 3x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 4.

i. Find the remainder when f (x) is divided by 2x + 1. [3]
ii. Find the integers A, B and C for which
2x4 − 3x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 4 = (x2 + 1)(Ax2 + Bx + c).
[3]
(b) Given that f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12,
i. Show that (x − 3) is a factor of f (x). [2]
ii. Hence, or otherwise, sketch the graph of f (x), indicating the coordinates of the
intercepts. [6]
(c) i. Find the partial fraction decomposition of
x+8
.
x3 − 4x
[6]
ii. Hence, or otherwise, find the partial fraction decomposition of

x4 + x3 − 4x2 − 3x + 8
.
x3 − 4x
[3]
(d) Sketch the graph of
−1
f (x) = .
x+1
[4]

Page 2
 MAT 1110:

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2016
Contents

1 SETS 5
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Notations and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Operations on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.8 Venn diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.11 Laws of algebra of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 Numbers 13
2.1 Natural numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Interval notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.1 Raising a number to a power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6.2 Laws of powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Radicals and rational powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.1 Square roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.8 Rationalizing the denominator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1
 2.8.2 Equal complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.8.5 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers . . . . 22
2.8.8 Multiplication of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.8.12 Conjugate complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.8.14 Division of complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.8.17 Plotting complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3 Functions 27
3.1 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.2 Classification of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.1.4 Domain, Range and Co-domain . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Classification of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.10 Inverse of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.12 Composite functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.14 Odd and even functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Polynomial Functions 34
4.1 Linear function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1.2 Linear equations and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.1.4 Linear equations in one variable . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Equations involving fractional expressions . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.3 Graphs of linear functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Quadratic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.2 Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Graph of a quadratic function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.5 Polynomial functions and rational functions . . . . . . . . . 40

2
 4.5.3 Division of polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.5.6 The factor theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.5.8 Rational functions; Partial fractions . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.6 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.6.1 introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.6.2 Solving linear inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6.4 Quadratic inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6.5 Polynomial inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5 Trigonometry 47
5.1 Radian measure and the circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.2 Definition of the trigonometric ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 Trigonometric identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3.1 Compound angle formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.4 Basic Trigonometric equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.4.1 Basic Trigonometric equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5.4.3 Equations with more than one function . . . . . . . . 51

6 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 52

7 Differentiation 53
7.1 limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.3 First principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.4 Differentiation of common functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.4.2 Trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.4.4 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions . 58

3
7.5 Methods of differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.5.1 Differentiation of implicit functions . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.5.3 Inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.6 Some Applications of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.7 Tangents and Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.7.1 Tangents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.7.3 Normals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.8 Turning Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4
Chapter 1
SETS

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will review some basic concepts about set theory. Af-
ter this chapter, a student is expected to define a set correctly, perform
different set operation such as intersection, union and subsets, represent
sets on Venn diagrams as well as use the De Morgans laws to simplify set
operation.

Definition 1.1.1. A set is a collection of well defined objects. The objects

of a set are called elements or members of that set.

1.1.2 Notations and Definitions

1. A capital letter such as A, B C and so on will be used to represent a

set.

2. {} braces may be used to represent a set.

3. A small letter will be used to represent an element of a set. i.e.

a, b, c, d and so on. Numbers may also be used to represent the
elements of a set.

5
 A set can either be represented by writing/ listing down the elements,
or by describing it. i.e. describing its members. Each element in a set is
separated from the other by a comma.
Consider the following examples:
List Description
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} A = {x : x is a counting nunber less than 6
V = {a, e, i, o, u} V = {x : x is a vowel}.
C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .} C = {x : x is a positive even number}.
E = {dog, plate, Earth, food} E = { impossible}.
If a setA consists of no elements we call it an empty set, denoted by
A = ∅ or equivalently A = {}. We write b ∈ A to mean that the element b
belong to the set A. Similarly, we write c ∈
/ A to mean that the element c
does not belong to the set A.

Definition 1.1.3. Finite set A set is said to be finite if its elements can be
listed down. For instance, V = {x : x is a vowel} is a finite set.

Definition 1.1.4. infinite set A set is said to be infinite if its elements can
not be listed down. For instance, C = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . .} is an infinite set.

Definition 1.1.5. Equal sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equal (A = B) if the set A has the
same members as the set B regardless of the order of listing.

Example 1.1.6. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b}, then A = B.

Definition 1.1.7. Equivalent sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent (A ∼ B) if they are of the
same size.

Example 1.1.8. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then A ∼ B.

6
 Note
1. Equal set consist of the same members and the same number of mem-
bers.

2. Equivalent sets have the same number of elements, but need not have
the same members.
Definition 1.1.9. Subset
A set A is a subset of another set B, if every element of A is also an
element of B.
In the previous definition, if B has elements that are not elements of A,
then we say that A is a proper subset of B. We write A ⊂ B to mean that
A is a proper subset of B.
Example 1.1.10. If A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, c, b, d}, then A ⊂ B. More-
over, A is a proper subset of B.
If a set A is of size n, where n is a counting number, then the total
number of subsets of A is given by

2n

Example 1.1.11. If A = {a, b, c}.

1. List down all the subsets of A.

2. List down all the subsets of A containing c.

3.
Definition 1.1.12. Universal set
The universal set (U ) is the entire collection of elements of a set under
consideration.
7
 If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then the universal set is

U = {x : x is a counting number }

1.2 Operations on sets

Definition 1.2.1. Complement of a set

The complement of a set A, denoted by A0 or Ac, with respect to the
given universal set U is the set of all elements of U that do not belong to
A. That is

A0 = {x : x ∈ U, x ∈
/ A}.

Example 1.2.2. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}.

List down the elements of A0.

Definition 1.2.3. Union of sets

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all
elements that belong to A or B of both. That is

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

Note that the definition can be extended to more two sets.

Example 1.2.4. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}. Find A ∪ B.

Definition 1.2.5. Intersection of sets

The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of
all elements that belong to both A and B. That is

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

8
 Note that the definition can be extended to more two sets.

Example 1.2.6. Let A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6}. Find A ∩ B.

We write A − B, read as A minus B, to mean the set A ∩ B 0.

Example 1.2.7. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} A = {2, 3, 4} and B =

{4, 5, 6}. List down the elements of A ∩ B 0.

1.2.8 Venn diagram

Union and intersection of sets may be described by using a Venn diagram.

All the elements of a set are enclosed in a circle. For any two sets A and
B, the union of the sets is the total area bounded by the circles in the
Venn diagram, while the intersection is the overlapping cross-hatched area
as shown below.

Let A, B, C be any 3 sets. We list the following Venn diagrams and

their expressions.

9
Theorem 1.2.9. De Morgan’s Laws of ∩ and ∪
Let A and B be any two sets. We have that

1.
(A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0.

2.
(A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0.

Example 1.2.10. Consider the universal set

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10},

and A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. One can easily confirm the above
laws.

1.2.11 Laws of algebra of sets

Let A, B and C be any subsets of the universal set U. We get

1. The identity law:

(a) A ∪ A = A
(b) A ∩ A = A

2. Commutative law:

(a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A.
(b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A.

3. Associative law:

(a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C).
(b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
10
 4. Distributive law:

(a) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
(b) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

5. Identity law:

(a) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
(b) A ∩ U = A

6. Identity law:

(a) A ∪ ∅ = A
(b) A ∪ U = U.

7. Complement law:

(a) A ∪ A0 = U
(b) A ∩ A0 = ∅.

8. Complement law:

(a) (A0)0 = A.
(b) U 0 = ∅.
(c) ∅0 = U.

9. Complement law:

(a) A ∪ A0 = U
(b) A ∩ A0 = ∅.

10. Complement law:

(a) (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0.
11
 (b) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0.

Example 1.2.12. Simplify each of the following:

1.
[A0 ∪ (A ∩ B 0)]0

2.
B 0 ∩ (A ∪ B).

Example 1.2.13. By using the set rules, show that the following identities
are true.

1.
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

2.
(A ∩ B 0) ∩ C 0 = (A ∩ C 0) ∩ (B ∩ C 0)0.

12
Chapter 2
Numbers

2.1 Natural numbers

The first numbers we ever meet are the whole numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .

and the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . which are written down us-
ing the numerals. Thus we denote the set of natural numbers and whole
numbers respectively, as N and W, and are defined as follows

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . .}
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . .}

The natural numbers can be represented by equally spaced points on a

straight line where 0 is taken to be the first number.

The natural numbers are ordered. That is the progress from small to
large. On the line, numbers to the left of a given number are less than (<)
the given number, and numbers to the right are greater (>) than the given
number. For example, 8 > 5 while 3 < 6.

13
2.2 Integers

If the straight line displaying the natural numbers is extended to the left,
we get equally spaced points to the left of zero.

These points represent negative numbers which are written as the nat-
ural numbers preceded by a minus sign, for example −4. The positive and
negative natural numbers including 0 are collectively called integers, and
Z denoted the set of integers. Here, the concept of order still plays a
significant law. For example, −5 < 3 and −2 > −4.
It is important so far to note that N ⊂ W ⊂ Z.

2.3 Real numbers

Real numbers are numbers an be expressed as decimals, such as

−3 1 √
4.00 · · · , = −0.7500 · · · , = 0.3333 · · · , and 2 = 1.4142 · · · .
4 3
Again, the dots (· · · ) in each case indicate that the sequence of decimal
digits goes on forever. As before, the real numbers can be represented
geometrically as points on a number line called the real line.

The symbol R denotes the set of real numbers.

2.4 Rational numbers

Definition 2.4.1. Rational number are numbers that can be expressed in

the form of ab , where a and b are integers and b 6= 0.

We denote by Q the set of rational numbers.

14
 Examples of rational numbers are 31 , 49 , −4 200
9 , 13 and 57 =
57
1. The rational
numbers are precisely the real numbers with decimal expansions that are
either:

1. Terminating (ending in an infinite string of zeroes), for example,

3
= 0.75000 · · · = 0.75
4
or

2. Eventually repeating (ending with a block of digits that repeats over

and over), for example
23 ¯ (the bar indicates the block of repeating digits).
= 2.090909 · · · = 2.09
11

Real numbers that are not rational numbers are called irrational num-
bers. They are characterized by having non-terminating and non-repeating
decimal expansions. Examples are
√ √3
π, 2, 5 and log10 3.

Since every decimal expansion represents a real number, there are in-
finitely many irrational numbers.
Again, we note that N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.

Example 2.4.2. Show that each of the following numbers are rational.

1. 1.25

2. 0.3̄
¯
3. 0.359.

15
2.5 Interval notation

The graph of {x : x > 2} is a number line shown below. The open/

unshaded circle at 2 indicates that 2 is not included in the set. Rather

than write this set of real numbers using set-builder notation, we can write
the set in interval notation as (2, ∞).
In general, the interval notations are:

1. (a, b) represents all the real numbers between a and b, not including
a and b. This is an open interval. In set builder notation, we write
{x : a < x < b}. For example, the graph of (−4, 2) is

2. [a, b] represents all the real numbers between a and b, including a

and b. This is a closed interval. In set builder notation, we write
{x : a ≤ x ≤ b}. For example, the graph of [0, 4] is

3. (a, b] represents all the real numbers between a and b, not including
a but including b. This is a half open interval. In set builder notation,
we write {x : a < x ≤ b}. For example, the graph of (−1, 3] is

4. [a, b) represents all the real numbers between a and b, including a but
not b. This is a half open interval. In set builder notation, we write
{x : a ≤ x < b}. For example, the graph of [−4, −1) is

Subsets of the real numbers whose graphs extend forever in the one or
both directions can be represented by interval notation using the infinity
symbol ∞ or the negative infinity symbol −∞. They are:

1. (−∞, a)

2. (b, ∞)
16
 3. (−∞, a]

4. [b, ∞)

5. (−∞, ∞)

Example 2.5.1. Let U = [0, 10) and define A = [0, 5], B = [2, 8] and C =
(1, 6). Find each of the following sets and display them on the number line.

1. A ∩ C

2. A ∩ B

3. A ∩ B 0

4. A0 ∩ C 0

Definition 2.5.2. Absolute value of a number

The absolute value of the real number a, denoted by |a|, is defined by

a if a ≥ 0
|a| = .
−a if a < 0

Example 2.5.3. Find the absolute value of each of the following:

1. |5|

2. | − 4|

3. |0|

Example 2.5.4. Simplify given that

|x − 3| + |x + 2| given that − 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

17
2.6 Powers

2.6.1 Raising a number to a power

The arithmetic operation of raising a number to a power is devised from

repetitive multiplication. For example: 10×10×10×10 = 104− the number
10 multiplied by itself 4 times. In 104, 4 is called the power or index (plural
indices), while 10 is called the base.

2.6.2 Laws of powers

Let a, n, m ∈ R with a 6= 0. We have that

1. a0 = 1

2. a−m = 1
am . For example, 2−2 = 1
22
= 41 .

3. am × an = am+n. To multiply expressions with the same base, copy the

base and add the powers. For example 5 × 52 = 51+2 = 53 = 125.

4. am ÷ an = am−n. To divide expressions with the same base, copy the

base and subtract the indices. For example 5(y 9 ÷ y 5) = 5y 9−5 = 5y 4.

5. (am)n = amn. Example (23)2 = 26

m √ √
6. a = n am = ( n a)m.
n

Example 2.6.3. Simplify each of the following :

2
1. 125 3

2.
5x−1y −4
(3y 5)−2x9

18
 3. −1
24a3b−8

.
6a−5b

2.7 Radicals and rational powers

In this section, students will learn how to simplify expressions involving

square roots, rationalize denominators and use rational powers/indices.

2.7.1 Square roots

√
If b2 = a, then b is called a square root of a. The symbol is used to denote
√
the positive or principal square root of a number, while − denotes the
negative square root.
√
1. 25 = 5 because 52 = 25 and 5 is positive.
√
2. 100 = 10 because 102 = 100 and 10 is positive.
√
The symbol that we use to denote the positive square root is called a
Radical sign. The number under the radical sign is called the Radicand.
√
Together a is called a radical expression.
Example 2.7.2. Evaluate
√
1. 64
√ √
2. 9 + 16
A rational number that is a square of another rational number is called
a perfect square. All the radicands in the previous example are perfect
1
squares. 4 is a perfect square because ( 12 )2 = 14 .
Theorem 2.7.3. Product rule of square roots If a and b are positive real
numbers, then
√ √ √
ab = a b.
19
Example 2.7.4. Use the product rule to simplify
√
1. 500
√ √
2. 6x × 3x

Another property for square roots involves division.

Theorem 2.7.5. Quotient rule of square roots If a and b are positive real
numbers, then r √
a a
=√ .
b b
Example 2.7.6. Use the quotient rule to simplify
q
1. 100
9
√
3
2. √48x .
6x

Adding and subtracting square roots

Two or more square roots can be combined using the distributive property
provided that they have the same radicands. Such radicals are called like
√ √ √ √
radicals. For example 7 11 + 6 11 = (7 + 6) 11 = 13 11.

Example 2.7.7. Add or subtract as indicated.

√ √
1. 7 2 + 5 2
√ √
2. 5x − 7 5x
√ √
3. 7 3 + 12
√ √
4. 4 50x − 6 32x

20
2.7.8 Rationalizing the denominator

Rationalizing the denominator is the process that involves rewriting a rad-

ical expression as an equivalent expression in which the denominator no
longer contains any radical.
If the denominator consists of the square root of a natural number that
is not a perfect square, multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
smallest number that produces the square root of a perfect square in the
denominator.

Example 2.7.9. Rationalize the denominator.

15
1. √
6
12
2. √
8

Radical expressions that involve the sum and difference of the same two
√ √ √ √
terms are are called conjugates. For example, a + b a − b are
conjugates. What happens when two conjugates are multiplied? Let us
see

√ √ √ √ √ 2 √ 2
( a+ b)( a − b) = ( a) − ( b) = a − b

To rationalize the denominator if the denominator contains two terms

with one or two square roots, we multiply the numerator and the denomi-
nator by the conjugate of the denominator.

Example 2.7.10. Rationalize the denominator.

1. √ 7√
5+ 3
h √
2. √
x+h− x

21
 Similarly, one can easily rationalize the numerator by considering the
discussion above.

2.8 Complex numbers

A complex number is an expression of the form a + bi, where a, b ∈ R and

i2 = −1. The set of such numbers is called the set of complex numbers and
is denoted by C.
If z = a + bi ∈ C, then we call a the real part of z and b the imaginary
part of z. We write this as a = Re(z) and b = Im(z). The representation
of a complex number in the form a + bi is called the Cartesian form of the
complex number. If b = 0, z = a, and z is said to be purely real. Similarly,
z is purely imaginary if a = 0.

Example 2.8.1. Let z = −3 − 4i. State Re(z) and Im(z).

2.8.2 Equal complex numbers

Definition 2.8.3. Two complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di are

equal if and only if a = c and b = d.

Example 2.8.4. 1. Given that x + yi = 5 + 4i.

2. Find the value of a and b if (a + b) + (a − b)i = 7 + 2i.

2.8.5 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Let z = a + bi and ω = c + di be two complex numbers.

z + ω = (a + bi) + (c + di).

22
Although the real and the imaginary parts can not be combined, we can
remove the brackets and total up like terms. That is

z + ω = a + bi + c + di
= (a + c) + bi + di
= (a + c) + (b + d)i.

Example 2.8.6. Compute z + ω if z = 4 + 5i and ω = 3 − 2i.

Similarly, if z = a + bi and ω = c + di, then

z − ω = (a + bi) − (c + di)
= a + bi − c − di
= (a − c) + (b − d)i.

Example 2.8.7. Find z − ω if z = 4 + 5i and ω = 3 − 2i.

2.8.8 Multiplication of complex numbers

Let z = a + bi and ω = c + di be two complex numbers.

zω = (a + bi)(c + di).

These are multiplied in the same way as you would determine the product
(3x + 4y)(2x + 5y). Thus,

zω = (a + bi)(c + di)
= ac + adi + bi(c) + bidi
= ac + adi + bci − bd
= (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.

23
Example 2.8.9. Given that z = 3 + 4i and ω = 2 + 5i. Compute zω.

If the expression contains more that two factors, we multiply the factors
together in stages.

Example 2.8.10. Multiply (3 + 4i)(5 − 8i)(1 − 2i).

From the previous example, we observed that i3 = −i, because i2 = −1.

Continuing, we see that i4 = i2 × i2 = −1 × −1 = 1, i5 = i and i6 = −1.
In summary, to calculate any high power of i, you can convert it to a
lower power by taking the closest multiple of 4 that is no longer bigger
than the exponent and subtract this from the exponent. For example, i99 =
i(96 + 3) = i3 = −i.

Example 2.8.11. Simplify each of the following:

1. i17

2. i120

3. i64002

2.8.12 Conjugate complex numbers

Compute (5 + 8i)(5 − 8i).

A pair of complex numbers like these are called conjugate complex num-
bers, and the product of conjugate complex numbers is always purely real.
In general is z = a + bi, then the conjugate of z, denoted by z̄, is given by
z̄ = a − bi.

Example 2.8.13. Given that z = 5 + 4i compute

1. z − z̄

2. z + z̄
24
 3. z z̄

2.8.14 Division of complex numbers

Division of a complex number by a real number is easy enough. For ex-

z 5−4i 5
ample, if z = 5 − 4i, then 3 = 3 = 3 − 43 i. But how do we manage with
7−4i
4+3i ?
If we could convert the denominator into a real number, we could divide
out as in the example above. This can easily be done by multiplying the
denominator by its complex conjugate.

Example 2.8.15. Simplify each of the following:

1.
3 + 2i
1 − 3i
2.
1+i
+ 2 + 4i
3 − 2i
Example 2.8.16. Solve each of the following for a and b.

1.
3i − 2
= 3a + 3(b − 1)i.
2i − 6
2.
2 i+a
− 2b + i3 = + b.
i i
2.8.17 Plotting complex numbers

To graph complex numbers, you simply combine the ideas of the real-
number coordinate plane and the Gauss or Argand coordinate plane to
create the complex coordinate plane.

25
 In other words, given a complex number a + bi, you take the real portion
of the complex number (a) to represent the x-coordinate, and you take the
imaginary portion (b) to represent the y-coordinate. Although you graph
complex numbers much like any point in the real-number coordinate plane,
complex numbers are not real. The x-coordinate is the only real part of
the complex number, so you call the x-axis the real axis and the y-axis the
imaginary axis when graphing in the complex coordinate plane.

Example 2.8.18. Plot each of the following on the complex coordinate

plane.

1. 4i

2. 2 + 3i

3. −1 − 4i

4. −2 + i
1
5. 2 − 3i.

26
Chapter 3
Functions

3.1 Relations

Definition 3.1.1. A relation R from a set X to a set Y is a set of ordered

pairs (x, y) such that for each x ∈ X, there corresponds atleast one y ∈ Y.

We write xRy to mean that x is related y.

3.1.2 Classification of functions

Let f be a relation from X to Y.

Relations for which each element of the set X is mapped to a different
element of the set Y are said to be one-to-one.

A relation can map more than one element of the set X to the same
element of the set Y. Such a type of relation is said to be many-to-one.

A relation can map one element of the set X to more than one element

27
of the set Y. Such a type of relation is said to be one-to-many.

Example 3.1.3. Let R be a relation from X to Y defined by 0 <0 given that

X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {1, 3, 5}. Display this on an arrow diagram.

The inverse of this relation is called 0 >0:

R−1 = inverse of R = {(3, 1), (3, 2), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}

3.1.4 Domain, Range and Co-domain

Let R be a relation from X to Y.

1. The set of all values for which the function is defined (set of input
values) is called the domain (D).

2. The range ( R ) is the set of all values that it can produce. It is the
set of output values.

3. The co-domain of a relation is a set of values that includes the range

as described above, but may also include additional values beyond
those in the range.
28
Example 3.1.5. Let R be a relation from X to Y defined by 0 <0 given that
X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {1, 3, 5}. Display this on an arrow diagram and
hence find the domain, range and the co-domain.

Solution

3.2 Functions

Definition 3.2.1. A function from a set X to a set Y is a set of ordered

pairs (x, y) such that for each x ∈ X, there corresponds a unique y ∈ Y.

The domain, range and the co-domain for a function are defined as for
a relation.
Throughout this course, all function will be defined on the subset of R.

Since a function assigns to every element x ∈ X to exactly one element

in set Y, we will denote the output image by y = f (x), where x is the
input and is called the independent variable and y is called the dependent
variable. f (x) is read as ”f of x” or the value of f at x.

3.2.2 Classification of functions

Let f be a function from X to Y.

29
 Functions for which each element of the set X is mapped to a different
element of the set Y are said to be one-to-one.

A function can map more than one element of the set X to the same
element of the set Y. Such a type of function is said to be many-to-one.

Definition 3.2.3. A function f is 1 to 1 if and only if f (a) = f (b) for any a

and b in the domain means a = b.

Example 3.2.4. Let f (x) = 3x + 1. Show that f is 1 to 1.

Example 3.2.5. The function

x
f (x) = +7
2
is the rule that takes a number, divides it by 2, and then adds 7 to the
quotient. For example, if x = 4, f (4) = 9.

Example 3.2.6. Which of the following are functions:

1. y = f (x) = −2x + 7

2. y 2 = x

3. y = 4

4. y = x2.

30
Example 3.2.7. 1. Given that f (x) = x2 + 5x − 6, find f (3) and f (−3).
4x2 −9x+17
2. Given that f (x) = x+7 , find f (5) and f (−4).

Example 3.2.8. For each of the following functions, find the domain.

1. y = 4x2 + 7x − 19
√
2. y = t − 5
7
3. y = x(x−4)

6x
4. y = (x−5)(x−9)

Example 3.2.9. Find the range of the following functions given that −2 ≤
x ≤ 2.

1. y = 2x

2. y = x2
1
3. y = 1−x

Listed below are examples of different functions.

1. Linear: f (x) = ax + c, a, c ∈ R.

2. Quadratic: f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a, b, c ∈ R, a 6= 0.

3. Polynomial: f (x) = anxn + an−1xn−1 + an−2xn−2 + · · · + a1x + a0.

x2 −9
4. Rational: f (x) = x+4 , x 6= −4.

5. Exponential: f (x) = ax, a 6= 0.

6. Logarithmic function f (x) = loga x

31
3.2.10 Inverse of a function

An inverse function is a function that ” reverses” another function. This

means that if the function f applied to an input x gives a result of y, then
applying its inverse function g to y gives the result x, and vice versa. That
is f (x) = y and iff g(y) = x.

Example 3.2.11. Find the inverse of each of the following functions, and
each case state the range of f and the domain of f −1.

1. f (x) = 3x + 1
x−1
2. f (x) = x+2 , x 6= −2.
1
3. f (x) = x−1 , x 6= 1.

3.2.12 Composite functions

Example 3.2.13. Let f and g be two functions defined by f (x) = 2x − 1

and g(x) = 3x. Find

1. (gof )(x)

2. (f og)(x)

3. (f of )(x) = f 2(x)

4. (gog)(x) = g 2(x)

3.2.14 Odd and even functions

Definition 3.2.15. An even function is one which is unchanged when the

sign of its argument changes, f (−x) = f (x).

Examples of such function include f (x) = x2 + 2, f (x) = 3x4 + x2. Thus

polynomials with even powers are even functions.
32
Definition 3.2.16. An odd function is a function such that f (−x) = −f (x).

Examples of odd function include f (x) = 3x, f (x) = 2x3 − x, that is

polynomials with odd powers of x.

Example 3.2.17. State whether each of the following functions is even, odd
or neither.
x2 +4
1. f (x) = x3 −x

2. f (x) = x4 − 3x2 + 7

33
Chapter 4
Polynomial Functions

4.1 Linear function

Definition 4.1.1. A function f is said to be linear if it is of the form y =

ax + b, where a and b are real numbers.

4.1.2 Linear equations and solutions

Definition 4.1.3. An equation is a statement that two algebraic expressions

are equal.

They include

1. 3x − 5 = 7
x
2. + 3x
34 = 2.
√
3. 2x = 4.

To solve an equation in x means to find all values of x for which the

equation is TRUE. Such values are called solutions.

34
4.1.4 Linear equations in one variable

Definition 4.1.5. A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can

be written in the standard form

ax + b = 0,

where a and b are real numbers with a 6= 0.

A linear equation in x has exactly one solution. For example, from

ax + b = 0, we get that ax = −b, so that x = − ab .

Example 4.1.6. Solve each of the following equations

1. 3x − 6 = 0

2. 5 + 5x = 15

3. 10 − x = 11.

4.2 Equations involving fractional expressions

To solve an equation involving fractional expressions you can multiply every

term in the equation by the least common denominator (LCD) of the terms.

Example 4.2.1. Solve each of the following fractional equations

x
1. 3 + 3x
4 = 2.

4x
2. 5 − x2 = 9.

An equation with a single fraction on both sides can be cleared of de-

nominators by cross-multiplying, which is equivalent to multiplying each
side of the equation by the least common denominator and then simplify.

35
Example 4.2.2. Cross-multiply to solve each of the following fractional
equations
3y−2 6y−9
1. 2y+1 = 4y+3 .

3x−6 3
2. x+10 = 4

4.2.3 Graphs of linear functions

Since any function can be represented by ordered pairs, therefore, a graph-

ical representation of the function is always possible. The graph of an
equation in the two variables x and y is the set of all points (x, y) whose
coordinates satisfy the equation.
To graph a linear function, substitute various values of x into the equa-
tion and solve for y to produce some of the ordered pairs that satisfy the
equation.

Example 4.2.4. Draw the graph of each of the following by plotting the
points.

1. y = 2x − 1

2. y = −x + 3

3. y = 4

4. x = 3.

4.3 Quadratic functions

Definition 4.3.1. A function f, in x, is said to be quadratic if it is of the

form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0.

36
4.3.2 Quadratic equations

Definition 4.3.3. A quadratic equation in the variable x is defined as the

equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are constants with
a 6= 0.

Such equations can be solved using the following methods:

1. Factorization
√
−b± b2 −4ac
2. Quadratic formula. x = 2a

3. Completing the square

Example 4.3.4. 1. Use factorization method to solve 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0.

2. By using the quadratic formula, solve 2x2 + 7x + 4 = 0.

To solve a quadratic equation (ax2 +bx+c = 0) by completing the square

method, the following steps will be required.

1. If a does not equal 1, divide each side by a (so that the coefficient of
the x2 is 1.

2. Rewrite the equation with the constant term on the right side.

3. Complete the square by adding the square of one-half of the new

coefficient of x to both sides.

4. Write the left side as a square and simplify the right side.

5. Finally, simplify both sides so that you can take square root of both
sides.

The following example will help us understand the above steps.

37
Example 4.3.5. Using completing the square method, solve

1. 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0

2. 2x2 + 7x + 4 = 0.

By using the quadratic formula, we observe that we obtain different

solutions depending on the value of the radicand b2 − 4ac. b2 − 4ac is
called the discriminant of the quadratic equation. The discriminant is
used to determine the nature of solutions/roots of a quadratic equation as
follows:

1. If b2 − 4ac > 0, then the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots.

2. If b2 − 4ac < 0, then the quadratic equation has no real roots (has
complex roots).

3. If b2 − 4ac = 0, then the quadratic equation has one real root.

Example 4.3.6. Determine the nature of roots for the following equations:

1. 4x2 − 7x − 1 = 0

2. 4x2 + 12x + 9 = 0.

3. 5x2 + 2x + 1 = 0.

4. 9x2 − 16 = 0.

5. 2x2 + 2x − 2 = 4x.

4.4 Graph of a quadratic function

The following steps will be needed to be able to sketch the graphs of

quadratic functions.

38
 1. Decide on the shape.

(a) When a > 0, the curve will be a ∪ shape.

(b) When a < 0, the curve will be a ∩ shape.

2. Work out the points where the curve crosses the x− and y−axes.

(a) Put y = 0 to find the point(s) where it crosses the x−axis.

(b) Put x = 0 to find the point where it crosses the y−axis.

Example 4.4.1. Sketch the graph of each of the following:

1. f (x) = x2 − 5x + 4.

2. f (x) = −2x2 − 7x + 4.
By the process of completing the square, all quadratic functions, f (x) =
ax2 + bx + c, a 6= 0, may be transposed into what will be called the turning
point form:

y = a(x − h) + k, where (h, k) is the turning poing.

We determine the x- and y- intercepts as before. i.e. by equation y = 0

and x = 0 respectively.
Example 4.4.2. Sketch the graph of each of the following:
1. f (x) = x2 − 5x + 4.

2. f (x) = −2x2 − 7x + 4.
2
3. Let p(x) = − x10 + 50x − 750 be the profit function in dollars that a
company earns as a function of x, number of products of a given type
that are sold, and is valid for values x greater than or equal to 0 and
less than or equal to 500. Find the maximum loss and maximum profit.
39
4.5 Polynomial functions and rational functions

In this section, we will study polynomial functions and rational functions.

Definition 4.5.1. A polynomial function is a function defined by

f (x) = anxn + an−1xn−1 + an−2xn−2 + · · · + a1x + a0.

For instance, f (x) = x3 + 4x2 − x + 1 is a polynomial function, and

is called a third-degree, or cubic polynomial function because the largest
power is 3.

Definition 4.5.2. A ration function is a function defined by the quotient of

two polynomials.

For example,
7x
f (x) =
2x2 + 5
is a rational function.
If p is a polynomial function, then the values of x for which p(x) is equal
to 0, is called the zeros of p. For instance, −1 is a zero of p(x) = 2x3 −x+1
because p(−1) = 0.
Much of this section concerns finding the zeros of polynomial functions.
Sometimes the zero of a polynomial function are determined by dividing
one polynomial by the another.

4.5.3 Division of polynomials

Consider the polynomial x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 3. Divide this x − 3. Using long

division as in arithmetic, we get the following result

40
 and the steps are as follows.

1. Divide x3 by x to give x2.

2. Multiply x − 3 by x2.

3. Subtract to get x2 and bring down the next term, 4x.

4. Divide x2 by x to give x.

5. Multiply x − 3 by x.

6. Subtract to get 7x and bring down the next term, −3.

7. Divide 7x by x to give 7.

8. Multiply x − 3 by 7.

9. Subtract; this gives the remainder 18.

Thus
x3 − 2x2 + 4x − 3 18
= (x2 + x + 7) + .
x−3 x−3
Hence
f (x) = (x2 + x + 7)(x − 3) + 18.

Thus means that when we divide f (x) by (x − a) and the quotient is Q,

and the remainder is R, then

f (x) = Q × (x − a) + R,

where R = f (a). In general, if the polynomial f (x) is divided by the linear

expression px + q, then

f (x) = Q × (px + q) + R,

41
where R = f ( −q
p ). This is called the remainder theorem for a polynomial
f (x).
Note that the theorem only applies to polynomials and linear divisors.

Example 4.5.4. What are the remainders when x3 − x2 + 3x − 2 is divided

by

1. x − 1

2. x + 2

3. 2x − 1?

Example 4.5.5. 1. The polynomial x3 + ax2 − 3x + 4 is divided by x − 2

and the remainder is 14. What is the value of a?

2. Let f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx − 3. When f (x) is divided by x − 1 and x + 1,

the remainders are 1 and −9 respectively. Find the values of a and b.

4.5.6 The factor theorem

If (x − a) is a factor of f (x), then there will be no remainder when f (x)

is divided by (x − a). So f (a) = 0. Similarly, if px + q is a factor of f (x),
−q
then p = 0. This is called the factor theorem for a polynomial f (x).

Example 4.5.7. Factorize x3 − 6x2 − x + 6.

Solution
As f (x) is of degree 3, it will have atmost three linear factors of the
general form px + a, qx + b and rx + c, so that

x3 − 6x2 − x + 6 = (px + a)(qx + b)(rx + c).

42
Since the coefficient of x3 is 1 and the last term is +6, we observe that
pqr = 1 and abc = +6. So the possible factors come from the factors of +6.
The first factor has to be found by trial which in this case is x − 1.
We could continue like this to get the other factors but the best method
is to use long division, considered earlier and show that x3 − 6x2 − x + 6 =
(x − 1)(x2 − 5x − 6) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 6). or use synthetic division stated
below.
Given a polynomial

p(x) = anxn + an−1xn−1 + · · · + a1x + a0,

we can divide it by a linear factor x − a, where 0a0 is a real number, using

the following steps.

1. Write the a on the left side of a vertical bar and the coefficients in
decreasing degree.

r|an an−1 ··· a1 a0

2. Pass the coefficient of the highest degree below the horizontal line as
below

a|an an−1 ··· a1 a0

an

43
 3. Multiply the passed coefficient by r and add to the next coefficient

a|an an−1 ··· a1 a0

an aan + an−1

4. Continue step 3 until all coefficients are covered.

5. The numbers below an, an−1, . . . a1 give the coefficients of the quotient
whose degree is 1 less than the polynomial. The number below a0 is
the remainder.

4.5.8 Rational functions; Partial fractions

Definition 4.5.9. A rational function R(x) is the quotient of two polynomials

N (x)
N (x), D(x) such that R(x) = D(x) provided that D(x) 6= 0.

R(x) is called proper if the degree of N (x) is less than the degree of
D(x). If the degree of N (x) is greater than the degree of D(x), then R(x)
is called improper.
Partial fractions
1 2
Express x+2 + x−3 as a single fraction. This gives
1 2 3x + 1 3x + 1
+ = = 2 .
x + 2 x − 3 (x + 2)(x − 3) x − x − 6
1 2 3x+1
x+2 and x−3 called partial fractions of x2 −x−6
, and the ability to represent a
complicated algebraic fraction in terms of its partial fractions is the purpose
of this section.
Rules of partial fractions

1. The numerator must be of lower degree than the denominator. That is,
it must be a proper rational function. If it is not, then we first divide

44
 out.

2. Factorize the denominator into its prime factors. These determine the
shapes of the partial fractions.

The following list summarizes the forms of all the possible partial frac-
tions.

Denominator containing Expression Form of partial fraction

f (x) A B C
Linear factors + +
(x + a)(x − b)(x + c) x + a x − b x + c
f (x) A B C
Repeated linear factors + +
(x + a)3 x + a (x + a)2 (x + a)3
f (x) Ax + B C
Quadratic factors +
(ax2 + bx + c)(x + d) (ax2 + bx + c) x + d

4.6 Inequalities

4.6.1 introduction

Simple inequalities are used to order real numbers. The inequality symbols
<, ≤, > and ≥ are used to compare two real numbers and to denote subsets
of real numbers. For example, the simple inequality x ≥ 3 denotes all real
numbers x that are greater than or equal to 3.
In this section, we will expand our work with inequalities to include more
involved statements such as

5x − 7 > 3x + 9 and − 3 ≤ 6x − 1 < 3.

As is the case with equations, we solve an inequality in the variable x

by finding all values of x for which the inequality is true. Such values
are solutions and are said to satisfy the inequality. The set of all real

45
numbers that are solutions of an inequality. For example, the solution set
of x + 3 > 4 is
S = {x : x >, x ∈ R}.

4.6.2 Solving linear inequalities

The simplest type of inequality to solve is a linear inequality in x. For

example 2x + 3 > 4 is a linear inequality in x.
As we solve the following examples, remember that when you multiply
and divide by a negative number, you must reverse the inequality symbol.

Example 4.6.3. Solve each of the following linear inequalities.

1. 5x − 7 > 3x + 9

2. 3x < 2x + 1

3. 1 − 3x
2 ≥ x − 4.

4. −3 ≤ 6x − 1 < 3.

4.6.4 Quadratic inequalities

4.6.5 Polynomial inequalities

46
Chapter 5
Trigonometry

5.1 Radian measure and the circle

A radian measure is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an

180
arc with length equal to that of the radius. It follows that θ radians = π θ,
so that π radians =180 degrees.

Example 5.1.1. Express each of the following as radians

1. 90◦

2. −30◦

3. 45◦

4. 270◦

5. 60◦

Example 5.1.2. Express the following radian measures in degrees.

5π
1. 6
3π
2. 2
−7π
3. 4

4. 4π
47
 −2π
5. 3

5.2 Definition of the trigonometric ratios

If ABC is the right-angled triangle, then the trigonometric ratios are de-
BC AB AB
fined by: AC = cos θ (cosine of θ), AC = sin θ (sine of θ), BC = tan θ
AC 1 AC
(tangent of θ), BC = sec θ (secant of θ) = cos θ , AB = csc θ (cosecant of θ)
1 BC
= sin θ and AB = cot θ (cotangent of θ).
Treating θ as an independent variable, these might also be regarded as
trigonometric functions of θ. For general angles, greater than 90◦ the sign
of each ratio depends on the quadrant it is in.
It is useful to memorize the trigonometric ratios for the commonly oc-
curing angles 30◦, 45◦, 60◦, which can be conveniently be obtained from the
right-angled isosceles triangle and an equilateral triangle. The term ‘co-
sine’ is not accidental. Cosine of θ is the sine of 90◦ − θ. If α and β are
two angles, which sum up to 90◦, then they are said to be complementary.
β is the complement of α and vice versa. If α and β are complemen-
tary angles in a right-angled triangle, then we see that sin α = cos β =
cos(90◦ − α), cos α = sin β = sin(90◦ − α), tan α = cot β = cot(90◦ − α) and
cot α = tan β = tan(90◦ − α), Thus, the ‘co-trig ratio’ is the ratio of the
complementary angle.

Example 5.2.1. Write down the exact value of each of the following:

1. sin 60◦,

2. cos π3 ,

3. cos 45◦,

4. cot 60◦,
48
 5. sec 30◦,

6. csc π4 .

5.3 Trigonometric identities

The standard trigonometric identities are normally found on a formulae

sheet. However, the key identities should actually be memorised- and
indeed should be second nature. In fact, you only have to remember one
or two, from which the rest may then be derived. A sufficient minimal set
to remember is in fact:
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

and
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.

From cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, we obtain 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ and cot2 θ + 1 = csc2 θ.

These are called Pythagorean identities.

5.3.1 Compound angle formulae

The basic compound angle formulae are:

1. sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

2. sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

3. cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

4. cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A+tan B
5. tan(A + B) = 1−tan A tan B

tan A−tan B
6. tan(A − B) = 1+tan A tan B

49
By putting A = B in the compound angle identities, we immediately get
the double angle formulae:

1. sin(2A) = 2 sin A cos A

2. cos(2A) = cos2 A − sin2 A = 1 − 2 sin2 A

2 tan A
3. tan(2A) = 1−tan2 A

Example 5.3.2. Given that sin 45◦ = sin 45◦ = √1 ,

2
cos 60◦ = 1
2 and sin 60◦ =
√
3
2 , evaluate

1. cos 75◦

2. sin 105◦

3. tan(−75◦)

4. sin 15◦.

Example 5.3.3. Prove that :

1. cos2 A − sin2 A ≡ 2 cos2 A − 1

2. cot θ + tan θ ≡ csc θ sec θ

1 1 2
3. 1+sin θ + 1−sin θ ≡ 2 sec θ

4. tan2 θ = sin2 θ(1 + tan2 θ).

5.4 Basic Trigonometric equations

5.4.1 Basic Trigonometric equations

A basic trig function will sin θ, cos θ, tan θ will usually have two solutions
for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦. To solve a basic equation such as sin θ = k, we will
require the following steps.
50
 1. Find the first quadrant angle α for which sin α = |k|

2. Find the quadrants in which theta must lie

3. Determine the corresponding angles for those quadrants.

Example 5.4.2. Solve the following equation for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ :

1. sin θ = 0.57

2. sin θ = −0.38

3. cos θ = −0.3814

4. tan θ = 1.25

5. sin(θ − 30◦) = 0.4

6. 3 cos2 θ + 2 cos θ = 0

7. 6 cos2 θ + cos θ = 1.

5.4.3 Equations with more than one function

Further types of trigonometric equations can be solved by correctly apply-

ing the trigonometric identities we have looked at so far. The idea is to
reduce the given equation to basic trig equations.

Example 5.4.4. Solve each of the following for 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ :

1. 3 cos θ + 2 sin θ = 0

2. 2 sin θ = tan θ

3. 3 sin θ + 5 cot θ = csc θ

4. 4 csc2 θ − 7 = 4 cot θ.

51
Chapter 6
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

52
Chapter 7
Differentiation

7.1 limits

The limit of a function f (x) as x tends to (approaches) a number say ”a”

is defined as the value L of f (x) as x approaches closer and closer to a
without actually reaching it, and is denoted by

lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Example 7.1.1. Evaluate

limx→2 x + 1

Example 7.1.2. Evaluate

1. limx→2 3x2 + x − 5 = 9
2 −2x+7
2. limx→1 x x+2 =2

Some points to note:

1. We do not evaluate the limit by actually substituting x = a in f (x) in

general, although in some simple cases it is possible.

2. The value of the limit can depend on which side it is approached, from
above or below, i.e through the values of x less than a or through the

53
 values of x greater than a respectively. The two possible values may
not be the same in which case the limit does not exist.

3. The limit may not exist at all and even if it does it may not be equal
to f (a).

The kind of limits that cause most difficult and which are probably the
most important are those arising from so called indeterminate forms. Any
expression that yields results of the form 0/0, ∞/∞ or 0 × ∞ is called an
−1 2
indeterminate form. These include limx→1 xx−1 = 0
0 and limx→0 sinx x = 00 .
Even though the function does not exist at such points, its limit at the
−1 2
point may exist. For example, limx→1 xx−1 .

Example 7.1.3. Evaluate each of the following

−1 2
1. limx→1 xx−1
2 −4x−5
2. limx→5 x x−5 .

Properties of limits
The properties of limits are fairly well what we might expect. Thus if
limx→a f (x) = b and limx→a g(x) = c, then

1. limx→a kf (x) = k limx→a f (x) = kb for any constant k

2. limx→a(f (x) ± g(x)) = limx→a f (x) ± limx→a g(x) = b ± c

3. limx→a(f (x)g(x)) = limx→a f (x) limx→a g(x) = bc

4. limx→a( fg(x)
(x)
) = cb , c 6= 0.

5. limx→a(f (x))n = (limx→a f (x))n = bn.

54
Example 7.1.4. 1. If the function

 x2 − 1 if x ≤ 4
f (x) := ,
x − 2 if x > 4

find limx→4 f (x).

Evaluate

2. limx→3 (x2 − 1)(x2 + 2x + 3)

2
−1
3. limx→2 √xx2+2x+3

7.2 Continuity

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if and only if the following

are satisfied

1. f (a) is defined

2. limx→a f (x) exist

3. limx→a f (x) = f (a)

Example 7.2.1. Investigate the continuity of each of the following:

x2 −1
1. f (x) = x+1 at x = −1
x−3
2. f (x) = x2 −4x+3
at x = 3

3. If the function 
 x2−16 if x 6= 4
x−4
f (x) :=
C if x = 4
is continuous, what is the value of C.

55
 4. Let g(x) be the function such that

 x2−b2 if x 6= b
x−b
g(x) = .
C if x = b

(a) does g(b) exist?, (b) does limx→b g(x) exist? (c) Is g(x) continuous
at x = b?

7.3 First principle

Given a function y = f (x), the first principle states that the gradient
function of f (x) denoted by f 0(x) is given by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0(x) = lim .
h→0 h
Example 7.3.1. Use the first principle to find f 0(x) in each of the following:

1. f (x) = x + 1

2. f (x) = x2

3. f (x) = √1
x
dy
Other notations in use include y 0 and dx (read dee y by dee x ) and is
called the derivative or the differential coefficient of y with respect to x
(abbreviated as wrt x). The process of finding the differential coefficient is
called differentiation.

7.4 Differentiation of common functions

From differentiation by first principle of a number of examples such as the

ones considered in the previous section, a general rule for differentiating
y = axn emerges, where a and n are constants. The rule is: if y = axn
56
 dy
then dx = anxn−1. By using this rule, it easy to check that the derivative
of any constant is zero. In order to differentiate polynomials we recall that
the derivative of a sum (difference) of functions is the sum (difference) of
their derivatives. Thus, if f (x) = p(x) + q(x) − r(x), (where f, p, q and r)
are functions), then f 0(x) = p0(x) + q 0(x) − r0(x).

Example 7.4.1. Find f 0(x) in each of the following:

1. f (x) = x2

2. f (x) = 3x2 + 1

3. f (x) = √1
x

4. f (x) = 2 − 4x2

7.4.2 Trigonometric functions

dy
By using the first principle, it can be shown that if y = sin x then dx = cos x,
dy
and if y = cos x then dx = − sin x. We will use these two differential
coefficients to differentiate other trigonometric functions such as sec x and
dy
tan x among others. In general, if y = sin(f (x)) then dx = f 0(x) cos(f (x)),
dy
and if y = cos x then dx = −f 0(x) sin(f (x)).

Example 7.4.3. Find f 0(x) in each of the following:

1. f (x) = sin x − cos x

2. f (x) = sin(x2 + 2x − 4)

3. f (x) = cos( x1 ).

57
7.4.4 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions

It can be shown that if y = ef (x) and y = ln(f (x)), then y 0 = f 0(x)ef (x) and
f 0 (x)
y0 = f (x) , respectively. For a different base other than e, it can be shown
that if y = af (x) for some constant a > 0, then y 0 = f 0(x)af (x) ln a, and if
f 0 (x)
y = logb(f (x)), then y 0 = (f (x)) ln b .

Example 7.4.5. Find f 0(x) in each of the following:

1. y = ex

2. y = e4x+5
2
3. y = 6x

4. y = ln(x)

5. y = ln(x2 + 2x − 9)

6. y = log6(x2 + 2x − 9)

7.5 Methods of differentiation

In order to differentiate more complicated functions than the ones we have

considered so far, such as products quotients and composite functions, we
will require the following results.

1. When y = uv, and u = u(x) and v = v(x) are both functions of x, then
dy dv du
=u +v .
dx dx dx
This is known as the product rule.
Differentiate the following:

(a) y = x2(x2 + 1)
58
 (b) y = e4x+5 ln(x)
(c) y = x2 cos 3x

2. When y = uv, and u = u(x) and v = v(x) are both functions of x, then

dy v du dv
dx − u dx
= .
dx v2
This is known as the quotient rule. Differentiate the following:
3x2
(a) y = 2x−1
1
(b) y = x3
ex
(c) y = sin x

3. It is often easier to make a substitution before differentiating. If y is a

function of x then
dy dy du
= × .
dx du dx
This is known as the ‘function of a function’ rule (or sometimes the
chain rule). Differentiate the following:

(a) y = 7 sin 2x
(b) y = (x2 − 4x + 5)8
(c) y = sin2(x)
3 +2t2 −4t−9
(d) y = et
(e) y = (ln(ex))4

When a function y = f (x) is differentiated with respect to x, the differen-

dy
tial coefficient is written as dx or f 00(x) If the expression is differentiated
d2 y
again, the second differential coefficient is obtained and is written as dx2

59
(pronounced dee two y by dee x squared) or f 00(x) (pronounced f double
prime x).

7.5.1 Differentiation of implicit functions

It is possible to differentiate an implicit function by using the function of

a function rule, which we looked at earlier.
Thus, to differentiate y 3 wrt x, the substitution u = y 3 is made, so that
du
dy = 3y 2. Hence
d 3 dy
(y ) = 3y 2 × .
dx dx
In summary,
d d dy
(f (y)) = (f (y)) × .
dx dy dx
When differentiating implicit functions containing products and quo-
tients, the product and quotient rules of differentiation must be applied.
dy
Example 7.5.2. 1. Find dx if 3x2 + y 2 − 5x + y = 2.
dy
2. Given that 2y 2 − 5x4 − 2 − 7y 3 = 0, determine dx .
dy
3. If 4x2 + 2xy 3 − 5y 2 = 0, find dx at (1, 2).

7.5.3 Inverse trigonometric functions

y+2 y+2
If y = 3x − 2, then by transposition, x = 3 . The function x = 3 is called
the inverse function of y = 3x − 2.
Inverse trigonometric functions are denoted by prefixing the function with
−1
’arc’ or, more commonly, by using the notation. For the purpose of this
course, we will use −1
. Thus if y = sin x, then x = sin−1 y and if y = tan x,
then x = tan−1 y.

60
 If y = sin−1 x, then x = sin y. Differentiating both sides with respect
dx
p
2 dx
√
to y gives dy = cos y = 1 − sin y. Consequently dy = 1 − x2, so that
dy √ 1 .
dx = 1−x2
Similarly, if y = sin−1(f (x)), the function of a function rule may be used
to show that
dy f 0(x)
=p .
dx 1 − (f (x)) 2

Example 7.5.4. 1. Show that if y = cos−1(f (x)), then

dy −f 0(x)
=p .
dx 1 − (f (x))2
dy
2. Given that y = sin−1 5x2, find dx .
dy
3. Given that y = cos−1 2x, find dx .

In a similar way, we can obtain derivatives involving other inverse trigono-

metric functions such as tan−1, sec−1 and csc−1 .

7.6 Some Applications of Differentiation

In this chapter, we present some applications of differentiation in our day

to day life.

7.7 Tangents and Normals

7.7.1 Tangents

The equation of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at the point (x1, y1) is
given by:
(y − y1) = m(x − x1),
dy
where m = dx =gradient of the curve at (x1, y1).

61
Example 7.7.2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x2 −x−2
at the point (1, −2).

7.7.3 Normals

The normal at any point on a curve is the line which passes through the
point and is at right angles to the tangent. It may be shown that if two
lines are at right angles, then the product of their gradients is -1. Thus
−1
if m is the gradient of the tangent, then the gradient of the normal is m.
Hence the equation of the normal at the point (x1, y1) is given by:
−1
(y − y1) = (x − x1).
m
Example 7.7.4. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x2 − x − 2
at the point (1, −2).

Example 7.7.5. Determine the equations of the tangent and normal to the
x3
curve y = 5 at the point (−1, −1
5 ).

7.8 Turning Points

The gradient (or rate of change) of the curve may be positive or negative
at a given interval or seen to be zero at a point, say P. Thus, if at P the
gradient is zero, and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve changes from
positive just before P to negative just after, then P is called the maximum
point, and appears as the ‘crest of a wave’. On the other hand, if at Q the
gradient is zero, and, as x increases, the gradient of the curve changes from
negative just before Q to positive just after, then Q is called the minimum
point, and appears as the ‘bottom of a valley’. Points such as P and Q are
given a general name of Turning points.

62
 It is possible to have a turning point, the gradient on either side of which
is the same. Such a turning point is given the special name inflexion point.
Maximum and minimum points and points of inflexion are given the general
term of stationary points.
Procedure for finding and distinguishing between stationary points.
dy
1. Given a function y = f (x), find dx .
dy
2. Let dx = 0 and solve for x.

3. Substitute the value(s) of x found in (2), in the original equation y =

f (x), to get the corresponding y value(s).

4. To determine the nature of the stationary points. Either

d2 y
(a) Find dx2
and substitute into it the value(s) of x found in (2). If the
result is:
i. positive, the point is a minimum on,
ii. negative, then the point is a maximum one,
iii. zero, then the point is a point of inflexion.
(b) Use the sign of the gradient of the curve just before and just after
the stationary point.

Example 7.8.1. Locate the turning point on the curve y = 3x2 − 6x and
determine its nature by examining the sign on either side.

Example 7.8.2. Locate the turning point of the following curve and deter-
mine whether it is maximum or minimum point, y = 4θ + e−θ .

Example 7.8.3. Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve y =
x3 − 3x + 5.

63
Example 7.8.4. Determine the coordinates of the maximum and minimum
x3 2
points of the graph y = 3 − x2 − 6x + 53 and distinguish them. Sketch the
graph.

64