EXPERIMENT-1

Aim
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.

Apparatus
A resistance wire, a voltmeter (0-3) V and an ammeter (0-3) A of appropriate range,
a battery (battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key, connecting
wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
According to the Ohm’s law the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical
conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same.
If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference
across its ends, then according to, Ohm’s Law,

(ii) Specific resistance (p) of the material of the given wire is given by

where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

Result

The resistivity of the two wires is found to be (i) (ii)

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

 2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of
resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase).

Sources of error

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
Circuit diagram

Observations

Range of the given ammeter = 2 A

Range of the given voltmeter = 2 V

Least count of ammeter = 0.05 A

Least count of voltmeter =0.05 V

Length of each wire=100 cm

Zero Error=Nil

Observation Table for Resistance

For wire 1

S.No. Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading

(A) (V)
R= Ohm
1. 0.1 0.25 2.5
2. 0.2 0.50 2.5
3. 0.3 0.75 2.5
4. 0.4 1.0 2.5
Mean=2.5 ohm

For wire 2

S.No. Ammeter Reading Voltmeter Reading

(A) (V)
R= Ohm
1. 0.05 0.25 5
2. 0.10 0.50 5
3. 0.15 0.75 5
4. 0.20 1.0 5
Mean=5 ohm

Observation Table for Diameter using screw gauge

Pitch=1mm

Number of divisions on circular scale=100

Least count of screw gauge=0.001 cm

S.No. Main Scale Number of Diameter

Reading circular
(N cm) divisions n x LC N +n (LC)
coincide
(n)
Wire 1
0 50 50 x 0.001 0+0.05

D1= 0.05 cm
Wire 2 0 44 44 x 0.001
0+0.044

D2=0.044 cm

Calculation

From graph, Resistance:-

Wire 1=2.5 ohm

Wire 2= 5 ohm

Length of each wire=100 cm

Diameter D1=0.05 cm, D2=0.44 cm

Resistivity

Graph

For wire 1
For Wire 2

THE DIAGRAM BELOW IS NOT TO BE DRAWN. IT IS TO

SHOW YOU HOW YOU NEED TO CONNECT THE CIRCUIT.
EXPERIMENT-2
Aim
To find resistance of a given wire using metre .

Apparatus

A metre bridge(slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a

galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a metre
scale, a set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by

where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the
right gap of metre bridge. I cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto
balance point.

Result
The value of unknown resistance X =…2.6Ω……
Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be
taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually
perpendicular directions.
7. The wire should not make a loop.

Sources of error

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

Circuit diagram

Observation Table
THE DIAGRAM BELOW IS NOT TO BE DRAWN. IT IS TO
SHOW YOU HOW YOU NEED TO CONNECT THE CIRCUIT.

EXPERIMENT-3
Aim: To verify the laws of resistances in series using a metre bridge.

Apparatus: Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), battery (Leclanche cell), galvanometer,
resistance box (0.1 to 10 ohm), jockey, one way key, two resistance wires, metre scale, set
square, connecting wires

Working Formula:

In the balancing condition, there is no deflection on the galvanometer. Then,

The unknown resistances can be calculated by

For two resistances in series

Result:

Experimental value of Xs = 4 ohm

Theoretical value of Xs = 4 ohm
The experimental and the theoretical value of Xs are found to be the same. Hence law of
resistances in series is verified.

Precautions:
1. The ends of the connecting wires should be rubbed and cleaned with a sand paper. The
connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Plugs in the resistance box should be pressed and tightened by screwing them a little in
the clockwise direction.
3. The apparatus should be arranged according to the arrangement diagram given in the
book, the connections should be made accordingly.
4. A sensitive galvanometer used for the detection of balance point may get damaged if a
sudden high current flows through it.
Sources of Error:

1. The length measurement i.e., of l may have some error if the metre bridge wire is not taut
along the scale in the metre bridge.
2. The wire may get heated due to the passage of current and its resistance might change.
Therefore to minimize this error, the current is passed for a short period and the reading
is taken quickly.
3. The wire of the metre bridge may not be of uniform area of cross section throughout its
entire length.
Circuit Diagram:

Observation Table
Resistanc S. Known Balancin
e No. Resistanc g length
Mean
e
(l cm)
(R Ohm)
(i) 2 50 2
X1 (ii) 4 66.7 1.99 2

(iii) 1 33.3 2
(i) 2 50 2
X2 (ii) 4 66.7 1.99 2

(iii) 1 33.3 2
(i) 2 33.3 4
 XS (ii) 4 50 4 4
(iii) 3 42.8 4.07

EXPERIMENT-4
Aim
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a
voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0-3 volts range, range a battery of two
cells or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one way
keys, a rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

Theory

Result
As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference is very small,
the conversion is perfect.

Precautions

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
3. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the same range, as
the range of conversion.
4. Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.

Sources of Error

1. The connection may be loose.

2. The emf of the cell or battery may be variable.
3. There may be an error in the calculation of the value of the series
resistance.
 Circuit diagram

Observation Table

Calculations

V0=3V
G= 70.49 Ohms
K=1.65 x 10-5 A/div
n=30
Ig=nk=4.965 x 10-4A

EXPERIMENT-5
Aim
To find, the focal length of the given concave mirror.

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with
lateral movement), a concave mirror with holder, two optical needles and a half
metre scale.

Theory
The equation connecting the distance between mirror and object (u), distance between mirror
and image (v), and the focal length of the mirror (f) is called mirror formula.

Or ; The focal length of the concave mirror,

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror is 15 cm.

Precautions

1. Tips of the object needle should lie at the same height as the centre of the mirror.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm
away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of
it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. Index correction may not have been applied.

Ray diagram

Observation Table

No Distance from Focal length

mirror to
 Object Image
(u cm) (v cm)

1. 24 40 0.04166 0.0025 15

2. 26 35.4 0.03846 0.0282 14.999

3. 28 32.3 0.03571 0.03096 14.998

4. 30 30 0.0333 0.0333 15

5. 32 28.2 0.03125 0.03541 15.001

EXPERIMENT-6
Aim
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Apparatus
Glass slab, a travelling microscope, lycopodium powder

Theory

Result

The refractive index of the material of the glass slab is found to be 1.6.

Precautions

1. Least count of the scale of travelling microscope should be calculated carefully.

2. Eye piece should be adjusted such that the cross wires are distinctly visible.
3. Cross wire should be set on the ink cross mark.
4. Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on the top of the slab.
Sources of error
1. The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

2. The lycopodium powder layer on the glass slab might be thick .

3. Cross wire may not be focussed properly.

Diagram

ObservationTable
Calculation

EXPERIMENT-7
Aim
To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.

Apparatus
A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an optical needle,
(a thick knitting needle passed through a rubber cork), an iron stand with base and
clamp arrangement, plumb line, plane glass slab, a spherometer, half metre scale
etc.

Theory
If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the focal
length of their combination then,

Liquid lens formed is a planoeconcave lens with R1= R (radius of curvature of convex
lens surface), R2 =∞

Result

The refractive index of water is found to be 1.3.

Precautions
 1. The liquid taken should be transparent.
2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.

Sources of error

1. Liquid may not be quite transparent.

2. The parallax may not be fully removed.
3. Readings may not be properly taken.

Diagram

Observations

Observation Table
Calculation

EXPERIMENT-8

Aim
To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse
bias.
Apparatus
A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high
resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA
ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand
paper.

varyResult
Junction resistance for forward-bias = 40 ohms
Junction resistance for reverse-bias = 2 x 106 ohms.

Precautions

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error
1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
2. The supply may be beyond the tolerance range.
3. The connections may be wrong.
Diagram

Observations
Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current

For reverse-bias
 Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current

Graphs:

Forward bias
For reverse bias

ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY-1

Aim
To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a
fuse and a power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.
Material: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply
(battery . eliminator), three (on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and
black plastic covering,a fuse wire.
Supplementary: Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory
Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The
household circuit, all appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches
are connected in series with each appliances in live wire. 5 A switches are required
for normal appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and
switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘ like, refrigerator, air conditioner,
geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances must have three wires called live, neutral and
the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of
little higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all
appliances. For further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is
connected in series with supply source.

Diagram

ACTIVITY-2
Aim
To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat,
one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of
sand paper.

Diagram

ACTIVITY-3

Aim
To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery,
resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus and material

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 Ω), two
or one way key. D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.
ACTIVITY-4

Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
glass slab.

Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.

Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards
the normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted
ray (QR) travel along straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away
from the normal since refraction takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray
(RS) out through face DC is called emergent ray.
From the following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a
distance d = t sec r sin (i – r).
Conclusions

1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the
slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).

Diagram

S.No Angle of incidence (i) Angle of emergence (e) Difference

(degree) (degree) (i-e)

1. 30 30 0
2. 45 45 0

ACTIVITY-5A

Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with holder, a burning candle, a
card-board screen.

Theory

As the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the convex lens, its
image (position of screen) moves from lens focus towards infinity.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not
come on screen.

Conclusion
This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical
predictions.

Diagram
ACTIVITY-5B

Aim
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror on a screen by
using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the mirror).

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror with holder, a burning candle,
a card-board screen.

Theory

Hence as the object (burning candle) is moved from infinity towards the concave mirror, its
image (position of screen) moves from mirror focus towards infinity. The two cross each
other at distance 2f i.e., at the centre of curvature of the mirror.
For candle distance less than focal length, image becomes virtual and does not come on
screen.

Conclusion

This change in position, nature and size of the image is according to theoretical predictions.
Diagram

ACTIVITY-6

Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a
mixed collection of such items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be
considered.

1. A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it
does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It also conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light
while conducting. Hence, it glows.
3. A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or
reverse biased. (In fact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It
conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
4. A capacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either
forward biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C.
 source, then multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decay to zero
quickly. It is because that initially a capacitor draws a charge.

Procedure

1. All of the items have two terminals. So, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a
capacitor.
To differentiate proceed as:
2. Put the selector on resistance R of multimeter for checking the continuity. The
probe metal ends are inserted in terminal marked on the multimeter as
common and P (or + ve).

If such that the black one is in common and red probe is in P (or + ve) and on
touching the two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes-

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when
reversed and there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when
re-versed and there is light emission, the item is a LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed,
the item is a resistor.
4. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when
reversed, the item is a capacitor.

Diagram
Observations