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Cheat Sheet

Intro to Programming with Python

Software

Software is a set of instructions to the hardware.

Programming

Programming means writing the instructions to create a software.

Code

The instructions that we write to create software is called Code.

Syntax

Similar to Grammar rules in English, Hindi, each programming language has a unique set of rules. These rules are
called the Syntax of a Programming Language.

Why Python

Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. With Python, it is possible to create programs with
minimal amount of code. Look at the code in Java and Python used for printing the message "Hello World"

Java:

JAVA
1 class Main {
2 public static void main(String[] args) {
3 System.out.println("Hello World");
4 }
5 }

Python:

PYTHON
1 print("Hello World")

Applications of Python

Python is a versatile language which has applications in almost every field

Artificial intelligence (AI)

Machine Learning (ML)
Big Data
Smart Devices/Internet of Things (IoT)
Cyber Security
Game Development
Backend Development, etc.
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ac e d e e op e t, etc.

Career Opportunities

Python developers have plenty of opportunities across the world

DevOps Engineer
Software Developer
Data Analyst
Data Scientist
Machine Learning (ML) Engineer
AI Scientist, etc.

Hello World Program in Python

Here is a simple Python code that you can use to display the message "Hello World"

Code

PYTHON
1 print("Hello World!")

Output

Hello World!

Possible Mistakes

Possible mistakes you may make while writing Python code to display the message "Hello World"

Spelling Mistake in print

PYTHON
1 prnt("Hello World!")

Uppercase ‘P’ in Print

PYTHON
1 Print("Hello World!")

Missing quotes

PYTHON
1 print(Hello World!)

Missing parentheses

PYTHON
1 print("Hello World!"

Printing Without Quotes

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If we want to print the numerical result of 2 + 5, we do not add quotes.

Code
PYTHON
1 print(2 + 5)

Output

If we want to print the exact message "2 + 5", then we add the quotes.

Code

PYTHON
1 print("2 + 5")

Output

2 + 5

Calculations with python

Addition

Addition is denoted by

+ sign. It gives the sum of two numbers.

Code

PYTHON
1 print(2 + 5)
2 print(1 + 1.5)

Output

7
2.5

Subtraction

Subtraction is denoted by

- sign. It gives the difference between two numbers.

Code
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Code

PYTHON
1 print(5 - 2)

Output

Multiplication

Multiplication is denoted by

* sign.

Code

PYTHON
1 print(2 * 5)
2 print(5 * 0.5)

Output

10
2.5

Division

Division is denoted by

/ sign.

Code

PYTHON
1 print(5 / 2)
2 print(4/2)

Output

2.5
2.0

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Cheat Sheet

Variables and Data Types

Variables

Variables are like containers for storing values.

Values in the variables can be changed.

Values

Consider that variables are like containers for storing information.

In context of programming, this information is often referred to as value.

Data Type

In programming languages, every value or data has an associated type to it known as data type.
Some commonly used data types

String
Integer
Float
Boolean

This data type determines how the value or data can be used in the program. For example, mathematical
operations can be done on Integer and Float types of data.

String

A String is a stream of characters enclosed within quotes.

Stream of Characters

Capital Letters ( A – Z )
Small Letters ( a – z )
Digits ( 0 – 9 )
Special Characters (~ ! @ # $ % ^ . ?,)
Space

Some Examples

"Hello World!"
"[email protected]"
"1234"

Integer

All whole numbers (positive, negative and zero) without any fractional part come under Integers.
Examples

...-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,...

Float

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Any number with a decimal point

24.3, 345.210, -321.86

Boolean

In a general sense, anything that can take one of two possible values is considered a Boolean. Examples include
the data that can take values like

True or False
Yes or No
0 or 1
On or Off , etc.

As per the Python Syntax,

True and False are considered as Boolean values. Notice that both start with a
capital letter.

Assigning Value to Variable

The following is the syntax for assigning an integer value

10 to a variable age

PYTHON
1 age = 10

Here the equals to

= sign is called as Assignment Operator as it is used to assign values to variables.

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Cheat Sheet

Sequence of Instructions

Program
A program is a sequence of instructions given to a computer.

Defining a Variable

A variable gets created when you assign a value to it for the first time.

Code

PYTHON
1 age = 10

Printing Value in a Variable

Code

PYTHON
1 age = 10
2 print(age)

Output

10

Code

PYTHON
1 age = 10
2 print("age")

Output

age

Variable name enclosed in quotes will print variable rather than the value in it.
If you intend to print value, do not enclose the variable in quotes.

Order of Instructions

Python executes the code line-by-line.

Code

PYTHON
1 i t( )
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1 print(age)
2 age = 10

Output

NameError: name 'age' is not defined

Variable

age is not created by the time we tried to print.

Spacing in Python

Having spaces at the beginning of line causes errors.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 10 * 5
2 b = 5 * 0.5
3 b = a + b

Output

File "main.py", line 3

b = a + b
^
IndentationError: unexpected indent

Variable Assignment

Values in the variables can be changed.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 1
2 print(a)
3 a = 2
4 print(a)

Output

1
2

Examples of Variable Assignment

Code
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Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 print(a)
3 a = a + 1
4 print(a)

Output

2
3

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 1
2 b = 2
3 a = b + 1
4 print(a)
5 print(b)

Output

3
2

Expression

An expression is a valid combination of values, variables and operators.

Examples
a*b
a+2
5 2+3 4

BODMAS
The standard order of evaluating an expression
- Brackets (B)
- Orders (O)
- Division (D)
- Multiplication (M)
- Addition (A)
- Subtraction (S)

Step by Step Explanation

(5 * 2) + (3 * 4)
(10) + (12)
22
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Code

PYTHON
1 print(10 / 2 + 3)
2 print(10 / (2 + 3))

Output

8.0
2.0

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Cheat Sheet

Inputs and Outputs Basics

Take Input From User

input() allows flexibility to take the input from the user. Reads a line of input as a string.

Code

PYTHON
1 username = input()
2 print(username)

Input

Ajay

Output

Ajay

Working with Strings

String Concatenation

Joining strings together is called string concatenation.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = "Hello" + " " + "World"
2 print(a)

Output

Hello World

Concatenation Errors

String Concatenation is possible only with strings.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = "*" + 10
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2 print(a)

Output

File "main.py", line 1

a = "*" + 10
^
TypeError:
can only concatenate str (not "int") to str

String Repetition

* operator is used for repeating strings any number of times as required.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = "*" * 10
2 print(a)

Output

**********

Code

PYTHON
1 s = "Python"
2 s = ("* " * 3) + s + (" *" * 3)
3 print(s)

Output

* * * Python * * *

Length of String

len() returns the number of characters in a given string.

Code

PYTHON
1 username = input()
2 length = len(username)
3 print(length)

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Input

Ravi

Output

String Indexing

We can access an individual character in a string using their positions (which start from 0) .
These positions are also called as index.

Code

PYTHON
1 username = "Ravi"
2 first_letter = username[0]
3 print(first_letter)

Output

IndexError

Attempting to use an index that is too large will result in an error:

Code

PYTHON
1 username = "Ravi"
2 print(username[4])

Output

IndexError: string index out of range

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Cheat Sheet

Type Conversion

String Slicing

Obtaining a part of a string is called string slicing.

Code

PYTHON
1 variable_name[start_index:end_index]

Start from the start_index and stops at end_index

end_index is not included in the slice.

Code

PYTHON
1 message = "Hi Ravi"
2 part = message[3:7]
3 print(part)

Output

Ravi

Slicing to End

If end index is not specified, slicing stops at the end of the string.

Code

PYTHON
1 message = "Hi Ravi"
2 part = message[3:]
3 print(part)

Output

Ravi

Slicing from Start

If start index is not specified, slicing starts from the index 0.

Code

PYTHON
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1 message = "Hi Ravi"

2 part = message[:2]
3 print(part)

Output

Hi

Checking Data Type

Check the datatype of the variable or value using

type()

Printing Data Type

Code

PYTHON
1 print(type(10))
2 print(type(4.2))
3 print(type("Hi"))

Output

<class 'int'>
<class 'float'>
<class 'str'>

Type Conversion

Converting the value of one data type to another data type is called Type Conversion or Type Casting.
We can convert

String to Integer
Integer to Float
Float to String and so on.

String to Integer

int() converts valid data of any type to integer

Code

PYTHON
1 a = "5"
2 a = int(a)
3 print(type(a))
4 print(a)

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Output

<class 'int'>
5

Invalid Integer Conversion

Code

PYTHON
1 a = "Five"
2 a = int(a)
3 print(type(a))

Output

ValueError:
invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'Five'

Code

PYTHON
1 a = "5.0"
2 a = int(a)
3 print(type(a))

Output

invalid literal for int() with base 10: '5.0'

Adding Two Numbers

Code

PYTHON
1 a = input()
2 a = int(a)
3 b = input()
4 b = int(b)
5 result = a + b
6 print(result)

Input

2
3

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Output

Integer to String

str() converts data of any type to a string.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = input()
2 a = int(a)
3 b = input()
4 b = int(b)
5 result = a + b
6 print("Sum: " + str(result))

Input

2
3

Output

Sum: 5

Summary

1. int() -> Converts to integer data type

2. float() -> Converts to float data type
3. str() -> Converts to string data type
4. bool() -> Converts to boolean data type

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Cheat Sheet

Relational Operators

Relational Operators are used to compare values.

Gives

True or False as the result of a comparison.

These are different relational operators

Operator Name

> Is greater than

< Is less than

== Is equal to

<= Is less than or equal to

>= Is greater than or equal to

!= Is not equal to

Code

PYTHON
1 print(5 < 10)
2 print(2 > 1)

Output

True
True

Possible Mistakes

Mistake - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 print(3 = 3)

Output

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SyntaxError: expression cannot contain assignment, perhaps you meant "=="?

Mistake - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 print(2 < = 3)

Output

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

Space between relational operators

== , >= , <= , != is not valid in Python.

Comparing Numbers

Code

PYTHON
1 print(2 <= 3)
2 print(2.53 >= 2.55)

Output

True
False

Comparing Integers and Floats

Code

PYTHON
1 print(12 == 12.0)
2 print(12 == 12.1)

Output

True
False

Comparing Strings

Code

PYTHON
1 print("ABC" == "ABC")
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1 print( ABC ABC )
2 print("CBA" != "ABC")

Output

True
True

Case Sensitive

Code

PYTHON
1 print("ABC" == "abc")

Output

False

Python is case sensitive.

It means

X (Capital letter) and x (small letter) are not the same in Python.

Strings and Equality Operator

Code

PYTHON
1 print(True == "True")
2 print(123 == "123")
3 print(1.1 == "1.1")

Output

False
False
False

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Cheat Sheet

Logical Operators

The logical operators are used to perform logical operations on Boolean values.
Gives

True or False as the result.

Following are the logical operators

and
or
not

Logical AND Operator

Gives

True if both the booleans are true else, it gives False

Code

PYTHON
1 print(True and True)

Output

True

Examples of Logical AND

Code

PYTHON
1 print((2 < 3) and (1 < 2))

Step by Step Explanation

(2 < 3) and (1 < 2)

True and (1 < 2)
True and True

Output

True
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Logical OR Operator
Gives

True if any one of the booleans is true else, it gives False

Code

PYTHON
1 print(False or False)

Output

False

Examples of Logical OR

Code

PYTHON
1 print((2 < 3) or (2 < 1))

Step by Step Explanation

(2 < 3) or (2 < 1)
True or (2 < 1)
True or False

Output

True

Logical NOT Operator

Gives the opposite value of the given boolean.

Code

PYTHON
1 print(not(False))

Output

True
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Examples of Logical NOT

Code

PYTHON
1 print(not(2 < 3))

Step by Step Explanation

not(2 < 3)
not(True)
False

Output

False

Summary

1. Logical AND Operator gives True if all the booleans are true.
2. Logical OR Operator gives True if any of the booleans are true.
3. Logical NOT Operator gives the opposite value

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Cheat Sheet

Conditional Statements
Block of Code

A sequence of instructions are called block of code.

Python executes code in a sequence.

Condition

An expression that results in either

True or False

Examples

i. 2 < 3
ii. a == b
iii. True

Conditional Statement

Conditional Statement allows you to execute a block of code only when a specific condition is

True

Conditional Block

Block of code which executes only if a condition is

True is called Conditional Block.

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Indentation

Space(s) in front of the conditional block is called indentation.

Indentation(spacing) is used to identify Conditional Block.

Standard practice is to use four spaces for indentation.

Possible Mistakes

Each statement inside a conditional block should have the same indentation (spacing).

Wrong Code

PYTHON
1 if True:
2 print("If Block")
3 print("Inside If")

Output

IndentationError: unexpected indent

Correct Code

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PYTHON
1 if True:
2 print("If Block")
3 print("Inside If")

If - Else Syntax

When If - Else conditional statement is used, Else block of code executes if the condition is

False

Using If-Else

Code

PYTHON
1 a = int(input())
2 if a > 0:
3 print("Positive")
4 else:
5 print("Not Positive")
6 print("End")

Input

Output

Positive
End

Possible Mistakes in If-Else

Else can only be used along with if condition. It is written below if conditional block

Code

PYTHON
1 if False:
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2 print("If Block")
3 print("After If")
4 else:
5 print("Else Block")
6 print("After Else")

Output

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

SingleLineWarning

Warning

Note: No code is allowed in between if conditional block and else statement.

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Cheat Sheet

More Arithmetic Operators

Modulus

To find the remainder, we use Modulus operator

a%b

Code

PYTHON
1 print(6 % 3)

Output

Exponent

To calculate a power b, we use Exponent Operator

**

a ** b

Code

PYTHON
1 print(2 ** 3)

Output

You can use the exponent operator to calculate the square root of a number bu keeping the exponent as

0.5

Code

PYTHON
1 print(16 ** 0.5)

Output
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4.0

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Cheat Sheet

Nested Conditional Statements

Nested Conditions

The conditional block inside another if/else conditional block is called as nested conditional block.
In the below example, Block 2 is nested conditional block and condition B is called nested conditional statement.

Code

PYTHON
1 matches_won = int(input())
2 goals = int(input())
3 if matches_won > 8:
4 if goals > 20:
5 print("Hurray")
6 print("Winner")

Input

10
22

Output

Hurray
Winner

Input

10
18

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Output

Winner

Nested Condition in Else Block

We can also write nested conditions in Else Statement.

In the below example Block 2 is a nested conditional block.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 b = 3
3 c = 1
4 is_a_greatest = (a > b) and (a > c)
5 if is_a_greatest:
6 print(a)
7 else:
8 is_b_greatest = (b > c)
9 if is_b_greatest:
10 print(b)
Expand

Output

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Elif Statement

Use the elif statement to have multiple conditional statements between if and else.

The elif statement is optional.

Multiple Elif Statements

We can add any number of

elif statements after if conditional block.

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Execution of Elif Statement

Python will execute the elif block whose expression evaluates to true.
If multiple

elif conditions are true, then only the first elif block which is True will be executed.

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Optional Else Statement

Else statement is not compulsory after

if - elif statements.

Code

PYTHON
1 number = 5
2 is_divisible_by_10 = (number % 10 == 0)
3 is_divisible_by_5 = (number % 5 == 0)
4 if is_divisible_by_10:
5 print("Divisible by 10")
6 elif is_divisible_by_5:
7 print("Divisible by 5")
8 else:
9 print("Not Divisible by 10 or 5")

Output

Divisible by 5

Possible Mistake

Cannot write an elif statement after

else statement.

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Cheat Sheet

Loops

So far we have seen that Python executes code in a sequence and each block of code is executed once.
Loops allow us to execute a block of code several times.

While Loop

Allows us to execute a block of code several times as long as the condition is

True .

While Loop Example

The following code snippet prints the next three consecutive numbers after a given number.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = int(input())
2 counter = 0
3 while counter < 3:
4 a = a + 1
5 print(a)
6 counter = counter + 1

Input

Output

5
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6
7

Possible Mistakes

1. Missing Initialization

Code

PYTHON
1 a = int(input())
2 while counter < 3:
3 a = a + 1
4 print(a)
5 counter = counter + 1
6 print("End")

Input

Output

NameError: name 'counter' is not defined

2. Incorrect Termination Condition

Code

PYTHON
1 a = int(input())
2 counter = 0
3 condition = (counter < 3)
4 while condition:
5 a = a + 1
6 print(a)
7 counter = counter + 1

Input

10

Output

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Infinite Loop

While block will keep repeating as the value in condition variable is

True .

3. Not Updating Counter Variable

Code

PYTHON
1 a = int(input())
2 counter = 0
3 while counter < 3:
4 a = a + 1
5 print(a)
6 print("End")

Input

10

Output

Infinite Loop

As the value of counter is not updating.

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Cheat Sheet

For Loop

for statement iterates over each item of a sequence.

Examples of sequences:

Sequence of Characters (string)

Sequence of numbers, etc.

For Syntax

Code

PYTHON
1 word = "Python"
2 for each_char in word:
3 print(each_char)

Output

P
y
t
h
o
n

Range

Generates a sequence of integers starting from 0.

Syntax:

range(n) Stops before n (n is not included).

Code

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PYTHON
1 for number in range(3):
2 print(number)

Output

0
1
2

Range with Start and End

Generates a sequence of numbers starting from

start

Syntax: range(start, end) Stops before end (end is not included).

Code

PYTHON
1 for number in range(5, 8):
2 print(number)

Output

5
6
7

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Cheat Sheet

Extended Slicing and String Methods

Extended Slicing

Syntax:

variable[start_index:end_index:step]

Step determines the increment between each index for slicing.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = "Waterfall"
2 part = a[1:6:3]
3 print(part)

Output

ar

Methods

Python has a set of built-in reusable utilities.

They simplify the most commonly performed operations are:

String Methods

isdigit()
strip()
lower()
upper()
startswith()
d i h()
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endswith()
replace() and more...

Isdigit

Syntax:

str_var.isdigit()

Gives

True if all the characters are digits. Otherwise, False

Code

PYTHON
1 is_digit = "4748".isdigit()
2 print(is_digit)

Output

True

Strip

Syntax:

str_var.strip()

Removes all the leading and trailing spaces from a string.

Code

PYTHON
1 mobile = " 9876543210 "
2 mobile = mobile.strip()
3 print(mobile)

Output

9876543210

Strip - Specific characters

Syntax:

str_var.strip(chars)

We can also specify characters that need to be removed.

Code
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Code

PYTHON
1 name = "Ravi."
2 name = name.strip(".")
3 print(name)

Output

Ravi

Strip - Multiple Characters

Removes all spaces, comma(,) and full stop(.) that lead or trail the string.

Code

PYTHON
1 name = ", .. ,, ravi ,, .. ."
2 name = name.strip(" ,.")
3 print(name)

Output

ravi

Replace

Syntax:

str_var.replace(old,new)

Gives a new string after replacing all the occurrences of the old substring with the new substring.

Code

PYTHON
1 sentence = "teh cat and teh dog"
2 sentence = sentence.replace("teh","the")
3 print(sentence)

Output

the cat and the dog

Startswith

Syntax:
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Syntax:

str_var.startswith(value)

Gives

True if the string starts with the specified value. Otherwise, False

Code

PYTHON
1 url = "https://onthegomodel.com"
2 is_secure_url = url.startswith("https://")
3 print(is_secure_url)

Output

True

Endswith

Syntax:

str_var.endswith(value)

Gives

True if the string ends with the specified value. Otherwise, False

Code

PYTHON
1 gmail_id = "[email protected]"
2 is_gmail = gmail_id.endswith("@gmail.com")
3 print(is_gmail)

Output

True

Upper

Syntax:

str_var.upper()

Gives a new string by converting each character of the given string to uppercase.

Code

PYTHON
" i"
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1 name = "ravi"
2 print(name.upper())

Output

RAVI

Lower

Syntax:

str_var.lower()

Gives a new string by converting each character of the given string to lowercase.

Code

PYTHON
1 name = "RAVI"
2 print(name.lower())

Output

ravi

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Cheat Sheet

Nested Loops

An inner loop within the repeating block of an outer loop is called Nested Loop.

The Inner Loop will be executed one time for each iteration of the Outer Loop.

Code

PYTHON
1 for i in range(2):
2 print("Outer: " + str(i))
3 for j in range(2):
4 print(" Inner: " + str(j))

Output

Outer: 0
Inner: 0
Inner: 1
Outer: 1
Inner: 0
Inner: 1

Nested Repeating Block

The one highlighted in the blue dotted line is the repeating block of the inner loop.

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Code

PYTHON
1 for i in range(2):
2 print("Outer: " + str(i))
3 for j in range(2):
4 print(" Inner: " + str(j))
5 print("END")

In the above example, the below line is the repeating block of the nested loop.

Code

PYTHON
1 print(" Inner: " + str(j))

Output

Outer: 0
Inner: 0
Inner: 1
Outer: 1
Inner: 0
Inner: 1
END

Examples - Nested Loops

Example - 1: While loop inside a For loop

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Example - 2: While loop inside a while loop

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Cheat Sheet

Loop Control Statements

Control statements alter the sequential execution of a program.

Examples

if-elif-else

while, for

break, continue

Break

Break statement makes the program exit a loop early.

Using Break

Generally, break is used to exit a loop when a condition is satisfied.

In the below example, when the variable

i value equals to 3 the break statement gets executed and stops the execution
of the loop further.
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p

Code

PYTHON
1 for i in range(5):
2 if i == 3:
3 break
4 print(i)
5 print("END")

Output

0
1
2
END

Break in Nested Loop

Break in inner loop stops the execution of the inner loop.

Continue

Continue makes the program skip the remaining statements in the current iteration and begin the next iteration.

Using Continue
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Generally, continue is used to skip the remaining statements in the current iteration when a condition is satisfied.

In the below example, when the variable

i value equals to 3 the next statements in the loop body are skipped.

Code

PYTHON
1 for i in range(5):
2 if i == 3:
3 continue
4 print(i)
5 print("END")

Output

0
1
2
4
END

Pass

Pass statement is used as a syntactic placeholder. When it is executed, nothing happens.

Generally used when we have to test the code before writing the complete code.

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### Empty Loops

We can use pass statements to test code written so far, before writing loop logic.

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Cheat Sheet

Comparing Strings

Computer internally stores characters as numbers.

Every character has a unique Unicode value.

Ord

To find the Unicode value of a character, we use the

ord()

ord(character) gives unicode value of the character.

Code

PYTHON
1 unicode_value = ord("A")
2 print(unicode_value)

Output

65

chr

To find the character with the given Unicode value, we use the

chr()

chr(unicode) gives character with the unicode value.

Code

PYTHON
1 char = chr(75)
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( )
2 print(char)

Output

Unicode Ranges

48 - 57 -> Number Digits (0 - 9)

65 - 90 -> Capital Letters (A - Z)

97 - 122 -> Small Letters (a - z)

Rest -> Special Characters, Other Languages

Printing Characters

The below code will print the characters from

A to Z

Code

PYTHON
1 for unicode_value in range(65,91):
2 print(chr(unicode_value))

Output

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Expand

Comparing Strings

In Python, strings are compared considering unicode.

Code

PYTHON
1 print("A" < "B")

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Output

True

As unicode value of

A is 65 and B is 66, which internally compares 65 < 66 . So the output should be

True

Character by Character Comparison

In Python, String Comparison is done character by character.

Code

PYTHON
1 print("BAD" >= "BAT")

Output

False

Code

PYTHON
1 print("98" < "984")

Output

True

Best Practices
Naming Variables Rule #1

Use only the below characters

Capital Letters ( A – Z )
Small Letters ( a – z )
Digits ( 0 – 9 )

Underscore(_)

Examples:
age, total_bill

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Naming Variables Rule #2

Below characters cannot be used

Blanks ( )
Commas ( , )
Special Characters
( ~ ! @ # $ % ^ . ?, etc. )

Naming Variables Rule #3

Variable name must begin with

Capital Letters ( A – Z )
Small Letters ( a – z )
Underscore( _ )

Naming Variables Rule #4

Cannot use Keywords, which are reserved for special meaning

int
str
print etc.,

Keywords

Words which are reserved for special meaning

Code

PYTHON
1 help("keywords")

Output

Here is a list of the Python keywords. Enter any keyword to get more help.

False break for not

None class from or
True continue global pass
__peg_parser__ def if raise
and del import return
as elif in try
assert else is while
async except lambda with
Expand

Case Styles

Camel case: totalBill

Pascal case: TotalBill

Snake case: total_bill

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Snake case is preferred for naming the variables in Python.

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Cheat Sheet

Round

Rounding Numbers

round(number, digits(optional)) Rounds the float value to the given number of decimal digits.

digits -> define the number of decimal digits to be considered for rounding.

when not specified default is

Code

PYTHON
1 a = round(3.14,1)
2 print(a)
3 a = round(3.14)
4 print(a)

Output

3.1
3

Floating Point Approximation

Float values are stored approximately.

Code

print(0.1 + 0.2)

Output

0.30000000000000004

Floating Point Errors

Sometimes, floating point approximation gives unexpected results.

Code

PYTHON
1 print((0.1 + 0.2) == 0.3)

Output

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False

To avoid these unexpected results, we can use

round()

Code

PYTHON
1 a = round((0.1 + 0.2), 1)
2 print(a)
3 print(a == 0.3)

Output

0.3
True

Comments

Comment starts with a hash

It can be written in its own line next to a statement of code.

Code

PYTHON
1 n = 5
2 # Finding if Even
3 even = (n % 2 == 0)
4 print(even) # prints boolean value

Output

False

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Cheat Sheet

Floor Division Operator

To find integral part of quotient we use Floor Division Operator

//

a // b

Code

PYTHON
1 print(3 // 2)

Output

Compound Assignment Operators

Different compound assignment operators are

+= , -= , *= , /= , %=

a += 1 is similar to a=a+1

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 10
2 a -= 2
3 print(a)

Output

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8

Examples of Compound Assignment Operators

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 10
2 a /= 2
3 print(a)

Output

5.0

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 10
2 a %= 2
3 print(a)

Output

Escape Characters

Single And Double Quotes

String is a sequence of characters enclosed within quotes.

Code

PYTHON
1 sport = 'Cricket'
2 print(type(sport))
3 sport = "Cricket"
4 print(type(sport))

Output

<class 'str'>
<class 'str'>

Code
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PYTHON
1 is_same = ('Cricket' == "Cricket")
2 print(is_same)

Output

True

Escape Characters

Escape Characters are a sequence of characters in a string that are interpreted differently by the computer.
We use escape characters to insert characters that are illegal in a string.

Code

PYTHON
1 print("Hello\nWorld")

Output

Hello
World

We got a new line by adding

\n escape character.

Examples - Escape Characters

Escape Characters start with a backslash in Python

\n -> New Line

\t -> Tab Space
\\ -> Backslash
\' -> Single Quote
\" -> Double Quote

Passing Strings With Quotes

The backslash

\ character here tells Python not to consider the next character as the ending of the
string.

Code

PYTHON
1 print('It\'s Python')

Output

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It's Python

Code

PYTHON
1 print("It's Python")

Output

It's Python

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Cheat Sheet

Data Structures

Data Structures allow us to store and organize data efficiently.

This will allow us to easily access and perform operations on the data.

In Python, there are four built-in data structures

List

Tuple

Set

Dictionary

List

List is the most versatile python data structure.

Holds an ordered sequence of items.

Creating a List

Created by enclosing elements within [square] brackets.

Each item is separated by a comma.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 list_a = [5, "Six", a, 8.2]
3 print(type(list_a))
4 print(list_a)

Output

<class 'list'>
[5, 'Six', 2, 8.2]

Creating a List of Lists

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
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1 a 2
2 list_a = [5, "Six", a, 8.2]
3 list_b = [1, list_a]
4 print(list_b)

Output

[1, [5, 'Six', 2, 8.2]]

Length of a List

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 list_a = [5, "Six", a, 8.2]
3 print(len(list_a))

Output

Accessing List Items

To access elements of a list, we use Indexing.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 list_a = [5, "Six", a, 8.2]
3 print(list_a[1])

Output

Six

Iterating Over a List

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 list_a = [5, "Six", a, 8.2]
3 for item in list_a:
4 print(item)

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Output

5
Six
2
8.2

List Concatenation

Similar to strings,

+ operator concatenates lists.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 list_b = ["a", "b", "c"]
3 list_c = list_a + list_b
4 print(list_c)

Output

[1, 2, 3, 'a', 'b', 'c']

Adding Items to List

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = []
2 print(list_a)
3 for i in range(1,4):
4 list_a += [i]
5 print(list_a)

Output

[]
[1, 2, 3]

Repetition

* Operator repeats lists.

Code

PYTHON
1 list a = [1 2]
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1 list_a = [1, 2]
2 list_b = list_a * 3
3 print(list_b)

Output

[1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2]

List Slicing

Obtaining a part of a list is called List Slicing.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, "Six", 2, 8.2]
2 list_b = list_a[:2]
3 print(list_b)

Output

[5, 'Six']

Extended Slicing

Similar to string extended slicing, we can extract alternate items using step.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = ["R", "B", "G", "O", "W"]
2 list_b = list_a[0:5:3]
3 print(list_b)

Output

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['R', 'O']

Converting to List

list(sequence) takes a sequence and converts it into list.

Code

PYTHON
1 color = "Red"
2 list_a = list(color)
3 print(list_a)

Output

['R', 'e', 'd']

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = list(range(4))
2 print(list_a)

Output

[0, 1, 2, 3]

Lists are Mutable

Lists can be modified.

Items at any position can be updated.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3, 5]
2 print(list_a)
3 list_a[3] = 4
4 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2, 3, 5]
[1, 2, 3, 4]

Strings are Immutable

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Strings are Immutable (Can’t be modified).

Code

PYTHON
1 message = "sea you soon"
2 message[2] = "e"
3 print(message)

Output

TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

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Cheat Sheet

Working with Lists

Object

In general, anything that can be assigned to a variable in Python is referred to as an object.

Strings, Integers, Floats, Lists etc. are all objects.

Examples

"A"
1.25
[1,2,3]

Identity of an Object

Whenever an object is created in Python, it will be given a unique identifier (id).

This unique id can be different for each time you run the program.

Every object that you use in a Python Program will be stored in Computer Memory.

The unique id will be related to the location where the object is stored in the Computer Memory.

Finding Id

We can use the

id() to find the id of a object.

Code

PYTHON
1 print(id("Hello"))

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Output

140589419285168

Id of Lists

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 list_b = [1, 2, 3]
3 print(id(list_a))
4 print(id(list_b))

Output

139637858236800
139637857505984

Modifying Lists

Modifying Lists - 1

When assigned an existing list both the variables

list_a and list_b will be referring to the same object.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 list_b = list_a
3 print(id(list_a))
4 print(id(list_b))

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Output

140334087715264
140334087715264

Modifying Lists - 2

When assigned an existing list both the variables

list_a and list_b will be referring to the same object.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3, 5]
2 list_b = list_a
3 list_b[3] = 4
4 print("list a : " + str(list_a))
5 print("list b : " + str(list_b))

Output

list a : [1, 2, 3, 4]
list b : [1, 2, 3, 4]

Modifying Lists - 3

The assignment will update the reference to new object.

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Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2]
2 list_b = list_a
3 list_a = [6, 7]
4 print("list a : " + str(list_a))
5 print("list b : " + str(list_b))

Output

list a : [6, 7]
list b : [1, 2]

Modifying Lists - 4

The assignment will update the reference to a new object.

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Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2]
2 list_b = list_a
3 list_a = list_a + [6, 7]
4 print("list a : " + str(list_a))
5 print("list b : " + str(list_b))

Output

list a : [1, 2, 6, 7]
list b : [1, 2]

Modifying Lists - 5

Compound assignment will update the existing list instead of creating a new object.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2]
2 list_b = list_a
3 list_a += [6, 7]
4 print("list a : " + str(list_a))
5 print("list b : " + str(list_b))

Output

list a : [1, 2, 6, 7]
list b : [1, 2, 6, 7]

Modifying Lists 6
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Modifying Lists - 6

Updating mutable objects will also effect the values in the list, as the reference is changed.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1,2]
2 list_b = [3, list_a]
3 list_a[1] = 4
4 print(list_a)
5 print(list_b)

Output

[1, 4]
[3, [1, 4]]

Modifying Lists - 7

Updating immutable objects will not effect the values in the list, as the reference will be changed.

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Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 list_a = [1,a]
3 print(list_a)
4 a = 3
5 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2]
[1, 2]

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Lists and Strings

Splitting

str_var.split(separator)

Splits a string into a list at every specified separator.

If no separator is specified, default separator is whitespace.

Code

PYTHON
1 nums = "1 2 3 4"
2 num_list = nums.split()
3 print(num_list)

Output

['1', '2', '3', '4']

Multiple WhiteSpaces

Multiple whitespaces are considered as single when splitting.

Code

PYTHON
1 nums = "1 2 3 4 "
2 num_list = nums.split()
3 print(num_list)

Output

['1', '2', '3', '4']

New line

\n and tab space \t are also whitespace.

Code

PYTHON
1 nums = "1\n2\t3 4"
2 num_list = nums.split()
3 print(num_list)

Output
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p

['1', '2', '3', '4']

Using Separator

Breaks up a string at the specified separator.

Example -1

Code

PYTHON
1 nums = "1,2,3,4"
2 num_list = nums.split(',')
3 print(num_list)

Output

['1', '2', '3', '4']

Example -2

Code

PYTHON
1 nums = "1,2,,3,4,"
2 num_list = nums.split(',')
3 print(num_list)

Output

['1', '2', '', '3', '4', '']

Space as Separator

Code

PYTHON
1 nums = "1 2 3 4 "
2 num_list = nums.split(" ")
3 print(num_list)

Output

['1', '', '2', '3', '4', '']

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[ 1 , , 2 , 3 , 4 , ]

String as Separator

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 string_a = "Python is a programming language"
2 list_a = string_a.split('a')
3 print(list_a)

Output

['Python is ', ' progr', 'mming l', 'ngu', 'ge']

Example - 2

PYTHON
1 string_a = "step-by-step execution of code"
2 list_a = string_a.split('step')
3 print(list_a)

Output

['', '-by-', ' execution of code']

Joining

str.join(sequence)

Takes all the items in a sequence of strings and joins them into one string.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = ['Python is ', ' progr', 'mming l', 'ngu', 'ge']
2 string_a = "a".join(list_a)
3 print(string_a)

Output

Python is a programming language

Joining Non String Values

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g g

Sequence should not contain any non-string values.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = list(range(4))
2 string_a = ",".join(list_a)
3 print(string_a)

Output

TypeError: sequence item 0: expected str instance, int found

Negative Indexing

Using a negative index returns the nth item from the end of list.

Last item in the list can be accessed with index

-1

Reversing a List

-1 for step will reverse the order of items in the list.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 list_b = list_a[::-1]
3 print(list_b)

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Output

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Accessing List Items

Example-1

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 item = list_a[-1]
3 print(item)

Output

Example-2

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 item = list_a[-4]
3 print(item)

Output

Slicing With Negative Index

You can also specify negative indices while slicing a List.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 list_b = list_a[-3:-1]
3 print(list_b)

Output

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[3, 2]

Out of Bounds Index

While slicing, Index can go out of bounds.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 list_b = list_a[-6:-2]
3 print(list_b)

Output

[5, 4, 3]

Negative Step Size

variable[start:end:negative_step]

Negative Step determines the decrement between each index for slicing.

Start index should be greater than the end index in this case
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Sta t de s ou d be g eate t a t e e d de t s case

start > end

Negative Step Size Examples

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 list_b = list_a[4:2:-1]
3 print(list_b)

Output

[1, 2]

Example - 2

Negative step requires the start to be greater than end.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 list_b = list_a[2:4:-1]
3 print(list_b)

Output

[]

Reversing a List

-1 for step will reverse the order of items in the list.

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
2 list_b = list_a[::-1]
3 print(list_b)

Output

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Reversing a String
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Reversing a String

-1 for step will reverse the order of the characters.

Code

PYTHON
1 string_1 = "Program"
2 string_2 = string_1[::-1]
3 print(string_2)

Output

margorP

Negative Step Size - Strings

Code

PYTHON
1 string_1 = "Program"
2 string_2 = string_1[6:0:-2]
3 print(string_2)

Output

mro

Indexing & Slicing - Strings

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 string_1 = "Program"
2 string_2 = string_1[-1]
3 print(string_2)

Output

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Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 string_1 = "Program"
2 string_2 = string_1[-4:-1]
3 print(string_2)

Output

gra

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Cheat Sheet

Functions

Block of reusable code to perform a specific action.

Reusing Code

Using an existing code without writing it every time we need.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet():
2 print("Hello")
3
4 name = input()
5 print(name)

Input

Teja

Output

Teja

Defining a Function

Function is uniquely identified by the

function_name

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Code

PYTHON
1 def greet():
2 print("Hello")
3
4 name = input()
5 print(name)

Input

Teja

Output

Teja

Calling a Function

The functional block of code is executed only when the function is called.

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Code

PYTHON
1 def greet():
2 print("Hello")
3
4 name = input()
5 greet()
6 print(name)

Input

Teja

Output

Hello
Teja

Defining & Calling a Function

A function should be defined before it is called.

Code

PYTHON
1 name = input()
2 greet()
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2 greet()
3 print(name)
4
5 def greet():
6 print("Hello")

Input

Teja

Output

NameError: name 'greet' is not defined

Printing a Message

Consider the following scenario, we want to create a function, that prints a custom message, based on some variable
that is defined outside the function. In the below code snippet, we want to access the value in the variable

name at line 2 in place of the ? .

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet():
2 msg = "Hello " + ?
3 print(msg)
4
5 name = input()
6 greet()

Input

Teja

Desired Output

Hello Teja

We use the concept of Function Arguments for these types of scenarios.

Function With Arguments

We can pass values to a function using an Argument.

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e ca pass a ues to a u ct o us g a gu e t.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(word):
2 msg = "Hello " + word
3 print(msg)
4
5 name = input()
6 greet(word=name)

Input

Teja

Output

Hello Teja

Variables Inside a Function

A variable created inside a function can only be used in it.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(word):
2 msg = "Hello " + word
3
4 name = input()
5 greet(word=name)
6 print(msg)

Input

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Teja

Output

NameError: name 'msg' is not defined

Returning a Value

To return a value from the function use

return keyword.

Exits from the function when return statement is executed.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(word):
2 msg = "Hello " + word
3 return msg
4
5 name = input()
6 greeting = greet(word=name)
7 print(greeting)

Input

Teja

Output

Hello Teja

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Code written after

return statement will not be executed.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(word):
2 msg = "Hello "+word
3 return msg
4 print(msg)
5
6 name = input()
7 greeting = greet(word=name)
8 print(greeting)

Input

Teja

Output

Hello Teja

Built-in Functions

We are already using functions which are pre-defined in Python.

Built-in functions are readily available for reuse

print()
int()
str()
len()

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Cheat Sheet

Function Arguments

A function can have more than one argument.

Keyword Arguments

Passing values by their names.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1, arg_2):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(arg_1=greeting,arg_2=name)

Input

Good Morning
Ram

Output

Good Morning Ram

Possible Mistakes - Keyword Arguments

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1, arg_2):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
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p ()
6 greet(arg_2=name)

Input

Good Morning
Ram

Output

TypeError: greet() missing 1 required positional argument: 'arg_1'

Positional Arguments

Values can be passed without using argument names.

These values get assigned according to their position.

Order of the arguments matters here.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1, arg_2):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(greeting,name)

Input

Good Morning
Ram

Output

Good Morning Ram

Possible Mistakes - Positional Arguments

Mistake - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1, arg_2):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
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3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(greeting)

Input

Good Morning
Ram

Output

TypeError: greet() missing 1 required positional argument: 'arg_2'

Mistake - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1, arg_2):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet()

Input

Good Morning
Ram

Output

TypeError: greet() missing 2 required positional arguments

Default Values

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1="Hi", arg_2="Ram"):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 ti i t()
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4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet()

Input

Hello
Teja

Output

Hi Ram

Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1="Hi", arg_2="Ram"):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(greeting)

Input

Hello
Teja

Output

Hello Ram

Example - 3

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1="Hi", arg_2="Ram"):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(name)

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Input

Hello
Teja

Output

Teja Ram

Example - 4

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1="Hi", arg_2="Ram"):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(arg_2=name)

Input

Hello
Teja

Output

Hi Teja

Example - 5

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_1="Hi", arg_2):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(arg_2=name)

Input

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Hello
Teja

Output

SyntaxError:non-default argument follows default argument

Non-default arguments cannot follow default arguments.

Example - 6

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg_2, arg_1="Hi"):
2 print(arg_1 + " " + arg_2)
3
4 greeting = input()
5 name = input()
6 greet(arg_2=name)

Input

Hello
Teja

Output

Hi Teja

Passing Immutable Objects

Code

PYTHON
1 def increment(a):
2 a += 1
3
4 a = int(input())
5 increment(a)
6 print(a)

Input

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Output

Even though variable names are same, they are referring to two different objects.
Changing the value of the variable inside the function will not affect the variable outside.

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Cheat Sheet

Passing Mutable Objects

The same object in the memory is referred by both

list_a and list_x

Code

PYTHON
1 def add_item(list_x):
2 list_x += [3]
3
4 list_a = [1,2]
5 add_item(list_a)
6 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2, 3]

Code

PYTHON
1 def add_item(list_x):
2 list_x = list_x + [3]
3
4 list_a = [1,2]
5 add_item(list_a)
6 print(list_a)

Output

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[1, 2]

Default args are evaluated only once when the function is defined, not each time the function is called.

Code

PYTHON
1 def add_item(list_x=[]):
2 list_x += [3]
3 print(list_x)
4
5 add_item()
6 add_item([1,2])
7 add_item()

Output

[3]
[1, 2, 3]
[3, 3]

Built-in functions

Built-in functions are readily available for reuse.

We are already using functions which are pre-defined in Python

print()
int()
str()
len()

Finding Minimum

min() returns the smallest item in a sequence or smallest of two or more arguments.
PYTHON
1 min(sequence)
2 min(arg1, arg2, arg3 ...)

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 smallest= min(3,5,4)
2 print(smallest)

Output
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p

Example - 2

Code

smallest = min([1,-2,4,2])
print(smallest)

Output

-2

Minimum of Strings

min(str_1, str_2)

Strings are compared character by character using unicode values.

P - 80(unicode)

J - 74(unicode)

Code

PYTHON
1 smallest = min("Python", "Java")
2 print(smallest)

Output

Java

Finding Maximum

max() returns the largest item in a sequence or largest of two or more arguments.
PYTHON
1 max(sequence)
2 max(arg1, arg2, arg3 ...)

Example - 1

Code
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Code

PYTHON
1 largest = max(3,5,4)
2 print(largest)

Ouput

Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 largest = max([1,-2,4,2])
2 print(largest)

Output

Finding Sum

sum(sequence) returns sum of items in a sequence.

Code

PYTHON
1 sum_of_numbers = sum([1,-2,4,2])
2 print(sum_of_numbers)

Output

Ordering List Items

sorted(sequence) returns a new sequence with all the items in the given sequence
ordered in increasing order.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [3, 5, 2, 1, 4, 6]
2 list_x = sorted(list_a)
3 print(list x)
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3 print(list_x)

Output

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Ordering List Items - Reverse

returns a new sequence with all the items in the given

sorted(sequence, reverse=True)
sequence ordered in decreasing order.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [3, 5, 2, 1, 4, 6]
2 list_x = sorted(list_a, reverse=True)
3 print(list_x)

Output

[6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]

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Cheat Sheet

Function Call Stack & Recursion

Stack

Stack is a data structure that stores items in an Last-In/First-Out manner.

Calling a Function

Calling

function_1() inside function_2()

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Code

PYTHON
1 def get_largest_sqr(list_x):
2 len_list = len(list_x)
3 for i in range(len_list):
4 x = list_x[i]
5 list_x[i] = x * x
6 largest = max(list_x)
7 return largest
8
9 list_a = [1,-3,2]
10 result = get_largest_sqr(list_a)
Expand

Output

In the above code calling functions are

len() and max() inside get_largest_sqr()

Sum of Squares of List Items

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Code

PYTHON
1 def get_sqrd_val(x):
2 return (x * x)
3
4 def get_sum_of_sqrs(list_a):
5 sqrs_sum = 0
6 for i in list_a:
7 sqrs_sum += get_sqrd_val(i)
8 return sqrs_sum
9
10 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
Expand

Output

14

Function Call Stack

Function Call Stack keeps track of function calls in progress

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Recursion

A function calling itself is called a Recursion

Let's understand recursion with a simple example of multiplying N numbers

Multiply N Numbers

PYTHON
1 def factorial(n): # Recursive Function
2 if n == 1: # Base Case
3 return 1
4 return n * factorial(n - 1) # Recursion
5 num = int(input())
6 result = factorial(num)
7 print(result)

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Base Case

A recursive function terminates when base condition is met

Input

Output

Without Base case

Code

PYTHON
1 def factorial(n):
2 return n * factorial(n - 1)
3 num = int(input())
4 result = factorial(num)
5 print(result)

Input

Output

RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

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Cheat Sheet

List Methods

Python provides list methods that allow us to work with lists.

Let’s learn few among them

append()
extend()
insert()
pop()
clear()
remove()
sort()
index()

Append

list.append(value) Adds an element to the end of the list.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = []
2 for x in range(1,4):
3 list_a.append(x)
4 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2, 3]

Extend

list_a.extend(list_b) Adds all the elements of a sequence to the end of the list.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 list_b = [4, 5, 6]
3 list_a.extend(list_b)
4 print(list_a)

Output

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[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Insert

list.insert(index,value) Element is inserted to the list at specified index.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 list_a.insert(1,4)
3 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 4, 2, 3]

Pop

list.pop() Removes last element.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 list_a.pop()
3 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2]

Remove

list.remove(value) Removes the first matching element from the list.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 3, 2, 3]
2 list_a.remove(3)
3 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2, 3]
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Clear

list.clear() Removes all the items from the list.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 list_a.clear()
3 print(list_a)

Output

[]

Index

list.index(value) Returns the index at the first occurrence of the specified value.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 3, 2, 3]
2 index =list_a.index(3)
3 print(index)

Output

Count

list.count(value) Returns the number of elements with the specified value.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 count = list_a.count(2)
3 print(count)

Output

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Sort

list.sort() Sorts the list.

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 3, 2]
2 list_a.sort()
3 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2, 3]

Sort & Sorted

sort() Modifies the list

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 3, 2]
2 list_a.sort()
3 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 2, 3]

sorted() Creates a new sorted list

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 3, 2]
2 sorted(list_a)
3 print(list_a)

Output

[1, 3, 2]

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Cheat Sheet

Tuples and Sequences

None

None is an object which is a datatype of its own (NoneType).

Used to define no value or nothing.

Code

PYTHON
1 var = None
2 print(var)
3 print(type(var))

Output

None
<class 'NoneType'>

Function Without Return

Functions assigned to a variable, when function does not have a

return statement, the variable will get the value None

Code

PYTHON
1 def increment(a):
2 a += 1
3
4 a = 55
5 result = increment(a)
6 print(result)

Output

None

Function That Returns Nothing

When a function returns no value, the default value will be

None

E l 1
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Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 def increment(a):
2 a += 1
3 return
4
5 a = 55
6 result = increment(a)
7 print(result)

Output

None

Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 def increment(a):
2 a += 1
3 return None
4
5 a = 5
6 result = increment(a)
7 print(result)

Output

None

Example - 3

Code

PYTHON
1 result = print("Hi")
2 print(result)

Output

Hi
None

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Tuple

Holds an ordered sequence of items.

Tuple is immutable object, where as list is a mutable object.

Code

a = 2
tuple_a = (5, "Six", a, 8.2)

Creating a Tuple

Created by enclosing elements within (round) brackets.

Each item is separated by a comma.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 tuple_a = (5, "Six", a, 8.2)
3 print(type(tuple_a))
4 print(tuple_a)

Output

<class 'tuple'>
(5, 'Six', 2, 8.2)

Tuple with a Single Item

Code

PYTHON
1 a = (1,)
2 print(type(a))
3 print(a)

Output

<class 'tuple'>
(1,)

Accessing Tuple Elements

Accessing Tuple elements is also similar to string and list accessing and slicing.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 tuple_a = (5, "Six", a, 8.2)
3 print(tuple a[1])
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3 print(tuple_a[1])

Output

Six

Tuples are Immutable

Tuples does not support modification.

Code

PYTHON
1 tuple_a = (1, 2, 3, 5)
2 tuple_a[3] = 4
3 print(tuple_a)

Output

TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

Operations can be done on Tuples

len()
Iterating
Slicing
Extended Slicing

Converting to Tuple

tuple(sequence) Takes a sequence and converts it into tuple.

String to Tuple

Code

PYTHON
1 color = "Red"
2 tuple_a = tuple(color)
3 print(tuple_a)

Output

('R', 'e', 'd')

List to Tuple

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Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3]
2 tuple_a = tuple(list_a)
3 print(tuple_a)

Output

(1, 2, 3)

Sequence to Tuple

Code

PYTHON
1 tuple_a = tuple(range(4))
2 print(tuple_a)

Output

(0, 1, 2, 3)

Membership Check

Check if given data element is part of a sequence or not.

Membership Operators

in
not in

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 tuple_a = (1, 2, 3, 4)
2 is_part = 5 in tuple_a
3 print(is_part)

Output

False

Example - 2

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Code

PYTHON
1 tuple_a = (1, 2, 3, 4)
2 is_part = 1 not in tuple_a
3 print(is_part)

Output

False

List Membership

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
2 is_part = 1 in list_a
3 print(is_part)

Output

True

String Membership

Code

PYTHON
1 word = 'Python'
2 is_part = 'th' in word
3 print(is_part)

Output

True

Packing & Unpacking

Unpacking

Values of any sequence can be directly assigned to variables.

Number of variables in the left should match the length of sequence.

Code

PYTHON
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PYTHON
1 tuple_a = ('R', 'e', 'd')
2 (s_1, s_2, s_3) = tuple_a
3 print(s_1)
4 print(s_2)
5 print(s_3)

Output

R
e
d

Errors in Packing

Code

PYTHON
1 tuple_a = ('R', 'e', 'd')
2 s_1, s_2 = tuple_a
3 print(s_1)
4 print(s_2)

Output

ValueError: too many values to unpack (expected 2)

Code

PYTHON
1 tuple_a = ('R', 'e', 'd')
2 s_1, s_2, s_3, s_4 = tuple_a
3 print(s_1)

Output

ValueError: not enough values to unpack (expected 4, got 3)

Tuple Packing

() brackets are optional while creating tuples.

In Tuple Packing, Values separated by commas will be packed into a tuple.

Code

PYTHON

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1 a = 1, 2, 3
2 print(type(a))
3 print(a)

Output

<class 'tuple'>
(1, 2, 3)

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 1,
2 print(type(a))
3 print(a)

Output

<class 'tuple'>
(1,)

Code

PYTHON
1 a, = 1,
2 print(type(a))
3 print(a)

Output

<class 'int'>
1

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Cheat Sheet

Sets

Unordered collection of items.

Every set element is

Unique (no duplicates)

Must be immutable

Creating a Set

Created by enclosing elements within {curly} brackets.

Each item is separated by a comma.

Code

PYTHON
1 a = 2
2 set_a = {5, "Six", a, 8.2}
3 print(type(set_a))
4 print(set_a)

Output

<class 'set'>
{8.2, 2, 'Six', 5}

Need not be in the same order as defined.

No Duplicate Items

Sets contain unique elements

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Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {"a", "b", "c", "a"}
2 print(set_a)

Output

{'b', 'a', 'c'}

Immutable Items

Set items must be immutable.

As List is mutable, Set cannot have list as an item.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {"a", ["c", "a"]}
2 print(set_a)

Output

TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Creating Empty Set

We use

set() to create an empty set.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = set()
2 print(type(set_a))
3 print(set_a)

Output

<class 'set'>
set()

Converting to Set

set(sequence) takes any sequence as argument and converts to set, avoiding

duplicates
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List to Set

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = set([1,2,1])
2 print(type(set_a))
3 print(set_a)

Output

<class 'set'>
{1, 2}

String to Set

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = set("apple")
2 print(set_a)

Output

{'l', 'p', 'e', 'a'}

Tuple to Set

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = set((1, 2, 1))
2 print(set_a)

Output

{1, 2}

Accessing Items

As sets are unordered, we cannot access or change an item of a set using

Indexing
Slicing

Code

PYTHON
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1 set_a = {1, 2, 3}
2 print(set_a[1])
3 print(set_a[1:3])

Output

TypeError: 'set' object is not subscriptable

Adding Items

set.add(value) adds the item to the set, if the item is not present already.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {1, 3, 6, 2, 9}
2 set_a.add(7)
3 print(set_a)

Output

{1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9}

Adding Multiple Items

set.update(sequence) adds multiple items to the set, and duplicates are avoided.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {1, 3, 9}
2 set_a.update([2, 3])
3 print(set_a)

Output

{2, 1, 3, 9}

Removing Specific Item

set.discard(value) takes a single value and removes if present.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {1, 3, 9}
2 set_a.discard(3)
3 print(set_a)

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Output

{1, 9}

set_a.remove(value) takes a value and remove if it present or raise an error.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {1, 3, 9}
2 set_a.remove(5)
3 print(set_a)

Output

KeyError: 5

Operations on Sets

You can perform the following operations on Sets

clear()
len()
Iterating
Membership Check

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Cheat Sheet

Set Operations

Set objects also support mathematical operations like union, intersection, difference, and symmetric difference.

Union

Union of two sets is a set containing all elements of both sets.

set_a | set_b or set_a.union(sequence)

union() converts sequence to a set, and performs the union.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 set_b = {1, 2}
3 union = set_a | set_b
4 print(union)

Output

{1, 2, 4, 8}

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 list_a = [1, 2]
3 union = set_a.union(list_a)
4 print(union)

Output

{1, 2, 4, 8}

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Intersection
Intersection of two sets is a set containing common elements of both sets.

set_a & set_b or set_a.intersection(sequence)

intersection() converts sequence to a set, and perform the intersection.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 set_b = {1, 2}
3 intersection = set_a & set_b
4 print(intersection)

Output

{2}

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 list_a = [1, 2]
3 intersection = set_a.intersection(list_a)
4 print(intersection)

Output

{2}

Difference

Difference of two sets is a set containing all the elements in the first set but not second.

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set_a - set_b or set_a.difference(sequence)

difference() converts sequence to a set.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 set_b = {1, 2}
3 diff = set_a - set_b
4 print(diff)

Output

{8, 4}

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 tuple_a = (1, 2)
3 diff = set_a.difference(tuple_a)
4 print(diff)

Output

{8, 4}

Symmetric Difference

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Symmetric difference of two sets is a set containing all elements which are not common to both sets.

set_a ^ set_b or set_a.symmetric_difference(sequence)

symmetric_difference() converts sequence to a set.

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 set_b = {1, 2}
3 symmetric_diff = set_a ^ set_b
4 print(symmetric_diff)

Output

{8, 1, 4}

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {4, 2, 8}
2 set_b = {1, 2}
3 diff = set_a.symmetric_difference(set_b)
4 print(diff)

Output

{8, 1, 4}

Set Comparisons

Set comparisons are used to validate whether one set fully exists within another

issubset()
issuperset()
isdisjoint()

Subset

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set2.issubset(set1) Returns True if all elements of second set are in first set. Else, False

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 set_1 = {'a', 1, 3, 5}
2 set_2 = {'a', 1}
3 is_subset = set_2.issubset(set_1)
4 print(is_subset)

Output

T
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True

Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 set_1 = {4, 6}
2 set_2 = {2, 6}
3 is_subset = set_2.issubset(set_1)
4 print(is_subset)

Output

False

SuperSet

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set1.issuperset(set2) Returns True if all elements of second set are in first set. Else, False

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 set_1 = {'a', 1, 3, 5}
2 set_2 = {'a', 1}
3 is_superset = set_1.issuperset(set_2)
4 print(is_superset)

Output

True

Example - 2

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Code

PYTHON
1 set_1 = {4, 6}
2 set_2 = {2, 6}
3 is_superset = set_1.issuperset(set_2)
4 print(is_superset)

Output

False

Disjoint Sets

set1.isdisjoint(set2) Returns True when they have no common elements. Else, False

Code

PYTHON
1 set_a = {1, 2}
2 set_b = {3, 4}
3 is_disjoint = set_a.isdisjoint(set_b)
4 print(is_disjoint)

Output

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True

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Cheat Sheet

Nested Lists & String Formatting

A list as an item of another list.

Accessing Nested List

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, "Six", [8, 6], 8.2]
2 print(list_a[2])

Output

[8, 6]

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Accessing Items of Nested List

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = [5, "Six", [8, 6], 8.2]
2 print(list_a[2][0])

Output

Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = ["Five", "Six"]
2 print(list_a[0][1])

Output

String Formatting

Code

PYTHON
1 name = input()
2 age = int(input())
3 msg = ("Hi " + name + ". You are "+ str(age) + " years old.")
4 print(msg)

String formatting simplifies this concatenation.

It increases the readability of code and type conversion is not required.

Add Placeholders

Add placeholders

{} where the string needs to be formatted.

PYTHON
1 msg = "Hi {}. You are {} years old."
2 f t( l 1 l 2 )
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2 msg.format(val_1, val_2,..)

Inserts values inside the string’s placeholder

{}

Code

PYTHON
1 name = "Raju"
2 age = 10
3 msg = "Hi {}. You are {} years old."
4 print(msg.format(name, age))

Output

Hi Raju. You are 10 years old.

Number of Placeholders

Code

PYTHON
1 name = "Raju"
2 age = 10
3 msg = "Hi {}. You are {} years old {}."
4 print(msg.format(name, age))

Output

IndexError: Replacement index 2 out of range for positional args tuple

Numbering Placeholders

Numbering placeholders, will fill values according to the position of arguments.

Code

PYTHON
1 name = input()
2 age = int(input())
3 msg = "Hi {0}. You are {1} years old."
4 print(msg.format(name, age))

Output

i j ld
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Hi Raju. You are 10 years old.

Code

PYTHON
1 name = input()
2 age = int(input())
3 msg = "Hi {1}. You are {0} years old."
4 print(msg.format(name, age))

Output

Hi 10. You are Raju years old.

Naming Placeholder

Naming placeholders will fill values according to the keyword arguments.

Code

PYTHON
1 name = input()
2 age = int(input())
3 msg = "Hi {name}. You are {age} years old."
4 print(msg.format(name=name, age=age))

Output

Hi Raju. You are 10 years old.

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Cheat Sheet

Dictionaries

Unordered collection of items.

Every dictionary item is a Key-value pair.

Creating a Dictionary

Created by enclosing items within {curly} brackets

Each item in dictionary has a key - value pair separated by a comma.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 "name": "Teja",
3 "age": 15
4 }

Key - Value Pairs

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 "name": "Teja",
3 "age": 15
4 }

In the above dictionary, the

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keys are name and age

values are Teja and 15

Collection of Key-Value Pairs

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = { "name": "Teja",
2 "age": 15 }
3 print(type(dict_a))
4 print(dict_a)

Output

<class 'dict'>
{'name': 'Teja','age': 15}

Immutable Keys

Keys must be of immutable type and must be unique.

Values can be of any data type and can repeat.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 "name": "Teja",
3 "age": 15,
4 "roll_no": 15
5 }

Creating Empty Dictionary

Code - 1

PYTHON
1 dict_a = dict()
2 print(type(dict_a))
3 print(dict_a)

Output

<class 'dict'>
{}

Code - 2

PYTHON
1 dict a {}
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1 dict_a = {}
2 print(type(dict_a))
3 print(dict_a)

Output

<class 'dict'>
{}

Accessing Items

To access the items in dictionary, we use square bracket

[] along with the key to obtain its value.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 print(dict_a['name'])

Output

Teja

Accessing Items - Get

The

get() method returns None if the key is not found.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 print(dict_a.get('name'))

Output

Teja

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Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 print(dict_a.get('city'))

Output

None

KeyError

When we use the square brackets

[] to access the key-value, KeyError is raised in case a key is not found in the
dictionary.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {'name': 'Teja','age': 15 }
2 print(dict_a['city'])

Output

KeyError: 'city'

Quick Tip

If we use the square brackets [] , KeyError is raised in case a key is not found in the dictionary. On the
other hand, the get() method returns None if the key is not found.

Membership Check

Checks if the given key exists.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 result = 'name' in dict_a
6 print(result)
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p ( )

Output

True

Operations on Dictionaries

We can update a dictionary by

Adding a key-value pair

Modifying existing items
Deleting existing items

Adding a Key-Value Pair

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {'name': 'Teja','age': 15 }
2 dict_a['city'] = 'Goa'
3 print(dict_a)

Output

{'name': 'Teja', 'age': 15, 'city': 'Goa'}

Modifying an Existing Item

As dictionaries are mutable, we can modify the values of the keys.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 dict_a['age'] = 24
6 print(dict_a)

Output

{'name': 'Teja', 'age': 24}

Deleting an Existing Item

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We can also use the

del keyword to remove individual items or the entire dictionary itself.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 del dict_a['age']
6 print(dict_a)

Output

{'name': 'Teja'}

Dictionary Views

They provide a dynamic view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view
reflects these changes.

Dictionary Methods

dict.keys()
returns dictionary Keys

dict.values()
returns dictionary Values

dict.items()
returns dictionary items(key-value) pairs

The objects returned by

keys() , values() & items() are View Objects .

Getting Keys

The

keys() method returns a view object of the type dict_keys that holds a list of all keys.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 print(dict_a.keys())

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Output

dict_keys(['name', 'age'])

Getting Values

The

values()method returns a view object that displays a list of all the values in the
dictionary.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 print(dict_a.values())

Output

dict_values(['Teja', 15])

Getting Items

The

items()method returns a view object that displays a list of dictionary's (key, value)
tuple pairs.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 print(dict_a.items())

Output

dict_items([('name', 'Teja'), ('age', 15)])

Iterate over Dictionary Views

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Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 for key in dict_a.keys():
6 print(key)

Output

name
age

Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 keys_list = list(dict_a.keys())
6 print(keys_list)

Output

['name', 'age']

Example - 3

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 for value in dict_a.values():
6 print(value)

Output

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Teja
15

Example - 4

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 for key, value in dict_a.items():
6 pair = "{} {}".format(key,value)
7 print(pair)

Output

name Teja
age 15

Dictionary View Objects

keys(), values() & items() are called Dictionary Views as they provide a dynamic
view on the dictionary’s items.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 view = dict_a.keys()
6 print(view)
7 dict_a['roll_no'] = 10
8 print(view)

Output

dict_keys(['name', 'age'])
dict_keys(['name', 'age', 'roll_no'])

Converting to Dictionary

dict(sequence) takes any number of key-value pairs and converts to dictionary.

Code

PYTHON
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PYTHON
1 list_a = [
2 ("name","Teja"),
3 ["age",15],
4 ("roll_no",15)
5 ]
6 dict_a = dict(list_a)
7 print(dict_a)

Output

{'name': 'Teja', 'age': 15, 'roll_no': 15}

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = ["name", "Teja", 15]
2 dict_a = dict(list_a)
3 print(dict_a)

Output

ValueError: dictionary update sequence element #0 has length 4; 2 is required

Type of Keys

A dictionary key must be of a type that is immutable.

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Cheat Sheet

Working with Dictionaries

Dictionary Methods

Python provides dictionary methods that allow us to work with dictionaries.

copy()
get()
update()
fromkeys() and more..

Let’s learn few among them

Referring Same Dictionary Object

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 dict_b = dict_a
6 dict_b['age'] = 20
7 print(dict_a)
8 print(id(dict_a))
9 print(id(dict_b))

Output

{'name':'Teja', 'age': 20}

140170705626624
140170705626624

Copy of Dictionary

dict.copy() returns copy of a dictionary.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 dict_b = dict_a.copy()
6 dict_b['age'] = 20
7 print(dict_a)
8 print(id(dict_a))
9 print(id(dict b))
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9 print(id(dict_b))

Output

{'name':'Teja', 'age': 15}

140664418952704
140664418952896

Copy of List

Code

PYTHON
1 list_a = ['Teja', 15]
2 list_b = list_a.copy()
3 list_b.extend([20])
4 print(list_a)
5 print(id(list_a))
6 print(id(list_b))

Output

['Teja', 15]
139631861316032
139631860589504

Operations on Dictionaries

len()
clear()

Membership Check

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {
2 'name': 'Teja',
3 'age': 15
4 }
5 print(len(dict_a)) # length of dict_a
6 if 'name' in dict_a: # Membership Check
7 print("True")
8 dict_a.clear() # clearing dict_a
9 print(dict_a)

Output

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True
{}

Iterating

Cannot add/remove dictionary keys while iterating the dictionary.

Code

PYTHON
1 dict_a = {'name': 'Teja', 'age': 15}
2 for k in dict_a.keys():
3 if k == 'name':
4 del dict_a[k]
5 print(dict_a)

Output

RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration

Arbitrary Function Arguments

Passing Multiple Values

We can define a function to receive any number of arguments.

We have already seen such functions

max(*args) max(1,2,3..)
min(*args) min(1,2,3..)

Variable Length Arguments

Variable length arguments are packed as tuple.

Code

PYTHON
1 def more_args(*args):
2 print(args)
3
4 more_args(1, 2, 3, 4)
5 more_args()
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Output

(1, 2, 3, 4)
()

Unpacking as Arguments

If we already have the data required to pass to a function as a sequence, we can

unpack it with

* while passing.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg1="Hi", arg2="Ram"):
2 print(arg1 + " " + arg2)
3
4 data = ["Hello", "Teja"]
5 greet(*data)

Output

Hello Teja

Multiple Keyword Arguments

We can define a function to receive any number of keyword arguments.

Variable length kwargs are packed as dictionary.

Code

PYTHON
1 def more_args(**kwargs):
i (k )
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2 print(kwargs)
3
4 more_args(a=1, b=2)
5 more_args()

Output

{'a': 1, 'b': 2}
{}

Iterating

kwargs is a dictionary. We can iterate over them like any other dictionary.

Code

PYTHON
1 def more_args(**kwargs):
2 for i, j in kwargs.items():
3 print('{}:{}'.format(i,j))
4
5 more_args(a=1, b=2)

Output

a:1
b:2

Unpacking as Arguments

Code - 1

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg1="Hi", arg2="Ram"):
2 print(arg1 + " " + arg2)
3
4 data = {'arg1':'Hello', 'arg2':'Teja'}
5 greet(**data)

Output

Hello Teja

Code - 2

PYTHON
1 def greet(arg1="Hi", arg2="Ram"):
2 print(arg1 + " " + arg2)
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3
4 data = {'msg':'Hello', 'name':'Teja'}
5 greet(**data)

Output

TypeError: greet() got an unexpected keyword argument 'msg'

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Cheat Sheet

Introduction to OOP

Good Software

Before jumping into Object Oriented Programming, let’s understand the word Software.

Software is an easily changeable tool/product that performs a specific task.

The ease of changing or making changes to the software is referred as its softness.

A good software should keep the users happy, by delivering what they need.
A good software should also keep the developers happy. Ease of making changes (softness) keeps developers
happy. So is should be:
Easy to understand and make changes.

Easy to fix bugs and add new features within the scope.

Object-Oriented Programming System (OOPS) is a way of approaching, designing, developing software that is easy to
change.

Note

Keep in mind that building software differs from solving the coding questions (that you are doing in practice).

A fundamental difference is that you move on to the next problem once you solve a coding problem. But with
software, once you build it, you are often required to add new features and fix bugs that need you to make
changes to the code written by you or your colleagues. So unlike the coding questions, with software, you have
to keep working with the same code for a long time.

Therefore, ease of understanding (code-readability) and ease of making changes (code-maintainability) to the
code become crucial in software development.

The techniques and concepts you learn in this topic are developed over time based on software developers'
experiences to make working code easier.

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OOPs

Object-Oriented Programming is a way of approaching, designing and developing software, so that the components
of the software and the interactions between them resembles real-life objects and their interactions.

Proper usage of OOPS concepts helps us build well-organized systems that are easy to use and extend.

Describing Real-Life Objects

In Object Oriented Programming, we model software after real-life objects. To be good at modeling software after
real-life objects, we should be able to properly describe them.

Let us try describing these real-life objects

The following description is a bad way of describing, as the information of an object scattered and unorganized.

Object 1 is a car and it has four tyres.

Object 2 is a dog and it has four legs.
Object 1 has four doors.
Object 1 can make sound.
Object 2, barks.
Object 1 is in blue color.
Object 2 is in brown color.

Organized Description

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In the below description we are grouping the information related to an object.

Object 1 is a car and it has four tyres.

Object 1 has four doors.
Object 1 can make sound.
Object 1 is in blue color.

Object 2 is a dog and it has four legs. Object 2, barks.

Object 2 is in brown color

In the below approach, we further organize the information into

What the object is?

What the object has?

What the object can do?

Object 1 is a car
Object 1 has
Four tyres
Four seats
Four doors
and so on ...

Object 1 can
Sound horn
Move
Expand

The above description shows a simple framework where we describe object by specifying the properties that the
object has and actions that the object can do.

Organized Description should be

A clear separation of objects.

A clear grouping of what object has and what it does.

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Cheat Sheet

Describing Similar Objects

Sometimes, the objects that we are describing are so similar that only values of the properties differ.

Object 3 is a Mobile
Properties
camera : 13 MP
storage : 16 GB
battery life : 21 Hrs
ram : 3 GB
and so on ...

Object 4 is a Mobile
Properties
Expand

In this case, the objects that we describe have completely the same set of properties like camera, storage, etc.

Template

For objects that are very similar to each other (objects that have the same set of actions and properties), we can
create a standard Form or Template that can be used to describe different objects in that category.

Mobile Template

Model :
Camera:
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Camera:
Storage:
Does it have a Face Unlock? Yes | No

Filled Template

Model : iPhone 12 Pro

Camera: 64MP
Storage: 128GB
Does it have a Face Unlock? Yes

Bundling Data

While modeling real-life objects with object oriented programming, we ensure to bundle related information
together to clearly separate information of different objects.

Bundling of related properties and actions together is called Encapsulation.

Classes can be used to bundle related properties and actions.

Defining a Class

To create a class, use the keyword

class

Special Method

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In Python, a special method

__init__ is used to assign values to properties.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera = camera

Properties & Values

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera = camera
5 def make_call(self, number):
6 print("calling..")

In the above example,

model and camera are the properties and values are which passed to the __init__
method.

Action
PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera = camera
5 def make_call(self, number):
6 print("calling..")

In the above example, the below function is an action

PYTHON
1 def make_call(self, number):
2 print("calling..")

In OOP terminology, properties are referred as attributes actions are referred as methods

Using a Class

To use the defined class, we have to instantiate it.

A class is like a blueprint, while its instance is based on that class with actual values.

Instance of Class
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Syntax for creating an instance of class looks similar to function call.

An instance of class is Object.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera= camera
5
6 mobile_obj = Mobile(
7 "iPhone 12 Pro",
8 "12 MP")
9 print(mobile_obj)

Class Object

An object is simply a collection of attributes and methods that act on those data.

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera= camera
5
6 mobile_obj = Mobile(
7 "iPhone 12 Pro",
8 "12 MP")
9 print(mobile_obj)

Method Arguments & Return Values

Similar to functions, Methods also support positional, keyword & default arguments and also return values.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera= camera
5 def make_call(self,number):
6 return "calling..{}".format(number)

Instance Methods of Class

For instance method, we need to first write

self in the function definition and then the other arguments.

Code

PYTHON
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PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera= camera
5 def make_call(self,number):
6 print("calling..{}".format(number))
7
8 mobile_obj = Mobile("iPhone 12 Pro", "12 MP")
9 mobile_obj.make_call(9876543210)

Output

calling..9876543210

Multiple Instances

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera= camera
5 def make_call(self,number):
6 print("calling..{}".format(number))
7
8 mobile_obj1 = Mobile("iPhone 12 Pro", "12 MP")
9 print(id(mobile_obj1))
10 mobile_obj2 = Mobile("Galaxy M51", "64 MP")
Expand

Output

139685004996560
139685004996368

Type of Object

The class from which object is created is considered to be the type of object.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, camera):
3 self.model = model
4 self.camera = camera
5
6 obj_1 = Mobile("iPhone 12 Pro", "12 MP")
7 print(type(obj_1))
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Output

<class '__main__.Mobile'>

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Classes and Objects

Attributes of an Object

Attributes can be set or accessed using

. (dot) character.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model, storage):
3 self.model = model
4 self.storage = storage
5
6
7 obj = Mobile("iPhone 12 Pro", "128GB")
8 print(obj.model)

Output

iPhone 12 Pro

Accessing in Other Methods

We can also access and update properties in other methods.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model):
3 self.model = model
4
5 def get_model(self):
6 print(self.model)
7
8
9 obj_1 = Mobile("iPhone 12 Pro")
10 obj_1.get_model()

Output

iPhone 12 Pro

Updating Attributes

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It is recommended to update attributes through methods.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Mobile:
2 def __init__(self, model):
3 self.model = model
4
5 def update_model(self, model):
6 self.model = model
7
8
9 obj_1 = Mobile("iPhone 12")
10 print(obj_1.model)
Expand

Output

iPhone 12
iPhone 12 Pro

Modeling Class

Let’s model the scenario of shopping cart of ecommerce site.

The features a cart should have

can add an item

can remove an item from cart
update quantity of an item
to show list of items in cart
to show total price for the items in the cart

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 def __init__(self):
3 self.items = {}
4 self.price_details = {"book": 500, "laptop": 30000}
5
6 def add_item(self, item_name, quantity):
7 self.items[item_name] = quantity
8
9 def remove_item(self, item_name):
10 del self.items[item_name]
Expand

Output

31500
['book']
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1000

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Cheat Sheet

Attributes & Methods

Shopping Cart

Users can add different items to their shopping cart and checkout.
The total value of the cart should be more than a minimum amount (Rs. 100/-) for the checkout.
During Offer Sales, all users get a flat discount on their cart and the minimum cart value will be Rs. 200/-.

Attributes

Broadly, attributes can be categorized as

Instance Attributes

Class Attributes

Instance Attributes

Attributes whose value can differ for each instance of class are modeled as instance attributes.

Ex: Items in Cart

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Class Attributes

Attributes whose values stay common for all the objects are modelled as Class Attributes.

Ex: Minimum Cart Bill,

Flat Discount

Accessing Instance Attributes

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def __init__(self):
5 self.items = {}
6 def add_item(self,..):
7 self.items[item_name] = quantity
8 def display_items(self):
9 print(items)
10 C t()
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10 a = Cart()
Expand

Output

NameError: name 'items' is not defined

Instance attributes can only be accessed using instance of class.

Self

self passed to method contains the object, which is an instance of class.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def __init__(self):
5 self.items = {}
6 def add_item(self,item_name, quantity):
7 self.items[item_name] = quantity
8 def display_items(self):
9 print(self)
10
Expand

Output

<__main__.Cart object at 0x7f6f83c9dfd0>

<__main__.Cart object at 0x7f6f83c9dfd0>

Accessing Using Self

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def __init__(self):
5 self.items = {}
6 def add_item(self, item_name,quantity):
7 self.items[item_name] = quantity
8 def display_items(self):
9 print(self.items)
10 a = Cart()
Expand

Output

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{"book": 3}

Accessing Using Object

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def __init__(self):
5 self.items = {}
6 def add_item(self, item_name,quantity):
7 self.items[item_name] = quantity
8 def display_items(self):
9 print(self.items)
10 a = Cart()
Expand

Output

{'book': 3}

Accessing Using Class

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def __init__(self):
5 self.items = {}
6 def add_item(self, item_name,quantity):
7 self.items[item_name] = quantity
8 def display_items(self):
9 print(self.items)
10 print(Cart.items)

Output

AttributeError: type object 'Cart' has no attribute 'items'

Accessing Class Attributes

Example 1

Code
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PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def __init__(self):
5 self.items = {}
6
7 print(Cart.min_bill)

Output

100

Example 2

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def __init__(self):
5 self.items = {}
6 def print_min_bill(self):
7 print(Cart.min_bill)
8
9 a = Cart()
10 a.print_min_bill()

Output

100

Updating Class Attribute

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 def print_min_bill(self):
5 print(Cart.min_bill)
6 a = Cart()
7 b = Cart()
8 Cart.min_bill = 200
9 print(a.print_min_bill())
10 print(b.print_min_bill())

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Output

200
200

Method

Broadly, methods can be categorized as

Instance Methods
Class Methods
Static Methods

Instance Methods

Instance methods can access all attributes of the instance and have self as a parameter.

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Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 def __init__(self):
3 self.items = {}
4 def add_item(self, item_name,quantity):
5 self.items[item_name] = quantity
6 def display_items(self):
7 print(self.items)
8
9 a = Cart()
10 a.add_item("book", 3)
Expand

Output

{'book': 3}

Example 2

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 def __init__(self):
3 self.items = {}
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3 self.items {}
4 def add_item(self, item_name,quantity):
5 self.items[item_name] = quantity
6 self.display_items()
7 def display_items(self):
8 print(self.items)
9
10 a = Cart()
Expand

Output

{'book': 3}

Class Methods

Methods which need access to class attributes but not instance attributes are marked as Class Methods.
For class methods, we send

cls as a parameter indicating we are passing the class.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 @classmethod
5 def update_flat_discount(cls,
6 new_flat_discount):
7 cls.flat_discount = new_flat_discount
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8
9 Cart.update_flat_discount(25)
10 print(Cart.flat_discount)

Output

25

@classmethod decorator marks the method below it as a class method.

We will learn more about decorators in upcoming sessions.

Accessing Class Method

Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2 flat_discount = 0
3 min_bill = 100
4 @classmethod
5 def update_flat_discount(cls, new_flat_discount):
6 cls.flat_discount = new_flat_discount
7
8 @classmethod
9 def increase_flat_discount(cls, amount):
10 new_flat_discount = cls.flat_discount + amount
Expand

Output

50

Static Method

We might need some generic methods that don’t need access to either instance or class attributes. These type of
methods are called Static Methods.

Usually, static methods are used to create utility functions which make more sense to be part of the class.

@staticmethod decorator marks the method below it as a static method.

We will learn more about decorators in upcoming sessions.

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Code

PYTHON
1 class Cart:
2
3 @staticmethod
4 def greet():
5 print("Have a Great Shopping")
6
7 Cart.greet()

Output

Have a Great Shopping

Overview of Instance, Class & Static Methods

Instance Methods Class Methods Static Methods

No cls or self as
self as parameter cls as parameter
parameters
Need decorator Need decorator
No decorator required
@classmethod @staticmethod
Can be accessed through Can be accessed Can be accessed
object(instance of class) through class through class

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Cheat Sheet

Inheritance
Products

Lets model e-commerce site having different products like Electronics, Kids Wear, Grocery, etc.

Electronic Item

Following are few attributes & methods for an Electronic product.

Grocery Item

Similarly, attribute & methods for a Grocery item.

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Common Attributes & Methods

All these products Electronics, Kids Wear, Grocery etc.. have few common attributes & methods.

Specific Attributes & Methods

Also, each product has specific attributes & methods of its own.

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Electronic & Grocery Items

Electronic Item & Grocery Item will have all attributes & methods which are common to all products.
Lets Separate the common attributes & methods as Product

Modelling Classes

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Advantages of Modelling Classes as above

Reusability
Clear Separation
More Organized

Inheritance

Inheritance is a mechanism by which a class inherits attributes and methods from another class.

With Inheritance, we can have

ElectronicItem inherit the attributes & methods from Product instead of defining them
again.

Product is Super/Base/Parent Class and ElectronicItem is Sub/Derived/Child Class.

Super Class

Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
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1 class Product:
2 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
3 self.name = name
4 self.price = price
5 self.deal_price = deal_price
6 self.ratings = ratings
7 self.you_save = price - deal_price
8 def display_product_details(self):
9 print("Product: {}".format(self.name))
10 print("Price: {}".format(self.price))
Expand

Output

Product: Shoes
Price: 500
Deal Price: 250
You Saved: 250
Ratings: 3.5

Sub Class

The subclass automatically inherits all the attributes & methods from its superclass.

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
3 self.name = name
4 self.price = price
5 self.deal_price = deal_price
6 self.ratings = ratings
7 self.you_save = price - deal_price
8 def display_product_details(self):
9 print("Product: {}".format(self.name))
10 print("Price: {}".format(self.price))
Expand

Output

Product: TV
Price: 45000
Deal Price: 40000
You Saved: 5000
Ratings: 3.5

Example 2

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Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
3 self.name = name
4 self.price = price
5 self.deal_price = deal_price
6 self.ratings = ratings
7 self.you_save = price - deal_price
8 def display_product_details(self):
9 print("Product: {}".format(self.name))
10 print("Price: {}".format(self.price))
Expand

Output

Product: milk
Price: 25
Deal Price: 20
You Saved: 5
Ratings: 3

Example 3

Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
3 self.name = name
4 self.price = price
5 self.deal_price = deal_price
6 self.ratings = ratings
7 self.you_save = price - deal_price
8 def display_product_details(self):
9 print("Product: {}".format(self.name))
10 print("Price: {}".format(self.price))
Expand

Output

24

In the above example, calling

set_warranty will create an attribute warranty_in_months .

Super Class & Sub Class

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Superclass cannot access the methods and attributes of the subclass.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
3 self.name = name
4 self.price = price
5 self.deal_price = deal_price
6 self.ratings = ratings
7 self.you_save = price - deal_price
8 def display_product_details(self):
9 print("Product: {}".format(self.name))
10 print("Price: {}".format(self.price))
Expand

Output

AttributeError: 'Product' object has no attribute 'set_warranty'

Sub Class Method

Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
3 self.name = name
4 self.price = price
5 self.deal_price = deal_price
6 self.ratings = ratings
7 self.you_save = price - deal_price
8 def display_product_details(self):
9 print("Product: {}".format(self.name))
10 print("Price: {}".format(self.price))
Expand

Output

Product: TV
Price: 45000
Deal Price: 40000
You Saved: 5000
Ratings: 3.5

Calling Super Class Method

We can call methods defined in superclass from the methods in the subclass.

Code

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PYTHON
1 class Product:
2 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
3 self.name = name
4 self.price = price
5 self.deal_price = deal_price
6 self.ratings = ratings
7 self.you_save = price - deal_price
8 def display_product_details(self):
9 print("Product: {}".format(self.name))
10 print("Price: {}".format(self.price))
Expand

Output

Product: TV
Price: 45000
Deal Price: 40000
You Saved: 5000
Ratings: 3.5
Warranty 24 months

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Cheat Sheet

Inheritance - Part 2

How would you design and implement placing order with the details of all the products
bought?

Composition

Modelling instances of one class as attributes of another class is called Composition

Code

PYTHON
48 total_bill += price
49 print("Total Bill: {}".format(total_bill))
50
51 milk = GroceryItem("Milk",40, 25, 3.5)
52 tv = ElectronicItem("TV",45000, 40000, 3.5)
53 order = Order("Prime Delivery", "Hyderabad")
54 order.add_item(milk, 2)
55 order.add_item(tv, 1)
56 order.display_order_details()
57 order.display_total_bill()
Expand

Output

You Saved: 15
Ratings: 3.5
Quantity: 2
Product: TV
Price: 45000
Deal Price: 40000
You Saved: 5000
Ratings: 3.5
Quantity: 1
Total Bill: 40050
Expand

In the above example, we are modelling Product as attribute of Order

Overriding Methods

Sometimes, we require a method in the instances of a sub class to behave differently from the method in instance of a
superclass.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2
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3 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):

4 self.name = name
5 self.price = price
6 self.deal_price = deal_price
7 self.ratings = ratings
8 self.you_save = price - deal_price
9
10 def display_product_details(self):
Expand

Output

RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded

Because

self.display_product_details() in ElectronicItem class does not call the method in the

superclass.

Super

Accessing Super Class’s Method

super() allows us to call methods of the superclass (Product) from the subclass.

Instead of writing and methods to access and modify warranty we can override

__init__

Let's add warranty of ElectronicItem.

Code

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2
3 def __init__(self, name, price, deal_price, ratings):
4 self.name = name
5 self.price = price
6 self.deal_price = deal_price
7 self.ratings = ratings
8 self.you_save = price - deal_price
9
10 def display_product_details(self):
Expand

Output

Product: Laptop
Price: 45000
Deal Price: 40000

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You Saved: 5000
Ratings: 3.5
Warranty 10 months

MultiLevel Inheritance

We can also inherit from a subclass. This is called MultiLevel Inheritance.

We can continue such inheritance to any depth in Python.

PYTHON
1 class Product:
2 pass
3
4 class ElectronicItem(Product):
5 pass
6
7 class Laptop(ElectronicItem):
8 pass

Inheritance & Composition

When to use Inheritance?

Prefer modeling with inheritance when the classes have an IS-A relationship.

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When to use Composition?

Prefer modeling with inheritance when the classes have an HAS-A relationship.

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Cheat Sheet

Standard Library

Built-in Functions

Built-in functions are Readily available for reuse.

Some of the built Functions are

1. print()

2. max()

3. min()

4. len() and many more..

Standard Library

Python provides several such useful values (constants), classes and functions.

This collection of predefined utilities is referred as the Python Standard Library

All these functionalities are organized into different modules.

In Python context, any file containing a Python code is called a module

These modules are further organized into folders known as packages

Different modules are:

1. collections

2. random

3. datetime

4. math and many more..

Working with Standard Library

To use a functionality defined in a module we need to import that module in our program.

PYTHON
1 import module_name

Math Module

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math module provides us to access some common math functions and constants.

Code

PYTHON
1 import math
2 print(math.factorial(5))
3 print(math.pi)

Output

120
3.141592653589793

Importing module

Importing a module and giving it a new name (aliasing)

Code

PYTHON
1 import math as m1
2 print(m1.factorial(5))

Output

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120

Importing from a Module

We can import just a specific definition from a module.

Code

PYTHON
1 from math import factorial
2 print(factorial(5))

Output

120

Aliasing Imports

We can also import a specific definition from a module and alias it

Code

PYTHON
1 from math import factorial as fact
2 print(fact(5))

Output

120

Random module

Randomness is useful in whenever uncertainty is required.

For example: Rolling a dice, flipping a coin, etc.,

random module provides us utilities to create randomness.

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Randint

randint() is a function in random module which returns a random integer in the given
interval.

Code

PYTHON
1 import random
2 random_integer = random.randint(1, 10)
3 print(random_integer)

Output

Choice

choice() is a function in random module which returns a random element from the
sequence.

Code

PYTHON
1 import random
2 random ele = random.choice(["A","B","C"])
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2 random_ele random.choice([ A , B , C ])
3 print(random_ele)

Output

To know more about Python Standard Library, go through the authentic python documentation
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Map Filter and Reduce

We worked with different sequences (list, tuples, etc.)

To simplify working with sequences we can use

map() , filter() and reduce() functions.

Map

map()applies a given function to each item of a sequence (list, tuple etc.) and returns a
sequence of the results.

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 def square(n):
2 return n * n
3 numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
4 result = map(square, numbers)
5 numbers_square = list(result)
6 print(numbers square)
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p ( _ q )

Output

[1, 4, 9, 16]

Example - 2

Code

PYTHON
1 numbers = list(map(int, input().split()))
2 print(numbers)

Input

1 2 3 4

Output

[1, 2, 3, 4]

Filter

method filters the elements of a given sequence based on the result of given
filter()
function.

The function should return True/False

C d
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Code

PYTHON
1 def is_positive_number(num):
2 return num > 0
3
4 list_a = [1, -2, 3, -4]
5 positive_nums = filter(is_positive_number, list_a)
6 print(list(positive_nums))

Output

[1, 3]

Reduce

reduce() function is defined in the functools module.

Code

PYTHON
1 from functools import reduce
2
3 def sum_of_num(a, b):
4 return a+b
5
6 list_a = [1, 2, 3, 4]
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7 sum_of_list = reduce(sum_of_num, list_a)

8 print(sum_of_list)

Output

10

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Cheat Sheet

Scope & Namespaces

Object

In general, anything that can be assigned to a variable in Python is referred to as an object.

Strings, Integers, Floats, Lists, Functions, Module etc. are all objects.

Identity of an Object

Whenever an object is created in Python, it will be given a unique identifier (id).This unique id can be different
for each time you run the program.

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Every object that you use in a Python Program will be stored in Computer Memory

The unique id will be related to the location where the object is stored in the Computer Memory.

Name of an Object

Name or Identifier is simply a name given to an object.

Namespaces

A namespace is a collection of currently defined names along with information about the object that the name
references.

It ensures that names are unique and won’t lead to any conflict.

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Namespaces allow us to have the same name referring different things in different namespaces.

Code

PYTHON
1 def greet_1():
2 a = "Hello"
3 print(a)
4 print(id(a))
5
6 def greet_2():
7 a = "Hey"
8 print(a)
9 print(id(a))
10
Expand

Output

Namespace - 1
Hello
140639382368176
Namespace - 2
Hey
140639382570608
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140639382570608

Types of namespaces

As Python executes a program, it creates namespaces as necessary and forgets them when they are no longer needed.

Different namespaces are:

1. Built-in

2. Global

3. Local

Built-in Namespace

Created when we start executing a Python program and exists as long as the program is running.

This is the reason that built-in functions like id(), print() etc. are always available to us from any part of the
program.

Global Namespace

This namespace includes all names defined directly in a module (outside of all functions).

It is created when the module is loaded, and it lasts until the program ends.

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Local Namespace

Modules can have various

functions and classes .

A new local namespace is created when a function is called, which lasts until the function returns.

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Scope of a Name

The scope of a name is the region of a program in which that name has meaning.

Python searches for a name from the inside out, looking in the

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local , global , and finally the built-in namespaces.

Global variables

In Python, a variable defined outside of all functions is known as a global variable.

This variable name will be part of Global Namespace.

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 x = "Global Variable"
2 print(x)
3
4 def foo():
5 print(x)
6
7 foo()

Output

Global Variable
Global Variable
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Global Variable

Example 2

Code

PYTHON
1 def foo():
2 print(x)
3
4 x = "Global Variable"
5
6 foo()

Output

Global Variable

Local Variables

In Python, a variable defined inside a function is a local variable.

This variable name will be part of the Local Namespace which will be created when the function is called and lasts until
the function returns.

Code
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PYTHON
1 def foo():
2 x = "Local Variable"
3 print(x)
4
5 foo()
6 print(x)

Output

Local Variable
NameError: name 'x' is not defined

As,

x is not declared before assignment, python throws an error.

Local Import

Code

PYTHON
1 def foo():
2 import math
3 print(math.pi)
4
5 foo()
6 print(math.pi)

Output

3.141592653589793
NameError: name 'math' is not defined

Local Variables & Global Variables

Code

PYTHON
1 x = "Global Variable"
2
3 def foo():
4 x = "Local Variable"
5 print(x)
6
7 print(x)
8 foo()
9 print(x)

Output

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Global Variable
Local Variable
Global Variable

Modifying Global Variables

global keyword is used to define a name to refer to the value in Global Namespace.

Code

PYTHON
1 x = "Global Variable"
2
3 def foo():
4 global x
5 x = "Global Change"
6 print(x)
7
8 print(x)
9 foo()
10 print(x)

Output

Global Variable
Global Change
Global Change

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Cheat Sheet

Errors & Exceptions

There are two major kinds of errors:

1. Syntax Errors

2. Exceptions

Syntax Errors

Syntax errors are parsing errors which occur when the code is not adhering to Python Syntax.

Code

PYTHON
1 if True print("Hello")

Output

SyntaxError: invalid syntax

When there is a syntax error, the program will not execute even if that part of code is not used.

Code

PYTHON
1 print("Hello")
2
3 def greet():
4 print("World"

Output

SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing

Notice that in the above code, the syntax error is inside the

greet function, which is not used in rest of the code.

Exceptions

Even when a statement or expression is syntactically correct, it may cause an error when an attempt is made to
execute it.

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Errors detected during execution are called exceptions.

Example Scenario

We wrote a program to download a Video over the Internet.

Internet is disconnected during the download

We do not have space left on the device to download the video

Example 1

Division Example

Input given by the user is not within expected values.

Code

PYTHON
1 def divide(a, b):
2 return a / b
3
4 divide(5, 0)

Output

ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

Example 2

Input given by the user is not within expected values.

Code

PYTHON
1
2 def divide(a, b):
3 return a / b
4
5 divide("5", "10")

Output

TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for /: 'str' and 'str'

Example 3

Consider the following code, which is used to update the quantity of items in store.

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Code

PYTHON
1 class Store:
2 def __init__(self):
3 self.items = {
4 "milk" : 20, "bread" : 30, }
5
6 def add_item(self, name, quantity):
7 self.items[name] += quantity
8
9 s = Store()
10 s.add_item('biscuits', 10)

Output

KeyError: 'biscuits'

Working With Exceptions

What happens when your code runs into an exception during execution?

The application/program crashes.

End-User Applications

When you develop applications that are directly used by end-users, you need to handle different possible

exceptions in your code so that the application will not crash.

Reusable Modules

When you develop modules that are used by other developers, you should raise exceptions for different scenarios
so that other developers can handle them.

Money Transfer App Scenario

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Let’s consider we are creating an app that allows users to transfer money between them.

Bank Account Class

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 class BankAccount:
2 def __init__(self, account_number):
3 self.account_number = str(account_number)
4 self.balance = 0
5
6 def get_balance(self):
7 return self.balance
8
9 def withdraw(self, amount):
10 if self.balance >= amount:
Expand

Output

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User 1 Balance: 250/-

User 2 Balance: 100/-
Transferring 50/- from User 1 to User 2
User 1 Balance: 200/-
User 2 Balance: 150/-

Example 2

Code

PYTHON

5
6 def get_balance(self):
7 return self.balance
8
9 def withdraw(self, amount):
10 if self.balance >= amount:
11 self.balance -= amount
12 else:
13 print("Insufficient Funds")
14
Expand

Output

User 1 Balance: 25/-

User 2 Balance: 100/-
Insufficient Funds
Transferring 50/- from User 1 to User 2
User 1 Balance: 25/-
User 2 Balance: 150/-

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Raising Exceptions

When your code enters an unexpected state, raise an exception to communicate it.

Built-in Exceptions

Different exception classes which are raised in different scenarios.

You can use the built-in exception classes with raise keyword to raise an exception in the program.

Code

We can pass message as argument .

PYTHON
1 raise ValueError("Unexpected Value!!")

Output

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ValueError:Unexpected Value!!

Bank Account Class

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
25 user_2 = BankAccount("002")
26 user_1.deposit(25)
27 user_2.deposit(100)
28
29 print("User 1 Balance: {}/-".format(user_1.get_balance()))
30 print("User 2 Balance: {}/-".format(user_2.get_balance()))
31 transfer_amount(user_1, user_2, 50)
32 print("Transferring 50/- from User 1 to User 2")
33 print("User 1 Balance: {}/-".format(user_1.get_balance()))
34 print("User 2 Balance: {}/-".format(user_2.get_balance()))
Expand

Output

User 1 Balance: 25/-

User 2 Balance: 100/-

ValueError: Insufficient Funds

Handling Exceptions

Python provides a way to catch the exceptions that were raised so that they can be properly handled.
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Exceptions can be handled with try-except block.

Whenever an exception occurs at some line in try block, the execution stops at that line and jumps to except
block.

PYTHON
1 try:
2 # Write code that
3 # might cause exceptions.
4 except:
5 # The code to be run when
6 # there is an exception.

Transfer Amount

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 class BankAccount:
2 def __init__(self, account_number):
3 self.account_number = str(account_number)
4 self.balance = 0
5
6 def get_balance(self):
7 return self.balance
8
9 def withdraw(self, amount):
10 if self.balance >= amount:
Expand

Output

User 1 Balance: 25/-

User 2 Balance: 100/-

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False
Transferring 50/- from User 1 to User 2
User 1 Balance: 25/-
User 2 Balance: 100/-

Summary

Reusable Modules

While developing reusable modules, we need to raise Exceptions to stop our code from being used in a bad way.

End-User Applications

While developing end-user applications, we need to handle Exceptions so that application will not crash when
used.

Handling Specific Exceptions

We can specifically mention the name of exception to catch all exceptions of that specific type.

Syntax

PYTHON
1 try:
2 # Write code that
3 # might cause exceptions.
4 except Exception:
5 # The code to be run when
6 # there is an exception.

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 try:
2 a = int(input())
3 b = int(input())
4 c = a/b
5 print(c)
6 except ZeroDivisionError:
7 print("Denominator can't be 0")
8 except:
9 print("Unhandled Exception")

Input

5
0

Output

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Denominator can't be 0

Example 2

Code

Input given by the user is not within expected values.

PYTHON
1 try:
2 a = int(input())
3 b = int(input())
4 c = a/b
5 print(c)
6 except ZeroDivisionError:
7 print("Denominator can't be 0")
8 except:
9 print("Unhandled Exception")

Input

12
a

Output

Unhandled Exception

We can also access the handled exception in an object.

Syntax

PYTHON
1 try:
2 # Write code that
3 # might cause exceptions.
4 except Exception as e:
5 # The code to be run when
6 # there is an exception.

Code

PYTHON
1 class BankAccount:
2 def __init__(self, account_number):
3 self.account_number = str(account_number)
4 self.balance = 0
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5
6 def get_balance(self):
7 return self.balance
8
9 def withdraw(self, amount):
10 if self.balance >= amount:
Expand

Output

User 1 Balance: 25/-

User 2 Balance: 100/-
Insufficient Funds
<class 'ValueError'>
('Insufficient Funds',)
False
Transferring 50/- from User 1 to User 2
User 1 Balance: 25/-
User 2 Balance: 100/-

Handling Multiple Exceptions

We can write multiple exception blocks to handle different types of exceptions differently.

Syntax

PYTHON
1 try:
2 # Write code that
3 # might cause exceptions.
4 except Exception1:
5 # The code to be run when
6 # there is an exception.
7 except Exception2:
8 # The code to be run when
9 # there is an exception.

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 try:
2 a = int(input())
3 b = int(input())
4 c = a/b
5 print(c)
6 except ZeroDivisionError:
7 print("Denominator can't be 0")
8 except ValueError:
9 print("Input should be an integer")
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10 except:
Expand

Input

5
0

Output

Denominator can't be 0

Example 2

Code

PYTHON
1 try:
2 a = int(input())
3 b = int(input())
4 c = a/b
5 print(c)
6 except ZeroDivisionError:
7 print("Denominator can't be 0")
8 except ValueError:
9 print("Input should be an integer")
10 except:
Expand

Input

12
a

Output

Input should be an integer

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Cheat Sheet

Working With Dates & Times

Datetime

Python has a built-in datetime module which provides convenient objects to work with dates and times.

Code

PYTHON
1 import datetime

Datetime classes

Commonly used classes in the datetime module are:

date class
time class
datetime class
timedelta class

Working with 'date' class

Representing Date

A date object can be used to represent any valid date (year, month and day).

Code

PYTHON
1 import datetime
2
3 date_object = datetime.date(2019, 4, 13)
4 print(date_object)

Output

2019-04-13

Date Object

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import date
2 date_obj = date(2022, 2, 31)
3 print(date_obj)

Output

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ValueError: day is out of range for month

Today’s Date

Class method

today() returns a date object with today’s date.

Code

PYTHON
1 import datetime
2
3 date_object = datetime.date.today()
4 print(date_object)

Output

2021-02-05

Attributes of Date Object

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import date
2
3 date_object = date(2019, 4, 13)
4 print(date_object.year)
5 print(date_object.month)
6 print(date_object.day)

Output

2019
4
13

Working with ‘time’ Class

Representing Time

A time object can be used to represent any valid time (hours, minutes and seconds).

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import time
2
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2
3 time_object = time(11, 34, 56)
4 print(time_object)

Output

11:34:56

Attributes of Time Object

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import time
2
3 time_object = time(11, 34, 56)
4 print(time_object)
5 print(time_object.hour)
6 print(time_object.minute)
7 print(time_object.second)

Output

11:34:56
11
34
56

Working with ‘datetime’ Class

Datetime

The datetime class represents a valid date and time together.

Example - 1

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import datetime
2
3 date_time_obj = datetime(2018, 11, 28, 10, 15, 26)
4 print(date_time_obj.year)
5 print(date_time_obj.month)
6 print(date_time_obj.hour)
7 print(date_time_obj.minute)

Output

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2018
11
10
15

Example - 2
It gives the current date and time

Code

PYTHON
1 import datetime
2
3 datetime_object = datetime.datetime.now()
4 print(datetime_object)

Output

2021-02-05 09:26:08.077473

DateTime object

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import datetime
2 date_time_obj = datetime(2018, 11, 28)
3 print(date_time_obj)

Output

2018-11-28 00:00:00

Formatting Datetime

The datetime classes have

strftime(format) method to format the datetime into any required format like

mm/dd/yyyy

dd-mm-yyyy

Format Specifier Meaning Example

Year without century as a zero-padded decimal

%y 19, 20, ...
number

%Y Y ith t d i l b 2019 2020

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%Y Year with century as a decimal number 2019, 2020, ...
Format Specifier Meaning Example
%b Month as abbreviated name Jan, Feb, ...

%B Month as full name January, February

%m Month as a zero-padded decimal number 01, 02, …, 12

Day of the month as a zero-padded decimal

%d 01, 02, …, 31
number

%a Weekday as abbreviated name Sun, Mon, ...

Sunday, Monday,
%A Weekday as full name
...
Hour (24-hour clock) as a zero-padded decimal
%H 00, 01, …, 23
number
Hour (12-hour clock) as a zero-padded decimal
%I 01, 02, …, 12
number

%p AM or PM AM, PM

%M Minute as a zero-padded decimal number 00, 01, …, 59

%S Second as a zero-padded decimal number 00, 01, …, 59

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import datetime
2
3 now = datetime.now()
4 formatted_datetime_1 = now.strftime("%d %b %Y %I:%M:%S %p")
5 print(formatted_datetime_1)
6
7 formatted_datetime_2 = now.strftime("%d/%m/%Y, %H:%M:%S")
8 print(formatted_datetime_2)

Output

05 Feb 2021 09:26:50 AM

05/02/2021, 09:26:50

Parsing Datetime

The class method

strptime() creates a datetime object from a given string representing date and time.

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import datetime
2
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2
3 date_string = "28 November, 2018"
4 print(date_string)
5
6 date_object = datetime.strptime(date_string, "%d %B, %Y")
7 print(date_object)

Output

28 November, 2018
2018-11-28 00:00:00

Working with ‘timedelta’ Class

Timedelta object represents duration.

Example 1

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import timedelta
2
3 delta = timedelta(days=365, hours=4)
4 print(delta)

Output

365 days, 4:00:00

Example 2

Code

PYTHON
1 from datetime import timedelta, datetime
2 delta = timedelta(days=365)
3 current_datetime = datetime.now()
4 print(current_datetime)
5 next_year_datetime = current_datetime + delta
6 print(next_year_datetime)

Output

2021-02-05 09:28:30.239095
2022-02-05 09:28:30.239095

Calculating Time Difference

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Code

PYTHON
1 import datetime
2
3 dt1 = datetime.datetime(2021, 2, 5)
4 dt2 = datetime.datetime(2022, 1, 1)
5 duration = dt2 - dt1
6 print(duration)
7 print(type(duration))

Output

330 days, 0:00:00

<class 'datetime.timedelta'>

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