Health & Safety

Quick revise
Negative Implications of computers to people
Some of the ways that ICT systems can cause stress for workers:

 Many people are afraid of computers and fear that they will be left behind or made redundant if they
are unable to learn new ICT skills quickly enough and keep up with the younger more computer-literate
generation;
 ICT systems make information instantly available wherever you are. Mobile phones, pagers, portable
computers and the Internet make it possible to work anywhere. This means that some people find it
virtually impossible to forget about work and relax.
 The amount of information that ICT systems can produce is often far too much for anyone to take in.
This results in ‘information overload’, which causes workers to become stressed by the feeling that
they can’t cope with the information that they are receiving.
 Workers can be monitored using ICT systems — the feeling of being constantly ‘watched’ caused by
this can be very stressful.

Employers can be sued if they do not take steps to protect employees.

Working with computers for long periods of time can cause:

 Eyestrain;
 Repetitive strain Injury
 Back ache
Repetitive strain injury
Repeating the same physical movements over and over again can cause a condition known as RSI.

Repeated presses on the keyboard and long periods of holding and moving a mouse cause a build up of
damage to the hands arms and shoulders.

Eyestrain
Spending long periods of time in front of a computer screen can cause eyestrain.

This can be avoided by:

 Ensuring there is enough light;

 Reducing the amount of glare;

Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation

Computer monitors are a common source of ELF.

Some evidence suggests that working for long periods in front of a computer screen may increase the risk
of miscarriage during pregnancy.
 Manual Input Peripherals, or Devices
Quick revise
Manual input devices are used by people to enter data by hand.

Keyboard
 The keyboard is the most common type of input device. Ordinary computer keyboards have their keys
arranged in a similar way to those on a typewriter. This way of arranging the keys is called QWERTY
because of the order that the keys appear in on the first row of letters.
Pointing devices
 A mouse is a pointing device. It is the next most common type of input device after the
keyboard.Touch pads and trackballs are also types of pointing device. They are often used instead of
a mouse on portable computers.
Joystick
 The main use of a joystick is to play computer games by controlling the way that something moves on
the screen.
 Joysticks can be used to control movement from side-to-side, up-and-down and diagonally.
 A joystick will also always have at least one button on it which can be used to make something happen
like making a character in a game jump or fire a gun.
Touch screen
 A touch screen can detect exactly where on its surface it has been touched.
 Touch screens are used in a lot of fast food chains and restaurants because they are easy to keep
clean and re-program if changes need to be made to the menu.
Digital Camera
 A digital camera can store many more pictures than an ordinary camera.
 Pictures taken using a digital camera are stored inside its memory and can be transferred to a
computer by connecting the camera to it. A digital camera takes pictures by converting the light
passing through the lens at the front into a digital image.

Scanner
 A scanner can be used to input pictures and text into a computer. There are two main types of
scanner; Hand-held and Flat-bed.
Concept Keyboard
 A concept keyboard is a flat board with a grid of programmable keys on its surface. A single key or a
group of keys can be set up to carry out a particular task. Paper overlays are placed on top of the
keyboard with pictures drawn on them to represent what will happen if the keys in a certain position are
pressed.
 Concept keyboards are often used with young children in primary schools who can’t use an ordinary
keyboard very well.
Graphics Tablet
 A graphics tablet consists of a flat surface and a pen, or stylus, which can be used to produce freehand
drawings or trace around shapes. When the special pen touches the surface of the graphics tablet data
about its position is sent to the computer. This data is used to produce on the screen an exact copy of
what is being drawn on the surface of the graphics tablet.
Microphone
 A microphone is used to input sound into a computer system. Microphones are often used for voice
recognition systems which convert sounds made by a user into commands that the computer can carry
out.
 Systems like this are very useful for people who can’t use ordinary input devices such as the mouse
and keyboard. As computers become more powerful in the future, voice recognition will be a much
more common input method for all computer users.
 Light Pen
 A light pen is a small ‘pen-shaped’ wand, which contains light sensors. It is used to choose objects or
commands on the screen either by pressing it against the surface of the screen or by pressing a small
switch on its side.
 A signal is sent to the computer, which then works out the light pen’s exact location on the screen. The
advantage of a light pen is that it doesn’t need a special screen or screen coating.

Automated Input Devices

Quick revise
 Methods of capturing and entering data directly without any need for human intervention.
 Sometimes called direct data entry, or DDE for short
 Used when very large amounts of data need to be input quickly and accurately.
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
 OMR uses an input device called an optical mark reader to detect marks made in certain places on
specially printed forms.
 A fast input method, used where large amounts of data need to be input quickly.
 Used to input data from things like answer sheets for multiple choice exams and registration forms in
schools
 Also National Lottery forms
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
 MICR uses an input device called a magnetic ink character reader to input characters that have been
printed in special magnetic ink
 Banks use MICR to process cheques
 Banks use this method of input for processing cheques because it is very secure
 The equipment needed to print and read characters in magnetic ink is very expensive
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
 OCR is the use of an ordinary scanner and special software to convert text in a scanned image into a
format that can be edited by word processing software
 Text must be printed or written very clearly
 Used for the reading of typed postcodes
 OCR depends on the shape of the marks whereas OMR depends on the position of the marks
Bar Codes
 A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that represent a number
 Bar Code Readers are used to input data from bar codes.
 Most products in shops have bar codes on them
 Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light on the lines that make up the bar code and detecting
the amount of light that is reflected back
 Bar codes represent a code number for a product
Magnetic stripe readers
 A magnetic stripe is a thin band of magnetic tape
 Often on the back of a credit or debit card, identity cards and electronic key cards in hotels and
businesses
 Magnetic stripes can hold only a small amount of data and are quite easy to forge In the next few years
magnetic stripes will be replaced with smart cards which store much more data on a small microchip
built into the surface of the card
Sensors
 Sensors are used to detect physical quantities outside a computer such as temperature, pressure and
light
 To be able to process input from sensors a device called an analogue-to-digital converter must be
connected between the computer and the sensors.
 This device converts signals from sensors into digital data that the computer can process.
Data logging
 Data logging is a way of using a computer to automatically collect data over a period of time without
any need for human supervision
 Useful when data needs to be collected in remote or inhospitable conditions where it would be difficult
for humans to take measurements
 Used in weather monitoring stations and in science experiments
Applications of Data logging
 Collecting scientific data
 Monitoring hospital patients
 Collecting weather data
 Monitoring air quality

Storing Data, Devices and Media

Quick revise
Data storage devices can be divided into 2 main categories:

Backing storage is used to store programs and data when they are not being used or when a computer
is switched off. When programs and data are needed they are copied into main memory but also still
remain on backing storage. Magnetic tape drives, floppy disk drives and hard disk drives are all examples
of backing storage devices.
The Main Memory contains two types of memory chip called ROM and RAM which hold program
instructions and data.

Backing Storage

BITS and BYTES

 Computers store and process data using binary numbers.
 A single unit in binary is called a bit which stands for binary digit.
 Computer memory is measured in bytes. One byte is made up of eight bits.
 One byte can store one character.

The eight bit binary code in this byte represents the letter A

The size of a computer’s memory is normally measured in kilobytes (Kb), megabytes (Mb) or gigabytes
(Gb). The table below shows some of the main units of size that we use to measure computer memory.
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 RAM is the computer’s ‘working memory’.
 RAM temporarily stores programs and data that are being used at a given time.
 The contents of RAM can be changed and are lost when the computer is turned off.
 Memory which is wiped clean when the computer is turned off is called volatile memory.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
 The main use of ROM memory chips in a computer is to store the program that runs when the
computer is turned on which loads the operating system (e.g. Windows 2000) from disk.
 The contents of ROM can’t be changed and aren’t lost when the computer is switched off.
 Memory which isn't wiped clean when the computer is turned off is called non-volatile memory.
 PROM and EPROM
 PROM and EPROM are both special types of programmable read only memory.
 PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This type of memory can be programmed once
but can’t be changed again afterwards.
 EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This type of memory can be
programmed and then changed whenever necessary.
Hard Disk Drives
 A hard disk is a circular metal disk coated with magnetic material and usually sealed in a hard disk
drive inside the computer.
 Some hard disk drives are not permanently fixed inside the computer but are removable.
 Data stored on a hard disk can be accessed much more quickly than data stored on a floppy disk.
 Hard disks can store much more data than a floppy disk. A typical hard disk inside a personal
computer can hold several gigabytes of data.

Floppy Disks
 A floppy disk a circular piece of plastic coated with a magnetic material and protected by a hard plastic
cover.
 The size of a floppy disk is measured in inches.
 Modern floppy disks are 3½ inches wide.
The formatting process involves:

 Dividing the surface of the disk into invisible circles called tracks and sectors.
 Setting up a root directory where the list of files that are on the disk will be kept.
 Data on a magnetic disk is located by finding the address of its location from an index in the root
directory.
 Each address in the index contains a track and sector number for an individual data segment.
CD-ROM
 CD-ROM stands for compact disk read only memory. A CD-ROM looks just like an ordinary compact
disk.
 CD-ROMs can store approximately 650 megabytes of data which is four hundred times more data than
an ordinary 3½ inch floppy disk.
 CD-ROM disks come with information already on them and are read only. This means that the
information on a CD-ROM cannot be erased or changed, and no new information can be saved.
Writeable CD's
Writeable compact disks are supplied blank and can have data put onto them using a special read/write
CD drive.

There are two main types of writeable compact disk;

 WORM (Write-Once, Read-Many) disks which can have data written to them just once.
 Magneto-Optical disks which can have data written to them any number of times just like a hard disk.
 Digital versatile disk (DVD)
 DVD is the latest way of storing data
 DVD discs are expected to replace ordinary compact discs and video tapes in the future
 A DVD disc can store up to 17 gigabytes of data. This is enough storage space for at least four full-
length feature films!
Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic tape comes in two forms; tape reels, and cassettes or cartridges.
 Large tape reels are used to make backup copies of programs and data on large mainframe
computers.
 Cartridges are used to make backup copies of the programs and data on personal computers and
networks.
 The main advantage of using magnetic tape as backing storage is that it is relatively cheap and can
store large amounts of data.
Direct and serial access
 Floppy disks, hard disks and CDs all allow direct access to data.
 Direct access means that the required data can be found straight away without having to read through
all the data on the disk.
 Magnetic tape allows only serial access to data. To locate data on a magnetic tape it has to be
searched from the beginning until the required data is found.
File Compression
 File compression software can be used to make files smaller so that more data can be stored in the
same amount of space on backing store.
 When a compressed file on backing store needs to be used it must be decompressed.
 This can be done using decompression software or by setting files up to be self-extracting which
means that they can automatically decompress themselves.
 Winzip is an example of software that can be used to compress and decompress files.

Output Peripherals, or Devices

Quick revise
Before any output can be produced by a computer it must have an output device connected to it. The
output devices that you are probably most used to will be the screen, or monitor, and the printer. Another
sort of output that you will have experienced when using a computer is sound, which is output through a
speaker.

Monitor
 A monitor or screen is an output device that can display graphics and text and video.
 The picture on a monitor is made up of thousands of tiny coloured dots called pixels.
 The quality of the output on a monitor depends on its resolution.
 The resolution of a monitor depends on the number of pixels that it can display.
Dot Matrix Printers
 A dot matrix printer forms characters and graphics on the paper by producing patterns of dots. If you
look closely at a print-out from a dot matrix printer you will see the tiny dots which make up the printout.
 The part of the printer which forms the patterns of dots is called the print head. The print head is made
up from pins which are pushed out in different arrangements to form the various patterns of dots
needed.
Inkjet Printers
 Inkjet printers work like dot matrix printers because the printouts that they produce are made up of
patterns of very small dots but the print head has a set of tiny holes rather than pins. As the print head
moves across the paper ink is forced out through the holes to form the image.
 Inkjet printers are very quiet to operate and can produce good-quality printouts of both graphics and
text. Relatively cheap colour graphics can be printed using a colour inkjet.
 Laser Printers
 Laser printers give very high-quality printed output of both text and graphics very quickly and quietly.
 They are generally more expensive to buy than inkjet printers and the toner cartridges are more
expensive.
They are very suitable for large volume printouts because of their speed.

Plotters
 The main difference between a plotter and a printer is that a plotter uses a pen to draw the computer
output onto the paper.
 Some plotters use a set of coloured pens to produce colour output. Plotters produce very accurate
drawings and are often used in computer aided design or CAD.

Speakers
 Computers can output music, voices and many other complicated sounds using speakers.
 To be able to output sound a computer needs to have a special circuit board inside it called a sound
card.

 Operating Systems
 Quick revise
 An operating system is a set of programs that controls how the hardware of a computer works.
 An operating system provides a means of communication between the user and the computer,
deals with the loading and running of applications programs and manages the transfer of data
and files to and from peripheral devices.
 The most widely used operating systems are called Windows 2000, MacOS (for Apple Mac
computers), Novell Netware and UNIX.
 The operating system that a computer has also determines what applications software will run on
it.
 Applications software will only work on a computer that has the operating system that it was
designed to be used with. Applications software will not run on a computer that has a different
operating system to the one that it was designed for.
 Functions of an operating system
It deals with input and output, which involves:

 Accepting data from input devices and transferring it to the computer’s memory.
 Making sure that any output is sent to the correct output device.
It manages the transfer of data between the computer’s memory and backing storage devices.

It manages system resources, which involves:

 Allocating memory space to programs and data.

 Keeping track of which parts of the memory have already been allocated and the parts that are still free.
It deals with the loading of applications software into memory and controls the execution, or ‘running’ of
them.

It also provides a way for applications software to communicate with the computer’s hardware.

It deals with any errors that occur when a program is being run, or when data is being transferred
somewhere, and informs the user if necessary.

It manages system security, which involves:

 Monitoring and restricting access to programs and data.

 Preventing unauthorised access to the system.
It provides a human computer interface, or HCI, for the user.
It provides special facilities for multiprogramming.

A multiprogramming operating system can hold more than one program in memory at the same time.

There are two types of multiprogramming operating system;

 multitasking;
 Multi-user.
A multitasking operating system allows two or more programs to run at the same time.

The operating system does this by swapping each program in and out of memory in turn. When a
program is swapped out of memory it is stored temporarily on disk until it is needed again. Windows 2000
is an example of a multitasking operating system.
 A multi-user operating system lets many users at different terminals share processing time on a powerful
central computer.

The operating system does this by switching rapidly between the terminals giving each one in turn a small
amount of processor time on the central computer.

The operating system switches so quickly between the terminals that each user appears to have
uninterrupted access to the central computer.

However if there are a large number of users on such a system the time that it takes the central computer
to respond can become more noticeable.

Utility Programs
Utility programs are usually supplied along with an operating system.

They are used to carry out routine tasks that are often needed by a user such as:

 Compressing a file to save space on backing storage;

 Defragmenting a disk drive;
 Recovering data from damaged files;
 Checking a disk for faults and repairing them;
 Formatting a floppy disk;
 Checking the files on a disk for computer viruses
Processing Methods
A processing method is the way that a particular operating system deals with input.

There are three main types of processing method:

 real-time;
 transaction;
 Batch processing.
Real-time processing systems process input data so quickly that the resulting output can affect further
input.It is used for applications where it is essential that the computer responds straight away to input.

Examples of applications where real-time processing is used are;

 missile defence systems;

 automatic pilot systems on aircraft;
 Monitoring intensive care patients in a hospital.
Transaction, or on-line, processing, is used for applications where input needs to be dealt with straight
away but it is not critical if there is a slight delay in the time that it takes for the computer to respond to
requests.
Examples of applications where transaction processing is used include the on-line seat booking systems
used by airlines and the stock control systems used by catalogue companies like Argos.

A system where transaction processing is used will always give an up-to-the-minute picture of the current
situation.

A batch processing system does not respond to input straight away. Instead, input is collected together
into a ‘batch’ while the system is off-line.
When a batch is ready to be processed the system goes on-line to carry out the processing of the data.
 Batch processing is non-interactive. This means that the user cannot get an immediate response to input
as they would with an interactive system.

Examples of applications that use batch processing include producing gas, electricity or water bills and
marking OMR sheets from multiple choice examinations.

Application Software
Quick revise
There are two main types of computer software; system software and application software.
System software includes the operating system and utility programs. Application software caries out user-
related tasks and can be classified as general-purpose, specialist or tailor-made.
General-purpose packages
A general-purpose application package is a type of software that can perform many different related
tasks.

Word processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphics and presentation software are all examples of
application packages.

This type of software is sometimes called generic software. This means, for example, that any one of the
many different word processing packages that you could buy will all do the same general sorts of tasks as
each other.
Most computer users buy application packages ‘off-the-shelf’. There are several good reasons for using
this type of ready-made software.
 It is relatively cheap;
 It is readily available and can be installed quickly and easily;
 It will have been thoroughly tested so there will be very little chance of it having any serious faults or
‘bugs’;
 It will be well supported with a lot of books about how to use it available as well as on-line help and
discussions on the Internet.
Common types of general purpose software
 Database packages (e.g. MS Access, Lotus Approach, Paradox) are used to store and retrieve
information;
 Spreadsheet packages (e.g. MS Excel, Lotus 123) are used for tasks that involve a lot of calculations
or for the production of graphs and charts;
 Word processing packages (e.g. MS Word, WordPerfect) are used to produce text based documents
such as letters, reports and memos;
 Desktop publishing (DTP) packages (e.g. MS Publisher, PageMaker, PagePlus) are used to produce
professional quality publications such as posters, books, newsletters, newspapers and magazines;
 Graphics packages (e.g. Paint, PaintBrush, Serif Draw, Corel Draw) are used to produce and
manipulate artwork;
 Computer-aided design (CAD) packages (e.g. 2D-Design, AutoCAD, TurboCAD) are used to
produce engineering designs and architectural plans;
 Communications software (e.g. Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator) is used to access the
Internet and send and receive e-mail;
 Presentation graphics packages (e.g. PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance) are used to create slide shows
and presentations like this one which can be viewed on-screen or with a data or overhead projector;
 Web page editors (e.g. MS FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver) are used to create Web pages.
Integrated packages
 An integrated package combines many different types of application together in one single package.
 This type of software normally offers facilities for word processing, spreadsheets, databases, graphics,
presentation and communications.
 Integrated packages are much cheaper than buying many different application packages but their
different applications have a limited number of features compared with individual application packages.
 Microsoft WORKS is an example of an integrated package.
Specialist application software
 Specialist application software performs a single very specific type of task.
 Programs to work out driving routes are one common example of specialist application software.
 Other examples include programs to work out payroll, calculate accounts, deal with stock control and
handle appointments.
Tailor-made software
 Sometimes an organisation finds that ‘off-the-shelf’ software will not do exactly what they want.
 In this case they might decide to have special tailor-made, or bespoke software specially developed for
the purpose.
 The main drawbacks of this approach are the high cost and long time that some programs take to
develop.
Buying new software
 What sort of tasks will the software be used for?
 How much does the software cost and how much money is available to buy it?
 What operating system does the software need? Software will only work with the operating system that
it was designed for;
 What are the minimum system requirements for the software? Every application package has a
minimum set of hardware requirements such as how much hard disk space and memory are needed;
 Will the software be used on a single computer or on a network? If the software is going to be used on
a network a special version of it may be needed;
 How much support is available for users? This could be in the form of on-line help, telephone support
lines, internet sites and printed manuals. More popular software will have more of these resources;
 How easy is the software to install — can an ordinary user carry out the installation or will an IT expert
be needed to do it?

User Interfaces
Quick revise
The human computer interface is what allows the user to communicate with the computer and is often
called simply the user interface.

The three main types of user interface are;

 Command-driven;
 Menu-driven ;
 Graphical or GUI.

Menu-driven user interfaces

 Menu-driven systems offer the user lists of options which they can select by pressing a particular key
on the keyboard.
 The main advantage of menu-driven systems is that they are easy to use.
 The main disadvantage of menu-driven systems is getting to one particular option can often involve
working through many different menu screens.
 Command-driven user interfaces
 To use a command-driven system to communicate with the computer, the user has to type in special
command words. DOS, which stands for Disk Operating System, is a very commonly used command-
driven user interface.
 The main advantage of command driven interfaces is that they can be quick to use as long as the user
knows the correct commands.
 The main disadvantage of command-driven interfaces is that they are very difficult to use if the user is
a beginner or doesn’t know the correct commands.
 Command-driven systems can be very unfriendly and confusing for non-computer experts to use.
 Graphical user interfaces
 The most widely used type of graphical user interfaces are WIMP systems.
 WIMP stands for Windows Icons Menu Pointer.
 Options are represented by small pictures or 'icons' arranged inside rectangular boxes called windows.
 The main advantage of graphical user interfaces is that they are very easy to use, especially for a
beginner.
 The main disadvantage is the amount of memory space they need. A graphical user interface needs a
lot of RAM to run properly and takes up a large amount of hard disk space.
User interface design
A good user interface should be;

 User-friendly; Consistency in operation, screen layout etc;

 Colours should be chosen carefully e.g. that are easy to see;
 Sound can be used to do things such as alerting the user to problems but it should also be possible to
turn it off;
 On-line help is often a useful feature

 Computer Control Software

 Quick revise

 This is the use of a computer to monitor and control an external process. Input sensors are used
by the computer to monitor the various parts of a process that it is controlling. Before any process
can be controlled by a computer a control program must be written by a human to tell the
computer what to do.

Analogue and digital signals

 A sensor can send two types of signal to a computer – digital and analogue.
 Digital signals can only have two values: on (or true) and off (or false).
 Analogue signals can have any value.
 To process analogue signals the computer needs an analogue-to- digital converter.

Feedback
 Feedback control systems use the values of their output signals to affect the value of their input
signals.
 This is useful when a certain set of conditions needs to be constantly maintained.
 Output signals make changes to the conditions outside which will affect its input signals.
Sensors
Many different types which can each measure some physical quantity outside the computer such as:

 Temperature;
 Pressure;
 Light;
 Water and moisture levels;
 Relative humidity;
 Movement and wind speed.
Sensors detect analogue data which is converted into digital data before it is sent to the computer

Actuators
 Many control systems need to control devices that can move such as a motor in a greenhouse to
open or close a window.
 A device called an actuator is used to generate signals that can make devices move.
Microprocessors
These are used to control automatic machines by following pre-programmed sets of instructions called
control programs.

Found around the home in for example:

 Video recorders;
 Camcorders;
 Hi-fi systems;
 Microwave ovens;
 Dishwashers;
 Burglar alarms
Robots
Used in hundreds of applications e.g.

 Assembling and spray-painting cars

 Maintaining overhead power cables
 Testing blood samples
They all have the same basic hardware components:
  sensors which are used to monitor changes in physical conditions such as speed and position;
 a microprocessor to process the information received from sensors;
 actuators to produce movement or turn external devices like switches on or off
Advantages of robots
 They can work in environments that are hazardous to humans, such as in outer space, underwater or
in radioactive environments
 They can perform repetitive and boring tasks without needing to stop for a break
 The quality of their work is always the same because they never get bored or have an off-day
 They can work to a greater level of accuracy than humans
 They can work 24 hours a day, seven days a week, resulting in increased productivity
The main disadvantage of robots is that they are expensive to buy and install
An introduction to robotics
This video looks at Robots which can carry out boring work efficiently, accurately and without breaks,
such as in car manufacture. The automation involved has advanced hugely since the production line was
first introduced by Henry Ford. Robots can also be used in situations which are too dangerous for people.
A robot to measure radiation at Chernobyl is shown.

Computer Crime
Quick revise
Businesses rely on data stored on computer systems. Lost or damaged data is usually due to human
error. Sometimes data is deliberately damaged or stolen. Businesses must protect their data and ensure
they can get it back if anything does happen.

Criminal misuse of data

It is often easy to misuse data stored on a computer because:

 Alterations can be made without leaving a trace;

 Very large amounts of data can be stored and searched quickly;
 Data can be instantly transferred to other locations using e-mail and the Internet;
 Communications links used to connect computer systems together are vulnerable to attack from
hackers. Some hackers create aggressive software that can manipulate or destroy computer
programs and data
 Programs can be designed to deliberately cause damage to computer systems. Viruses and logic
bombs are examples of such programs
Hackers
 People who use their knowledge of computers to break into computer systems.
 Some just leave harmless messages to show they’ve been there.
 Some deliberately try to delete files.
 The Computer Misuse Act which made hacking illegal.
Viruses
 A program that can make copies of itself in order to ‘infect’ other computers.
 Viruses can spread from one computer to another via infected disks, downloaded files and e-mail.
 Virus scanning software can be used to protect systems.
  This software can be set up to scan files when they are opened, downloaded from the Internet or
copied.
 Software should be updated regularly.
Logic bombs
 A set of instructions written in computer code that can be hidden inside other software and set to
activate at a particular date and time.
 Once activated it takes control of a computer and begins damaging files.
Software piracy
 Software piracy involves making illegal copies of software are made.
 Copyright law makes this illegal.
Security and integrity of data
Possible dangers include:

 Natural hazards such as fires, floods or lightning;

 Human error causing loss or damage to data;
 Theft of data electronically due to hacking;
 Physical theft of disks or other computer hardware;
 Integrity of data is to do with ‘correctness’;
 Verification and validation check that data is correct
Backup copies
 Kept so that data can be restored to its original condition.
 Backups should always be kept in a secure, airtight and heatproof container at a remote location.
 Backup copies should be made regularly.
Passwords and levels of access
 Passwords used to restrict access.
 Some packages allow individual files to be password protected.
 Some password systems are hierarchical (i.e. different passwords give different levels of access).
Log files
 Used to help track down people who have stolen or damaged computer data.
 A log file records every attempt to log on to a computer (successfully or not).
Encryption
 Protects data files from being used if they are stolen
 Data is coded in such a way that it can’t be read unless special decoding or decryption software is
used

Checking Data / Data Quality

Quick revise
 Data stored on a computer is only useful as long as it is correct and up-to-date.
 It is important to check data when it is entered to make sure that it is both sensible and correct.
 If data is not checked before it is processed any errors could cause the final output to be nonsense.
 There are two methods that can be used to check data when it is input.
 These are called verification and validation.
Verification
 Verification is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly.
 Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at different
computers.
 Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that they match up.
 Any data that does not match up is rejected.
 Verification can also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the same data to be
entered twice.
 If both entries don't match up the data is rejected.
 Validation
 Validation checks are carried out by software to make sure that data which has been entered is
allowable and sensible.
 Data that is not sensible or allowed is rejected by the computer.
 There are many different types of validation check that software can make on data.

Range Check
 Range checks are used to check that data is within a certain range of numbers or a specific set of values.
 For example if the examination marks for a group of students was being input a range check could be
used to make sure that each mark was greater than or equal to zero and less than or equal to the
maximum possible mark.
Type Check
 Type checks are used to check that the correct type of data has been entered in a field.
 For example if numeric data is being input a type check could be used to make sure that text data isn’t
entered by accident.
Length Check
 Length checks are used to check that input data contains a certain number of characters.
 For example if a value in a certain field had to contain five digits and only four digits were input, an error
message would be given to the user.
Presence Check
 A presence check is used to make sure that a value has actually been entered in a field.
 In some database files entering data in certain fields can be optional. Other fields, such as key fields for
example, are compulsory and must have values entered in them.
 A presence check makes sure that data is present in a field where it is compulsory that a value is needed.
Parity check
 Sometimes when data is being transferred electronically from one place to another it can become
corrupted.
 A parity check is used to make sure that data has not been corrupted during transmission.
 Data is transmitted as a binary pattern of 0s and 1s.
 A parity check involves adding an extra 0 or 1, called a parity bit, to the binary pattern so that the total
number of 1s in the pattern is either an even number, this is called even parity, or an odd number, this is
called odd parity.
Even Parity
 In even parity the parity bit is set to either 0 or 1 so that the total number of 1s adds up to an even
number.
 In this example there are four 1s so the value 0 is needed in the parity bit to keep the number of 1s even.

Odd Parity
 In odd parity the parity bit is set to either 0 or 1 so that the total number of 1s adds up to an odd number.
 In this example there are two 1s so the value 1 is needed in the parity bit to make the number of 1s odd.

Hash total
 Hash totals are used to check that groups of numbers have been input correctly.
 A hash total is the sum of a group of numbers that are going to be input.
 The hash total is input along with the numbers. The computer calculates a hash total for the numbers that
have been input.
 If the hash total calculated by the computer does not match the hash total that was input with the
numbers then one or more of the numbers have either not been entered or have been entered incorrectly.
 Check Digit
 Check digits are used to validate long numbers that have a lot of digits in them.
 A check digit is an extra digit placed at the end of long number that can be used to check if the number
has been input correctly.
 Check digits are often used to check numbers that have been input using direct data entry devices such
as bar code scanners or light pens.
 The value of a check digit is worked out by performing a calculation using the individual digits that make
up a number. This calculation gives the value of the check digit which is then added as an extra digit to
the end of the number.
Calculating check digits using the modulus-11 method
 Each digit is assigned a weight starting at 2 with the right hand digit;
 Each digit is multiplied by its weight;
 The results of these calculations are added together to give a total;
 The total is divided by 11;
 The remainder is subtracted from 11 to give the check digit. The two exceptions are: If the remainder is 0
and the result is 11 the check digit is 0, not 11. If the remainder is 1 and the result is 10 the check digit is
X, not 10.
Coding data
 When data is input using a manual input device such as a keyboard, errors often occur due to values
being entered incorrectly.
 A common mistake is to swap two letters or digits around; this is called a transposition error.
 One method that can be used to cut down on errors like this is to use coded values for data.
 Suppose that a field could contain one of three possible values; small, medium or large. Instead of typing
in the full word each time we could instead type S, M or L.
The advantages of coding values
 Fewer key presses are needed when entering a value in the field so there is less chance of the wrong
keys being pressed;
 Time is saved when entering data because there is less to type in each time;
 Database packages allow automatic validation checks to be set up to make sure that only the allowed
codes have been input in a field.

Entering Data
Quick revise
After completing this section you should be able to:

 explain why data may be entered into an information system in code form
 list points to remember when designing codes
 explain the structures for organising data that is stored in an information system
Encoding data / Information
Data is often entered into an information system in code form. There may be a number of reasons for this,
such as:

 codes can be typed in more quickly, and make subsequent searches faster too
 using codes reduces the size of files, so that data processing is faster
 Codes are often unique. For example, each product in a supermarket will have a unique code. If a
search were carried out without a code, and a more general term such as ‘corn flakes’ were keyed in to
start the search, it would locate more items than keying in the code that would find the specific type of
corn flakes required
KEY POINT
There are certain important points to remember when designing codes:
 They must be easy to use. If operators find codes impossible to remember, or long and awkward, they
will not want to use them.
 Codes should always be the same length. This then provides an easy way of performing a validation
check on them (see checking data on input section). If the code is too long or too short, it is obvious
that a mistake has been made.
 Codes must not be too short. Although short codes are easier to enter, there is more likelihood of
running out of codes, and, where security is an important issue, short codes are easier to break and
copy.
Data / Information structures and storage of data
Huge quantities of data are entered into the average information system. It is vital that the data stored in
that system is organised in a methodical way so that it is accessible. All data is stored in files, which have
to have file names.

 You will be expected to understand the terms files, data, fields and records.
 You should also understand why each is important.
Within each file, data is divided into records. A record may contain just one piece of data. In this case it is
said to have a single field. It may, on the other hand, contain many pieces of related data items, in many
fields.

For example, a company may store information about each employee in a single record. Each record will
consist of a number of fields, one for the name of the employee, one for the National Insurance number,
one for the street address, and so on.

A field holds just one piece of data. For example, in an address list, the postcode part of the address
might be stored in one field containing the right number of characters for the postcode.

The term field also refers to a place where information is entered on a screen. For example, a cell in a
spreadsheet where a product price is to be entered is a field.

Key Field
This is a term used to describe a field that is unique to a particular record and that can therefore be used
to search a file to locate the record quickly. For example, each employee in a large company may be
given a unique employee number. Using the number as the key field, the employee’s record can easily be
found in the company’s information system.

A key field must be unique. No two people can have the same reference.

Text files – numbers and / or letters

A text file is a file that contains lines of written information that can be sent direct to a screen or printer by
using ordinary operating system commands.
The files produced by word processors are normally not text files. Although they contain text, they also
contain special codes that are not usually displayed on the screen but govern important formatting
functions such as margins, underlining, and so on. The meaning of these codes is special to the word
processing software being used. Most word processors can, however, produce text files and provide an
option for this under the File Save As menu.
You will not be expected to remember different types of files, for example .doc used by Microsoft Word.
You should understand that different types of software save files with different file extensions.

KEY POINT
A simple text file made of numbers and or letters consists of the code for each character in the file. The
ASCII character code is normally used. It does not contain any special command or formatting codes, but
end of line markers do have their own ASCII code, so they are included. Files are often converted into
simple ASCII code when they are to be transferred from one information system to another because most
software packages are able to read ASCII code.
 The System Life Cycle
Quick revise
The system life cycle is a series of stages that are worked through during the development of a new
information system.

A lot of time and money can be wasted if a system is developed that doesn’t work properly or do exactly
what is required of it.

A new system is much more likely to be successful if it is carefully planned and developed.

Feasibility study
The first stage of the system life cycle

This is an investigation that is carried out by a systems analyst to find out what the main problems are
with the existing system and if it is technically possible and cost-effective to solve these problems by
developing a computer based solution.

Feasibility report contents

 A description of the existing system outlining what is being done and how it is being done;
 A set of problem statements describing exactly what the problems are with the existing system;
 A set of system objectives which describe what the new system must be able to do;
 A description of some alternative solutions;
 A description of the technical, economic, legal and social factors that have been considered;
 A recommended course of action.
Analysis
During the analysis stage systems analysts investigate the existing system to identify exactly what the
problems are with the existing system

Systems analysts will use a variety of fact-finding methods to gather information for example

 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Observation
 Examining documents
Design
 Alternative possible solutions are identified
 Alternative solutions evaluated
 The best solution is identified
A design specification is produced containing information about:

 Input
 Output
 Data storage
 User interface
 Backup and recovery procedures
 Security procedures
Test plan Typical format for a test plan

Implementation
This stage involves:

Setting up the system so that it matches the design specification

Testing carried out using the plan to make sure that all the parts of the system work correctly with normal,
extreme and erroneous data

 Normal test data is used to check that a system can handle the sort of data that would be expected
during day-to-day use
 Extreme test data is used to check that a system can cope with data that lies on the boundaries of
what is acceptable
 Erroneous (or exceptional) test data is used to check that a system can identify data that is wrong and
reject it
Testing using normal, extreme and erroneous data
 Installing the new system
Might include:

 Installing any new hardware and software;

 Transferring data from the existing system to the new one;
 Training users how to operate the new system
Producing documentation
Technical documentation
 the system design specification;
 systems flowcharts;
 data flow diagrams;
 a description of the various parts of the system and what each one does;
 screen layouts and user interface designs;
 the test plan.
User documentation
 a description of what the system is designed to do;
 minimum hardware and software requirements of the system;
 instructions on how to load and run the system;
 detailed instructions on how to operate each part of the system;
 Error messages, their meaning and how to deal with them.
 Where to get more help, such as telephone support lines and on-line tutorials.
Post-implementation review
Carried out after the new system has been running for a few weeks or months to identify any
modifications that may need to be made.

Maintenance
A new information system may need to be changed due to:

 Change in needs of user

 Problems not found during testing
 Improvements required in the way the system works

Networks & Communications

Quick revise
 After completing this section you should be able to:

 understand that information systems can be linked together on a world-wide scale

 explain the terms real-time processing, and batch processing

An information system allows communication between a human user, the devices that make up the
hardware of the system, and the software that performs systems functions and user applications. Data is
entered into the system and information is gained as output.

Communication also takes place on a much wider scale.

Telecommunications and networks link computers of all kinds all over the world. It is becoming more and
more common for people to work from a home base, electronically linked to world-wide communications
systems.

Some people use the word ‘telecommute’ to describe working at a job from a home office with the aid of a
computer, Internet link, telephone, fax and other specialised electronic equipment. Remember ICT refers
to more than just computers. Fax machines, TV, the Internet and mobile phones are all part of ICT.

A travel agency provides a good example of the use of telecommunications with computers to provide
customer services. The agency uses an on-line enquiry and booking system where a terminal in the
agency office is connected to the main processor via a telecommunications link. The terminal can be
either a dumb terminal, which is simply a screen and a keyboard, or a smart terminal, which is a screen,
keyboard and processor with some backing store. The telecommunications link can be a telephone line,
microwave link or radio link.

Exam questions sometimes ask you to describe how ICT has led to more people working from home. Try
to use the correct terms.

The system is likely to be interactive. This means that when a travel agency employee wants to access
the system, he or she will start by entering data (perhaps the agency’s official reference number) on an
opening screen. You may be required to describe a computer system in use. Each time the employee
enters an item or items of data on a particular screen, the system will reply with further screens and
prompts for more data until an outcome is obtained.

In effect, the computer system has a conversation with the travel agency employee in order to achieve a
particular task such as booking an airline ticket for a passenger. Many airline and other travel tickets are
now electronic. No printed ticket is issued at all. For example, the traveller is told when to travel by
information produced at the time of booking, arrives at the airport and goes to the appropriate check-in
desk, where all of the necessary information is available on the computer terminal to allow the passenger
to travel.

Real-time processing
Airlines and many other booking systems use real-time processing for transactions like the process
described above.

Whenever a transaction occurs, the system is automatically updated, whatever the time is. In the case of
airline booking, this avoids double-booking of seats. Where one traveller books a ticket at one travel
agency, and it is the last available seat on the plane, real-time processing immediately allows the system
to note that the plane is now full, so that, if another passenger tries to book a ticket on the same plane a
few minutes later, the display will show that there are no more seats.
 Real-time processing is also used in the context of many retail stores, and in warehouses. As soon as an
item is sold or used, the system immediately deducts it from stock, so that the stock position is always
accurate.

Real-time processing is essential in control systems, where data from sensors is entered into the system
and processed to provide immediate feedback to the device being controlled. It would be a traffic disaster
if traffic lights changed 20 minutes after sensors registered a large number of vehicles waiting. Similarly, if
a robot did not carry out its task at exactly the right moment on a production line, there could be chaos.

Batch processing
Batch processing is used in contexts where it makes sense to collect together a lot of inputs of different
kinds and then process them all in one go, or batch. A gas supply company, for example, is likely to use
batch processing to produce its bills. Data of several different kinds will be processed in the batch to
produce the bills. This will include customers’ account numbers, previous gas meter readings, present
gas meter readings, any new customers and different tariffs (gas supply prices) that may be offered.

KEY POINT - The advantage of batch processing is that the computer operator can enter all the data for
one batch in one operation. The software will carry out the various processes required and the final result
is a bill for each customer, and an updated master file of customer information.
After completing this section you should be able to:

 explain what is meant by a network

 define a Local Area Network and discuss its advantages and disadvantages
 define a Wide Area Network and discuss its advantages and disadvantages
 describe the software and devices that make up a network, including cables, connectors and network
cards, and typical hardware devices
 explain the features of the four main ways of laying out a network: ring, line, star and hierarchical
Communication between two or more computer systems is achieved by setting up a network. The
computer systems are linked so that they can ‘talk’ to each other, share computing power and/or storage
facilities. You should know the benefits of networking computers and the
main types of networks.

The link may be between computers in one building, or it could be between computers in different parts of
the world. The term network includes the individual computer systems, the connections and the hardware
that allows communication to happen. Exam questions often ask for the difference
between LANs and WANs.

A network may include a dedicated file server. This is normally one computer in the network that has a
much higher specification than the others, with a very large hard disk drive. All data common to the
network will be held on the dedicated server. It will also monitor and control the network and while it is
performing this very important task, it will not be available for use as an interactive work station.

LANs – Local Area Networks

Quick revise
A LAN is confined to a small area, usually within a single building.

A line (bus) topology is the cheapest in terms of cabling costs.

Computer networks - LAN and WAN

A description of a Local Area Network (LAN) in an office setting, and a Wide Area Network (WAN).
Businesses and other organisations often link computers together to make communication more efficient.
 Each computer is linked to a central server which acts as a go-between within this LAN and beyond. A
WAN links computers together over a wide geographical area. The internet is the ultimate WAN.
Browsers are software packages which allow you to navigate around the internet.

Advantages of LANs:
You must be able to describe a system in terms of advantages and disadvantages. Do not always
remember the good points.

 Costly resources such as printers can be shared by all of the computers. This means that better quality
printing is available to everyone because one or two expensive, high specification printers can be
bought instead of several cheaper, lower specification models. A line (bus) topology is the cheapest in
terms of cabling costs.
 Central backing store can be provided in one place (the dedicated file server) so all work is saved
together. An individual user can load his or her work on any computer on the network.
 Software can be shared, and upgrading is easier too. This gives continuity in the workplace. However,
sharing software is often not much cheaper than providing a copy for each machine because a licence
has to be bought for each copy of the software needed.
 Central back-up can take place automatically at regular intervals. A user will usually be able to retrieve
work that has been deleted by mistake.
 Data can be shared across the network. For example, this would allow several people to work on the
same project. The setting up of hierarchical system passwords to allow different users different access
is the key to controlling access to most company databases.
 If the data being shared is in a database, several people will be able to use the database at the same
time, but they will not be able to edit the same record at the same time. When a record is opened by
one user, it is locked so that other people cannot try to edit it at the same time. This avoids the
confusion that would result if several people were trying to edit data at the same time. Once the first
user has completed and saved the operation, the record is unlocked again.
 Local email messages can be sent to people working at other terminals on the network. This can save
time and ensures that messages get to the right place.
 There may be a local Intranet. This works like the World Wide Web, with pages of information. The
difference is that the pages can be accessed only over the LAN. As it does not involve phone links, an
Intranet is free.
Disadvantages of LANs:
 The use of email within the network can lead to problems of time wasting as people send messages
that do not relate to work. Some companies discourage the use of in-house email because they believe
that it is better for employees to communicate face to face.
 Where a lot of terminals are served by only one or two printers, long print queues may develop,
causing people to have to wait for printed output. Rings provide the fastest form of local area
networking.
 Network security can be a problem. If a virus gets into one computer, it is likely to spread quickly
across the network because it will get into the central backing store.
 Users of the network have to have user names and passwords. Some users are not very good at
keeping passwords secret, or they may use passwords that are easy to guess. Other people can then
log onto the network.
 If the dedicated file server fails, work stored on shared hard disk drives will not be accessible and it will
not be possible to use network printers either.
 Cabling can be expensive to buy and to install. In a busy office situation, cabling must often be placed
under the floor so that people will not trip over it. If connecting cables are damaged, some sections of
the network can become isolated. They will not be able to communicate with the rest of the network.
Try to remember at least three advantages and three disadvantages for each system. Look carefully at
the exam question to see how many points the examiner wants.

WANs – Wide Area Networks

 Quick revise

 Computers in a wide area network are often connected to each other using telephone lines.

 When a computer uses an ordinary telephone line to connect to another computer, a modem is
needed at each end of the link.

 If an entire LAN needs to be connected to a WAN a special gateway needs to be set-up.

 A Wide Area Network is not confined to one building. The computers and terminals forming part
of the network can be spread around the world.

 External communication links such as satellites, microwaves or telecommunication links will be

used to connect the network. The connection must normally be paid for because the links are
external.

 LANs may be connected to WANs via a special gateway. Many Local Area Networks will be
connected to the Internet in this way. The Internet is really a vast Wide Area Network.

 Computer networks - LAN and WAN

 This video shows a Local Area Network (LAN) in an office setting, and a Wide Area Network
(WAN). Businesses and other organisations often link computers together to make
communication more efficient. Each computer is linked to a central server which acts as a go-
between within this LAN and beyond. A WAN links computers together over a wide geographical
area. The internet is the ultimate WAN. Browsers are software packages which allow you to
navigate around the internet.
  Advantages / Disadvantages of WANs
Advantages and disadvantages of using Wide Area Networks are very similar to those for Local
Area Networks, but on a larger scale. Security is even more important, particularly where WANs
are connected to the public telephone system.

ICT in Medicine
 Quick revise

 Body scanners
 A body scanner sends electromagnetic rays through a patient’s body and sensors detect how
much different parts of the body absorb the rays.

 A computer uses this data to build up an image of the inside of a patient’s body.

 Body scanners allow doctors to find and treat conditions such as tumours in their early stages
when the chances of treating them successfully are much greater.

 Patient monitoring
 Computers are used in hospitals to monitor critically ill patients in intensive care units.

 The patient has sensors attached to him which detect changes in heart rate, pulse rate, blood
pressure, breathing and brain activity.

 If any of these fall below a preset level the computer sounds an alarm and alerts the medical
staff.

 The data is also logged and used to analyse the changes in a patient’s condition over a period of
time.

Organ transplants
 Computerised databases are used to help match patients who are waiting for organ transplants
such as a new kidney, liver or heart, with suitable organs from donors.

 Patient records
 Computerised databases are used by every hospital in the country to store information about
patients.

 Uses of these databases include: organising the transfer of patients between wards recording the
history of a patient’s appointments with a consultant booking outpatient appointments booking
ambulances ordering equipment.