CYBER SECURITY

MODULE – 1
Introduction to Cyber security: Defining Cyberspace and Overview of Computer and Web-technology,
Architecture of cyberspace, Communication and web technology, internet, World wide web, Advent of
internet, Internet infrastructure for data transfer and governance, Internet society, Regulation of
cyberspace, Concept of cyber security, Issues and challenges of cyber security.

Introduction of Cyber Security

Cyber security is the most concerned matter as cyber threats and attacks are overgrowing. Attackers are now using more
sophisticated techniques to target the systems. Individuals, small-scale businesses or large organization, are all being
impacted. So, all these firms whether IT or non-IT firms have understood the importance of Cyber Security and focusing
on adopting all possible measures to deal with cyber threats.

What is cyber security?

"Cyber security is primarily about people, processes, and technologies working together to encompass the full range of
threat reduction, vulnerability reduction, deterrence, international engagement, incident response, resiliency, and
recovery policies and activities, including computer network operations, information assurance, law enforcement, etc."

OR

Cyber security is the body of technologies, processes, and practices designed to protect networks, computers, programs
and data from attack, damage or unauthorized access.

History
Cyber Security is the practice of Protecting computers, mobile devices, Servers, electronic Systems, networks, and
data from malicious attacks. It is also known as Information Security (INFOSEC) or Information Assurance (IA),
System Security. The first cyber malware virus developed was pure of innocent mistakes. But cybersecurity has
evolved rapidly because of the impeccable increase in the cybercrime law field on the Web. In this article, we will see
the history of cyber security.
ARPANET and the Creeper in the 1970s:
As these time-sharing systems emerged in the mid to late 1960s and many more jobs are using web, users were able
to run at a similar time, controlling the access to data on the systems became a major point of concern. So one
solution that was using logically classified data one level at the time of and scan the system after the jobs are from the
one level run before the jobs for the next levels were running and ready for it, thus these approaches are directed to
computer security is called periods processing because these jobs for each level will be run in a particular time of
period the days.
Another effort that occurred in the mid to late 1970s was term Thus Each of these is discussed in the following Sub
connections as some cybersecurity requirements can either be achieved by requiring procedures to be followed or by
using system software mechanisms or functions to enforce the requirements then the alleviating the need and wants
for the computer software mechanisms that would dealing to its states.
The Cybersecurity checking began in the 1970s when researcher Bob Thomas created a computer program called
Creeper that could move across ARPANET‟s network. Ray Tomlinson, the innovator of email, wrote the program
Reaper, which chased and deleted Creepers. Reaper was the very first example of checking a malware antivirus
software and the first self-replicating program i.e. Viruses, as it made first-ever computer worms and trojans.
In 1971s, Programmer Bob Thomas made history by innovating a program that is widely accepted as the first incident
ever computer trojan as the worm and trojan bounced between computers pc, which has groundbreaker at the time.
The trojan was not at all malicious.
Importance

Protecting Sensitive Data:

With the increase in digitalization, data is becoming more and more valuable. Cybersecurity helps protect sensitive data
such as personal information, financial data, and intellectual property from unauthorized access and theft.
Prevention of Cyber Attacks:
Cyber attacks, such as Malware infections, Ransomware, Phishing, and Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)
attacks, can cause significant disruptions to businesses and individuals. Effective cybersecurity measures help prevent
these attacks, reducing the risk of data breaches, financial losses, and operational disruptions.

Safeguarding Critical Infrastructure:

Critical infrastructure, including power grids, transportation systems, healthcare systems, and communication
networks, heavily relies on interconnected computer systems. Protecting these systems from cyber threats is crucial to
ensure the smooth functioning of essential services and prevent potential disruptions that could impact public safety
and national security.

Maintaining Business Continuity:

Cyber attacks can cause significant disruption to businesses, resulting in lost revenue, damage to reputation, and in
some cases, even shutting down the business. Cybersecurity helps ensure business continuity by preventing or
minimizing the impact of cyber attacks.

Compliance with Regulations:

Many industries are subject to strict regulations that require organizations to protect sensitive data. Failure to comply
with these regulations can result in significant fines and legal action. Cybersecurity helps ensure compliance with
regulations such as HIPAA, GDPR, and PCI DSS.

Protecting National Security:

Cyber attacks can be used to compromise national security by targeting critical infrastructure, government systems,
and military installations. Cybersecurity is critical for protecting national security and preventing cyber warfare.

Preserving Privacy:
In an era where personal information is increasingly collected, stored, and shared digitally, cybersecurity is crucial
for preserving privacy. Protecting personal data from unauthorized access, surveillance, and misuse helps maintain
individuals‟ privacy rights and fosters trust in digital services.

Advantages
1. Protection of Sensitive Data
Cyber security actions shield sensitive data from unsanctioned access, aiding in maintaining privacy and averting
identity theft.

2. Business Continuity
By preventing cyber attacks, organizations can ensure the availability of their systems and services, minimizing
downtime and potential losses.

3. Compliance with Regulations

Adhering to cyber security standards and regulations can protect businesses from legal issues and potential fines.

4. Enhanced Customer Trust

One of the major benefits of cyber security is building customer trust. A strong cyber security posture helps
organizations build trust with their customers, partners, and stakeholders.

5. Competitive Benefit
Companies with robust cyber security measures in place are less vulnerable to cyber-attacks and can gain a competitive
edge over competitors who may not prioritize security.

6. Early Detection and Response

Proactive cyber security measures can help organizations detect threats early and respond effectively, minimizing
potential damage and disruption.

7. Intellectual Property Protection

Robust cyber security helps protect intellectual property (IP), such as patents, trade secrets, and copyrighted material,
ensuring the organization‟s competitive advantage is maintained.

8. Reputation Protection
A strong cyber security posture helps organizations avoid reputational damage caused by data breaches and other cyber
incidents, which can lead to loss of customer trust and decreased business opportunities.

9. Enhanced Collaboration
Secure communication platforms and tools enable teams to collaborate effectively and share sensitive information
without worrying about unauthorized access or data leaks.

10. Remote Work Security

As remote work becomes increasingly common, cyber security measures ensure the secure access and use of
organizational resources, maintaining productivity while reducing risks associated with remote work environments.

Disadvantages
1. High Cost of Implementation
Implementing advanced cyber security measures can be expensive, particularly for small businesses with limited
resources. This includes the cost of hardware, and software, and hiring skilled professionals to maintain and manage the
security infrastructure.

2. Complex Management
As cyber threats continue to evolve, managing the various components of cyber security becomes increasingly complex.
This can be particularly challenging for businesses with limited technical expertise.

3. Potential False Sense of Security

Implementing cyber security measures may sometimes lead to a false sense of security, causing organizations to
overlook other aspects of risk management, such as employee training and physical security.

4. Compatibility Issues
Cyber security tools and solutions may not always be compatible with existing systems and software, leading to
integration challenges and potential security gaps.

5. Inconvenience to Users
Strict security protocols, such as multi-factor authentication and frequent password changes, can sometimes lead to
inconvenience and reduced productivity among users.

6. Evolving Threat Landscape

Cyber threats are constantly evolving, making it difficult to keep up with the latest security measures and tools.
Organizations must continually invest in research and development to stay ahead of potential attacks.

7. Human Error
Despite the best security measures in place, human error remains a significant risk factor. Users may inadvertently
compromise systems through poor password practices, social engineering, or other mistakes.

8. Limited Effectiveness Against Insider Threats

Cyber security measures may not always be effective against malicious insiders who have legitimate access to systems
and data, making it challenging to detect and prevent insider attacks.

9. Difficulties in Measuring ROI

Measuring the return on investment (ROI) in cyber security can be challenging, as it is often difficult to quantify the
value of prevention or the impact of a successful cyber attack.

10. Balancing Security and Usability

Implementing stringent cyber security measures can sometimes hinder user experience and productivity, making it
challenging for organizations to find the right balance between security and usability.

Cyber security Fundamentals

Confidentiality
Confidentiality is about preventing the disclosure of data to unauthorized parties. It also means trying to keep the
identity of authorized parties involved in sharing and holding data private and anonymous. Often confidentiality is
compromised by cracking poorly encrypted data, Man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks, disclosing sensitive data.

Standard measures to establish confidentiality include:

 Data encryption

 Two-factor authentication

 Biometric verification

 Security tokens

Integrity

Integrity refers to protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties.

Standard measures to guarantee integrity include:

 Cryptographic checksums

 Using file permissions

 Uninterrupted power supplies

 Data backups

Availability

Availability is making sure that authorized parties are able to access the information when needed. Standard measures to
guarantee availability include:

 Backing up data to external drives

 Implementing firewalls

 Having backup power supplies

 Data redundancy

Types of Cyber Attacks

A cyber-attack is an exploitation of computer systems and networks. It uses malicious code to alter computer code, logic
or data and lead to cybercrimes, such as information and identity theft.

Cyber-attacks can be classified into the following categories:

1) Web-based attacks

2) System-based attacks

Web-based attacks
These are the attacks which occur on a website or web applications. Some of the important web-based attacks are as
follows

1. Injection attacks

It is the attack in which some data will be injected into a web application to manipulate the application and fetch the
required information. Example- SQL Injection, code Injection, log Injection, XML Injection etc.

2. DNS Spoofing

DNS Spoofing is a type of computer security hacking. Whereby a data is introduced into a DNS resolver's cache causing
the name server to return an incorrect IP address, diverting traffic to the attackers computer or any other computer. The
DNS spoofing attacks can go on for a long period of time without being detected and can cause serious security issues.
3. Session Hijacking

It is a security attack on a user session over a protected network. Web applications create cookies to store the state and
user sessions. By stealing the cookies, an attacker can have access to all of the user data.

4. Phishing

Phishing is a type of attack which attempts to steal sensitive information like user login credentials and credit card
number. It occurs when an attacker is masquerading as a trustworthy entity in electronic communication.

5. Brute force

It is a type of attack which uses a trial and error method. This attack generates a large number of guesses and validates
them to obtain actual data like user password and personal identification number. This attack may be used by criminals
to crack encrypted data, or by security, analysts to test an organization's network security.

6. Denial of Service

It is an attack which meant to make a server or network resource unavailable to the users. It accomplishes this by
flooding the target with traffic or sending it information that triggers a crash. It uses the single system and single internet
connection to attack a server.

It can be classified into the following

Volume-based attacks- Its goal is to saturate the bandwidth of the attacked site, and is measured in bit per second.

Protocol attacks- It consumes actual server resources, and is measured in a packet.

Application layer attacks- Its goal is to crash the web server and is measured in request per second.

7. Dictionary attacks

This type of attack stored the list of a commonly used password and validated them to get original password.

8. URL Interpretation

It is a type of attack where we can change the certain parts of a URL, and one can make a web server to deliver web
pages for which he is not authorized to browse.

9. File Inclusion attacks

It is a type of attack that allows an attacker to access unauthorized or essential files which is available on the web server
or to execute malicious files on the web server by making use of the include functionality.

10. Man in the middle attacks

It is a type of attack that allows an attacker to intercepts the connection between client and server and acts as a bridge
between them. Due to this, an attacker will be able to read, insert and modify the data in the intercepted connection.

System-based attacks
These are the attacks which are intended to compromise a computer or a computer network. Some of the important
system-based attacks are as follows

1. Virus

It is a type of malicious software program that spread throughout the computer files without the knowledge of a user. It
is a self-replicating malicious computer program that replicates by inserting copies of itself into other computer
programs when executed. It can also execute instructions that cause harm to the system.

2. Worm

It is a type of malware whose primary function is to replicate itself to spread to uninfected computers. It works same as
the computer virus. Worms often originate from email attachments that appear to be from trusted senders.

3. Trojan horse
It is a malicious program that occurs unexpected changes to computer setting and unusual activity, even when the
computer should be idle. It misleads the user of its true intent. It appears to be a normal application but when
opened/executed some malicious code will run in the background.

4. Backdoors

It is a method that bypasses the normal authentication process. A developer may create a backdoor so that an application
or operating system can be accessed for troubleshooting or other purposes.

5. Bots

A bot (short for "robot") is an automated process that interacts with other network services. Some bots program run
automatically, while others only execute commands when they receive specific input. Common examples of bots
program are the crawler, chatroom bots, and malicious bots.

Defining Cyberspace
Cyberspace can be defined as an intricate environment that involves interactions between people, software, and services.
It is maintained by the worldwide distribution of information and communication technology devices and networks.
With the benefits carried by the technological advancements, the cyberspace today has become a common pool used by
citizens, businesses, critical information infrastructure, military and governments in a fashion that makes it hard to
induce clear boundaries among these different groups. The cyberspace is anticipated to become even more complex in
the upcoming years, with the increase in networks and devices connected to it.

Cyberspace is the dynamic and virtual space that such networks of machine-clones create. In other words, cyberspace is
the web of consumer electronics, computers, and communications network which interconnect the world.

THE INDIAN CYBERSPACE

Indian cyberspace was born in 1975 with the establishment of National Informatics Centre (NIC) with an aim to provide
govt with IT solutions. Three networks (NWs) were set up between 1986 and 1988 to connect various agencies of govt.
These NWs were, INDONET which connected the IBM mainframe installations that made up India‟s computer
infrastructure, NICNET (the NIC NW) a nationwide very small aperture terminal (VSAT) NW for public sector
organisations as well as to connect the central govt with the state govts and district administrations, the third NW setup
was ERNET (the Education and Research Network), to serve the academic and research communities.

New Internet Policy of 1998 paved the way for services from multiple Internet service providers (ISPs) and gave boost
to the Internet user base grow from 1.4 million in 1999 to over 150 million by Dec 2012. Exponential growth rate is
attributed to increasing Internet access through mobile phones and tablets. Govt is making a determined push to increase
broadband penetration from its present level of about 6%. The target for broadband is 160 million households by 2016
under the National Broadband Plan.

Advantages
Cyberspace‟s benefits include:

Access to information

It‟s a kind of informational digital library. You may get any information you want on any subject on the internet. Search
engines such as Google and Yahoo are available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, to assist you.

Interaction

You used to have to call someone who wasn‟t in the same room as you to converse. You had to write a letter to them if
you wanted to send them a note. We now have the capacity to send and receive communications via electronic mail very
instantly and without the need for a computer.

Participation in social networking

In cyberspace, social networking is also quite important. It‟s impossible to envision a world without Facebook or
Twitter. It has grown in popularity among young people to the point that it may one day supplant physical networking.
It has turned into a fantastic tool for connecting with millions of individuals who have the same interests.
Entertainment

Rather than leaving your comfort zone to purchase the latest and greatest game or Dvds, you may download them. There
are several games available for free download. Of course, the internet gaming sector has exploded in recent years. Even
celebrities are skillfully using the internet to communicate with their fans.

Disadvantages
1. Cyber Frauds

If you use the internet for online banking, social networking, or other services, your private details, like your name,
location, credit card details, and so on, may be stolen. Unscrupulous individuals can get access to this information via
insecure connections or by planting spyware and then exploit your personal information to their advantage. Needless to
say, you may get yourself into a lot of trouble if you do this.

2. Virus and Malware

Virus assaults on computers are common among Internet users. If you click on a seemingly innocent link, the virus may
be triggered. Targeted virus assaults are common on computers linked to the internet, and they can cause them to crash.

3. Online criminals

Unfortunately, the capacity to send and receive emails gave attackers a new way to spread spam and viruses. Malware
included in email attachments might cause havoc on your computer or even open a backdoor for an attacker to get
access. Cybercriminals viewed this as another chance to exploit human emotions by using phishing schemes to trick
victims into divulging critical information.

Overview of Computer
“Computer is an electronic machine that can store, recall and process data. It can perform tasks or complex calculation
according to a set of instructions or programs”.

Characteristics of Computer:
 Speed

 Storage

 Accuracy

 Diligence

 Versatility

 Flexibility

 Cost effectiveness

 Speed: The computer works very fast. The speed of Computer is measured in terms of MIPS (Million Instructions Per
Second) or BIPS (Billion Instructions Per Second). For Example A money counting machine counts money faster than
man.

 Storage: The computer can store a large volume of data and information. The storage capacity of the computer is
measured in terms of Bytes. A group of 8 Bits is called a Byte.

 Accuracy: The computer generated results are exact and without any mistakes with high rate of consistency.

 Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer does not suffer from limitations like tiredness and lack of concentration.
It can work for hours without making any errors.

 Versatility Computers are capable of performing any task. Multi-processing features of computer make it quite
versatile in nature. The computer can be adapted to any field easily. It is used for scientific calculations, business
processing, for playing games, teaching, training etc.
 Flexibility: Flexibility would involve the number of things you can do with a computer. While some are best used for
simple business tasks, and filing of tasks, others are good for multimedia, gaming, and so on.

 Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing costs.

Components of Computer system:

There are four components in the computer system.

They are:  Hardware  Software  Data & Information  User(s)

 Hardware

The physical parts of a computer system called as hardware. The hardware components can be seen, touch and feel. The
hardware components are fixed inside or outside the computer system.

Example Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer, RAM, CPU etc.

 Software

A Set or collection of programs is known as software. The software is a computer programwritten using some computer
programming languages to operate the computer. Software tells the hardware what to do. Unlike hardware, we can‟t
touch the software.

Example Operating System, TUX Paint, Office Packages, Nudi, Adobe Reader, Computer Games etc.

The software is broadly classified into two types.

1. System Software: It is a type of computer program that is designed to control and work with computer hardware, to
run a computer's hardware and application programs. Example: Microsoft Windows, Linux, DOS etc.

2. Application software: It is a type of Software written by the user to perform a particular task like drawing a picture,
playing computer games. Example: Paint, Nudi and Office Package etc.

 Data

Data is a collection of unprocessed items, which can include text, numbers, audio or video. Data is the raw information
or basic facts that computer can process.

For Example: “PARAM” 16.

 User(s)

People who use the computers are called users. These computer operators are called computer users.

Block diagram of a computer

A computer is designed using four basic units. They are:

1. Input Unit

2. Central Processing Unit(CPU)

 Control Unit

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

3. Memory Unit

4. Output Unit
 Input Unit

Computers need to receive data and instructions in order to solve a problem. The Input unit performs this operation. The
Input Unit basically links the external world or environment to the computer system. The input unit may consist of one
or more input devices. The Keyboard and mouse of a computer are the most commonly used input devices.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is the main part of a computer system like the heart of a human being. Most computers are identified by the type of
CPU that is present in them. The function of the CPU is to interpret the instructions in the program and execute them
one by one.

It consists of two major units.

1. Control Unit: It controls and directs the transfer of program instructions and data between various units. The main
activity is to maintain order and direct the operations of the entire system.

2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): Arithmetic and Logic Unit performs arithmetic and logical operations and controls
the speed of these operations. Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (+,-,*, /) and
logical operations like AND, OR, NOT and relational operations like (, <=,>=) are being carried out in this unit.

 Memory Unit

The data and the instructions required for processing have to be stored in the memory unit before the actual processing
starts. In a similar manner, the results generated from processing have to be preserved before it is displayed. The
memory units thus provide space to store input data, intermediate results and the final output generated.

Secondary storage devices are additional memory (storage) devices such as floppy disks, magnetic tapes, Hard Disk
Drive (HDD), Compact Disk (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) etc., which are used to store huge information for
future use.

Note: The input unit, an output unit, and secondary storage devices are together known as Peripheral Devices.

 Output Unit

t is used to print or display the results, which are stored in the memory unit. The actual function of the output unit is just
the reverse of the input unit. Thus, the output unit links the computer to the outside world. The Monitor and Printer are
the most commonly used output devices.

Generations of Computer
Depending on the development of the technology the generation of computer is classified into five generations.

First Generation of Computer (1940-1956)

1. The first generation of computers is started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components.

2. The speed of these computers was very slow, storage capacity was very less and these computers are large in size.

3. This generation computers operated only on machine language.

4. Input was based on punched card, paper tapes an output was obtained as printout.
Some computers of this generation were ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), UNIVAC (Universal
Automatic Computer).

ENIAC:

 It stands for Electrical Numerical Integrator and Computer.

 It used a word of ten decimal digits instead of binary ones like previous automated calculators /computers.

EDVAC

 It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer.

 It was to be a vast improvement upon

ENIAC. Mauchly and Eckert started working on it two years before ENIAC even went into operation.

 This idea was to have the program for the computer stored inside the computer.

UNIAC

 Universal Automatic Computer was the first commercial computer produced in the United States.

Second Generation of Computer (1956-1963)

1. In this generation transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes.

2. These machines were much faster, more reliable than their earlier machines.

3. It generates less heat and consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers.

4. Second Generation computers used punched cards for input and printout for output.

5. This computer moved from the use of machine language to assembly languages.

6. The computer stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

Some computers of this generation were IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC (Control Data Corporation) 1604 and 3600, and
UNIVAC 1108.

Third Generation of Computer (1964-1971)

1. In the third generation of computer Integrated Circuits (IC's) were used in place of transistors.

2. In this generation, Keyboard and monitors were used instead of punched cards and printout.

3. These IC‟s were increased the speed of processing and storage capacity.

4. These computers were more reliable, smaller in size and faster.

5. Maintenance cost was low comparing to the previous generation and consumed less electricity. Some computers of
this generation were IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, PDP (Personal Data Processor), IBM-370/168.

Fourth Generation of Computer (1971-1980)

1. In the fourth generation of computer, microprocessors were used in place of Integrated Circuits (IC‟s).

2. The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.

3. This made computers smaller in size became more powerful, they could bi linked to form network. Some computers
of this generation were Mini Computer and Mainframe computer, Personal computers.

Fifth Generation of Computer (1980-till date)

1. Fifth generation computer involves the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) which made the computer think like
human beings.
2. This generation uses VLSI (Very Large Scale integration) and ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology.

3. These computers are more intelligent and faster comparing to other generation computers.

4. Types of this generation computers are Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, and Robot. etc.

Classification based on Principles of Operation

According to principles of data handling, computers are classified into three types

1. Analog Computers

2. Digital Computers

3. Hybrid Computers

 Analog Computers

Analog computers work upon continuous data. Analog computer operates by measuring rather than counting. The
analog computers are that all calculation take place in parallel, hence faster. Modern analog computers usually employ
electrical parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the quantities being manipulated.
Computations are carried out with the physical quantities, such as voltages, length, current, temperature etc. The device
that measures such quantities are analog devices.

 Digital Computer

The digital computer works upon discontinuous data. A digital computer operates on digital data such as numbers. It
uses binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1. Each one is called a bit. They convert the data
into digits (Binary Digit 0 and 1) and all operations carried out on these digits at extremely fast rates. A digital computer
basically knows how to count the digits and add the digit. Digital Computers are much faster than an analog computer
and far more accurate. Computers used for business and scientific applications are digital computers.

 Hybrid Computers

Hybrid computer are the combination of both analog and digital computer. They accept both the analog and digital data
for processing. Hybrid computers incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of a
digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers use analog components and for storage, digital memories
are used.

Now-a-days analog- to- digital computer (ADC) and digital-to analog computer(DAC) rare used to transforming data
into suitable form. In these computers, some calculations take place in analog manner and rest of them takes place in a
digital manner. Hybrid computers are best used in the hospital where the analog part is responsible for measurement of
patient‟s heart beat, blood pressure, temperature and other vital signs and then the operation is carried out in a digital
fashion to monitor patient‟s vital signs. Hybrid Computers are also used in weather forecasting.

Classification based on Configuration

Based on the performance, size, cost, capacity, the digital computers are classified into four types:

1. Micro Computers

2. Mini Computers

3. Mainframe Computers

4. Supercomputers

 Micro Computers

1. Also, know as PC (Personal Computer), it was introduced in 1970.

2. The number of processors in microcomputers will be one or two processors.

3. It contains input devices, output devices, storage device and processor.

4. The number of processor will be one or two. It is used by one person at a time.
5. Example: Desktops (PC, Macintosh), Laptops, Notebooks, Tablets, Palmtops, Smart Phones.

Uses of Micro computers

 They are used as desktops either in offices or even in homes.

 Children enjoy playing games & watching movies in these computers.

 They are cheap and user-friendly.

 Their operation can be easily learned by anyone having the logical aptitude.

 Mini Computers

1. Mini computers were introduced in the 1960‟s.

2. Minicomputer is larger and more powerful than personal computer.

3. In can execute five million instructions per second.

4. It generally consists of two or more processors.

5. Minicomputer can serve up to 4000 connected users simultaneously.

6. It is normally accessed by users via personal computer or terminal. A device with a monitor and keyboard is called
terminal.

7. It is also known as dumb terminal. It has no processing power and cannot work as stand-alone computer. 8. Example:
Digital Alpha, VAX-800, AS 400

Uses of Mini computers

 They are often used by small and medium sized companies to provide centralized store of information.

 They are used for data processing.

 Mainframe Computers

1. Mainframe computers were introduced in 1975.

2. It is very large computer in size.

3. It is more powerful than mini computers and consists of multiple processors.

4. It is designed to perform multiple tasks for multiple users at the same time.

5. The user access a mainframe computer through personal computer.

6. It can execute 16 million instructions per second.

7. Example: CDC 6600, NEC 610, DEC 10

Uses of Mainframe Computers

 Mainframe computers are used in large organizations.

 They are big computer systems sensitive to temperature, humidity, dust etc.

 Qualified & trained operators are required to operate them.

 They have a wide range of peripherals attached.

 They have large storage capacity.

 They can use a wide variety of software‟s.

 They are not user-friendly.

 They can be used for more mathematical calculations.

 Supercomputers

1. Supercomputers were introduced in 1980. Super computer is the fastest computer.

2. Supercomputer is the biggest in size and the most expensive in price than any other computers.

3. Supercomputer is the most sophisticated, complex and advance computer.

4. It has a very large storage capacity.

5. It can process trillions of instructions in one second.

6. Supercomputers are used for highly calculations intensive task.

7. Supercomputers are designed for ultra-high performance tasks such as weather analysis, encryption cracking, and the
creation of animation.

8. Example: IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue Gene, PARAM Padma, etc.

Uses of Supercomputers

 Weather Forecasting

 Animated Graphics like Hollywood Movies

 Nuclear energy research

 Space Science

 Weapons and Missile design

 Petroleum Exploration etc.

Applications of computers:

 Schools and colleges

 Banks

 Office

 Stock control in business firms

 Stock exchange

 Research and developments

 Entertainment and news

 Government office

 Satellite communication

 Publishing

 Travel

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)

 Hospital

Web Technology
Web Technology refers to a range of methods and tools that are used in the process of communication between different
devices via the Internet. To access web pages, a web browser is utilized. A web browser is a software application that
enables the display of text, data, images, animation, and videos on the Internet. The field of web technology is rapidly
increasing with new frameworks, standards, and languages.
What is Web Technology?
Web technology is a term used to describe all the different things people use to make websites and web-based
applications. This includes software and hardware tools, programming languages, and standards needed to create and
run web apps on the internet. Web technology comprises many areas, including web design, web development, web
servers, web browsers, e-commerce, and content management systems.

Web Technology can be classified into the following sections:

World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web is based on several different technologies: Web browsers, Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML), and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Web Browser: The web browser is an application software to explore www (World Wide Web). It provides an interface
between the server and the client and requests to the server for web documents and services.
Web Server: Web server is a program which processes the network requests of the users and serves them with files that
create web pages. This exchange takes place using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Web Pages: A webpage is a digital document that is linked to the World Wide Web and viewable by anyone connected to
the internet has a web browser.
Web Development: Web development refers to the building, creating, and maintaining of websites. It includes aspects
such as web design, web publishing, web programming, and database management. It is the creation of an application that
works over the internet i.e. websites.
HTML: HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language. It is used to design the front-end portion of web pages using a
markup language. HTML is the combination of Hypertext and Markup language. Hypertext defines the link between the
web pages. The markup language is used to define the text documentation within the tag which defines the structure of
web pages.
CSS: Cascading Style Sheets fondly referred to as CSS is a simply designed language intended to simplify the process
of making web pages presentable. CSS allows you to apply styles to web pages. More importantly, CSS enables you to
do this independent of the HTML that makes up each web page.
JavaScript: JavaScript is a famous scripting language used to create magic on the sites to make the site interactive for
the user. It is used to enhancing the functionality of a website to running cool games and web-based software.
AJAX: Ajax is an acronym for Asynchronous Javascript and XML. It is used to communicate with the server without
refreshing the web page and thus increasing the user experience and better performance.

Importance of web technology

Here are some key points highlighting the importance of web technology:

Global Reach: The Internet and web technology allow businesses to reach a worldwide audience with their products
and services.
Cost-Effective: Web technology enables businesses to reduce costs by automating processes, improving efficiency, and
reducing the need for physical infrastructure.
Improved Communication: Web technology facilitates communication and collaboration across organizations and
geographies, enabling better knowledge sharing and decision-making.
Enhanced Customer Experience: Web technology allows businesses to provide a more personalized, interactive, and
engaging customer experience.
Access to Data: Web technology provides vast amounts of data that can be used for analysis, insights, and informed
decision-making.
Mobile Access: Web technology enables businesses to reach customers through mobile devices, which have become
increasingly important in people's lives.
Innovation: Web technology drives innovation by providing a platform for new products, services, and business
models.
Social Impact: Web technology can improve social and economic outcomes by providing access to education,
healthcare, and other essential services.
Architecture of cyberspace
The architecture of cyberspace refers to the underlying structure and organization of the digital realm, which
encompasses the internet, computer networks, and virtual environments. It involves various components and layers that
enable the transmission, storage, and retrieval of information.

1. Physical Infrastructure: The physical architecture of cyberspace includes the network of cables, routers, switches,
and servers that form the backbone of the internet. This infrastructure allows data to be transmitted across long distances
through wired or wireless connections.

2. Network Protocols: Network protocols define the rules and standards for data transmission between devices on a
network. Protocols like TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) govern how data is packaged,
addressed, and routed across the internet.

3. Internet Service Providers (ISPs): ISPs are companies that provide internet connectivity to users. They play a
crucial role in the architecture by connecting individual devices to the larger network, enabling access to cyberspace.

4. Domain Name System (DNS): The DNS is responsible for translating human-readable domain names (e.g.,
www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand. It acts as a distributed database, mapping domain
names to their corresponding IP addresses.

5. Web Servers and Clients: Web servers host websites and respond to client requests for web pages. Clients, such as
web browsers, interact with servers to retrieve and display web content. This client-server model forms the basis of the
World Wide Web.

6. Cloud Computing: Cloud architecture involves the use of remote servers to store, process, and manage data. It
allows users to access resources and services over the internet without needing to own or maintain physical
infrastructure.

7. Virtualization: Virtualization technology enables the creation of virtual environments within physical hardware. It
allows multiple operating systems or applications to run simultaneously on a single machine, enhancing efficiency and
flexibility.

8. Security Measures: The architecture of cyberspace includes various security measures to protect data and networks
from unauthorized access. This includes firewalls, encryption protocols, authentication mechanisms, and intrusion
detection systems.

9. Internet of Things (IoT): The IoT architecture involves connecting physical devices and objects to the internet,
enabling them to collect and exchange data. This interconnectedness extends cyberspace into the physical world,
creating a network of smart devices.

10. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): VR and AR technologies create virtual environments or
overlay digital information onto the real world. These immersive experiences rely on the architecture of cyberspace to
deliver and interact with virtual content.

Communication and web technology

Communication and web technology play a crucial role in the regulation of cyberspace. These technologies enable the
transmission of information, facilitate online interactions, and provide platforms for various online activities. They also
pose challenges for regulation, as they can be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes.
1. Communication Platforms: Communication platforms such as social media, messaging apps, and email services are
often subject to regulations related to privacy, data protection, and content moderation. Governments and organizations
may impose requirements on these platforms to ensure the safety and security of users.

2. Encryption: Encryption technology is essential for securing communications and protecting sensitive information.
However, it also poses challenges for law enforcement agencies seeking to investigate cybercrimes. Governments may
implement regulations that balance the need for encryption with the need for lawful access to encrypted data.

3. Internet Service Providers (ISPs): ISPs play a crucial role in providing internet access and connectivity. They may
be subject to regulations related to net neutrality, data privacy, and cybersecurity. Governments may require ISPs to
comply with certain standards and practices to ensure a fair and secure internet experience for users.

4. Web Content Filtering: Governments may implement web content filtering mechanisms to restrict access to certain
websites or types of content deemed harmful or illegal. These mechanisms can be controversial as they raise concerns
about censorship and freedom of expression.

5. Internet Infrastructure: The regulation of internet infrastructure, including domain names, IP addresses, and routing
protocols, is essential for the smooth functioning of cyberspace. Organizations such as ICANN work to establish
policies and standards for managing these aspects of the internet.

6. Online Advertising: Regulations related to online advertising aim to protect consumers from deceptive or misleading
practices. These regulations may include requirements for transparency, disclosure, and consent in online advertising
practices.

7. Data Protection: Communication and web technology involve the collection, processing, and storage of vast
amounts of personal data. Regulations such as the GDPR set standards for how this data should be handled, including
requirements for consent, data minimization, and data breach notification.

8. Digital Rights: The regulation of cyberspace also encompasses the protection of digital rights, such as freedom of
expression, access to information, and privacy. Governments and organizations may implement regulations that
safeguard these rights and ensure that individuals can fully participate in the digital realm.

9. Online Payment Systems: E-commerce regulations often include provisions for online payment systems to ensure
secure transactions and protect consumers from fraud. Regulations may require payment service providers to adhere to
certain security standards and provide dispute resolution mechanisms.

10. Mobile Technology: The proliferation of mobile devices and mobile applications has led to specific regulations for
mobile technology. These regulations may address issues such as privacy, security, and accessibility of mobile
applications and services.

Overall, communication and web technology both enable and shape the regulation of cyberspace. They provide the
means for implementing regulations and also present challenges that require ongoing adaptation and dialogue among
stakeholders.

Internet
A global system of interconnected computers, using a standardised Internet Protocol suite for communication and
sharing information is called the Internet.

The Internet is the most popular and innovative creation within the world of technology is the Internet. The web is
the place where all types of data are present and even the communication process is feasible using the web. The
planet has now become internet-dependent due to its vast advantages. There may be a check both its advantages and
drawbacks.
The Cambridge Dictionary defines the web as an outsized system of connected computers around the world that
permits people to share information and communicate with one another. The web is run and governed by various
companies, businesses, governments, and academic institutions for his or her purpose. It carries a number of data
about almost every subject and has very quickly become an important part of everyone‟s lives. Over 4.5 billion
people everywhere on the planet are internet users currently. Now let us look at the advantages and the disadvantages
of the Internet.
Advantages of the Internet
 Communication Forum: The speed of communication becomes faster which is obtained through the web.
Families and friends can use the internet easily. The platform for products like SKYPE, ZOOM, Teams, etc.
allows for holding a video conference with anyone in the world who also has access. It helps in connecting two
people present anywhere very easily.
 Abundant Information: Anyone can find information on almost any imaginable subject. Plenty of resources are
often found through the program in minutes. The Internet helps in providing information on all topics.
 Inexhaustible Education: For instance, students can gain readily available help for their homework online. Not
only homework but there are also so many platforms that provide online education that helps students to gain
knowledge in various domains. It helps in increasing the knowledge of the learner.
 Entertainment for Everybody: Most folks love using our laptops, smartphones, and, tablets. The web is the big
reason behind us spending such a lot of time on these gadgets. With the ease of the Internet, the entertainment
industry has also scaled and it helps in expanding in many ways like OTT platforms and many other platforms,
etc.
 Online Services and E-commerce: Many services of email, online banking, online shopping, etc are there. Free
mail to anyone is definitely accessible all around the world. E-commerce enables one in America to shop for
things in Asia, Africa, or other areas of the world through some simple clicks of the mouse.
 Social Network: Social networking is the sharing of data with people across the planet. Aside from being an
entertainment website, it‟s many uses. The Internet has given a massive gain in these social networking sites as it
connects people who are far away in just a few seconds.
 Learning: The web has now become a neighborhood of education. Education like homeschooling is definitely
administered using the web. Teachers can upload their teaching videos on the web and nowadays many more
platforms have come to teach students because of the accessibility of the Internet.
 Internet Banking: Internet Banking is one of the main advantages of the Internet as it helps people nowadays in
using banks in a digital way which helps in people not going to banks, not standing in queues in banks, etc.
People can use banking services at their fingertips with the help of the Internet.
Disadvantages of the Internet
 Internet Addiction Disorder: Internet addiction is detrimental to not only fitness but also psychological state.
Many people suffer from this problem as they are addicted to the Internet and use their devices without thinking
about the time they wasted on the device.
 Cyber Crime: Cyber Crime can lead by Hacker programs a virus that gets into the pc and ruins valuable data.
Users‟ personal information like name, address, master card, bank details, and other information are often
accessed by culprits when used on the web, leading to significant economic loss.
 Social Alienation: Time spent online flies fast without consciousness. After getting attracted the user is trapped
into the trap, users are trapped by a “net”, spending less time with people in the real world. Less interaction and
face-to-face communication, actually, may end in a decrease in social abilities.
 Spam: Unnecessary emails, advertisements, etc. are sometimes said to be spam because they need the power to
hamper the system and make the users face many problems. Heavy use of the Internet leads to so many issues
like bank account fraud, internet fraud, etc.
 Health issues: Playing games and spending too much time on monitors leads to obesity and an unhealthy
lifestyle. It also impacts the eyesight of the person using the device for a long time. It has very serious health
issues.
 Wastage of Time: The Internet is one of the ways which can lead to the wastage of your time. It happens to
almost all of us nowadays, as we start surfing and we continuously start surfing and do not realize how much time
wasted. This results in increasing screen time, and this leads to loss of memory power.
 Virus/Malware: Use of the Internet can lead to the invitation of viruses to the system and make the system
unproductive, it is one of the big disadvantages of using the Internet as your system can hang because of viruses.
 Affect Focus and Patience: The Internet can lead to affects individual focus and patience which can lead to
distract someone from achieving his/her goals in life and this is one of the disadvantages of the Internet

World Wide Web

World Wide Web or „www‟ is a collection of webpages which can easily be published on the Internet and read by
millions of its users. To know the difference between World Wide Web (www) and Internet, candidates can visit the
linked article.

History:
It is a project created, by Timothy Berner Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together effectively at CERN. is an
organization, named the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which was developed for further development of the
web. This organization is directed by Tim Berner‟s Lee, aka the father of the web.

Working of WWW:
The World Wide Web is based on several different technologies: Web browsers, Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers can be defined as programs which display text, data,
pictures, animation and video on the Internet. Hyperlinked resources on the World Wide Web can be accessed using
software interfaces provided by Web browsers. Initially, Web browsers were used only for surfing the Web but now
they have become more universal. Web browsers can be used for several tasks including conducting searches,
mailing, transferring files, and much more. Some of the commonly used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini,
and Google Chrome.
Components of the Web: There are 3 components of the web:

1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a system for resources on the web.
2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and server.
3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines the structure, organisation and content of a webpage.

Advent of internet
Protocols

HTTP: HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

It is the primary protocol used for communication between web browsers and web servers. It defines how data is
transmitted between the two, including the format of requests and responses and rules for handling errors and other
issues.
This protocol is used to transfer hypertexts over the internet and it is defined by the www(world wide web) for
information transfer. This protocol defines how the information needs to be formatted and transmitted. And, it also
defines the various actions the web browsers should take in response to the calls made to access a particular web
page. Whenever a user opens their web browser, the user will indirectly use HTTP as this is the protocol that is being
used to share text, images, and other multimedia files on the World Wide Web.
HTTPS: It is an extension of HTTP that uses encryption and authentication to provide secure communication over the
Internet. It is commonly used to protect sensitive data such as passwords, credit card information, and other personal
information.
FTP: It is a protocol for transferring files between computers on a network. It defines a set of rules for establishing a
connection between two computers and rules for transmitting files between them.

SMTP: It is a protocol for sending and receiving email messages online. It defines how email messages are transmitted
between mail servers and rules for handling errors and other issues.

TCP/IP: It is a set of protocols used for communication over the internet. TCP is responsible for reliable, ordered, and
error-checked data delivery between applications, while IP addresses route data packets over the internet. Together,
they provide the backbone of Internet communication.

TELNET (Terminal Network) :

TELNET is a standard TCP/IP protocol used for virtual terminal service given by ISO. This enables one local
machine to connect with another. The computer which is being connected is called a remote computer and which is
connecting is called the local computer. TELNET operation lets us display anything being performed on the remote
computer in the local computer. This operates on the client/server principle. The local computer uses the telnet client
program whereas the remote computer uses the telnet server program.
Internet infrastructure for data transfer and governance
Generally speaking, infrastructures are the frameworks or architectures that systems are made of. For example, a
nation's transportation infrastructure consists of roadways, railroads, airports, ocean ports, and rivers. Although not as
visible to the naked eye, the Internet also has an infrastructure consisting of many different elements, each of which
plays a critical role in the delivery of information from one point to another.

Elements of the internet infrastructure

At the most rudimentary level of the Internet infrastructure are endless miles of telephone lines and fiber optic cable.
These cables connect millions of individual users and businesses to other parties, transmitting data at varying speeds,
depending on the types of cabling used.

Another factor that affects the speed and quality of a user's connection is the means of connection, which include
telephone modems; high-speed connection methods like cable modems, ISDN, DSL, and T1 lines; and company
networks.
Internet society
The Internet Society (ISOC) is an international nonprofit organization that handles Internet standards, education and
policy development. Founded in 1992, ISOC‟s mission is to ensure open Internet development by enhancing and
supporting Internet use for organizations and individuals worldwide.

ISOC leaders address issues confronting the future of the Internet and provide organizational infrastructure for Internet
standards groups, including the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) and the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

ISOC handles Internet policy planning and deals with terminologies like the Internet Code of Conduct, Internet Law and
the Internet Ecosystem. ISOC has regular member meetings, workshops and conferences on Internet use awareness and
other topics of interest.

ISOC specifically addresses several diverse areas of concern.

• It helps to devise and implement technical standards for the Internet and its internetworking technologies and
applications.

• It harmonizes policies and developments at the international level.

• It devises and contributes to administrative policies and processes.

• It leads educational and research efforts to promote better understanding of and dialogue about the Internet.

• It collects and stores data for archiving and disseminating the history of the Internet.

• It performs hands-on work in helping developing countries to implement a viable Internet infrastructure.

The proposed formation of the Internet Society was formally announced at an international networking conference in
Copenhagen in June 1991, and officially launched in January of the following year. By the early 2000s, its professional
membership consisted of more than 150 organizational and 6,000 individual members from more than 100 countries
around the world including government agencies, nonprofit organizations, leading corporations, and startup
entrepreneurs.

Regulation of Cyberspace
Regulation of cyberspace refers to the laws, policies, and practices implemented by governments and organizations to
govern and control activities in the digital realm. Given the global nature of cyberspace, regulation often involves
international cooperation and coordination to address issues such as cybersecurity, privacy, intellectual property, and
online content.

1. Cybersecurity Regulations: Governments and organizations establish regulations to protect cyberspace from cyber
threats and attacks. These regulations may include requirements for organizations to implement security measures,
report breaches, and protect sensitive data.

2. Privacy Regulations: Privacy regulations aim to protect individuals' personal information and ensure that it is
collected, processed, and stored securely and with consent. Laws such as the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR) in the European Union set standards for data protection and privacy rights.

3. Intellectual Property Regulations: Intellectual property laws govern the protection of copyrights, trademarks,
patents, and other forms of intellectual property in cyberspace. These regulations address issues such as online piracy,
copyright infringement, and digital rights management.

4. Online Content Regulations: Governments regulate online content to address concerns related to hate speech,
misinformation, illegal activities, and harmful content. These regulations vary across countries and may involve
restrictions on access, censorship, or content moderation obligations for online platforms.

5. Cross-Border Data Flow Regulations: As data flows across national borders in cyberspace, regulations are needed
to govern the transfer and storage of data. Some countries have implemented data localization requirements, which
mandate that certain types of data must be stored within the country's borders.

6. E-Commerce Regulations: E-commerce regulations establish rules for online transactions, consumer protection,
electronic contracts, and dispute resolution. These regulations aim to foster trust and confidence in online commerce.

7. Cybercrime Laws: Governments enact laws to address cybercrimes such as hacking, identity theft, fraud, and online
harassment. These laws provide legal frameworks for investigating and prosecuting cybercriminals.
8. Internet Governance: International organizations such as the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN) and the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) work to coordinate and govern various aspects of the
internet, including domain names, IP addresses, and technical standards.

9. Cybersecurity Standards: Governments and organizations develop cybersecurity standards and frameworks to guide
the implementation of security measures in cyberspace. Examples include the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) Cybersecurity Framework and ISO/IEC 27001.

10. International Cooperation: Given the transnational nature of cyberspace, international cooperation and agreements
are essential for addressing global cyber threats and challenges. Initiatives such as the Budapest Convention on
Cybercrime promote collaboration among countries in combating cybercrime.

Concept of Cyber security

Cyber security is the practice of protecting electronic information from unauthorized access or theft. Cyber security
refers to any technology, measure or practice for preventing cyber attacks or mitigating their impact. Cyber security
aims to protect individuals‟ and organizations‟ systems, applications, computing devices, sensitive data and financial
assets against simple and annoying computer viruses, sophisticated and costly ransom ware attacks, and everything in
between.

Types of Cyber security:

1. Network Security – Focuses on securing computer networks from unauthorized access, data breaches, and other
network-based threats. It involves technologies such as Firewalls, Intrusion detection systems (IDS), Virtual private
networks (VPNs), and Network segmentation.

2. Application Security – Concerned with securing software applications and preventing vulnerabilities that could be
exploited by attackers. It involves secure coding practices, regular software updates and patches, and application-level
firewalls.

3. Information or Data Security - Focuses on protecting sensitive information from unauthorized access, disclosure,
alteration, or destruction. It includes Encryption, Access controls, Data classification, and Data loss prevention (DLP)
measures.

4. Cloud Security – It involves securing data, applications, and infrastructure hosted on cloud platforms, and ensuring
appropriate access controls, data protection, and compliance. It uses various cloud service providers such as AWS,
Azure, Google Cloud, etc., to ensure security against multiple threats.

5. Mobile Security – It involves securing the organizational and personal data stored on mobile devices such as cell
phones, tablets, and other similar devices against various malicious threats. These threats are Unauthorized access,
Device loss or Theft, Malware, etc.

6. Endpoint Security - Refers to securing individual devices such as computers, laptops, smartphones, and IoT devices.
It includes antivirus software, intrusion prevention systems (IPS), device encryption, and regular software updates.

Issues and challenges of cyber security

Issues in Cyber Security:

The most common cyber threats in India include phishing, malware, and ransomware.

➢ Social engineering

Social engineering represents a catch-all term for various tactics that are used by hackers. These tactics are designed to
trick individuals into giving out sensitive or confidential information. More often than not, these types of attacks appear
as phishing. According to security software company Digital Guardian, phishing represents 91% of social engineering
attacks. Phishing is a type of online fraud that involves attackers sending fake emails or websites that look legitimate in
order to trick victims into entering personal or financial information.

➢ Malware

Malware is a type of malicious software that can infect a computer and cause serious damage.
➢ Ransom ware

Ransom ware is another tactic used by hackers. The objective is to hold a company‟s data hostage until the affected user
pays a specific dollar amount, which can often be hefty. Ransom ware is a type of malware that encrypts a victim's files
and demands a ransom be paid in order to decrypt them.

➢ Third-party software

Small businesses represent an appealing target to cyber attackers. One reason is that their smaller computer
infrastructures can occasionally provide gateways to bigger targets. Small businesses usually don‟t have robust security
protocols in place that prevent theft. A famous example of this type of attack was the Target breach of 2013. The
attack‟s origins traced back to an initial cyber-attack on a small business that serviced Target‟s heating and air
conditioning. This incident eventually led to the theft of about 40 million credit and debit card numbers and around 70
million personal records holding sensitive information.

➢ Crypto and blockchain attacks.

➢ Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML).

Challenges of Cybersecurity:

➢ Constantly Evolving Threat Landscape

Cyber threats are constantly evolving, and attackers are becoming increasingly sophisticated. This makes it challenging
for cybersecurity professionals to keep up with the latest threats and implement effective measures to protect against
them.

➢ Lack of Skilled Professionals

There is a shortage of skilled cybersecurity professionals, which makes it difficult for organizations to find and hire
qualified staff to manage their cybersecurity programs.

➢ Limited Budgets

Cybersecurity can be expensive, and many organizations have limited budgets to allocate towards cybersecurity
initiatives. This can result in a lack of resources and infrastructure to effectively protect against cyber threats.

➢ Insider Threats

Insider threats can be just as damaging as external threats. Employees or contractors who have access to sensitive
information can intentionally or unintentionally compromise data security.

➢ Complexity of Technology

With the rise of cloud computing, IoT, and other technologies, the complexity of IT infrastructure has increased
significantly. This complexity makes it challenging to identify and address vulnerabilities and implement effective
cybersecurity measures.

Strategies for Addressing Cyber security Challenges:

➢ Comprehensive Risk Assessment: A comprehensive risk assessment can help organizations identify potential
vulnerabilities and prioritize cybersecurity initiatives based on their impact and likelihood.

➢ Cybersecurity Training and Awareness: Cybersecurity training and awareness programs can help employees
understand the risks and best practices for protecting against cyber threats.

➢ Collaboration and Information Sharing: Collaboration and information sharing between organizations, industries,
and government agencies can help improve cybersecurity strategies and response to cyber threats.

➢ Cybersecurity Automation: Cybersecurity automation can help organizations identify and respond to threats in
real-time, reducing the risk of data breaches and other cyber-attacks.

➢ Continuous Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of IT infrastructure and data can help identify potential threats and
vulnerabilities, allowing for proactive measures to be taken to prevent attacks.
2 marks questions.
1. Give the Meaning of Cyber Space?

2. What do you mean by Encryption?

3. Give the meaning of World wide web (WWW)?

4. What do you mean by Internet?

5. Mention the elements of Internet Infrastructure?

6. Write a short note on Internet Society?

7. Mention any Four Regulations of cyberspace?

8. What do you mean by Cyber Security?

9. Briefly Explain any two types of cyber security?

10. Give the meaning of Ransomware?

11. State any two ways for get protected from cyber-attacks?

12. Mention any Four organizations dealings with cyber security in India?

13. Write a short note on Challenges of Cyber Security?

14. What do you mean by Architecture of cyber space?

15. What do you mean by network protocols?

16. Write a short note on Indian Cyber Space?

17. Meaning of Internet Infrastructure?

18. Give the meaning of online content regulations