Plant and Animal Organ Systems and - Seed and Fruit Development

Their Functions (Reproduction, - The zygote develops into an embryo, and

Development, and Nutrition) the ovule develops into a seed
- The ovary develops into a fruit that
Plant Reproduction protects and disperses the seeds
- Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction in Plants
- Asexual reproduction permits the Animal Reproduction
propagation of advantageous genetic - Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction in
makeups since the offspring are genetically Animals
identical with the parent (Campbell & - Asexual reproduction is the creation of
Reece, 2005) new individuals without the fusion of
- Sexual reproduction permits new gametes
combinations of traits to arise from the - Sexual reproduction is the creation of
contributions of multiple different ancestors offspring by the fusion of haploid gametes to
(Campbell & Reece, 2005) form a diploid zygote

- Plant Reproductive Organs - Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction

- Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels - Fission, budding, fragmentation, and
(pistils) are the floral organs attached to the regeneration are examples of asexual
receptacle reproduction in animals
- Stamens and carpels are the reproductive
organs, while sepals and petals are sterile - Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction
- Stamen consists of a filament and an - Internal fertilization involves the male
anther that produces pollen delivering sperm directly into the female's
- Carpel has an ovary, style, and stigma that body
receives pollen - External fertilization involves the release of
eggs and sperm into the water
- Gametophyte Development and Pollination
- Pollen grains are the male gametophyte, - Reproductive Systems
and the embryo sac is the female - Male reproductive system includes the
gametophyte testes, sperm ducts, and penis
- Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an - Female reproductive system includes the
anther to a stigma ovaries, oviducts, and vagina
- Successful pollination leads to fertilization,
where the sperm fertilizes the egg to form a - Reproductive Variations
zygote - Metagenesis is the alternation of asexual
and sexual generations
- Double Fertilization - Parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction
- The pollen tube grows down the style and where an unfertilized egg develops into an
discharges sperm near the embryo sac adult
- One sperm fertilizes the egg to form the - Hermaphroditism is when a single
zygote, and the other sperm fertilizes the organism produces both eggs and sperm
central cell to form the endosperm
Plant Development
- Seed Structure and Germination - Micronutrients
- Monocot seeds have a single cotyledon, - Iron, boron, zinc, manganese, chlorine,
while dicot seeds have two cotyledons molybdenum, and copper are required in
- Seed dormancy is broken by the release of trace amounts
gibberellin, which triggers the production of - Deficiencies can also cause problems in
digestive enzymes plant growth and function
- The root tip has a zone of division,
elongation, and maturation for growth - Nutrient Absorption
- Root hairs, root nodules, and mycorrhizae
- Meristems and Buds are specialized structures that facilitate
- Primary meristems give rise to nutrient absorption
differentiated tissues like xylem and phloem - Nutrients can be absorbed through the
- Leaf growth occurs from the side of the symplast or apoplast pathways in the roots
shoot apical meristem
- Leaf fall is facilitated by the formation of an - Nutritional Adaptations
abscission layer - Nitrogen fixation by bacteria in root
nodules provides nitrogen to legumes
- Secondary Growth - Mycorrhizal fungi help plants obtain
- Dicots undergo secondary growth through phosphorus and other minerals from the soil
the activity of the vascular cambium
- Monocots typically do not undergo Animal Nutrition
secondary growth, relying on the primary - Nutritional Requirements
thickening meristem - Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the
macronutrients required for energy and
Animal Development structural purposes
- Early Development - Essential amino acids, fatty acids,
- The zygote undergoes cleavage, forming a vitamins, and minerals must be obtained
morula and then a blastocyst from the diet
- The inner cell mass of the blastocyst gives
rise to the three germ layers: ectoderm, - Food Uptake in Cells
mesoderm, and endoderm - Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-
- Stages of the Human Life Cycle mediated endocytosis are the three types of
- The major stages are: zygote, morula, endocytosis for nutrient uptake
blastocyst, embryo, fetus, newborn, infant,
child, adolescent, and adult - Feeding Mechanisms
- Substrate-feeders, filter-feeders, fluid-
Plant Nutrition feeders, and bulk-feeders are different types
- Macronutrients of feeding mechanisms in animals
- Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur,
calcium, and magnesium are required in - Digestive Systems
large amounts - Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms,
- Deficiencies can lead to various growth gastrovascular cavities in some
and developmental issues invertebrates, and the complete digestive
system in vertebrates are examples of - Abstinence is the only 100% effective form
digestive compartments of contraception
- Accessory organs like the liver, (Campbell & Reece, 2005; Villee, Solomon
gallbladder, and pancreas aid in the & Davis)
digestion and processing of food in the
complete digestive system PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEMS
(Villee, Solomon & Davis; Campbell & AND THEIR FUNCTIONS (GAS
Reece, 2005) EXCHANGE AND
TRANSPORT/CIRCULATION)
Human Reproduction
- Female Reproductive Anatomy Gas Exchange
- Ovaries produce eggs and sex hormones - All living organisms require oxygen for
- Oviducts and uterus are involved in egg metabolism and must remove carbon
transport and implantation dioxide as a waste product
- Vagina and vulva are the external female - Gas exchange is the movement of gases
genitalia across a cell membrane, allowing cells to
- Mammary glands produce milk for nursing take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide
- Diffusion is the process by which
- Male Reproductive Anatomy molecules move from an area of higher
- Testes produce sperm and testosterone concentration to an area of lower
- Ducts like the epididymis, vas deferens, concentration
and urethra transport sperm
- Accessory glands like the seminal vesicles Gas Exchange in Animals
and prostate gland contribute to semen - Animals have specialized respiratory
- The penis is the male copulatory organ systems to facilitate gas exchange

- Human Sexual Response - Methods of gas exchange in animals:

- Vasocongestion and myotonia are the two - Direct diffusion through moist body surface
types of physiological reactions (e.g. amoeba, flatworm)
- The four phases are excitement, plateau, - Diffusion through thin, moist body wall with
orgasm, and resolution blood vessels (e.g. earthworm)
- Diffusion through spiracles and tracheal
Contraception system (e.g. insects)
- Ovulation-suppressing methods: Oral - Diffusion through gills (e.g. fish,
contraceptives amphibians)
- Barrier methods: Condoms, diaphragms, - Diffusion through lungs (e.g. land snail,
cervical caps land vertebrates)
- Chemical methods: Spermicidal jelly and - Respiratory systems must have a large,
foam moist surface area to facilitate efficient gas
- Surgical methods: Vasectomy and tubal exchange
ligation
- Implantation-suppressing methods: IUDs Gas Exchange in Plants
and morning-after pills
- Plants do not have specialized gas - Homeostasis refers to the relatively stable
exchange organs, relying on diffusion state inside the body of an animal (Molnar)
through leaves, roots, and stems - Animal organs and organ systems
- Leaves have stomata that allow gas constantly adjust to internal and external
exchange between the plant and the changes to maintain this steady state
environment - Examples of internal conditions maintained
- Roots absorb oxygen from air spaces in homeostatically: blood glucose level, body
the soil, and release carbon dioxide through temperature, blood calcium level
root hairs - Goal of homeostasis is to maintain
- Stems have lenticels that allow gas equilibrium around a specific set point value
exchange between the plant and the - Changes in internal/external environment
environment are called stimuli, detected by receptors,
and the system responds to adjust back to
Transport and Circulation set point

Animal Circulatory System Osmoregulation

- The circulatory system transports - Osmoregulation is the active regulation of
substances like oxygen, nutrients, and osmotic pressure to maintain the balance of
waste throughout the body water and electrolytes in an organism
- Consists of the heart, blood vessels (Helmenstine)
(arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood - Needed to perform biochemical reactions
- Blood is composed of plasma, red blood and preserve homeostasis
cells, white blood cells, and platelets - Osmosis is the movement of solvent
- Excretory system filters waste from the (water) molecules through a semipermeable
blood and removes it from the body membrane into an area of higher solute
concentration
Plant Transport Systems - Osmotic pressure depends on the
- Plants use vascular tissues (xylem and concentration of solute particles
phloem) to transport water, nutrients, and - Organisms excrete excess water, solute
food molecules, and wastes to maintain water
- Xylem transports water and minerals from and electrolyte balance
roots to leaves
- Phloem transports food (glucose) from Regulators and Conformers
leaves to other parts of the plant - Osmoconformers use active or passive
- Transpiration, the evaporation of water processes to match their internal osmolarity
from leaves, creates a pulling force that to the environment (e.g. marine
draws water up the xylem invertebrates)
- Osmoregulators control internal osmotic
Plant and Animal Organ Systems and pressure to maintain conditions within a
Their Functions (Regulation of Body tightly-regulated range (e.g. vertebrates)
Fluids and Chemical and Nervous
Control) Osmoregulation Strategies
- Bacteria: use transport mechanisms and
Homeostasis synthesize osmoprotectant molecules
- Protozoa: use contractile vacuoles to - Hormones travel through the bloodstream
transport wastes and control and bind to target cells with receptors
water/electrolyte flow - Endocrine system is regulated by negative
- Plants: feedback mechanisms to maintain
- Use stomata to control water loss homeostasis
- Rely on vacuoles to regulate osmolarity - E.g. insulin and glucagon regulate blood
- Mesophytes, xerophytes, halophytes, and glucose levels
hydrophytes have different adaptations
- Animals: Chemical and Nervous Control in Plants
- Use excretory system to control water loss
and maintain osmotic pressure Plant Hormones and Sensory Systems
- Kidneys are primary organ for - Plants use chemical messengers
osmoregulation in humans (hormones) to sense and respond to stimuli
- Hormones are produced in various plant
Chemical and Nervous Control in tissues and travel through vascular system
Animals - Major plant hormones and their functions:
- Auxins: cell elongation, phototropism,
The Nervous System gravitropism, apical dominance
- Uses electrical impulses to collect, - Cytokinins: cell division, delay senescence
process, and respond to environmental - Gibberellins: stem/fruit/seed growth
information - Abscisic acid: dormancy, stress response
- Nervous system cells (neurons) have - Ethylene: fruit ripening, leaf/flower
specialized structures for transmitting abscission
signals - Systemin: anti-herbivory defense
- Sensory neurons carry impulses from - Methyl salicylate: immune response
sense organs
- Motor neurons carry impulses to muscles Plant Responses to Stimuli
and glands - Phototropism and germination responses
- Interneurons transfer signals between mediated by light-sensing photoreceptors
sensory and motor neurons - Other growth responses:
- Apical dominance
- Parts of the nervous system: - Leaf abscission
- Central nervous system (brain and spinal - Fruit growth and ripening
cord)
- Peripheral nervous system - Responses to water/drought stress:
- Somatic nervous system (voluntary, - Germination triggered by water imbibition
reflexes) - Stomatal closing to prevent water loss
- Autonomic nervous system (involuntary) - Localized cell death in severe drought
- Sympathetic division (fight-or-flight) - Thigmotropism: movement in response to
- Parasympathetic division (rest and digest) touch
- Slow thigmotropism (vines wrapping)
The Endocrine System - Fast thigmotropism (Venus flytrap closing)
- Regulatory system that uses chemical (Molnar)
signals (hormones) to control body functions (Helmenstine)
(Georgia Tech Biological Science) Overview of Animal Immune System
The animal immune system has three main
PLANT AND ANIMAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS lines of defense:

Overview of Plant Immune System 1. Physical and Chemical Barriers:

Plants have a complex immune system that - Skin, mucous membranes, stomach acid,
helps protect them from pathogens and etc. prevent pathogens from entering the
other threats. The plant immune system body
consists of several key components:
- Waxy Cuticular Layer: The outer "skin" of 2. Innate Immune System:
plants that acts as a physical barrier to - Non-specific defenses that respond
prevent pathogens from entering the plant immediately to pathogens
cells. (Raven et al., 2020) - Includes phagocytic cells, natural killer
cells, complement system, etc.
- Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRRs):
- Located on the surface of plant cells 3. Adaptive Immune System:
- Recognize pathogen-associated molecular - Antigen-specific responses that develop
patterns (PAMPs/MAMPs) on the surface of over time
invading pathogens - Involves lymphocytes (B cells and T cells)
- Triggers the pattern-triggered immunity that recognize specific pathogens
(PTI) response when PAMPs are detected - Creates immunological memory to
(Raven et al., 2020) respond faster and more effectively to future
infections (Solomon et al., 2008)
- Resistance (R) Genes:
- Encode resistance proteins inside plant Adaptive Immune Response:
cells - Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) display
- Detect pathogen effector molecules that pathogen antigens to activate naive T cells
have entered the cell - T cells require two signals to become fully
- Triggers the effector-triggered immunity activated:
(ETI) response, leading to a hypersensitive 1. Recognition of antigen-MHC complex
response and cell death to contain the 2. Co-stimulatory signal
infection (Raven et al., 2020) - Activated T cells then proliferate and
differentiate into effector and memory T
- Systemic Acquired Response (SAR): cells
- Signals spread throughout the plant to - B cells produce antibodies that bind to and
prepare distal tissues for potential future neutralize pathogens (Solomon et al., 2008)
attacks
- Involves signaling molecules like salicylic Comparison of Plant and Animal Immune
acid and jasmonic acid Systems
- Provides broad-spectrum, short-term - Both have innate immune responses, but
resistance, but not as specific or long- only animals have adaptive immunity
lasting as the adaptive immune response in - Plants lack specialized immune cells like
animals (Raven et al., 2020) lymphocytes, but have other defense
mechanisms
- Plants use systemic signaling to prepare so that the internal environment of the body
distal tissues, while animals rely more on and cells remains stable.
circulation of immune cells
- Plants have unique receptors (PRRs, R Interrelationship of Body Systems
genes) to detect pathogens, while animals - Homeostasis is essential for an organism's
use antigen receptors on lymphocytes survival, as it ensures that conditions like
- Plant defenses are generally broader and temperature and fluid balance remain within
less specific than the highly targeted animal narrow ranges compatible with life.
adaptive immune response (Haney & - Body systems work together to maintain
Urbach, 2014) homeostasis, including:
- Fighting disease through the immune
(Raven, P. H., Evert, R. F., & Eichhorn, S. system
E. (2020). Biology (12th ed.). Cengage - Regulating body processes through
Learning. chemical controls and the endocrine system
- Controlling body temperature.
Solomon, E. P., Berg, L. R., & Martin, D. W.
(2008). Biology (8th ed.). Thomson Learning Temperature Regulation
Academic Resource Center. - Ectotherms are animals that do not have
internal control of their body temperature,
Haney, C. H., & Urbach, J. M. (2014). which is generally like the temperature of
Differences & Similarities: Innate immunity the environment.
in plants & animals. Biochemical Society, - Endotherms are animals that maintain a
40-44.) constant body temperature in the face of
environmental changes, generating internal
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS heat to keep cellular processes operating
(TEMPERATURE REGULATION AND optimally.
OSMOTIC BALANCE) - Thermoregulation is coordinated by the
nervous system, with the hypothalamus
Homeostasis maintaining the set point for body
- Homeostasis is the condition in which a temperature through reflexes that cause
system such as the human body is vasodilation/vasoconstriction and
maintained in a more-or-less steady state. sweating/shivering.
- The goal of homeostasis is the - Fever is a response to infection where the
maintenance of equilibrium around a hypothalamus resets the thermostat to a
specific value of some aspect of the body or higher value, making the body less optimal
its cells called a set point. for bacterial growth and increasing the
- A change in the internal or external activities of cells to fight the infection.
environment is called a stimulus and is
detected by a receptor; the response of the Osmoregulation
system is to adjust the activities of the - Osmoregulation is the process of
system so the value moves back toward the maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic
set point. balance) across membranes within the
- When a change occurs in an animal's body.
environment, an adjustment must be made
- Homeostasis is maintained through a they work together to maintain homeostasis
complex balancing act involving a stimulus, in blood sugar levels.
sensor, control center, and effector.
- The stimulus is provided by the variable Hormones Involved in Blood Glucose
being regulated. Regulation:
- The sensor monitors the values of the Insulin: Released by the pancreas when
variable and sends data to the control blood glucose levels are high, signals the
center. liver, muscles, and other cells to store
- The control center matches the data with excess glucose as glycogen or fat.
normal values and sends a signal to the Glucagon: Released by the pancreas when
effector. blood glucose levels are low, signals the
- The effector acts on the signal to move the liver to break down glycogen into glucose
variable back toward the set point. and release it into the bloodstream.

Feedback Mechanisms Homeostatic Control via Negative

- Negative Feedback Loop: Feedback:
- Serves to reduce an excessive response - Blood glucose regulation is an excellent
and keep a variable within the normal example of homeostatic control through
range. negative feedback.
- Examples include body temperature - When blood glucose is too low, glucagon
regulation and blood glucose control. is produced, which raises blood glucose
- Cooling down involves vasodilation, levels. Once levels return to normal, the
sweating, and increased breathing to stimulus to produce glucagon is turned off.
dissipate heat. - When blood glucose is too high, insulin is
- Heating up involves vasoconstriction, produced, which signals cells to store
shivering, and increased metabolism to excess glucose. Once levels return to
generate heat. normal, the stimulus to produce insulin is
turned off.
- Positive Feedback Loop:
- Serves to intensify a response until an Importance of Blood Glucose Regulation:
endpoint is reached. - Glucose is a key energy source for the
- Examples include blood clotting and body's cells.
childbirth. - Maintaining blood glucose levels within a
- Blood clotting involves a self-reinforcing normal range (60-100 mg/dL) is crucial for
cycle of platelet accumulation. proper bodily function and preventing nerve
damage from consistently high or low levels.
Feedback Mechanism (Glucose Level - Disruptions in this regulatory system can
Regulation) lead to conditions like hypoglycemia (low
blood sugar) or hyperglycemia (high blood
Overview: sugar).
This learning kit provides an understanding
of the feedback mechanism involved in
blood glucose regulation. It covers the key
hormones, insulin and glucagon, and how