AG-WM 01

October 1995
Michael G. Pace, Graduate Research Assistant; Bruce E. Miller, Assistant Professor,
Kathryn L. Farrell-Poe, Extension Environmental Engineer; Ag. Systems Tech. & Ed. Dept.

Composting is the aerobic, or oxygen-requiring, decomposition

of organic materials by microorganisms under controlled
conditions. During composting, the microorganisms consume
oxygen (O2) while feeding on organic matter (Figure 1). Active
composting generates considerable heat, and large quantities of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor are released into the air.
The CO2 and water losses can amount to half the weight of the
initial materials, thereby reducing the volume and mass of
the final product.

Figure 2. Compost Temperature

Factors Affecting the Composting Process

1. Oxygen and Aeration
Aerobic composting consumes large amounts of oxygen,
particularly during the initial stages. If the supply of oxygen is
limited, the composting process may turn anaerobic, which is a
Figure 1. The Composting Process much slower and odorous process. A minimum oxygen concen-
tration of 5% within the pore spaces of the compost is necessary
for aerobic composting. Oxygen levels within the windrows or
What Happens During Composting piles may be replenished by turning the materials over with a
Composting may begin as soon as the raw materials are front-end loader, or by means of mechanical agitation with a
mixed together. During the initial stages of the process, oxygen special compost turner.
and the easily degradable components of the raw materials are
rapidly consumed by the microorganisms. 2. C:N Ratio
The temperature of the windrow or pile is directly related to Carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium
the microorganism activity of the windrow and is a good (K) are the primary nutrients required by the microorganisms
indicator of what is going on inside. The temperature of the invol-ved in composting. Microorganisms use carbon for both
composting materials generally follows a pattern of rapid energy and growth, while nitrogen is essential for protein pro-
increase to 120-140oF where it is maintained for several weeks duction and reproduction. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen is
depending on the materials (Figure 2). As active composting referred to as the C:N ratio. An appropriate C:N ratio usually
slows, temperatures will gradually drop until the compost ensures that the other required nutrients are present in adequate
reaches ambient air temperatures. amounts.
A curing period usually follows the active composting Raw materials blended to provide a C:N ratio of 25:1 to 30:1
period. During the curing period, the materials will continue to are ideal for active composting, although initial C:N ratios from
slowly decompose. Materials continue to break down until the 20:1 up to 40:1 consistently give good composting results. For
last easily decomposed raw materials are consumed by the C:N ratios below 20:1, the available carbon is fully utilized
remaining microorganisms. At this point, the compost becomes without stabilizing all of the nitrogen which can lead to the
relatively stable and easy to handle. production of excess ammonia and unpleasant odors. For C:N
ratios above 40:1, not enough N is available for the growth of
microorganisms and the composting process slows dramatically.
 Table 1. Guidelines for composting parameters.
Condition Reasonable Range* Preferred Range
Carbon to nitrogen (C:N)ratio 20:1-40:1 25:1-30:1
Moisture content 40-65%** 50-60%
Oxygen concentrations Greater than 5% Much greater than 5%
Particle size (diameter in inches) 1/8-1/2 Varies**
pH 5.5-9.0 6.5-8.0
Temperature (oF) 110-150 130-140
Source: On-Farm Composting Handbook, Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service (NRAES-54)
*The recommendations are for rapid composting. Conditions outside of these ranges can also yield successful results.
**Depends on the specific materials, pile size, and/or weather conditions.

3. Moisture Curing
Moisture is necessary to support the metabolic processes of When windrows or piles no longer reheat after turning, the
the microbes. Composting materials should be maintained curing stage begins. The curing stage of compost usually lasts 3
within a range of 40% to 65% moisture. Experience has shown to 4 weeks. Curing is a very important and often neglected part
that the composting process becomes inhibited when the of the composting process. Curing occurs at mesophilic
moisture content is below 40%. Water displaces much of the air temperatures. The importance of curing increases if the active
in the pore spaces of the composting materials when the composting stage is either shortened or poorly managed.
moisture content is above 65%. This limits air movement and Immature compost can contain high levels of organic acid, a
leads to anaerobic conditions. Moisture content generally high C:N ratio, and other characteristics which can be damag-
decreases as composting proceeds; therefore, you may need to ing to crops and plants.
add additional water to the compost. As a rule of thumb, the
materials are too wet if water can be squeezed out of a handful Compost as a soil amendment vs. fertilizer
and too dry if the handful does not feel moist to the touch. Most plant nutrients in compost are in an organic form.
Although compost is not high in nitrogen, phosphorous, or
4. Particle Size potassium, (it contains approximately 2% of each) these
The rate of aerobic decomposition increases with smaller nutrients are released slowly over a long period of time.
particle size. Smaller particles, however, may reduce the Nutrients become available to plant roots at a slower rate with
effectiveness of oxygen movement within the pile or windrow. compost compared to inorganic fertilizers, therefore the
Optimum composting conditions are usually obtained with nutrients are less likely to leach out of the soil. Only a fraction
particle sizes ranging from 1/8 to 2 inches average diameter. of the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium applied as compost
is usable by the crop the first year with more becoming avail-
5. Temperature able in the years that follow.
Composting will essentially take place within two tempera- The real benefit of adding compost to the soil lies in its
ture ranges known as mesophilic (50-105oF) and thermophilic ability to increase soil organic matter levels. Research studies
(over 105oF). Although mesophilic temperatures allow effective at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Stationa have
composting, experts suggest maintaining temperatures between shown that a 1 inch thick layer of leaf compost annually applied
110o and 150o. The thermophilic temperatures are desirable and incorporated into the soil over a 12 year period increased
because they destroy more pathogens, weed seeds and fly larvae the organic matter content from 5.9% to 12.6%. The same
in the composting materials. studies have shown that the water holding capacity of the soil
If the temperature of your compost pile is in the mesophilic was increased from 1.3 inches to 1.9 inches of water per foot of
range, try mixing the pile. If the temperature still does not soil after seven years of compost applications.
reach the thermophilic range, review the factors described
above to determine whether one or more of the factors is limi-
ting the composting process. If you are still unable to increase
Other Benefits of Compost include:
• Improved manure handling • Possible saleable product
the compost’s temperature, the active stage of composting may
• Improved land application • Weed seed destruction
be complete. • Pathogen destruction • Lower risk of pollution problems
• Excellent soil conditioner • Possible revenue from tipping fees
6. Time
The length of time required to transform raw materials into a
Maynard, A. A. & Hill, D. E. (1994). Impact of compost on vegetable yields.
compost depends upon the factors listed above. In general, the Biocycle, 35(3), 66-67.
entire decomposition and stabilization of materials may be
accomplished within a few weeks under favorable conditions;
but, research at Utah State University has shown that 10-14
weeks of active composting for dairy cattle waste is more com- Utah State University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative
mon. Active composting will change depending upon the Action Institution
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 and
amount of natural moisture or water added to the compost, June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
turning frequency, materials being composted, and temperatures Robert L. Gilliland, Vice President and Director, Cooperative Extension Service,
reached. Utah State University. (EP/10-95/HBH)