Chapter 1

Introduction to Vectors

Definition 1. Vector
A vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction.

Example: Displacement, Velocity, Force and Acceleration.

Vector Notations:
Analytically a vector is represented by an underline letters, a, b, c, · · · ,
etc. and graphically a vector is represented by an arrow OP defining the
direction.
q P
¡
a ¡
¯¡
µ
¡
¡
O¡
q

Note:The tail end O of the arrow is called the origin and the head P is called
the terminal point.

Definition 2. Magnitude of the vector

The magnitude of the vector a is denoted by |a| and “length OP ” gives
−→
the magnitude of the vector OP .

Definition 3. Scalar
A scalar is a quantity having magnitude but no direction.

Example: Mass, length, time, temperature, etc.

1
Definition 4. Equal Vectors
Two Vectors a and b are equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction regardless of the position of their initial points.

Note: A vector having direction opposite to that of vector a but having

the same magnitude is denoted by −a.

Definition 5. Null Vector

If the origin and terminal point of a vector coincide then it is said to be zero
or null vector.

i.e. a is a null vector if and only if |a| = 0. Note: Evidently for a null
vector its length is zero and its direction is undefined.

Definition 6. Unit Vector

A unit vector is a vector having unit magnitude. If a is a vector with
a
magnitude |a| 6= 0 then â = is a unit vector having the same direction
|a|
as a.
a
i.e. The unit vector â = .
|a|

⇒ a = a â where a = |a|.

Example: Let a = 2i + 4j.

2i + 4j 2i + 4j
Then â = √ = √ .
22 + 42 20

2
Laws of Vector Algebra
If a, b and c are vectors and m, n are scalars. Then

1. a + b = b + a (Commutative law for addition).

2. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (Associative law for addition).

3. m a = a m (Commutative law for multiplication).

4. m(n a) = (mn) a (Associative law for multiplication).

5. (m + n)a = ma + na (Distributive law).

6. m(a + b) = ma + mb (Distributive law).

Definition 7. Collinear Vectors

Any numbers of vectors are said to be collinear when they are parallel to the
same line.

Definition 8. Non-Collinear vectors

The vectors whose directions are neither parallel nor coincident are said to
be non-collinear.

Definition 9. Co-planer Vectors

Any numbers of vectors are said to be co-planar when they are parallel to
the same plane.

Definition 10. Reciprocal Vector

A vector whose direction is the same as that of a given vector a but whose
magnitude is reciprocal of the magnitude of the given vector a is called the
1
reciprocal of a and is written by a−1 = â.
a

3
Definition 11. Scalar multiplication of vectors
The multiplication of a vector a by a scalar λ is a vector λa with magnitude
|λ| times the magnitude of a and with direction the same as or opposite to
that of a, according as λ is positive or negative.

Exercise (1): Prove that if vector a and b are non-collinear then λa+µb = 0
implies λ = µ = 0.

Solution: Assume that λ 6= 0.

µ
Since λa + µb = 0, a + ( b) = 0.
µ λ
⇒ a = (− b).
λ µ
⇒ a = γb where γ = − .
λ
⇒ a and b are parallel.
i.e. a and b are collinear.
It is a contradiction because a and b are non-collinear.
Therefore our assumption is wrong.
Hence λ = 0.
⇒ µb = 0 (∵ λ = 0).
⇒ µ = 0.

4
Definition 12. Position Vector
Let O be a fixed point (origin) and P be any point in space. Then the vector
−→
OP = r(say) is said to be the position vector of P with respect to the origin
O.

q P
¡
¡
r ¡
¯¡
µ
¡
¡
¡
q
O

Definition 13. Resultant of vectors

The resultant of vectors a and b is a vector c formed by placing the
initial point of b on the terminal point of a and then joining the initial
point of a to the terminal point of b .

i.e. The resultant vector c = a + b.

¡A
a ¡¡ A
A
¯¡
µ
¡ AU b
¡
X XXX A¯
c XXXXAA
z
¯ X

Exercise (2): Find the equation of a straight line which passes through
two given points A and B having position vectors a and b with respect to
the origin O.

5
Solution:
B
P
»» »»» ¢
» » »»» ¢
AJ ¢
J ¢
r
J ¯ 6 ¢̧¢ b
a JJ ¢ ¯
¯ ]J ¢
J ¢
J ¢
J¢
O

Let r be the position vector of any point P on the line passing through
A and B.
−→ −−→
Let OA = a and OB = b.
−→ −→
Then AB = b − a and AP = r − a.
−→ −→
Since AB and AP are collinear,
−→ −→
AP = tAB where t is a scalar.

⇒ (r − a) = t(b − a).

⇒ r = a + t(b − a).

⇒ r = tb + (1 − t)a.

Theorem:
The necessary and sufficient condition for three points whose position vec-
tors a, b, c in three dimensional space to be collinear in that there exist
scalars α, β, γ, not all zero such that αa + βb + γc = 0 and α + β + γ = 0.

Proof: (Necessary part)

Assume that there are three points A, B and P which are collinear.

6
i.e. AP k AB . B
P
» » »»»
¢
»
» »»» ¢
AJ ¢
J ¢
c
J ¯ 6 ¢̧¢ b
a JJ ¢ ¯
¯ ]J ¢
J ¢
J ¢
J¢
O
Let the position vectors of A, B and P be a, b, c respectively with re-
spect to origin O.
Then we have c = tb + (1 − t)a.
⇒ c − tb − (1 − t)a = 0.
i.e. αa + βb + γc = 0, where α = −(1 − t), β = −t, γ = 1.
α + β + γ = −(1 − t) + (−t) + 1 = 0.
Hence the result.
(Sufficient Part)
Assume that there exist scalars α, β, γ, not all zero such that αa+βb+γc = 0
and α + β + γ = 0.
Without loss of generality, we assume that γ 6= 0.

α β α β
a + b + c = 0 and + + 1 = 0.
γ γ γ γ

β
Take = −t.
γ
α β
Then + + 1 = 0 gives
γ γ
µ ¶
α β
=− 1+ = −(1 − t).
γ γ

7
 α β
Then we have c = − a− b
γ γ

β α
= − b− a
γ γ
= tb + (1 − t)a.

This shows that c is a point on the line joining a and b and hence
a, b and c are collinear.

Theorem :λ − µ theorem
Let A and B be two given points with position vector a and b with respect to
AC λ
O respectively. If C is a point in AB such that = , then the position
CB µ
vector c with respect to O is given by
µa + λb
c= .
µ+λ
Proof:
µ »» B
C »» ¢
AC λ λ»»»
= . » » ¢
CB µ A»
J
¢
J c ¢
λ
J ¯ 6 ¢¢̧ b
a JJ ¢ ¯
⇒ AC = CB. ¯ ]J ¢
µ
J ¢
J ¢
−→ λ −−→ J¢
⇒ AC = CB. O
µ

λ
⇒ (c − a) = (b − c).
µ

⇒ µc − µa = λb − λc.
⇒ (λ + µ)c = λb + µa.

8
 λb + µa
∴ c= .
λ+µ

Exercise(3): Prove that if λ1 a + µ1 b = λ2 a + µ2 b where a, b are non-

collinear vectors then λ1 = λ2 and µ1 = µ2 .

Solution:
Assume that λ1 a + µ1 b = λ2 a + µ2 b then (λ1 − λ2 ) a + (µ1 − µ2 ) b = 0
where a and b are non - collinear.
⇒ λ1 − λ2 = 0 and µ1 − µ2 = 0 by the Exercise(1).
i.e. λ1 = λ2 and µ1 = µ2 .

Exercise(4): Prove that if a, b and c are non co-planar then αa+βb+γc =

0 implies α = β = γ = 0.

Solution: Suppose that α 6= 0.

β γ
Then α a + β b + γ c = 0 gives a + b + c = 0.
α α

β γ
i.e. a=− b − c.
α α

β γ
But − b − c is a vector lying in the plane of b and c.
α α
i.e. a lies in the plane of b and c.

This contradicts to the fact that a, b and c are non co-planer. So our
assumption is wrong.
Hence α = 0.

9
Similarly we can prove that β = γ = 0.

Exercise(5): Prove that α1 a + β1 b + γ1 c = α2 a + β2 b + γ2 c where a, b

and c are non-coplanar then α1 = α2 , β1 = β2 and γ1 = γ2 .

Solution: Since α1 a + β1 b + γ1 c = α2 a + β2 b + γ2 c ,
(α1 − α2 ) a + (β1 − β2 ) b + (γ1 − γ2 ) c = 0.
Since a and b are non co-planer vectors,
α1 − α2 = 0, β1 − β2 = 0, γ1 − γ2 = 0.
i.e. α1 = α2 , β1 = β2 and γ1 = γ2 .

Right handed screw

When a clockwise rotation is given to a screw if it moves the screw forward,
we call it the right handed screw. Otherwise it is called left handed screw.

Right handed Cartesian system

Consider a Cartesian system of axes Ox, Oy, Oz. If we place the right
handed screw along the Oz axis pointing in the direction of that axis and if
a rotating from Ox to Oy through a right angle moves the screw forward in
the direction of Oz axis, then we called the system of axes as right handed
system. Otherwise it is said to be a left handed system.
z
6

- y
¡O
¡
¡
ª
x
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Components of Vector

z
k↑ 6
¯ (F1 , F2 , F3 )
q
¢
F¢
¯¢̧¢
¢
¢
¢ - y
¡O −→ j
¡ ¯
¡
¡
¡
ª.i
¡
x ¯

Any vector F in three dimensions can be represented with initial point at

the origin O of a rectangular co-ordinate system.
Let (F1 , F2 , F3 ) be the rectangular coordinate of the terminal point of vector
F with initial point at O.
The vectors F1 i, F2 j and F3 k are called the rectangular component
vectors or simply component vectors of F in the x, y and z directions
respectively.
F1 , F2 and F3 are called the rectangular components or simply components
of F in the x, y and z directions respectively.

∴ F = F1 i + F2 j + F3 k.
p
The magnitude of F is |F | = F12 + F22 + F32 .
In particular, the position vector r from O to the point (x, y, z) is written
p
r = xi + yj + zk and |r| = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .

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Direction cosines of a line

Let L be any line in space. z

k↑ 6 1 L
³
¯ ³ ³³
³
³ ³³
³³

γ L0
³
1
³ ³³
³³ β - y
¡O −→ j
¡ α ¯
¡
¡
¡
ª.i
¡
x ¯
Consider a rectangular right handed co-ordinate system. Draw a line L0 par-
allel to L and passing through origin O. If angles between L0 and Ox, Oy, Oz
axes are α, β, γ respectively. Then cos α, cos β, cos γ are defined as the
direction cosines of the line L with respect to Ox, Oy and Oz axes respec-
tively.

Direction Ratio
If there are three numbers l, m and n such that l : m : n = cos α : cos β : cos γ,
then l, m, n are said to be direction ratios of L with respect to Ox, Oy and
Oz axes respectively.

Exercise (6): Prove that if cos α, cos β, cos γ are direction cosines of a line
with respect to the axes Ox, Oy and Oz then cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1.
Exercise (7): Determine a set of equations for the straight line passing
through the point P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ).

12
Solution:
P (x1 , y1 , z1 )
¡A
¡ A
¡ A
¡ A
r ¡ A
¯¡1¡
µ
» »A R(x, y, z)
¡ r» » »» A
¡ »»»¯ : A
» »
¡X
»
X A
XXX A
XXX
zXX A
XX
r2 XX A
¯ XXA
Q(x2 , y2 , z2 )

Let r1 and r2 be the position vectors of P and Q respectively and r be

the position vector of any point R on the line joining P and Q.
−→ −→
Then P R = r − r1 , P Q = r2 − r1 .
−→ −→
But P R = tP Q where t is a scalar.

⇒ r − r1 = t( r2 − r1 ). (1)

This is the required vector equation of the straight line.

We have r = xi + yj + zk.
From (1), we obtain
xi + yj + zk − (x1 i + y1 j + z1 k) = t{(x2 i + y2 j + z2 k) − (x1 i + y1 j + z1 k)}.

⇒ (x − x1 )i + (y − y1 )j + (z − z1 )k = t{(x2 − x1 )i + (y2 − y1 )j + (z2 − z1 )k}.

⇒ {(x−x1 )−t(x2 −x1 )}i+{(y−y1 )−t(y2 −y1 )}j+{(z−z1 )−t(z2 −z1 )}k = 0.
But i, j, k are non coplanar vectors.

13
 We have x − x1 = t(x2 − x1 ),
y − y1 = t(y2 − y1 ),
z − z1 = t(z2 − z1 ).


i.e. x = tx2 + (1 − t)x1 , 



y = ty2 + (1 − t)y1 , (2)



z = tz2 + (1 − t)z1 . 

where t is a parameter.
Then the equation (2) is called the parametric equation of the line.
Eliminating t, the equations (2) become

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1

Linear Combination of vectors

n
X
Consider the vectors a1 , a2 , · · · , an . Then the vector λi ai is called a
i=1
linear combination of the vectors ai ’s where λi ’s are scalars, i = 1, 2, · · · , n.

Linearly dependent and Linearly independent vectors

If the scalars λi (i = 1, 2, · · · , n) not all zero such that

λ1 a1 + λ2 a2 + · · · + λn an = 0, then the vectors a1 , a2 , · · · , an are called

linearly dependent vectors. Otherwise the vectors a1 , a2 , · · · , an are called
linearly independent vectors.

14
Example

1. Let a = 2i + j − 3k, b = i − 4k, c = 4i + 3j − k. Then show that

a, b, c are linearly dependent vectors.

2. Let a = i − 3j + 2k, b = 2i − 4j − k, c = 3i + 2j − k. Then show

that a, b, c are linearly independent vectors.

15