1)Pascal’s law:

2)Hydrostatic Law:
3)Total pressure:
The total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the entire
surface into a number of small parallel strips.
Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at depth of h from the free
surface of liquid as shown in Fig. 3.2.
4) Centre of Pressure:
5)Explain the phenomenon of capillarity. Obtain the expression for
capillary rise of a liquid in a circular glass tube of diameter 'd'.
● Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of the liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid
when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
● The rise of the liquid surface is known as capillarity rise while the fall
of liquid surface is known as capillarity depression or fall.
● It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid.
● Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of
the tube and surface tension of the liquid.
Expression for Capillarity Rise
Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d’ opened at the both ends and is
inserted in a liquid, say water. The liquid will rise in the tube above the level
of liquid.
Let h=height of liquid in the tube.
Under a state of equilibrium, weight
of liquid of height h is balanced by
the force at the surface of the liquid
in the tube. But the force at the
surface of the liquid in the tube is
due to the surface tension.
Let σ= Surface tension of liquid, Ө=
Angle of contact between liquid and
glass tube.
5)CONTINUE

6)Derive Bernoulli's equation with the help of Euler's equation.

Also discuss the assumptions made in Bernoulli's equation.
7)Steady and unsteady flow: Steady flow is defined as the flow in which
the fluid characteristics like velocity, pressure, density etc. at a point do not
change with time. Thus for a steady flow, we have

Unsteady flow is the flow in which the velocity, pressure, density at a point
changes with respect to time. Thus for unsteady flow, we have
8)Uniform and Non-uniform flows: Uniform flow is defined as the flow in
which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space.
( i.e. the length of direction of flow )

Non-uniform is the flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with
respect to space. For Non-uniform flow

9)Laminar and turbulent flow: Laminar flow is defined as the flow in

which the fluid particles move along well-defined paths or stream lines and
all the streamlines are straight and parallel. Thus the particles move in
laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer. This type of flow
is also called streamline flow or viscous flow. Turbulent flow is the flow in
which the fluid particles move in a zigzag way. Due to the movement of fluid
particles in a zigzag way, the eddies formation takes place, which is
responsible for high energy loss. For a pipe flow, the type of flow is
determined by a non-

V = Kinematic viscosity of fluid. If the Reynolds number is lessthan2000,

the flow is called Laminar flow. If the Reynolds number is more than 4000,
it is called Turbulent flow. If the Reynolds number is between 2000 and
4000 the flow may be Laminar or Turbulent flow.
10) Compressible and Incompressible flows: Compressible flow is the
flow in which the density of fluid changes from point to point or in other
words the density is not constant for the fluid.
For compressible flow ρ ≠ Constant.
In compressible flow is the flow in which the density is constant for the fluid
flow. Liquids are generally incompressible, while the gasses are
compressible. For incompressible flow ρ = Constant.
11)Explain major energy loss and minor energy losses in pipes.
When the fluid flows through a pipe, it encounters many
resistances due to which losses of head (energy) take place.
The various losses which are taken into account in pipe flow
are as follows:
(1) Loss of head
due to friction
(Major loss)
(2) Loss due to
pipe fittings like
bends, elbows,
valves etc.
(3) Loss due to
sudden enlargement
(4) Loss due to
Sudden contraction
(5) Loss due To
entry to a pipe
(6) Loss at exit of
the pipe

Long Pipe: If the length of the pipe is more than 500 times
the diameter of the pipe, it is called a long pipe. (L >500 D).
Major Loss: Loss of head due to friction is called "Major loss."
It has been observed that in case of long pipe, the loss of
head due to friction is so large or predominant as compared
to all other losses combined together that the results of the
problem are not affected even if all other losses except loss
friction is neglected. Therefore, the loss of head due
friction is called 'Major Loss'. All other losses are called
'Minor Losses'.
12)HYDRAULIC GRADIENT LINE:
Consider a long pipe line carrying liquid from a reservoir A to reservoir B. At
several points along the pipeline let piezo meters be installed. The liquid
will rise in the piezometers to certain heights corresponding to the pressure
intensity at each section. The height of the liquid surface above the axis of.
12) continue answer

the pipe in the piezometer at any section will be equal to the pressure head
(p/w) at that section.On account of loss of energy due to friction, the
pressure head will decrease gradually from section to section of pipe in the
direction of flow. If the pressure heads at the different sections of the pipe
are plotted to scale as vertical ordinates above the axis of the pipe and all
these points are joined by a straight line , a sloping line is obtained, which
is known as Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L ).

13)TOTAL ENERGY LINE:

Any fluid flowing through a piping system is subjected to a frictional
resistance depending upon the velocity of the fluid, wetted surface area
and on the roughness of the pipe surface. For Long pipes, frictional
resistance is so large that other resistances may be neglected. The
Energy loss per unit weight of the fluid is the energy or head loss in friction
and is expressed in meters of the fluid.
The energy diagram of a pipe system is a longitudinal display of summation
of the pressure head, kinetic head and datum heads at all the sections of
the pipe.
The energy line, therefore, represents the loss of energy along the flow due
to friction, minor losses, etc. It also includes any additional energy input by
hydraulic machines like pumps and turbines in the flow system.
14) Stream line body and bluff body
Streamlined Body:
A streamlined body is the one whose surface coincides with the
streamlines of the flow. In such a case, the separation of the boundary
layer takes place only at the trailing edge giving rise to a very small wake.
Since the wake is very small, pressure drag is very small. The drag is
mainly due to skin friction. Such bodies offer very low resistance to motion
and hence power required for their motion is low. e.g. Aerofoils, modern
cars Etc.
Bluff Body
It is a body whose shape does not match with the streamlines at
all. In this case, flow separates much easier, giving rise to large wake
zones and hence pressure drag is very predominant. Thus, the body for
which pressure drag is very large in comparison with the friction drag can
be called a Bluff Body.
15)Friction drag & Pressure drag:
Pressure Drag
The part of the total drag which is due to the pressure on the body is called
pressure drag' It is also called form drag' since It mainly depends upon the
shape or form of the body. Whenever flow takes place round a body, a
boundary layer is formed along the surface of the body. This boundary
layer, in general, separates from the boundary at some point. Due to the
separation of boundary layer, a low pressure zone called "wake" is formed
on the downstream side of the body. Thus, a pressure difference is created
between upstream and downstream of the body, resulting in the pressure
drag. The pressure drag depends on the size of the wake, which depends
on the position of separation. In case of a flat plate held normal to the
direction of flow the drag is mainly due to pressure drag.
Friction Drag
The part of the total drag which is due to the tangential shear stress, 'ta'
acting on the surface of the body is called skin friction drag. Shear stress t0
is caused due to velocity gradient in the boundary layer at the surface of
the body. It is also called "friction drag or shear drag or viscous drag."
16) Describe the following term with the help of a neat sketch.
Laminar boundary layer, turbulent boundary layer, laminar sublayer
and boundary layer thickness.

A laminar boundary layer is initiated at the leading edge of the plate for a
short distance and extends downstream. The transition occurs over a
region, after a certain length in the downstream followed by fully turbulent
boundary layers. For common calculation purposes, the transition is usually
considered to occur at a distance where the Reynolds number is about
500,000. With air at standard conditions, moving at a velocity of 30m/s, the
transition is expected to occur at a distance of about 250 mm. A typical
boundary layer flow is characterized by certain parameters as given below;
Boundary layer thickness: It is known that no-slip conditions have to be
satisfied at the solid surface: the fluid must attain the zero velocity at the
wall. Subsequently, above the wall, the effect of viscosity tends to reduce
and the fluid within this layer will try to approach the free stream velocity.
Thus, there is a velocity gradient that develops within the fluid layers inside
16)CONTINUE: the small regions near to the solid surface. The boundary
layer thickness is defined as the distance from the surface to a point where
the velocity reaches 99% of the free stream velocity. Thus, the velocity
profile merges smoothly and asymptotically into the free stream as shown
in Fig. 2.

17) What is drag and lift? Explain types of drags.

Drag: Drag is the force exerted on an object in the direction opposite to the
object's motion through a fluid (like air). It is caused by the interaction and
friction between the object and the fluid molecules. Drag opposes the
motion of the object and reduces its speed. The magnitude of drag
depends on factors such as the shape and size of the object, the speed of
the object, and the viscosity of the fluid.
Lift: It is the force acting on an immersed body normal to the direction of
relative motion between the body & the fluid.
Types of Drag:
1. Pressure Drag (Form Drag): This type of drag arises due to the
pressure difference between the front and rear surfaces of an object
moving through a fluid. It occurs because the fluid cannot change
direction instantly when it encounters the object, resulting in areas of
 high and low pressure around the object. Pressure drag is influenced
by the shape and frontal area of the object.

2. Skin Friction Drag: Skin friction drag is caused by the frictional

forces between the surface of the object and the fluid flowing over it.
It depends on the viscosity of the fluid and the roughness of the
object's surface. Smoother surfaces experience less skin friction drag
because the fluid molecules slide more easily over them.
3. Induced Drag: Induced drag is a type of drag that is generated as a
consequence of the production of lift on an object, such as an aircraft
wing. When an object generates lift, there is typically an associated
vortex that forms at the wingtips (or other lifting surfaces), which
results in induced drag. Induced drag increases with the lift coefficient
and decreases with the aspect ratio of the lifting surface.
4. Wave Drag: Wave drag occurs at transonic and supersonic speeds
when the object is moving at or near the speed of sound (Mach 1). It
is caused by the formation of shockwaves around the object, which
create high-pressure areas that contribute to drag. Wave drag can be
significant in aircraft design, especially at speeds approaching the
speed of sound.
5. Interference Drag: Interference drag arises when two or more
objects are in close proximity to each other, affecting the flow of air
around each object. This type of drag is often observed in vehicles
with multiple components, such as cars with roof racks or aircraft with
external stores (like weapons or fuel tanks).

18) What is the repeating variable? How are the repeating variables
selected for dimensional analysis?
In dimensional analysis, a repeating variable is a physical parameter or
variable that significantly influences the behavior of a system under study. It
is called a "repeating" variable because its presence or influence repeats
across different situations or experiments within the same class of
phenomena. These variables are crucial in determining the functional form
of relationships between various physical quantities.
Selection of Repeating Variables:
The process of selecting repeating variables for dimensional analysis
involves careful consideration of the following principles:
1. Identifying Significant Parameters: The first step is to identify the
parameters or variables that are likely to influence the phenomenon
being studied. These variables should be fundamental to the problem
 18)Continue: and have a direct impact on the system's behavior.
2. Non-Dimensionalization: The goal of dimensional analysis is often
to derive dimensionless numbers (non-dimensional parameters) that
characterize the system's behavior. Repeating variables are chosen
such that when combined appropriately, they form dimensionless
groups (non-dimensional parameters) that describe the system's
dynamics.
3. Grouping into Dimensionless Numbers: The repeating variables
should be selected in such a way that their combination in different
ratios or products can represent the dependencies observed in the
system. For example, in fluid dynamics, the velocity VVV, density
ρ\rhoρ, viscosity μ\muμ, and characteristic length LLL are commonly
chosen as repeating variables because they influence the flow
characteristics and can be used to form dimensionless groups such
as Reynolds number ReReRe or Mach number MaMaMa.
4. Physical Insight: The selection of repeating variables also depends
on the physical insights and understanding of the system. Variables
that are known to affect the outcome or behavior of the system under
different conditions are prioritized.

19) Define the following terms

i)Viscosity:Viscosity is the measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It
describes how easily one layer of fluid can slide past another layer. In other
words, it is a fluid’s internal friction. Viscosity is classified into different
types such as dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity.
(ii) Compressibility: Compressibility is the measure of how easily a fluid
can be compressed or expanded. It is defined as the ratio of the change in
volume to the change in pressure. Fluids that are more compressible are
easily compressed, while those that are less compressible are resistant to
compression.
(iii) Surface Tension: Surface tension is the cohesive force between the
molecules at the surface of a fluid. It causes the fluid to behave as if it has
an elastic surface, allowing it to form droplets, bubbles, and other shapes
against the force of gravity. Surface tension is responsible for various
phenomena such as the ability of insects to float on water and the
formation of droplets in a spider’s web.
20)Prove that the Center of Pressure of a completely submerged
plane the surface is always below the Center of Gravity of the
submerged surface when the plane surface is vertical.
To prove that the center of pressure of a completely submerged plane
surface is always below the center of gravity of the submerged surface
when the plane surface is vertical, we can use the principles of fluid statics.
Let’s consider a completely submerged vertical plane surface in a fluid. The
weight of the fluid displaced by the plane surface is equal to the weight of
the plane surface itself. The center of gravity of the plane surface is a point
where the weight of the plane surface can be considered to act vertically
downward.
The center of pressure is a point on the plane surface where the total force
exerted by the fluid on the surface acts vertically downward. Since the
plane surface is completely submerged, the force exerted by the fluid on
the surface is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the weight of
the plane surface.
Since the force exerted by the fluid acts vertically downward through the
center of pressure, and the weight of the plane surface also acts vertically
downward through the center of gravity, we can conclude that the center of
pressure is always below the center of gravity of the submerged surface
when the plane surface is vertical.
In summary, the center of pressure of a completely submerged plane
surface is always below the center of gravity of the submerged surface
when the plane surface is vertical, due to the principles of fluid statics.
21)What are the conditions of equilibrium of floating body and
submerged body?
The conditions of equilibrium for a floating body and a submerged body are
as follows:
(a) Floating Body:
A floating body is one that is in equilibrium when it is completely
submerged in a fluid. The conditions of equilibrium for a floating body are
as follows:
● The buoyant force acting on the body must be equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the weight of the body. This is known as the
principle of buoyancy.
● The body must be in a state of balance, meaning that the sum of all
the forces acting on it must be equal to zero.
● The body must be in a state of rotational balance, meaning that the
sum of all the moments acting on it must be equal to zero.
(b) Submerged Body:
21) CONTINUE : A submerged body is one that is partially or completely
submerged in a fluid. The conditions of equilibrium for a submerged body
are as follows:
● The buoyant force acting on the body must be equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the weight of the body. This is known as the
principle of buoyancy.
● The body must be in a state of balance, meaning that the sum of all
the forces acting on it must be equal to zero.
● The body must be in a state of rotational balance, meaning that the
sum of all the moments acting on it must be equal to zero.
In summary, the conditions of equilibrium for a floating body and a
submerged body are the same, as both bodies must be in a state of
balance and rotational balance in order to remain in equilibrium.
22)Derive an expression of three dimensional continuity equation in
rectangular coordinate system.
The three-dimensional continuity equation describes the conservation of
mass in a fluid flow. It states that the rate of change of mass per unit
volume of a fluid element is equal to the rate of change of mass per unit
volume due to the fluid’s velocity.
In a rectangular coordinate system, the three-dimensional continuity
equation can be derived as follows:
Let’s consider a fluid element with a volume of dV = dx * dy * dz, where dx,
dy, and dz represent infinitesimal changes in the x, y, and z coordinates,
respectively.
The rate of change of mass per unit volume of the fluid element can be
expressed as:
∂ρ/∂t, where ρ represents the density of the fluid.
The rate of change of mass per unit volume due to the fluid’s velocity can
be expressed as:
∂(ρu)/∂x + ∂(ρv)/∂y + ∂(ρw)/∂z, where u, v, and w represent the x, y, and z
components of the fluid velocity, respectively.
Since the mass of the fluid element is conserved, we can equate the two
expressions above:
∂ρ/∂t = ∂(ρu)/∂x + ∂(ρv)/∂y + ∂(ρw)/∂z
Simplifying the above equation, we get:
∂ρ/∂t + ∂(ρu)/∂x + ∂()/∂y + ∂(ρw)/∂z = 0
This is the three-dimensional continuity equation in a rectangular
coordinate system.
23)Derive an expression for shear stress distribution and velocity
distribution for Laminar flow through a circular pipe.
To derive the expression for the shear stress distribution and velocity
distribution for laminar flow through a circular pipe, we can use the
equations of motion for a viscous fluid.
The equations of motion for a viscous fluid in a circular pipe are as follows:
● The equation of motion in the radial direction:
∂u/∂t + u * ∂u/∂r + v * ∂u/∂z - ν * (∂²u/∂r² + ∂²u/∂z²) = 0
● The equation of motion in the tangential direction:
∂v/∂t + u * ∂v/∂r + v * ∂v/∂z - ν * (∂²v/∂r² + ∂²v/∂z²) = -∂p/∂z
● The equation of motion in the axial direction:
∂w/∂t + u * ∂w/∂r + v * ∂w/∂z - ν * (∂²w/∂r² + ∂²w/∂z²) = -∂p/∂r
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u, v, and w will only
depend on the radial distance r and the axial distance z. Therefore, we can
simplify the equations of motion as follows:
● The equation of motion in the radial direction:
∂u/∂t + u * ∂u/∂r + v * ∂u/∂z - ν * (∂²u/∂r² + ∂²u/∂z²) = 0
● The equation of motion in the tangential direction:
∂v/∂t + u * ∂v/∂r + v * ∂v/∂z - ν * (∂²v/∂r² + ∂²v/∂z²) = -∂p/∂z
● The equation of motion in the axial direction:
∂w/∂t + u * ∂w/∂r + v * ∂w/∂z - ν * (∂²w/∂r² + ∂²w/∂z²) = -∂p/∂r
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u, v, and w will only
depend on the radial distance r and the axial distance z. Therefore, we can
simplify the equations of motion as follows:
● The equation of motion in the radial direction:
∂u/∂t + u * ∂u/∂r + v * ∂u/∂z - ν * (∂²u/∂r² + ∂²u/∂z²) = 0
● The equation of motion in the tangential direction:
∂v/∂t + u * ∂v/∂r + v * ∂v/∂z - ν * (∂²v/∂r² + ∂²v/∂z²) = -∂p/∂z
● The equation of motion in the axial direction:
∂w/∂t + u * ∂w/∂r + v * ∂w/∂z - ν * (∂²w/∂r² + ∂²w/∂z² -∂p/∂r
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u, v, and w will only
depend on the radial distance r and the axial distance z. Therefore, we can
simplify the equations of motion as follows:
● The equation of motion in the radial direction:
∂u/∂t + u * ∂u/∂r + v * ∂u/∂z - ν * (∂²u/∂r² + ∂²u/∂z²) = 0
● The equation of motion in the tangential direction:
∂v/∂t + u * ∂v/∂r + v * ∂v/∂z - ν * (∂²v/∂r² + ∂²v/∂z²) = -∂p/∂z
● The equation of motion in the axial direction:
∂w/∂t + u * ∂w/∂r + v * ∂w/∂z - ν * (∂²w/∂r² + ∂²w/∂z²) = -∂p/∂r
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u, v,
24)Define Displacement thickness. Derive an expression for
displacement thickness.
The displacement thickness is a measure of the effective width of a
boundary layer in a pipe or channel flow. It represents the distance from the
wall of the pipe or channel to the point where the velocity of the flow is
equal to the velocity of the flow at the wall.
The displacement thickness is defined as the distance from the wall of the
pipe or channel to the point where the velocity of the flow is equal to the
velocity of the flow at the wall. It is denoted as δ and is measured in the
direction perpendicular to the wall.
To derive an expression for the displacement thickness, we can consider a
boundary layer in a pipe or channel flow. The boundary layer is the region
near the wall of the pipe or channel where the flow is affected by the
presence of the wall.
In the boundary layer, the velocity of the flow decreases from its maximum
value at the wall to its minimum value at the edge of the boundary layer.
The displacement thickness is the distance from the wall to the point where
the velocity of the flow is equal to the velocity of the flow at the wall.
To derive an expression for the displacement thickness, we can consider
the continuity equation for a two-dimensional boundary layer flow:
∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y = 0
Since the flow is two-dimensional, we can assume that the velocity
components u and v only depend on the distance from the wall (y) and the
distance along the wall (x). Therefore, we can simplify the continuity
equation as follows:
∂u/∂x + ∂v/∂y = 0
Integrating the above equation with respect to x, we get:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
where C is a constant of integration.
Since the velocity components u and v only depend on the distance from
the wall (y), we can express the above equation as:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u and v will only depend
on the distance from the wall (y). Therefore, we can simplify the above
equation as follows:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Integrating the above equation with respect to x, we get:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
24)CONTINUE: Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u and v
will only depend on the distance from the wall (y). Therefore, we can
simplify the above equation as follows:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Integrating the above equation with respect to x, we get:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u and v will only depend
on the distance from the wall (y). Therefore, we can simplify the above
equation as follows:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Integrating the above equation with respect to x, we get:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u and v will only depend
on the distance from the wall (y). Therefore, we can simplify the above
equation as follows:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Integrating the above equation with respect to x, we get:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u and v will only depend
on the distance from the wall (y). Therefore, we can simplify the above
equation as follows:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Integrating the above equation with respect to x, we get:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
Since the flow is laminar, the velocity components u and v will only depend
on the distance from the wall (y). Therefore, we can simplify the above
equation as follows:
∫(∂u/∂x) dx + ∫(∂v/∂y) dy = C
25)What do you understand by: Total drag on the body,Resultant force
on a body, coefficient of drag and coefficient of lift.
The total drag on a body refers to the sum of the forces acting on the body
in the direction of the flow. It represents the resistance experienced by the
body as it moves through a fluid, such as air or water.
The resultant force on a body refers to the net force acting on the body in
any given direction. It is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body,
including the forces due to the fluid, the body’s shape, and any other
external forces.
The coefficient of drag is a dimensionless quantity that represents the ratio
of the drag force experienced by a body to the force that would be
experienced by a body of the same shape and size in the absence of any
25)CONTINUE: fluid resistance. It is a measure of the body’s shape and
size, and it depends on the body’s shape, size, and the fluid in which it is
moving.
The coefficient of lift is a dimensionless quantity that represents the ratio of
the lift force experienced by a body to the force that would be experienced
by a body of the same shape and size in the absence of any fluid
resistance. It is a measure of the body’s shape and size, and it depends on
the body’s shape, size, and the fluid in which it is moving.
In summary, the total drag on a body refers to the sum of the forces acting
on the body in the direction of the flow, the resultant force on a body refers
to the net force acting on the body in any given direction, the coefficient of
drag represents the ratio of the drag force experienced by a body to the
force that would be experienced by a body of the same shape and size in
the absence of any fluid resistance, and the coefficient of lift represents the
ratio of the lift force experienced by a body to the force that would be
experienced by a body of the same shape and size in the absence of any
fluid resistance.
26)Explain with the neat sketch U-tube differential Manometer.
The U-tube differential manometer is a device used to measure the
pressure difference between two points in a fluid flow. It consists of a
U-shaped tube with two open ends, and it is typically used in fluid
mechanics and hydraulic systems.
The U-tube differential manometer works by connecting one end of the tube
to a reference pressure source, such as a barometer or a vacuum pump,
and the other end to the point where the pressure difference is to be
measured. The tube is then filled with a fluid, such as mercury or water,
which rises or falls in the tube depending on the pressure difference
between the two points.
When there is a pressure difference between the two points, the fluid in the
U-tube will move up or down in the tube, depending on the direction of the
pressure difference. The height of the fluid column in the tube will change,
and this change in height can be measured to determine the pressure
difference.
The U-tube differential manometer is a simple and accurate device for
measuring pressure differences in fluid flows. It is commonly used in
hydraulic systems, such as hydraulic circuits and pipelines, to monitor and
control the pressure of the fluid.
Here is a sketch of the U-tube differential manometer:
27)Explain with the neat sketch the condition for equilibrium for
floating bodies.
The condition for equilibrium for floating bodies is that the buoyant force
acting on the body must be equal to the weight of the body. When a body is
in equilibrium, it means that it is not accelerating or decelerating, and it is
either at rest or moving at a constant velocity.
The buoyant force is the upward force exerted by the fluid on the body. It is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body. When a body is
floating, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the body, and the body
remains in equilibrium.
Here is a sketch of the condition for equilibrium for floating bodies:
28)Derive the general equation for continuity for a three dimensional
flow in Cartesian Coordinates for a steady incompressible flow.
The continuity equation for a three-dimensional flow in Cartesian
coordinates for a steady incompressible flow can be derived using the
concept of mass conservation.
For a steady incompressible flow, the mass of the fluid entering a control
volume must be equal to the mass of the fluid leaving the control volume.
This is because the fluid is neither created nor destroyed, only conserved.
The mass flow rate through a control surface is given by the product of the
fluid density, the cross-sectional area of the control surface, and the
velocity component perpendicular to the control surface.
Let’s consider a control volume with a control surface that is a rectangular
prism with sides parallel to the x, y, and z axes. The control surface has an
area of A in the x-direction, an area of B in the y-direction, and an area of C
in the z-direction.
The mass flow rate through the control surface in the x-direction is given
by:
Q_x = ρ * A * V_x
where ρ is the fluid density, A is the area of the control surface in the
x-direction, and V_x is the velocity component in the x-direction.
Similarly, the mass flow rate through the control surface in the y-direction is
given by:
Q_y = ρ * B * V_y
where V_y is the velocity component in the y-direction.
The mass flow rate through the control surface in the z-direction is given
by:
Q_z = ρ * C * V_z
where V_z is the velocity component in the z-direction.
Since the fluid is incompressible, the mass of the fluid entering the control
volume must be equal to the mass of the fluid leaving the control volume.
Therefore, we can equate the mass flow rates in the x-direction, y-direction,
and z-direction:
Q_x = Q_y = Q_z
Substituting the expressions for the mass flow rates, we get:
ρ * A * V_x = ρ * B * V_y = ρ * C * V_z
Since ρ is the same for all three equations, we can cancel it out:
A * V_x = B * V_y = C * V_z
This equation states that the product of the area of the control surface and
the velocity component perpendicular to the control surface is constant for
a steady incompressible flow.
In Cartesian coordinates, the velocity components are V_x, V_y, and V_z.
Therefore, the general equation for continuity for a three-dimensional flow
in Cartesian coordinates for a steady incompressible flow is:
∂(ρ * V_x) / ∂x + ∂(ρ * V_y) / ∂y + ∂(ρ * V_z) / ∂z = 0
This equation is known as the continuity equation, and it is a fundamental
equation in fluid mechanics that describes the conservation of mass in a
fluid flow.
29)Derive the expression for discharge over a triangular notch.
To derive the expression for discharge over a triangular notch, we need to
consider the geometry of the notch and the relationship between the flow
rate, the velocity of the fluid, and the cross-sectional area of the notch.
A triangular notch is a type of flow meter that is commonly used to measure
the discharge of a fluid. It consists of a triangular-shaped notch with a
sharp edge on one side. The notch is typically made of a thin metal plate
that is carefully shaped to produce a specific flow rate when the fluid
passes through it.
When a fluid flows through the triangular notch, it experiences a change in
pressure due to the shape of the notch. The pressure change causes the
fluid to accelerate, which in turn increases the velocity of the fluid. The
increased velocity of the fluid results in an increased flow rate.
The relationship between the flow rate, the velocity of the fluid, and the
cross-sectional area of the notch can be expressed using the equation:
Q=A*V
where Q is the flow rate, A is the cross-sectional area of the notch, and V is
the velocity of the fluid.
Since the notch is triangular-shaped, the cross-sectional area of the notch
will vary depending on the depth of the fluid. The area of a triangle is given
by the formula:
A = (b * h) / 2
where b is the base of the triangle and h is the height of the triangle.
Substituting this expression for A into the equation for discharge, we get:
Q = (b * h) / 2 * V
This equation shows that the flow rate is directly proportional to the product
of the base and height of the triangle, as well as the velocity of the fluid.
Therefore, the expression for discharge over a triangular notch is:
Q = (b * h) / 2 * V
30)Describe a Venturimeter
A Venturimeter is a device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid by
measuring the pressure difference between two points in a fluid flow. It
consists of a converging section, a throat, and a diverging section.
The converging section is a constricted section of the pipe or duct that
causes the fluid to accelerate, resulting in an increase in the velocity of the
fluid. The throat is a narrow section of the pipe or duct that further
accelerates the fluid, resulting in an even higher velocity. The diverging
section is a widened section of the pipe or duct that slows down the fluid,
resulting in a decrease in the velocity of the fluid.
The pressure difference between the converging section and the diverging
section is directly proportional to the square root of the velocity of the fluid.
This relationship can be expressed using the equation:
ΔP = C * V
where ΔP is the pressure difference, C is a constant known as the
coefficient of the Venturimeter, and V is the velocity of the fluid.
By measuring the pressure difference between the converging section and
the diverging section, the flow rate of the fluid can be calculated using the
equation:
Q = (ΔP * A) / (C * ρ)
where Q is the flow rate, A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe or duct, ρ
is the density of the fluid, and C is the coefficient of the Venturimeter.
The Venturimeter is commonly used in hydraulic systems, such as
hydraulic circuits and pipelines, to measure the flow rate of the fluid. It is a
simple and accurate device that can be used to monitor and control the
flow rate of the fluid.
31)What is a minor energy loss in the pipe? Explain various types of
minor losses in pipe flow.
Minor energy loss in the pipe refers to the energy loss that occurs due to
friction or other factors as the fluid flows through the pipe. This energy loss
can be caused by various factors, such as the shape of the pipe, the
roughness of the pipe, or the viscosity of the fluid.
There are several types of minor losses in pipe flow, including:
● Friction loss: This is the energy loss that occurs due to friction
between the fluid and the walls of the pipe. It is caused by the fluid
rubbing against the pipe, which can result in a decrease in the flow
rate.
● Eddy loss: This is the energy loss that occurs due to the formation of
eddies or swirling patterns in the fluid flow. Eddies can cause a
temporary increase in the flow rate, but they also result in a loss of
energy as the fluid flows around them.
● Pressure loss: This is the energy loss that occurs due to the pressure
difference between the fluid entering the pipe and the fluid leaving the
pipe. It can be caused by the shape of the pipe, the roughness of the
pipe, or the the fluid.
● Minor losses due to bends or turns in the pipe: When a fluid flows
through a pipe with bends or turns, it can experience energy loss due
to the fluid rubbing against the pipe. This can result in a decrease in
the flow rate.
● Minor losses due to fittings or connectors in the pipe: Fittings or
connectors in the pipe can cause energy loss as the fluid flows
through them. This can result in a decrease in the flow rate.
In summary, minor energy loss in the pipe can occur due to various factors,
such as friction, eddies, pressure difference, bends, or fittings. These
losses can result in a decrease in the flow rate of the fluid.
32)State Buckingham’s π -Theorem and explain the procedure for
determining the π-groups and their functional relationship.
Buckingham’s π-Theorem is a fundamental theorem in fluid mechanics that
relates the functional relationship between the various variables in a fluid
flow problem. It states that the functional relationship between the variables
in a fluid flow problem can be expressed in terms of a set of dimensionless
groups, known as the π-groups.
32)The procedure for determining the π-groups and their functional
relationship involves the following steps:
● Identify the variables in the fluid flow problem: The first step is to
identify all the variables involved in the fluid flow problem. These
variables can include the fluid properties (such as density, viscosity,
and velocity), the pipe or duct properties (such as diameter, length,
and shape), and any other relevant variables.
● Determine the dimensions of the variables: The next step is to
determine the dimensions of each variable. The dimensions can be
length, mass, time, or a combination of these dimensions.
● Identify the repeating variables: The repeating variables are the
variables that appear in the functional relationship between the
π-groups. These variables can be identified by examining the
dimensions of the variables and identifying any variables that appear
more than once in the functional relationship.
● Determine the π-groups: The π-groups are the dimensionless groups
that can be formed by combining the repeating variables. These
groups can be determined by dividing the variables with the same
dimensions together.
● Express the functional relationship in terms of the π-groups: Once the
π-groups have been determined, the functional relationship between
the variables can be expressed in terms of the π-groups. This can be
done by substituting the π-groups into the functional relationship and
simplifying the equation.
● Compare the functional relationship with the original problem: Finally,
the functional relationship expressed in terms of the π-groups can be
compared with the original problem to determine if it accurately
describes the relationship between the variables.
33) What are the different methods of preventing the separation of
boundary layers? Explain with the neat sketches.
The separation of boundary layers can occur when the flow of a fluid over a
surface becomes turbulent or unstable. This can lead to a loss of control
over the flow and can result in increased drag or reduced lift. There are
several methods that can be used to prevent the separation of boundary
layers, including:
● Surface roughness: Adding surface roughness to the surface of a
body can help prevent the separation of boundary layers. The
roughness can be in the form of small bumps, ridges, or grooves, and
it can help to increase the friction between the fluid and the surface.
 This can help to prevent the boundary layer from separating from the
surface.
● Turbulence generators: Turbulence generators can be used to
introduce turbulence into the boundary layer, which can help to
prevent its separation. These generators can take the form of small
obstacles or protrusions on the surface, or they can be in the form of
small holes or slots that allow air or other fluids to flow through the
boundary layer.
● Active control systems: Active control systems can be used to
manipulate the flow of a fluid over a surface in real-time. These
systems can use sensors and actuators to monitor and control the
flow, and they can help to prevent the separation of boundary layers.
● Winglets: Winglets are small, wing-shaped protrusions that can be
added to the trailing edge of an aircraft wing. They can help to
prevent the separation of boundary layers by increasing the lift and
reducing the drag.
● Swept wings: Swept wings are wings that are angled or curved,
rather than being flat. This can help to prevent the separation of
boundary layers by reducing the flow separation and increasing the
lift.
34)Derive the differential form of the continuity equation in the
Cartesian coordinate system.
The continuity equation is a fundamental equation in fluid mechanics that
describes the conservation of mass in a fluid flow. It states that the rate of
change of mass per unit volume of a fluid element is equal to the rate of
change of mass per unit volume of the fluid element due to the fluid flow.
The differential form of the continuity equation in the Cartesian coordinate
system can be derived as follows:
Let’s consider a small fluid element in the Cartesian coordinate system.
The mass of the fluid element can be expressed as:
m=ρ*V
where m is the mass, ρ is the density of the fluid, and V is the volume of the
fluid element.
The rate of change of mass per unit volume of the fluid element can be
expressed as:
∂m/∂t = ∂(ρ * V)/∂t
where t is time.
The rate of change of mass per unit volume of the fluid element due to the
fluid flow can be expressed as:
∂m/∂t = ∂(ρ * V)/∂t = ρ * ∂V/∂t + V * ∂ρ/∂t
The continuity equation can be expressed as:
∂m/∂t + ∇ * (ρ * V) = 0
where ∇ * is the divergence operator.
In the Cartesian coordinate system, the divergence operator can be
expressed as:
∇ * (ρ * V) = ∂(ρ * Vx)/∂x + ∂(ρ * Vy)/∂y + ∂(ρ * Vz)/∂z
Substituting this expression into the continuity equation, we get:
∂m/∂t + ∂(ρ * Vx)/∂x + ∂(ρ * Vy)/∂y + ∂(ρ * Vz)/∂z = 0
Simplifying this equation, we get:
∂(ρ * V)/∂t + ∂(ρ * Vx)/∂x + ∂(ρ * Vy)/∂y + ∂(ρ * Vz)/∂z = 0
This is the differential form of the continuity equation in the Cartesian
coordinate system.
35)Derive an expression for the velocity distribution for viscous flow
through a circular pipe.
The velocity distribution for viscous flow through a circular pipe can be
derived using the Navier-Stokes equations and the boundary conditions for
a fully developed flow.
The Navier-Stokes equations for viscous flow through a circular pipe can
be expressed as:
∂u/∂t + u * ∂u/∂x + v * ∂u/∂y + w * ∂u/∂z = ν * (∂²u/∂x² + ∂²u/∂y² + ∂²u/∂z²) +
f_x
∂v/∂t + u * ∂v/∂x + v * ∂v/∂y + w * ∂v/∂z = ν * (∂²v/∂x² + ∂²v/∂y² + ∂²v/∂z²) +
f_y
∂w/∂t + u * ∂w/∂x + v * ∂w/∂y + w * ∂w/∂z = ν * (∂²w/∂x² + ∂²w/∂y² + ∂²w/∂z²)
+ f_z
where u, v, and w are the components of the fluid velocity vector, ν is the
kinematic viscosity of the fluid, and fx, fy, and fz are the components of the
body force per unit mass.
The boundary conditions for a fully developed flow in a circular pipe can be
expressed as:
u = 0 at the pipe wall (r = R)
v = 0 at the pipe wall (r = R)
w = 0 at the pipe wall (r = R)
∂u/∂r = 0 at the pipe center (r = 0)
∂v/∂r = 0 at the pipe center (r = 0)
∂w/∂r = 0 at the pipe center (r = 0)
Assuming a steady, fully developed flow, the Navier-Stokes equations can
be simplified to:
∂u/∂t = 0
∂v/∂t = 0
∂w/∂t = 0
The boundary conditions can also be simplified to:
u = 0 at the pipe wall (r = R)
v = 0 at the pipe wall (r = R)
w = 0 at the pipe wall (r = R)
∂u/∂r = 0 at the pipe center (r = 0)
∂v/∂r = 0 at the pipe center (r = 0)
∂w/∂r = 0 at the pipe center (r = 0)
Solving these equations and boundary conditions, we get the velocity
distribution for viscous flow through a circular pipe:
u = -1/4 * ν * (R² - r²) * (1 - (r/R)²)
v = 1/4 * ν * (R² - r²) * (1 - (r/R)²)
w=0
where r is the radial distance from the pipe center and R is the pipe radius.