CHEMI

STRY
FORM ONENOTES

UNIT1:I NTRODUCTI ONTOCHEMI STRY.

UnitCheckl i
st .
Meani ngofchemi stry
 Mat t
er
 St atesofmat ter
 Pr oper tiesoft hedi fferentstat esofmat t
er.
 Conduct or sandnon- conduct or s
Roleofchemi stryi nsoci ety.
Laboratoryr ules.
 Necessi tyforl abor atoryrules.
 Thel abor atoryr ulesandr egulations.
 Labor ator ysaf etysymbol s.
Commonappar atususedi nachemi strylabor
ator
y.
TheBunsenbur ner .
 St ructur e
 Funct ionsoft hevar iouspar ts.
 TypesofBunsenbur nerflames.
Methodsofgascol lect i
on.
 Upwar ddel iver y
 Downwar ddel ivery
 Overwat er
 Usi ngacol lect ingsyr i
nge.
Dryingofgases
 Usi ngconcent ratedsul phur i
caci d.
 Usi nganhydr ouscal ci
um chl or i
de
 Usi ngcal cium oxi de.
Drugsanddr ugabuse.
Meani ngofchemi stry.
-I
tisabr anchofsci encewhi chdeal swi t
ht hecomposi
ti
onandpr
oper
ti
esofmat
ter
.

Matt
er
-Matt
eri
sanyt
hingt
hathasmassandoccupi
esspace.

St
atesofmatter
.
-Matt
erexi
stsinthr
eedi
ff
erentst
ates:sol
i
ds,
li
qui
dsandgases.
Pr
oper
ti
esoft
hedi
ff
erentst
atesofmat
ter
.

Sol
id Liquids Gases
Mass Def
ini
te Definite Definite
Shape Def
ini
te Indefini
te:t
heytaket
he Indefini
te:theytakethe
volumeoft hecontai
neri
n shapeoft hecontaineri
n
whicht heyarei
n. whicht heyar e.
Vol
ume Def
ini
te Definite Indefini
te:volumemay
i
ncr easewi thincr
easein
temper ature;anddecrease
withdecr easeinpressure

Note:Conductor
sandnon- conductor
s:
-Theflowofelectr
iccurr
entthroughmateri
alsi
scalledelect
ri
calconductivi
ty.
-Soli
dsubstanceswhichallowelectr
iccur
rentt
of l
owt hr
ought hem arecall
edconductors.
-Soli
dsubstancesthatdonotal l
owelect
ri
ccurrenttofl
owt hr
ought hem arecall
ednon-conduct
ors.

Roleofchemi st
ryi
nasoci ety.
-Chemistr
yhasenabl edextracti
onofchemi calsf
rom plant
s.
-I
tisusedi nthemanuf act
ureofsubst ancessuchassoap, gl
ass,pl
asti
cs,medi
cine,
rubber
,text
il
eset
c
fr
om naturall
yoccurr
ingsubst ances.
-Puri
fi
cati
onofsubst ancesfrom naturalrawmateri
als.
-I
tformsabasi sforentryi
ntocar eer
se. g.t
eachi
ng,medici
ne,chemicalengi
neer
ingetc.

Laborat
oryrul
esandsaf et
ysymbol s.
Necessi
tyoflaboratorysafet
yr ules.
1.Toavoidaccidentsandinjuriesduringpr
acti
calexperi
mentsi
nthelabor
ator
y.
2.Toavoiddamaget oandbr eakageofapparat
usandl abor
ator
yfi
tt
ings.
3.Toavoidwast ageoflaboratorychemical
s.

Thelaborator ysaf etyr ul

esandr egul at ions.
-Neverrunwhi l
ei nt hel abor atory;
Reason:Youmayi njur eot hersoryour sel fint helaboratory.
-Nevertast eoreatsomet hingi nt hel abor atory;
Reason:toavoi dpoi soni ng.
-Alwaysconsul tyourt eacherbef oret ryingoutanyexper iment ;soast oavoi daccidents.
-Labelallchemi cal sinusesoast oavoi dconf usi
on.
-Alwaysuseacl eanspat ulaforscoopi ngasubst ancef rom acont ainertomi nimizecont aminati
on.
-Alwayshol dt est -tubesandboi l
ingt ubesusi ngtesttubehol derwhenheat ing;t
oavoi dbeingbur ned.
-Whenheat ingasubst anceneverl ett heopenendoft hetubef aceyour selforanybodyel se,because
theli
quidmayspur toutandcausei njur y.
-Neverlookdi rectlyi ntof lasksandt estt ubeswher ereactionsar etakingplace,becauset hechemi cal
s
mayspur tint oyoureyesandcausei njur y.
-Neversmel lgasesdi rectly.Instead, waf tt hegaseousf umesnearyournosewi thyourhand.
-Experi
ment sinwhi chpoi sonousgasesandvapour sarepr oducedmustbecar ri
edouti naf ume
cupboardoranopenspaceout door s.
-Alwayskeepf lammabl esubst ancesawayf rom f l
amesbecauset heyeasilycatchf i
re.
-Alwaysr epor tanyacci dent stot het eacherort helaboratorytechnicianimmedi atelyfornecessar y
acti
on.
-Incaseofanacci dentdonotscr ambl ef ort hesameexi t,becausei tmayhi ndereasyescape.
-Alwaysputof ff lamest hatar enoti nusei nor dertoavoi daccidentsandmi nimizefuelwast age.
-Ifachemi calget sonyourski normout hr i
nsei timmedi atelywi t
hal otofwat er.
-Alwaysdi sposeof ft hechemi cal sal readyusedsaf el
ytoavoi dexpl osionsandcont ami nati
ons.
-Alwaysworkonacleanbench.Aftercompleti
ngyourexper
iment
,cl
eanal
lthepi
ecesofappar
atusyou
haveusedandret
urnthem tot
heircorrectstor
agepl
aces.
-Alwaysr
eadthelabeloft
hereagentsbef or
eusingt
hem.

Safet
ysymbols.
-Thesearesi
gnsfoundont
hel abelsofbot tl
esorcartonscontai
ningdanger
ouschemi
cal
s.
-Thecommonsaf et
ysymbol
sar easf ollows:
Symbols Meani ng.
Toxic:areverypoi sonousandcan
easil
yki l
lifswallowed,i
nhaledoron
contactwi ththeskin.
Exampl es:Chlorineandmer cur
y;

Har mf ul:Lesshar mful( dangerous)

thant het oxicsubst ances;ar eonl y
li
kelyt ocausepai nanddi scomf ort.
Exampl es:copper( I
I)sul phate,lead
(II
)oxi de
Highl yflammabl e:ar esubst ances
thatcat chf ir
eeasi lyandmustnotbe
handl ednearopenf ire.
Exampl es:ethanol ,hydr ogen
Oxidizing:r apidlyprovi deoxygenand
cancausef ir
et obur nmor ef i
ercely.
Exampl es:pot assium manganat e
(VII
), hydrogenper oxi de
Corrosi ve:aresubst ancest hatcause
burnst oskinandf abr ic;andcanal so
reactwi t
hot hersubst ancessuchas
met als
Exampl es:nitric(V)aci d,conc.
sulphur icacid, bromi ne.
Irr
it
ant :cancausebl istersor
reddeni ngoft heski n;usual l
yirrit
ate
ther espiratoryt r
act, skin,eyeset c.
Exampl es:calcium chl ori
deandzi nc
sulphat e
CommonChemi
str
ylabor
ator
yappar atusandt heiruses.

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am. Use.
Testt
ubes -Gener
allabor
atoryexperi
ments;li
ke
heat
ingsoli
ds;quali
tat
iveanal
ysisetc

Boi
li
ngt
ubes -Mai
nlyusedforheat
ingsmal
l
amountsofsol
idsandli
qui
ds.
Testt
ubehol
der Usedf
orhol
dingt
esttubesandboi
li
ng
t
ubesdur
ingheat
ingexper
iment
s.

Measur
ingcyl
inder -Measuri
ngaccur
atevolumesof
l
iqui
dsinthel
aborat
ory

Beaker -Glassbeaker
sareusedforboi
li
ng
-Lippedglassor l
iquidsubst
ances;
plasti
cvesselsof -Holdi
ngsoluti
onsdur
ingchemist
ry
variouscapacit
ies. experi
ments.

Fi
lt
eri
ngf
unnel -Di
recti
ngli
quidsint
ocontai
nerswit
h
smallnar
rowmout hs;
-Hol
dingfil
terpaper
sduri
ngfil
tr
ati
on;

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
St
ir
ri
ngrod

Wat
chgl
ass

Ther
momet
er -Measuri
ngtemper
atur
esdur
ing
exper
iments.
Coni
calf
lask -Normall abor
ator
yexper
imentsli
ke
ti
trat
ion.
-Maybeusedf ormeasur
ingvolumesi
f
graduated.

Round-
bot
tomed -Usedwhenheati
ngli
quidsubstances
fl
ask becauseheati
ssuppl
ieduni
formly.

Fl
at-
bot
tomedf
lask -Usedforgener
all
abor
ator
y
exper
iments.

Evapor
ati
ngdi
sh -Usedwhenevapor
ati
ngl
iqui
ds.

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Cr
uci
ble -Usewhenheati
ngsoli
dsubst
ances
thatr
equi
rest
rongheat
ing.

Pest
leandmor
tar -Cr
ushingsubstanceswhi
let
hemor t
ar
hol
dsthesubstancesbei
ngcrushed.

Pi
eclay(cer
ami
c) -Suppor
ti
ngcr
uci
blesdur
ingheat
ing.
t
ri
angle
Tr
ipodst
and -Support
ingbeaker
sandflasksin
whichli
quidsar
ebeingheated.

Wi
regauze -Usedwhengl assapparatusarebeing
heated;t
ofacil
it
ateevendistr
ibut
ionof
heatwhenheat i
ngsubstancesin
beakersorfl
asks

Cl
amp -Support
ingandhol
dingpi
ecesof
apparat
usduri
ngexperi
ments.

Nameofapparat
us Di
agr
am Use
Def
lagr
ati
ngspoon -Hol
dingbur
ningsubst
ances.

Spat
ula -Scoopingsol
idsubst
ancesf
rom
contai
ners

Cr
uci
blet
ongs -Hol
dingsol
idchemi
cal
s.
Condenser

Separ
ati
ngf
unnel -Separ
ati
ngi
mmi
sci
blel
iqui
ds.

Thi
stl
efunnel -Del
iveri
ngli
qui
dsubstancesint
oot her
cont
ainersl
ikef
lasksdur
ingreact
ions.

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Washbot
tl
e -Hol
dingwat
erf
orr
insi
ngappar
atus

Dr
oppi
ngf
unnel

Testt
uber
ack -Hol
dingboi
li
ngt
ubesandt
estt
ubes.
Teatpi
pett
e -Sucki
ngli
qui
dchemicalsandpl
aci
ng
(dr
opper) them i
nanot
hercont
ainerdr
opwi
se.

Buret
te -Del
iver
ingaccur
atevol
umesofl
iqui
ds
-I
tconsistsofa
l
ongnar r
owt ube
wit
hat apandaj et
att
hebot t
om.

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Pi
pet
te -Deli
veri
ngaspeci
fi
edvol
umeofl
iqui
d
accurat
ely.

Gasj
ar -Gascol
lect
ion.

Tr
ough -Hol
dingsomeamountofwaterf
or
someexperi
ment
se.g.gaspr
eparat
ion.
Reagentbot
tl
es -St
ori
ngchemi
cal
sinl
iqui
dst
ate.

Desi
ccat
or -Dryi
ngsubst
ancesorkeeping
subst
ancesfr
eefrom moi
sture.

Nameofappar
atus Di
agr
am Use
Spi
ri
tlamp -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.
Note:l
esspr efer
redfor
heati
ngbecauset hei
rfl
ames
arenothotenough;andt hey
depositsootonappar at
us
makingt hem dir
tyhence
dif
fi
cultyinobserving
changesdur i
ngexper i
ments

Ker
osenest
ove -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.
Note:l
esspr efer
redfor
heati
ngbecauset hei
rfl
ames
arenothotenough;andt hey
depositsootonappar at
us
makingt hem dir
tyhence
dif
fi
cultyinobserving
changesdur i
ngexper i
ments

El
ect
ri
cheat
er -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.

Candl
es -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.
Note:l
essprefer
redfor
heati
ngbecausetheirf
lames
arenothotenough;andthey
deposi
tsootonapparat
us
makingthem di
rt
yhence
dif
fi
cult
yinobservi
ng
changesduri
ngexperi
ments

Bunsenbur
ner -Heat
ingsubst
ancesi
nthel
abor
ator
y.

Nameofapparat
us Di
agr
am Use
St
opwatch(cl
ock) -Measuri
ngtimepar
ti
cular
lyin
det
erminat
ionofr
eacti
onrates.

Beam bal
ance -Totakeaccur
atewei
ght
measurements

El
ect
roni
cbal
ance -Takeaccur
ateweightmeasur
ements;
andcantakeextr
emelylowweight
measurements.

Vol
umet
ri
cfl
ask
Note:mostchemi st
ryapparat
usaremadeofgl ass:
Advantagesofglassware:
-I
tdoesnotr eactwit
hmostchemi cal
s
-Glassistr
ansparentandhencereact
ionscaneasilybeobservedast
heypr
ogr
ess.
-Glassmaterial
sareeasytowashandr inseaf
terexper
iments.
-Theycanbeusedcomf ort
ablei
nheatingexperi
ments.

Disadvant
ages:
-Havehigherchancesofbreakagesincasetheyf
all
dur
ingexper
iment
s.
-Theyarecompar at
ivel
yexpensivet
oplasti
cs

-Somemat er
ial
slikebeaker
smayhoweverbemadeofpl
ast
ics.
Advant
agesofplasticappar
atus.
-Havelowerchancesofbreaki
ng.
-Theyarerel
ati
vel
ycheapertobuy.

Disadvant
ages:
-Plast
icst
endtor eactwithsomelaboratorychemicals
-maynotbet r
anspar entandhencereactionscannoteasil
ybeobser
vedast
heypr
ogr
ess.
-Glassmateri
alsarediffi
cul
ttowashandr i
nseafterexper
iment
s.
-Theycannotbeusedi nheat
ingexperi
ment s.

TheBunsenburner.
-i
sthemostcommonheat i
ngapparat
usinthel
abor
atory.
-Wasinvent
edbyaGer manscienti
stknownasWil
helm Bunsenhencet
hename.
-I
tusesnatur
al(cooki
ng)gasforheat
ing.

Part
sofabunsenbur
ner
-Chimney
-Theairhole
-Coll
ar
-Thejet
-Base
-Gasinlet
Di
agr
am:st
ruct
ureofabunsenbur
ner
. Di
agr
am:Bunsenbur
ner
-component
sdet
ached
Funct i
onsofthevar
iouspart
s:
 Thechi mney:
-Itisahollowmetal
li
ccyli
nderwit
hanai rholenearit
slowerend.
Funct i
on:
-allowsairandthel
aborat
orygasfrom t
hej etmixbefor
etheystar
tbur
ningatt
heupperendoft
he
chimney.
-Itsupperopenedendprovi
dedasitewher ethegasburns.

 Theairhol e:
-I
sasmal laperturefoundatthel
owerendoft hechi
mneyandsmall
erthant
hecol
lar
.
-I
tsdiameter(si
ze)isregul
atedbythecoll
ar.
Functi
on:
-All
owsair(oxygen)toenterandmixwiththelabor
ator
ygasi
nthechimney.

 Thecoll
ar:
-I
samet all
icr
ingwit
hanairhol
ewhosediameteri
st hesamesizeast
hatoft
heai
rhol
einthechi
mney.
-I
tfit
sintot
helowerpar
tofthechi
mney;andcanrotatearoundt
hechi
mneyopeni
ngorcl
osingt
heai
r
hol
e.
Functi
on:
-Regulat
estheamountofai
renter
ingt
hechimney.

 Thejet:
-Iti
saverytinyopeni
ngjustbel
owt heai
rhole,t
hatconnectst
hegasi nl
ett
othechi
mney.
Functi
on:
-all
owsthelaborat
orygas(methane)i
ntothechimneyathighpressur
e.

 Thegasinlet:
-I
tisahollowmetalconnectedtothebaseandextendi
ngint
ot hejet.
-I
tsexter
nalopeningisusuall
yconnectedtoarubbert
ubi
ngt hatisconnect
edtoagast
ap.
Functi
on:
-All
owslaborat
orygasfrom thecyl
inders(
reser
voir
s)i
nthelab;throughthegast
apsi
ntot
heBunsen
burner
.

 Thebase:
-Athi
ckheavymetal
,thati
susuall
ycir
cularoroval
.
Funct
ion:
-I
tsupport
stheBunsenburneronthebench.

TheBunsenburnerfl
ames.
-Afl
ameisamassofbur ni
nggases.
-Abunsenburnercanproducet
wot ypesoff
lamesdependi
ngont
hesi
zeoft
heai
rhol
eandhence
amountofai
renteri
ngthechimney.

Typesoff
lames.
 Luminousfl
ame.
 Non-l
uminousf
lame.

(a).Theluminousfl
ame.
-Itisalargebri
ghtyel
lowf
lamepr
oducedwhent
heai
rhol
eiscl
osedandhencenoai
rent
erst
he
chimney.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofal
umi
nousf
lame.
-I
tislar
ge,quietandbr i
ghtyell
ow.
-Col
ourisnotunif or
m anditahsfourzones.
-I
tproduceslessheat .
-I
tgivesalotoflighttotheglowofunburnthotcar
bonpar
ti
cles
-I
tproducessoot.

Di
agr
am:t
hel
umi
nousf
lame.

Partsofalumi nousfl
ame.
 Thet hinouterzone:
-Isafair
lyvisi
ble,nar
rowzoneontheout
ersur
faceofthefl
ame.
-Atthi
spointmet hane(labgas)mi
xeswi
thsuf
fi
cientai
rfr
om t
heout
sideandbur
nscompl
etel
yto
carbon(I
V)oxi deandwat er
.

 Thei nnerbrightyell
owzone:
-I
tisal argebr i
ghtyel l
owzonet hatl
iesbeneatht hethi
nout erzone.
-Here,airsupplyisi nsuff
icientr esul
ti
ngt oincompletecombust i
onoft hegas.
-Consequent lythegasbur nspr oducingtinycarbonpar ti
clesinsteadofcarbon(IV)oxi
de.
-Thewhi tehotcar bonpar ticlesglowbr i
ghtlyandar eresponsiblefortheyell
owcolourandtheemissi
on
ofli
ght.
-Oncool ingthecar bonpar ticlesform soot,
whi chblackensthebot tom oftheapparat
usbeingheat
ed.

 Thealmostcol
ourl
essinnerzone.
-I
sfoundbel
owtheyel
lowinnerzone;andconsi
stsmai
nlyofunbur
ntgases.

 Thebluezone(r
egion)
-I
sf oundontheout
ersideofthebaseofthefl
ame.
-Here,ai
rneart
hefl
amer i
sesrapidl
yduetoconvect
ioncur
rentsandmi
xeswi
tht
hebur
ninggas.
-Thismakesburni
ngmor ecompletethani
nthetwoupperpart
sabovei
t.

Advant
agesoftheluminousfl
ame:
-Canbeusedforli
ghti
ngpurposes;becausei
tpr
oducesmor
eli
ght
.

Disadvant
ages.
-Produceslessheathencei
nef
fici
enti
nheati
ng.
-Duet opr
oducti
onofsootitbl
ackensappar
atust
huspr
event
ingbet
terobser
vat
ionsofexper
iment
s.
(b).Thenon-l
uminousf
lame.
-Itisasmallbluef
lameproducedwhent
heai
rhol
eiscompl
etel
yopenandhenceal
otofai
rent
erst
he
chimney.

Charact
eri
sti
csofanon- luminousf l
ame.
-I
tissmall,
noisyandbl ue.
-Col
ourisuniform andi tahsthreeregions.
-I
tproducescompar at
ivelymore( alotof)heat.
-I
tdoesnotpr oducesoot ,duetocompl etecombusti
onhencenocar
bonpar
ti
clesr
emai
n.
-I
tproduceslesslightduet olackofwhi t
e-hotcar
bonpar
ti
cles.
Di
agr
am:t
hel
umi
nousf
lame.

Part
sofanon- luminousfl
ame.
 Theout erpalebl
ueregion.
-I
tisalargeli
ghtbluezone.
-Here,
thereisalotofaircomingupthechimneyfrom t
heairholeandf
rom t
heout
side.
-Theairgasmi xt
urethusburnscomplet
elytocar
bon( I
V)oxideandwater
.
-Nosootf or
mat i
onbecausetherear
enocar bonpart
icl
es.

 Themi ddlegr eenishblueregi

on.
-consi
stsofpar t
ial
lybur ntgas-ai
rmixt
ure,duet
oinsuf
fi
cientai
rsuppl
y.
-Howeverast hemi xturerisesupthepalebluer
egi
on,i
tundergoescompl
etecombust
ionduet
opl
ent
y
ofair(
from outsi
de)

 Thei nneralmostcolourl
essregi
on.
-I
slocat
edatt hebaseofthef l
ame.
-I
tconsi
stsofunburntgas-airmixt
ure.

Advant
agesofanon-luminousfl
ame.
-Gi
vesoutalotofheathenceveryeff
ici
enti
nhati
ng.
-I
tdoesnotf
orm soothencewilll
eaveappar
atuscl
eanevenaf
terexper
iment(
heat
ing)
.

Disadvant
ages:
-Itusesalotofl
abor
ator
ygasinburni
ng.
-cannotbeusedforl
ight
ingpur
posessincei
tpr
oducesver
yli
tt
lel
ight
.
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenal
umi
nousandanon-
lumi
nousf
lame.

Luminousflam Non-l
uminousf lame
Bri
ghtyell
owincolour Bl
uei ncolour
Producesalotofli
ght Producesal otofl
ight
.
Largeandunsteady Smallandst eady
Producessoot Doesnotpr oducesoot
Hasfourzones Hasthreezones
Burnsquiet
ly Burnsnoisil
y
Moderatel
yhot Veryhot

Exper
imentsonBunsenburnerfl
ames.
1.Toinvest
igat
etheheat
ingeff
ectsoftheluminousandnon-
lumi
nousfl
ames.
Apparat
us:
-Bunsenburners,
250mlbeakers,
li
ghter,
stopwatch,
tri
podst
and,wi
regauze.

Procedur
e
-100cm3ofwat erisputi
ntoachofthetwo250mlbeakers.
-Onebeakerisputoveraluminousfl
amewhiletheot
heri
ssimul
taneousl
yputoveral
umi
nousf
lame
-Timetakenforwatertoboi
lisnot
edforeachsetup.
-Thebottom ofachbeakeri
sobservedf
oranychanges.

Appar
atus

Observati
ons.
-Waterheatedovert
henon-l
umi nousfl
ameboiledi
onashortert
imet
hanthesameamountofwat
er
heat
edoveranon- l
uminousfl
ame.
-Thebot t
om oft
hebeakerheatedoverthenon-
luminousf
lameremai
nedcl
earbutt
heoneheat
edover
thel
umi nousfl
amewascover edwithbl
ackdeposit
sofsoot.

Explanati
ons.
-Thenon- luminousfl
amei shott
erthant heluminousflame;henceboi
lst
hewat erfaster
-Thehot testpartoft
heluminousflam istheouterbluezone.
-I
ncompl et ecombusti
oninthelumi nousflameleadstoproducti
onofcarbonparti
cles,whi
chwhenhot
gl
owyel lowandoncool i
ngformsbl acksootont hebeaker;
-I
ncompl et ecombusti
oninanon- l
umi nousflameleadstoproducti
onofcarbon(IV)oxideandst
eam
only,hencenosootf ormati
on.

Concl
usions.
-Thenon-l
uminousf
lamei
shot
tert
hanthel
uminousfl
ame.
-Thenon-l
uminousf
lamei
scl
eanert
hanthel
uminousfl
ame.

2.Toi
nvesti
gatet
hehot
testpar
tofanon-
lumi
nousf
lame.
Requi
rements
-Bunsenbur
ner
,st
if
fwhi
tepaper(
car
dboar
d),
woodenspl
int
.

Procedure
-Abunsenbur nerisi
gni t
edwi t
htheai rholeopentogetanon- l
uminousfl
ame.
-Apieceofwhi t
epaper( cardboard)i ssli
ppedintot
heflamei nregionmarkedXasshownbelow.
-Thepieceofpaperisr emovedqui cklybeforei
tcat
chesf i
re.
-Afreshpieceofpaperi sthensl i
ppedi nt
or egi
onmarkedYasshownbel ow;t
henagai
nquickly
removedbeforeitcatchesf i
re.
-Theexperimentforeachoft heregionsmar kedXandYi st henrepeat
edusingwoodenspl
ints.
-Thesplint
sshouldbehel dl ongenoughf orsomeoftheirpartstogetcharr
ed
Apparatus

Observat
ions.
 Usingpiecesofpaper
.
-Inregi
onX, t
hepartoft
hepapert
hatwasincont
actwi
tht
hefl
amewascharr
eduni
for
mlyasshown
below.
-Inregi
onY, t
hepartoft
hepaperi
ncontactwi
tht
hefl
amehadachar
redr
ingwit
hanunbur
ntparti
n
themiddleoftheri
ngasshownbelow
Di
agr
ams

 Usingwoodenspl
int
s.
-Inregi
onX,t
hepartoft
hespli
nti
ncont
actwi
tht
hef
lamewaschar
reduni
for
mlyasshownbel
ow.
-Inregi
onY,t
hepartoft
hespli
nti
ncont
actwi
tht
hef
lamehadanunbur
ntpar
tinbet
weentwochar
red
regi
onsasshownbelow.
Di
agr
ams:

Expl
anati
ons.
-Regi
onswhichbecomechar r
edindicatet
hattheyarethehott
estpartofthefl
ame.
-Regi
onXcor respondstotheouter
mostbl ueregi
onofanon-luminousflame.
-Regi
onYi sthealmostcolour
lessregionofthenon-
luminousfl
ame, whichishoweversur
roundedby
themiddl
egreenishblueandtheouterpalebluezones
-Thusi nregionX,t
heuni f
orm char
ri
ngofthepaperandspl
inti
ndicat
ethatt
heout erpal
ebluezoneis
thehott
estpatoftheflame.
-Simil
arl
yt hechar
redringforexper
imentinr
egionYshowthatthepart
sincontactwitht
heouterpal
e
bluezoneget sbur
ntfasterbef
orethepart
sincontactwi
tht
healmostcolour
lessorthegreeni
shblue
zones.

Conclusi
ons.
-Thehottestpartofthenon-luminousfl
ameist
heouter
mostpalebluezone.
-Duri
ngheat ingtheobjectbeingheat
edshoul
dnotbeplacednear
erthechimney;t
hesepart
sarel
ess
hot.
-Foreffi
cientheati
ngtheobjectbeingheat
edshoul
dbeplacedattheouter
mostregi
onofthefl
ame.

3.Toshowthepresenceofunbur
ntgasesi
naBunsenbur
nerf
lame.
Apparat
us:
-Bunsenbur
ner
,tongs,nar
rowhardglasst
ubi
ng.

Procedure
-Abunsenbur nerisli
tandadjust
edtogetanon-l
umi nousfl
ame.
-Anar r
owhardgl asstubi
ngisheldwit
hapairoftongsandoneofit
sendsi
spl
acedi
nthecol
our
less
zoneofthefl
ame.
-Amat chisl
itandplacedatthefreeendoft
heglasst ubi
ng.

Appar
atus

Obser
vat
ions.
-Afl
ameisobtai
nedatt
hef
reeendoft
hegl
asst
ubi
ng.

Expl
anations.
-Thetubingtr
appedunbur
ntgasesattheal
mostcolourl
esszoneoft
hefl
ame.
-Thetrappedgasescombi
nedwithatmospher
icai
r(oxygen)att
heot
her(
free)endoft
het
ubi
nghence
thef
lame.

Concl
usi
ons.
-Theal
mostcol
our
lessr
egi
oncont
ainsunbur
ntgases.

4.Toshowthehot
testpar
toft
hef
lame.
Apparat
us:
-Bunsenbur
ner
,matchsti
ck

Procedure
-Amat chsti
ckispl
acedatthetopofthebunsenburnerchi
mneyusi
ngapi
n.
-Abunsenbur neri
sli
tandadjustedt
ogetanon-luminousfl
ame.
-Themat chsti
ckisobser
vedfrosometimeforanychanges.
-I
fnoobservablechangesar
emade,
themat
chst
icki
sthensl
owl
yrai
sedt
owar
dst
hebl
uezoneand
obser
vedkeenly.

Appar
atus

Observati
ons.
-Themat chst
ickdi
dnotigni
tewhil
eitwasatt
hebottom oft
hefl
ame(
rest
ingont
opoft
hechi
mney)
.
-I
tignit
edasitwasbeingrai
sedtowardst
heouterpalebl
uezone.

Expl
anati
ons.
-Thebottom oft hefl
ame( j
ustont opofchimney)corr
espondst othealmostcolour
lesszone.
-Thi
szonecont ainsunburntgases,hencenoburningoccursandist husl
easthottocauseignit
ionof
thematchsti
ck.
-Asthemat chstickisrai
sedupwar dsitmovespastthegreeni
shbl uezone(wher et
hereispart
ial
combusti
on)t hent otheouterpal
ebl uezonewheretherei
scompl etecombustionandhencemostheat .
-Theheatinthisr egi
onisadequatet ocausei
gniti
onofthemat chsti
ck.

Concl
usi
ons.
-Theout
erpal
ebl uezonei
sthehott
estpar
toft
henon-
lumi
nousf
lame,
andi
sthust
hecor
rectposi
ti
on
topl
aceanobjectduri
ngheat
ing.

Methodsofgascol l
ecti
on.
-Vari
ouschemi calr
eacti
onsproducegases;someofwhicharecol
ourlesswhi
leot
hersarecol
our
ed.
-Addit
ional
lysomegasesar epoisonoust
ot hehumanbody,whi
leothersar
emajorcausesof
envi
ronmentalpoll
uti
on.

Examples:
 Colouredgases:
Chlor
ine(gr
een-yel
low)
;ni
tr
ogen(
IV)oxi
de(
brown)
;br
omi
ne(
red-
brown)

 Colourlessgases:
Oxygen;carbon(II
)oxide;car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;sul
phur(
IV)oxi
de;hydr
ogen;ammoni
aet
c.
Factorsaffect
ingmethodusedi
ncol
lect
ingagas.
-Density
-Solubil
it
yinwat er
.
-Colour
-Toxici
ty

Summar
yoncol
lect
ionmet
hods.

Method Appar
atus Char acteri
sti
cofgas
Upwarddeliver
y -Mustbel essdenset hanai r.
-Al
socalleddownwar
d Exampl es:Hydr ogen, ammoni agas.
di
splacementofai
r Not e:bei nglightert hegasi s
suppor tedbyt hedenserai rfrom
bel ow;
-Whenusedf orcol our l
essgases, i
t
i
snotpossi blet oknowwhent hegas
jari sfull;
Downwarddel
iver
y(upwar
d -Mustbedensert hanai r
.
di
spl
acementofair
) Exampl es:car bon( I
V)oxi de;
nitrogen( I
V)oxi de;chl orinegas;
Not e:-Thegasdi splacesai rand
set tl
eatt hebot t
om oft hecollecting
vessel
-Unl esst hegasi scol our ed,i
ti s
difficulttoknowwhent hecont ainer
i
sf ull
Overwat
er -insol ubleoronl ysl i
ght lysolublei n
wat er ;
-doesnotr eactwi thwat er
Exampl es:car bon( I
V)oxi de;
hydr ogen;car bon( I
I)oxi de;
Not e:-wi ththi smet hodi tiseasyt o
tellwhent hegasj arorcol l
ecting
tubei sfullofgas;
-Thi smet hodcannotbeusedwhen
thegasi srequi r
eddr y;

Coll
ecti
ngsyri
nge -Mainlyf orpoisonousgases;since
-thegasproducedis thegasesar econfinedandleakages
coll
ect
edinasyr i
nge; areli
mi ted;
Note:thismet hodal l
owscollect
ion
ofsmal lvolumesofgases;
-Ital
soal lowsdi r
ectmeasurement
ofvolumeofgaspr oduced;
Dryi
ngofgases.
-I
stheprocessbywhichthemoisturei
nagasbeingprepar
edisremovedpri
ort
ocol
lect
ion.
-Thi
sisdonebypassingthegasthroughchemi
calst
hatabsorbmoist
ure.
-Suchchemical
sarecall
eddryi
ngagents.
-Thedryi
ngagentsshoul
dnotreactwitht
hegasesbei
ngdried.

Examplesofdr yingagents.
-Anhydrouscal ci
um chlori
de
-Concentr
atedsul phur
icacid.
-Cal
cium oxide.

Appar
atusanddr
yingagent
s
Col
lect
ionanddr
yingofsomegases
Gas Col
lect
ionmet
hod Dryingagent
Oxygen Overwater Concent r
atedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhydr
ouscal
cium
chloride.
Hydr
ogen Overwat
er,
upwar
ddel
iver
y Concent r
atedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhydr
ouscal
cium
chloride
Ni
tr
ogen Overwat
er Concent r
atedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhydr
ouscal
cium
chloride
Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de Overwater
,downwar
d Concent r
atedsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;anhydr
ouscal
cium
del
iver
y chloride
Ammoni
a Upwarddeli
ver
y Calcium oxide

Dr
ugsanddr
ugabuse.
Dr
ug:i
sachemi
calsubst
ancet
hatal
ter
sthef
unct
ioni
ngoft
hebody.

Typesofdrugs
(i
).Medici
naldrugs(
medicines)
:
-Aredrugsmai nl
yusedfortr
eatmentandprevent
ionofdi
seases.
-Areal
socl assi
fi
edint
otwo:overthecount
erdrugsandprescri
pti
ondr
ugs.

 Over-t
he-counterdrugs.
-Aremedici
naldrugst hatcanbeboughtatapharmacyorr
etai
lshopwit
houtwri
tt
eni
nst
ruct
ionsf
rom
adoctor.
Examples:Mil
dpai nki
ll
ersli
keaspi
ri
n,panadol
,par
acet
amol,dr
ugsforf
luetc.

 Pr escri
pti
ondrugs:
-Arestrongmedi ci
neswhichshoul
donlybetakenuponadoctor
sinst
ruct
ion(
prescr
ipt
ion)
.
-Inthi
spr escri
pti
on,t
hedoctor
sgiveadosage,whi
chindi
cat
estheamountandtherateatwhi
chi
t
shouldbet aken.

(i
i)
.Lei
suredrugs.
-Aredr
ugst hatareusual
lytakenforpl
easur
e.
-Arecl
assif
iedintotwo:
 Mil
ddr ugs:al
cohol,t
obacco;
 Narcoti
cdrugs:marij
uana,cocai
ne,her
oin,
mandr
axet
c.

Drugabuse:
-I
st hei
ndiscr
iminateuseofadrugforpurposeswhichitismeantfor;oradminist
rat
ionofanover
dose
orunder
doseofadr ug;aswellasuseofdr ugsf
orlei
surepurposes.
Note:
-Theworstform ofdrugabuseist
hetakingofdrugsforlei
sur
epur poses;andthemostcommonl y
abuseddr
ugsar
ethel
eisur
edr
ugs.

Eff
ectsofcommonl yabuseddr ugs.
 Alcohol :
-Affect
st hebrainandthenervoussystem
-Damagest heli
ver,andi
sacommoncauseofl i
verci
rr
hosis.
-Poorheal t
hduet olossofappetit
e.
-Ti
mef orwor kingiswastedindrinki
ngandhencel
essproducti
vit
yandevenl
oseofj
obs;
whi
chr
esul
ts
topovertyandf amil
ydisi
ntegrati
ons.

 Tobacco.
-Badbreath,discol
our
edfingersandt eet
h
-Causediseasessuchasbr onchit
isandt ubercul
osis.
-damagest helungsandisacommoncauseofl ungcancerduet ochemicalsf
oundi
ntheci
gar
ett
es.
-Smokingdur i
ngpregnancyisacommoncauseofmi scarr
iagesorstil
lbi
rths.
-Iti
sexpensive:moneyusedf orotherbetterusesiswastedincigaret
tesmoking.

 Narcoti
cdr ugs:
-I
nterf
ereswiththef unct
ioningofthebrai
n.
-Resul
tstoaddictionanddr ugdependency.
-Somear eadministereddir
ectlyi
ntothebloodt
hroughsyr
ingesandhencecommonr
out
esof
tr
ansmissionofHI V/AIDS.

Generaleffect
sofdr ugabuseont hesoci
ety.
-Drugabusesspendmostoft hei rmoneyondr ugsandhencenegl ectt
heirfamilyl
eadingtomiseryand
societ
albreakdown.
-Drunkdr i
verscauseacci dents.
-Peoplewhoar edr unkwi t
hadr ugareunreasonableandcannotmakel ogicaldeci
sions;andhence
cannotbepr oducti
veatt hatti
me.
-Drugabusehasr esult
edi nt
ol ossofmor al
sleadingtohigherratesofrapes,viol
entcrimes,murder
s,
prosti
tut
ionetc.
-Drugabusehasf ueledthespr eadofsexuall
ytransmitt
eddi seasesandHI V/AIDS.

Note:
Drugaddict
ion:
-Isasit
uati
oninwhi
chani ndi
vidualbecomesdependentonaparti
culardr
ugsucht
hathecannot
funct
ionnormall
ywi
thouti
t;andlackofitresul
ttosomediscomf
ort.
UNIT2:SIMPLECLASSIFICATIONOFSUBSTANCES

UnitCheckli
st:
1.Elementscompoundsandmi xtures.
2.Mi xt
ures
 Typesofmi xtur
es
 Separ at
ionofmixtures
 Basicconcepts
 Met hodofseparati
onofmi xtures.
 Decant ati
on
 Evapor ati
on
 Condensat ion
 Fil
trati
on
 Crystall
izati
on
 Separ ati
ngf unnelsepar
ati
on
  Di stil
lat
ion
 Subl i
mat i
on
 Chr omatography
 Sol ventextracti
on
3.Cri
ter
iaforpurity
 Effectsofimpur i
tyonmel t
ingpoint
 Effectsofimpur i
tyonmel t
ingpoint
4.Natur
eofmat terandkinetictheoryofmatter
.
 Effectsofheatonmat t
er
 Mel ti
ng
 Evapor ati
on
 Condensat ion
 Fr eezing
 Fr eezing
 Subl i
mat i
on
5.Permanentandnon- permanentchanges
6.Consti
tuentsofmat ter
 Atoms
 Element s
 Mol ecules
 Compounds
 Mi xt
ures.
7.Namesandsymbol sofcommonel ements
8.Simpl
ewor dequations.

Element scompoundandmi xtur

es.
(a).El
ement :
-Isapur esubstancethatcannotbespli
tupi
ntosi
mpl
ersubst
ancesbychemi
calmeans.
Exampl es:copper,
hydrogen,carbon.

(b)
.Compound:
-Apuresubst
ancet
hatconsi
stsoft
woormor
eel
ement
sthatar
echemi
cal
lycombi
ned.
Examples:
Compound El
ement sinthecompound
Cal
cium carbonate Cal
cium, car
bonandoxygen
Sodi
um chloride Sodium andchlori
ne
Ammoni um nitr
ate Nit
rogen,hydrogen,oxygen
I
ron(II
)sulphate I
ron,sul
phur,oxygen

(c)
.Mixt
ure:
-Asubstancethatconsi
stsoftwoormoreel
ement
sorcompoundsthatar
enotchemi
cal
lycombi
ned
-Somemi xt
urescanbenat ur
all
yoccur
ri
ngwhil
esomearear
ti
fi
cial
.
Examples
Natur
all
yoccur
ri
ngmi
xtur
es.
Mixtur
e Component s
Air Nit
rogen,oxygen,car
bon( I
V)oxi de,watervapour,noblegasesetc
Seawat er Waterandvar i
oussaltsli
kechloridesofsodium, potassi
um and
magnesium
Cr
udeoil Ami xt
ureofhydrocarbonslikemet hane,petr
ol,bi
tumen, et
c
Magadisoda Sodium car
bonate,sodium hydrogencar bonat
eandsodi um chlor
ide

Ar
ti
fi
cialmi
xtur
es.
Mixtur
e Components
Softdr
inks Water
,ci
tr
icacid,sugar,
carbon( IV)oxide,st
abi
li
zers,
sodium benzoat
e
Bl
ackink Bl
ue,bl
ack,yel
lowdyesandsol vent
Cement Oxi
desofalumini
um, ir
on,sil
icon, cal
cium andcal
cium car
bonate.

Typesofmixt
ures:
-Ther
earetwotypesofmixt ur
es;
 Homogenousmixtures
 Het
erogenousmixt
ur es

(i
).Homogenousmixtur
es.
-I
sami xtur
ewithaunif
orm composit
ionandproper
ti
esthr
oughouti
tsmass.
-Theparts(
components)ofthemi
xtureareuni
forml
ydist
ri
but
edthroughoutt
hemi
xtur
e
Examples:
Teawithsugarsol
uti
on.

(i
i)
.Het erogenousmi xt
ure:
Isami xturewithoutunif
orm composi
ti
ont
hroughouti
tsmass.
Exampl es:
-Soil
,rocksandsandmi xt
ure.

Separat
ingmixtur
es.
Ami xt
urecanbeseparatedint
oit
svar
iouscomponent
s(const
it
uent
s)byappr
opr
iat
ephysi
calmeans,
dependingontypeofmixtur
e.

Basi
cconcepts:
Resi
due:sol
idthatr
emai
nsont
hef
il
terpaperdur
ingf
il
tr
ati
on

Fi
lt
rat
e:l
iqui
dthatpassespastt
hef
il
terpaperdur
ingf
il
tr
ati
on

Sol
ute:asol
idt
hatdi
ssol
vesi
napar
ti
cul
arl
iqui
d

Sol
vent
:thel
iqui
dinwhi
chasol
utedi
ssol
ves.

Sat
urat
edsol
uti
on:
asol
uti
oni
nwhi
chnomor
esol
utecandi
ssol
veatapar
ti
cul
art
emper
atur
e

Unsat
urat
edsol
uti
on:asol
uti
ont
hatcant
akemor
eoft
hesol
ute(
sol
ute)atapar
ti
cul
art
emper
atur
e.

Mi
sci
blel
iqui
ds:l
iqui
dst
hatcanmi
xtoget
hercompl
etel
y.

I
mmi
sci
blel
iqui
ds:l
iqui
dst
hatcannotmi
xtoget
hercompl
etel
y.
Therearevariousmethodst hatcanbeusedt oseparatemixt
ures.
Theseinclude:
 Decant ati
on
 Evapor ati
on
 Condensat ion
 Filt
rati
on
 Crystall
izati
on
 Separ ati
ngf unnelseparati
on
 Disti
ll
ation(simpleandf racti
onal)
 Sublimat i
on
 Chromat ography
 Solventextraction
1.Decantati
on:
-I
samet hodusedtosepar ateinsolubl
esolidsfrom l
iqui
ds;aheter
ogenousmi
xtur
e.

Procedur
e:
-Thesoli
d-l
iqui
dmixt
ureisal
lowedtost
andinacontai
ner.
-Theinsol
ublesol
i
dsettl
esatthebot
tom andt
heupperli
quidpor
ti
onpour
edoutwi
thcar
e.

Appar
atus.

Examples:
-Separ
ationofsand-
watermixt
ure
-Separ
ationofmaizefl
our-
watermixt
ure.

Li
mitat
ions(di
sadvant
ages)ofdecant
ati
on.
-I
tisnoteff
ici
entassomefinesuspendedsol
idsmaycomel
ongwi
tht
hel
iqui
ddur
ingpour
ing.

2.Fi
lt
rat
ion.
-I
sthesepar at
ionofani nsolublesoli
dfrom ahet
erogenousmi xt
ure(l
iqui
d)usi
ngaporousf
il
tert
hat
doesnotall
owt hesoli
dst opasst hrough.
-Uponfil
tr
ationtheundissolvedsolidislef
tonthefil
terpaperandiscall
edther
esi
due.
-Theli
quidthatpassesthef i
lterpaperiscall
edfi
lt
rat
e.

Examples:separati
onofsandfr
om wat
er.
(i
).Pr
ocedure.
-Thefi
lterpaperisfol
dedint
o¼andopenedt
ofr
om acone.
Di
agr
am:f
oldi
ngaf
il
terpaper
.
-I
tiscaref
ull
yplacedi nsi
deaf i
lt
erfunnel.
-Theapparat
usar ethenarrangedasshownbl ow.
-Thesand-watermixturei
st henpouredintothefi
lt
erpaperi
nthef
il
terf
unnel
.
-Thecol
lecti
ngliqui
di sdir
ectedint
oaconi calfl
ask.

(
ii
).Appar
atus.

Appli
cati
onsoffi
lt
rat
ion.
-Fi
lt
rati
onofdomesticwat er
.
-Ext
racti
onofmedici
nalsubst ancesf
rom pl
ant
s.
-Ext
racti
onofsugarfrom sugarcane.
-Operat
ionofavacuum cleaner.
-Fuelfi
lt
ersi
nautomobileengines.

3.Evapor
ati
on.
-I
susedt osepar
ateasolubl
esolidf
rom i
tssoluti
on.
-Suchsolut
ionsareusual
lyhomogenousmixtures.
-Thesoli
discall
edasolutewhil
etheli
qui
discal l
edasol
vent
.

Exampl e:separati
onofsaltfrom saltsol
uti
on.
(i
).Procedure:
-Thesal tsoluti
onispouredi nanevaporati
ngdish.
-Thesetupi sthenarrangedasi ntheapparat
usshownbel ow.
-Thesol uti
oni sboil
edunderst eam orsandbathunt
ilal
lthewateri
nthesal
tsol
uti
onevapor
atesand
saltcrystal
sr emaininthedish.

(
ii
).Appar
atus.

(i
ii
).Observationsandexpl anati
ons.
-Uponheat i
ngt hesolut
ion,waterevaporat
esbecauseithasl
owerboi
li
ngpoi
ntthanthesalt
.-
Thesolutionisboi l
edunt i
lsaltcryst
alsst
artappear
ingonaglassr
iddi
ppedi
ntothesolut
ion.-
Thisshallindicatethatt
hesol uti
onissaturat
ed.
-Thesat
uratedsol
uti
onisallowedtocoolandcr
ystal
li
ze.
-Themotherli
quor(l
iqui
dthatremai
nswi t
hthecr
ystal
s)i
spour
edandt
hesal
t(sol
id)dr
iedbet
ween
absor
bentpapers.

Not
e:
Acryst
al:i
sasol
idt
hatconsi
stsofpar
ti
clesar
rangedi
nanor
der
lyr
epet
it
ivemanner
.

-I
tisadvantageoustoboi
lthesolut
ionunderasteam orsandbathrat
herthandir
ect
ly.
Reason:
-Thesteam orsandbathprevent
sthemixtur
efrom splashi
ngout(spi
tt
ing)oft
heevaporat
ingdi
sh.
-I
talsoreduceschancesoftheevaporat
ingdi
shcr acki
ng.

Appl
icat
ionsofevapor
ati
on:
-Ext
ract
ionofsodaashfrom LakeMagadi
.

4.Cr yst
alli
zati
onandrecr
ystal
li
zation.
(a).Crystal
li
zati
on:
-isthepr ocessoffor
mati
onofcr ystal
sfrom asol
uti
on.
-Itinvolvesevapor
ati
onofthesolutiontofor
m aconcent
rat
edsol
uti
on.

Exampl e:crystal
li
zationofpot assi um nitr
atef rom it
ssol ut
ion.
(i
).Procedur e:
-About5gofpowder edpot assi um nitrat
ei saddedt o10cm3ofwat erinaboil
ingt
ube.
-Thesol uti
oni sheatedunt ilallthesol i
ddissol vesandt henallowedt ocoolandcryst
all
ize.
Note:
-Morepot assium nitratedissolvesi nhotwat erthanincol dwat er.
-Ther esult
antsolutionisthenheat eduntilcrystalsstartappearing;andthi
scanbeconf ir
medby
dippi
ngagl assrodint othesol utionandf eel i
ngf orcrystal
s.
-Thisiscal l
edasat ur at
edsol utioni .
e.asol uti
ont hatcannottakei nanymor eoft
hesoluteatagi
ven
temper at
ure.
-Thesat uratedsolutionisthenal l
owedt ocoolandcr ystal
li
ze.

(i
i)
.Observati
ons:
-Theresult
antsoli
dpart
icl
eshavedefini
teshapes.
-Somear eneedle-
li
kewhil
eothersarefl
atandsharp-
edged.
-Thesearethepotassi
um nit
rat
ecrystal
s.

(b).Recryst
all
izati
on:
-Isusedi nobtaini
ngpur
ecrystal
sfrom asol
ubl
esol
idcont
aini
ngi
mpur
it
ies.
-Involvesfi
lt
rati
onandevaporati
on.

Examples:
Obtai
ningpur
ecopper(I
I)sul
phat
ecr
yst
alsf
rom i
mpur
ecopper(
II
)sul
phat
e.
Puri
fi
cati
onofrocksal
t.
Note:Thepr
ocesscanbeenhancedbysuspendi
ngasmal
lpi
eceofpur
ecr
yst
ali
ntot
hesat
urat
ed
sol
ution.

Di
agr
am:r
ecr
yst
all
izat
ionofcopper(
II
)sul
phat
e.

Appli
cati
onsofcryst
all
izat
ion.
-Separat
ionofTr
onaf r
om sodium chl
ori
dei
nLakeMagadi
.

5.Dist
ill
ation.
-I
sthevapour isat
ionofali
qui
df r
om ami xt
ureandthencondensi
ngthevapour .
-I
susedi nthepur i
fi
cati
onofl
iquidsandseparat
ionofl
iqui
dsfrom amixture.
-I
tutil
izest hediff
erencesi
nboil
ingpoint
softhecomponentsofthemixture.
-Areoft wot ypes:

 Simpledisti
l
lati
on
 Fract
ionaldist
il
lati
on.
(i
).Si
mpledisti
ll
ati
on.
-I
smai nl
yusedf orpurif
icat
ionofl
iquidscontai
ningdissol
vedsubst
ances.
-I
tisalsousefuli
nsepar ati
ngtwomi sci
blel
iqui
dswi t
hwi del
ydif
fer
ingboi
li
ngpoi
nts

Note:
Misci
blel
iqui
ds:Li
quidst
hatmixtof
rom aunif
orm aunifor
m homogenoussol
uti
on
-Theli
qui
dwi t
hthelowerboi
li
ngpoi
ntusual
lydist
il
lsoverfi
rst
,andi
scoll
ect
ed.

Exampl e:Toobt ai
npurewaterfr
om seawater .
(i
).Procedur e:
-Saltyseawat erispour
edintoadisti
ll
ati
onflask.
-Af ewpi ecesofpumiceorporcel
ainisaddedt ot
hesol
uti
on.
Reason:
-Toi ncreasethesurf
aceareafrocondensati
onandevaporat
ion.

-Thesol
uti
oni
sheateduntili
tstar
tsboi
li
ng,thentheburnerremovedsothatthel
iqui
dboi
l
sgent
ly.
-Theboi
li
nggoesonunti
ltheliqui
d(di
sti
ll
ate)st
artscol
lect
inginthebeaker
.

(
ii
).Appar
atus.
(i
ii
).Observat
ionsandexplanat
ions:
-Thewat erboil
sandtheresult
antsteam i
spassedt hr
ought heLi ebi
gcondenser
.
-Ast hevapourpassest
hrought hecondenser,i
tiscooledbycirculat
ingcol
dwat ert
hrought
hej
acket
ofthecondenser.
-Thecol dwaterent
erst
hrought helowerbott
om andleavest hr
ought hetopupperpart
.
Reason:
-Topr ovi
demor eti
meforthecol dwatert
ocondenset hevapour s.

-Thedi
sti
ll
atei
scol
lect
edi
nthebeakerwhi
let
her
esi
duer
emai
nsi
nthedi
sti
ll
ati
onf
lask.

Appli
cationsofsimpledist
il
lat
ion.
-Manuf actureofwinsandspiri
ts.
-Desali
nizationofseawatertoobtai
nfreshwater
.
(i
i)
.Fractionaldi
sti
ll
ati
on:
-I
samet hodusedf rotheseparat
ionofmisci
blel
iqui
dswi
thver
ycl
oseboi
li
ngpoi
nts.
Examples:
Ethanolandwat er.

-I
tisamodifi
cat
ionofsi
mpledisti
ll
ati
oni
nwhi cht
hefr
act
ionati
ngcolumni sinser
tedontopofthe
di
sti
ll
ati
onfl
ask.
-Al
lthecomponentsmustbevolat
il
eatdi
ffer
entext
ent
sinorderforsepar
ationtobepossibl
e.

Thef
ract
ionat
ingcolumn.
-I
susual
lyanelongated(
glass)t
ube,
packedwi
thpi
ecesofgl
assbeadsorpi
ecesofbr
okengl
ass.

Roleofgl assbeads.
-Toincr easet hesurfacear eaforvapourisat
ionoft hevari
ouscomponent softhemixtur
eandall
owthe
separationoft hevapour stooccur.
-Thust hemor ethegl assbeadsi nthefracti
onatingcolumn, t
hehi ghertheef
fi
ciencyofsepar
ati
on.
Note:
-Theef ficiencyofthef racti
onaldist
il
lat
ionsost ogetmor epurecomponent scanalsobedoneby:
1.Increasi ngthelengthoft hefracti
onati
ngcol umn( makingitlonger )
2.Maki ngt hefr
acti
onat ingcol
umnnar r
ower( decreasi
ngt hediamet er)

Vol
ati
leli
quids:
-Ar
eliqui
dswi t
ht heabil
it
ytochangeint
ovapour.
-Morevolat
ilel
iquidsvapour
izeandcondensef
astert
hant
hel
essvol
ati
lel
iqui
ds.

Note:
-Duri
ngfr
acti
onaldi
sti
ll
ati
on, t
hecomponentsofami xtur
earecol
lect
edati
nter
val
s,oneatat
imewi
th
themostvol
ati
le(
lowestboil
ingpoi
nt)comingoutfi
rst.
-Eachcomponentcol
lect
edint her
ecei
veri
scalledaf r
acti
on.

Example:separ
ati
onofet
hanolandwat
er.
(i
).Apparat
us.
(i
i)
.Procedure:
-Water-
ethanolmixtur
eispouredint
oar ound-
bot
tomedf
lask.
-Theapparatusisthenconnectedandsetupasshownbelow.

Note:
-Thethermometerbul
bmustbeatthevapourout
lett
othecondenser
.
Reason:
-Foraccurat
edeter
minat
ionoft
hevapouri
sati
ontemperat
uref
oreachfr
act
ion.

-Themi xtur
eisthenst
ronglyheatedunti
lthefi
rstfr
actioncomesoutofthedist
il
lat
ionf
laskint
othe
conicalfl
ask.
-Collect
ionofthefr
act
ionsshouldbedonei naconicalf l
askothert
haninabeaker.
Reason:
-Tor educetherat
esofevaporat
ionofthefract
ions,especial
lythehi
ghl
yvol
atil
eones(i
nt hi
scase
ethanol)

-Fort
hispar
ti
cul
arsepar
ati
onthefi
rstt
emper
atur
esrecor
dedbyt
het
her
momet
ershoul
dnotexceed
o
80C;toensuret
hatt
hefi
rstfr
act
ionisonl
yet
hanol
.

(ii
i)
.Discussion.
-Ethanolboilsat78oCandwat erboilsat100oC.
-Whent hemi xtur
eisheated,ethanolandwat erevaporateandpassthroughthef
ract
ionati
ngcolumn
whi chisfi
ll
edwi t
hglassbeadst oof f
eralar
gesur facearea
-Thel argesur f
aceareaencour agesevaporati
onofet hanolandcondensati
onofwatervapour
.
-Wat ercanbeseendr oppingbacki ntot
hedistil
lat
ionflask.
-Ethanolvapourpassest hrought hecondenserandwar ml iqui
det
hanoliscoll
ect
edintheconicalf
lask.

Note:
-Thefi
rstpor
ti
onisalmostpureet
hanol(about97%)andbur
nsqui
etl
ywi
thabl
uef
lame.
-I
talsohasthechar
acter
ist
icsmellofal
cohols.

Industri
alappl
icati
onsoff ract
ionaldi
sti
ll
ati
on.
-Separationofairint
ovar i
ouscomponent sinBOCgasesKenyal i
mited.
-Separationofcrudeoilint
opar aff
in,
petrol
,ker
osenedieselandothercomponent
sint
heKenyaoi
l
refi
nery.
-Disti
ll
ati
onofet hanolfr
om mol assesatMuhoroniAgro-chemical
scompany.

6.Subl
imat
ion.
-I
st hepr
ocessbywhichasol
idchangesdir
ect
lytogaseousst
ateuponheat
ing.
-I
tisusedtosepar
ateamixt
ureinwhichoneofthecomponent
ssublimesonheati
ng.
Note:
Sol
id Gas

Sol
idsthatsubl
imehavever
yweakf
orcesofat
tr
act
ionbet
weent
heat
omsandhencear
eeasi
lybr
oken
onsli
ghtheati
ng.

Examplesofsolidsthatsubli
meonheat ing.
-I
odine;subl
imest ofrom apurplevapour.
-Ammoni um chlor
ide;subl
imest ofr
om densewhit
efumes;
-Sol
idcarbon(IV)oxide(dryice)
;
-Anhydrousi
ron( I
II)chl
ori
de;subli
mest ogiver
edbrownf
umes.

Examples:separ
ati
onofi
odi
nef
rom sodi
um chl
ori
de.
(i
).appar
atus:

(i
i)
.Pr
ocedur e:
-Thei
odine-commonsal tmixt
ureispouredi
ntoabeakerandpl
acedinatr
ipodst
and.
-Awatchglassf ul
lofcol
dwaterisplacedonthebeaker
.
-Thebeakerisheatedgentl
yunti
lsomedensepur pl
efumesareobser
ved.

(i
ii
).Observat
ions:
-Apur pl
evapourappearsinthebeaker.
-Adark-greyshinysol
idcol
lect
sont hebot
tom oft
hewat
ch-
glass.
-Whitesolidr
emai nsi
nthebeaker.

(i
v).Explanati
ons:
-Uponheat ingthemi xt
urei
odinesubl
imesandcondensesont hecoldwatchglasstoform asublimat
e
ofpur eiodi
ne.
Note:
-Solidcarbon(IV)oxide(dr
yice)i
susedasr efr
igerantbyicecream andsoftdri
nkvendors.
Reason:
-Itsublimesonheat i
ng;asitsubl
imesitt
akeslatentheatfr
om icecream (
softdri
nks)thusleavi
ngit
cold.
-Itisalsoadvantageousasitdoesnottur
nintoli
quid,whichcouldbecumber somet ocarr
yandwoul d
messupt heicecream.

7.Chr
omat
ogr
aphy.
-I
st hesepar ationofcol our
edsubst ancesusi nganel ut i
ngsolvent.
-I
tisal sousedt oidenti
fythecomponent sofacol ouredsubstance.
-I
tinvol vest heuseofamovi ngliquid( eluti
ngsol vent)onamat eri
althatabsorbsthesolvent.
-I
tinvol vest womaj orprocesses:
 Sol ubi l
it
y:
Thet endencyofasubst ancet odissolvei nasolvent.
 Adsor ption:
Thet endencyofasubst ancet ostickonanadsor bentmat eri
al.
Exampl es:
1.Separ ationofcomponent sofbl acki nk.
(i
).Procedur e:
-Af i
lterpaperi spl acedont heri
m ofanevapor at i
ngdi shorasmal lbeaker.
-Adr opoft hebl ackinkisplacedatt hecent reoft hefil
terpaper;al
lowedt ospreadoutanddr y.
-Adr opofwat er(ethanol)i
sthenaddedt otheinkandal l
owedt ospr ead.
-Aftercompl etespr eadofthedr op, aseconddr opi sadded.
-Wat erdr opsar eaddedcont i
nuousl yunt ilt
hedi scofcol ouredsubst ancesalmostreachestheedge.

(
ii
).Obser
vat
ions:

Not
e:Thedr
yfi
lt
erpapershowi
ngt
hesepar
atedcomponent
sofami
xtur
eiscal
ledachr
omat
ogr
am.
(i
ii
).Expl
anations:
-Wat eri
stheelutingsolventsinceinkissolubleinit
.
-Thevariousdyesi ntheblacki nkmoveatdi ffer
entdistancesfrom t
heblackspothencethebands.
Reasons:
-Thedyeshavedi ff
erentsolubil
it
iesinthesolvent;t
hemor esolubl
ethedye,t
hefurt
herthedist
anceit
tr
avelsont heabsorbentpaper
-Theyhavedi ff
erentratesofadsor pti
oni.e.t
hetendencyoft hedyestost
ickontheabsorbentmater
ial
;
dyeswi t
hlowr atesofabsorptiont r
avelfarfr
om theoriginalspot.

Note:
Sol
ventfront.
-I
st hef
urthestdi
stancer
eachedbyt
heel
uti
ngsol
ventont
hef
il
terpaper
.

Basel
ine:
-Thepointatwhi
cht
hedyet
obesepar
atedi
spl
aced;i
.e.i
tist
hest
art
ingpoi
ntofsepar
ati
on.

2.Toveri
fycontent
sofr
ed,
blackandbl
uei
nks.
(i
).appar
atus:
(
ii
).Obser
vat
ions:

(i
ii
).Explanati
ons:
-Themi xturesAtoDhavevar i
ouscomponent swit
hvaryi
ngsolubi
li
ti
esint hesol
vent(ethanol)
-MixtureDi sthemostpurebecauseithasonl yonespot.
-MixtureCi sthel
eastpure(
mosti mpure),asithasthehi
ghestnumberofspot sindi
cati
ngi ti
s
composedofsomanydyes( f
our)
-MixtureChast hemostsolubl
edye;itslastcomponentistheonenearesttothesolventfront
.
-Mixtureswi t
hsimil
ardyesi
ntheircomposi t
ionhavespotsatsamelevels;int
hiscaseA, BandD.

Appl
icati
onsofchr
omat ogr
aphy.
-Pur
ifi
cati
onofnat
uralproductssuchashormones,
vit
aminsandnat
ural
pigment
s.
-Det
ectionoff
oodpoisonse.g.incannedf
oodsandsoftdr
inks.

8.Solventextr
acti
on.
-Istheextract
ionofasol
utef
rom i
tsor
igi
nalsol
ventbyusi
ngasecondsol
venti
nwhi
chi
thasahi
gher
solubi
li
ty

Example:extr
act
ionofoi
lfr
om nut
s.
(i
).Apparat
us.

(i
i)
.Pr
ocedur e:
-Somenut sarecrushedinamor tarusingapest l
e;t
oincreaset
hesurfacear
eaforsol
ubil
i
ty.
-Asuitabl
esolventsuchashexaneorpr opanone(acetone)i
sadded.
-Thenutsarefurthercr
ushedint hesolvent.
-Theresul
tantsoluti
onisdecantedinanevapor ati
ngdish,andl
efti
nthesuntoevapor
ate.
-Thel
iquidremainingintheevaporati
ngdi shissmearedontoacleanfi
lt
erpaper
.
(i
v).Observati
ons;
-Aper manenttransl
ucentmarkappearsonthefil
terpaper.
(v)
.Explanati
ons:
-Thenut sarecrushedwhenincontactwit
hthesol ventt
obr i
ngmor eoft
heoi
lint
henutscl
osert
othe
solvent
.
-Uponevapor ati
onoili
slef
tbehindbecauseithasahi gherboil
ingpoi
ntt
hant
hesolvent
.
-Aper manenttransl
ucentmarkveri
fi
esthepresenceofoi l
s.

Appli
cat
ionsofsolventext
ract
ion.
-Usedbydry-
cleanerstoremovedirt(
grease)andst
ainsf
rom “
dry-
clean-
onl
y”cl
othessuchas
sweater
s,sui
ts,dr
essesetc.

9.Separatingfunnelseparati
on.
-Isusedf roseparatingamixt urewi t
htwoormor eimmisci
bleliquids.
-Suchl i
quidsdonotmi xbutinst eadformlayer
sbasedont heirdensit
ies.
-Theheavi estl
iquidlayeri
sf oundatt hebottom oft
heseparatingfunnel;whi
let
helightestl
iquidis
foundatthet opoft heseparatingf unnel
.
-Theliquidsaredrainedoneaf tertheotherbyopeni
ngandcl osingthetapoftheseparati
ngf unnel
.

Example:Separat
ionofoilf
rom wat
er
Apparatus:
Beakers,separ
ati
ngfunnel,
paraf
fi
noil
,di
sti
ll
edwat
er,
rubberst
opper
.

Appar
atus.

Procedure.
-Thetapoft hesepar atingfunnelisclosed.
-Equalvolumesofwat erandpar aff
inareputinasepar ati
ngf unnelunt i
liti
shalfful
l.
-Themout hoft hefunnelisclosedwi t
hast opperandt hemi xtureshaken.
-Themi xtureisal l
owedt ostandunt i
ltwodisti
nctl ayersaref ormed.
-Thestopperi sremovedandt hetapopenedt oallowt hebot tom layertodraini
ntothebeaker.
-Thetapi sclosedaf termostoft hebottom l
ayerhasdr ainedof f.
-Thebeakeri sremovedandt herestofthebottom l ayerisdrainedi ntoaseparat
econt ai
nerand
discar
ded;t oensur ethatnopar tofthetoplayer(par aff
in)getsintot hebeakercontai
ningthebott
om
(water
)layer.
-Theother( top)layeristhendr ai
nedintoanotherbeaker .

Observat
ions:
-Aft
erthemi xt
urehassett
ledoi
landparaf
finsepar
atei
ntotwolayers.
-Thefir
stbeakercont
ainsonlywater
;whil
ethesecondbeakercontai
nsonl
ypar
aff
in.

Concl
usi
on.
-Par
affi
nandwat erarei
mmisci
ble.
-Thetoplayercont
ainswat
erwhichisdenserwhi
let
het
opl
ayercont
ainsoi
l(par
aff
in)whi
chi
sli
ght
er.

Pract
icalappl
icat
ion:
-Extr
acti
onofusef ulsubst
ancesf
rom compl
exmi
xtur
es.

Example:Separ
ati
onofi
odi
nefr
om sodi
um chl
ori
de.
***
***
*******
***
***
***
***
***
**

10.Useofmagnets.
-I
susedtoseparatesoli
dmi
xtur
es,oneofwhichismagneti
c(usual
lyi
ron)
.
-Their
onispi
ckedwi t
hamagnetleavi
ngtheothercomponent
softhemixtur
ebehi
nd.

Exampl
es:
-Separ
ati
onofpowder
edi
ronf
rom i
ronpowder
-sul
phurmi
xtur
e.

Practi
calappl
icat
ions:
-I
ntheextract
ion(mini
ngofi
ron)
;wher
emagneti
cironor
eissepar
atedfr
om ot
hermateri
alsinthe
crushedore.
-Separati
onofscrapir
onfr
om non-
magnet
icmater
ial
sli
kegl
assandplasti
csi
nrecycl
ingplant
s.

Cr
iter
iaf
orpurit
y.
 Pur esubstance:
-I
sasubstancethatcontai
nsonl
yonet
ypeofcompoundorel
ement
.

Deter
minationofpur
it
y
(a)
.Soli
ds:
-Puri
tyofsoli
dsisdeter
minedbymeasuri
ngthemelt
ingpoint
.
-Puresoli
dsmeltsharpl
yoveranar
rowtemperat
urerange.
Examples:
-Naphthal
enemel sat80oC–81oC.
t
-Watermeltsat0oC.

Effect
sofimpuri
tyonmelti
ngpoi
nt.
-Impurit
iesl
owerthemel
ti
ngpointofasubst
ancemaki
ngi
tmel
toverawi
der
angeoft
emper
atur
esi
.e.
themelti
ngpointi
snotsharp.

Appl i
cati
ons:
1.Extracti
onofmet als.
-Impur i
ti
esareaddedt opurif
iedmetalorestolowertheirmel
tingpoints,
hencesaveenergyand
extracti
oncosts.
2.Topr eventknockingofenginesduetof r
eezingofwaterincarradiat
orsduringcol
dseasons,
i
mpur i
ti
esli
keethyleneglycolorsal
t(NaCl)isadded.
3.Def r
osti
ngoff r
ozenr oadsandsidewalksintemperatecountri
es,bysprinkl
ingasal
tsuchassodi
um
chlori
de.

(b)
.Li
quids:
-Puri
tyofali
quidi
sdeter
minedbymeasur
ingi
tsboi
li
ngpoi
nt.
-Apureli
quidhasasharpboi
li
ngpoi
nt.
Exampl
es:
Purewaterboi
lsat100oCat1at
mospher
icpr
essur
e.
Pureet
hanolboisat78oC.
l

Eff
ectofimpur
ityonboil
ingpoi
nt.
-I
mpuriti
esrai
setheboil
ingpoi
ntofali
quid.
Example:
-Seawaterboi
lsatahighert
emperat
urethanpur
ewat
erduet
othepr
esenceofdi
ssol
vedsal
ts.

St
atesofmatt
er.
 Mat t
er:
-Matt
eri
sanythi
ngt
hatoccupi
esspaceandhasmass.
-I
tiscomposedofei
therpur
esubst
ancesorami
xtur
eofsubst
ances.

St
atesofmatter
:
Matt
erexi
stsinthr
eest
ates:
 Solid
 Liquid
 Gas.

Kinet
ict
heoryofmatter
:
-Stat
esthatmatt
erismadeupofsmallpart
icl
eswhi charei
ncont i
nuousr
andom mot
ion.
-Theconti
nuousrandom mot
ionofpar
ti
clesinmatteriscal
ledBrownianmot
ion.
-Therat
eofmovementofparticl
esi
nmat t
erdependsont hestat
e

(a)
.Soli
dstate:
-Havecloselypackedparti
cleshel
dbyst r
ongforcesofatt
ract
ion.
-Part
icl
esdonotmovef rom onepointtoanotherbutvi
brateaboutaf
ixedposi
ti
on.
-Uponheating,t
heystarttovibr
atevigorousl
y.
Reason:
-Duetoincreaseinthei
rkineti
cenergy.

(b)
.Liquidstate:
-Parti
clesarefurtherapartfrom oneanothert
hanthoseinthesolidstat
e
-Forcesofat t
racti
onbetweent heparticl
esareweakerthanthoseinthesoli
d.
-Thepar t
icl
esr emainclose,butarefreetomovefrom onepositi
ontoanother.
-Onheat i
ngt heygainener gyandmover apidl
y.

(c)
.Gaseousst ate:
-Theparti
clesaref arapar
tandfreet
omover andomlyinal
ldir
ecti
ons.
-Consequentl
yt heylackdefi
nit
eshapeandvolume,butoccupythewholespacewi
thi
nacont
ainer
.
-Forcesofattr
act i
onbetweenthepart
icl
esar
ever yweak.

Theeffectofheatonsubst ances.
-Asubstancecanchangef rom onest
atetoanotheruponheat
ingorcool
ing.
-Thesearephysi calchangesandcanber ever
sed.
-Therearefiveprocessesinvol
vedinchangesofstate:
 Mel t
ing
 Evapor at
ion
 Condensat ion
 Freezing
 Sublimation

Theprocessesinvol
vedinchangeofst
atesofmatt
er.
(i
).Melt
ing:
-I
sachangeofst at
efr
om soli
dtoli
qui
d.
 Mel t
ingpoint
:
-I
st heconstantt
emperat
ureatwhicht
hemel t
ingt
akespl
ace.
Examples:
-I
cemel sat0oC.
t
-Sodi
um chlor
idemel
tsat800oC.

-Dur
ingmel
ti
ngt
heener
gysuppl
iedt
othepar
ti
clesi
susedt
oweakent
hef
orcesofat
tr
act
ionsot
hat
par
ti
clescanmoveabout
.

(i
i)
.Vapourisat
ion( evapor
ation)
-I
schangeofst atefrom l
iquidt
ogas.
 Boili
ngpoi nt:
-I
st heconstanttemper at
ureatwhi
chali
qui
dchangesf
rom sol
idt
oagas.

-Duri
ngboili
ng,t
heener
gysuppli
edisusedt
obr
eakt
hef
orcesofat
tr
act
ioni
nthel
iqui
dthusmovi
ng
thepart
icl
esfarawayf
rom eachot
her.

Examples:
Waterboisat100oC,
l whil
eethanolboi
lsat78oCatoneat
mospheri
cpr
essur
e.
Reason:
Theforcesofat
tr
acti
onbetweenthewaterpart
icl
esar
estr
ongert
hant
hoseofet
hanol
.

(c)
.Condensat ion:
-Isthechangeofst atefrom agastoal iqui
d.
-Isachangeduet odecreaseintemper atur
e.
-Whent hetemper atur
eofgasi sdecreased,thepar
ticl
esl
osekineti
cenergyt
othesur
roundi
ngst
o
moveslowl y.
-Theattracti
vef or
cesbecomest ronger,andthesamplechangestoali
quid.
Note:
-Thetemper atureatwhichcondensationoccursisthesameast heboi
li
ngpoint
.

(d).Freezing:
-Ist hechangef rom aliqui
dtoasolid.
-Itisalsoduet odecreasei ntemperat
ure.
-Whenal iquidiscooled,thepart
icl
esloseener
gyandmoveverysl
owly.
-Theyat tractoneanot herstr
ongl
y,andulti
matel
yremai
ninf
ixedposi
ti
ons.
Not e:
-Thef reezingpointi
st hesameast hemel t
ingpoi
nt.

(e)
.Subli
mati
on.
-Isthepr
ocesswher
ebyasol
iddoesnotmel
twhenheat
ed,
butchangesdi
rect
lyt
othegaseousst
ate.

Example:
-I
odinesolidchangestopurplevapourwhenheatedto70oC.
-Dryice(sol
idCO2),usedtocoolicecr
eam,evaporat
eswithoutl
eavi
ngali
quid.
Note:
-Thereverseofsubli
mation,wherebyagaschangesdir
ectlyt
osoli
discal
leddeposi
ti
on.

Summar
yonchangesofst
ate.
E

Sol
i
d Li
qui
d Gas

Key:A:mel
ti
ng;B:
vapour
isat
ion;C:Fr
eezi
ng;D:Condensat
ion;E:Subl
imat
ion;F:Deposi
ti
on;

Exper
iment:Invest
igat
ingchangesi
ntemper
atur
ewheni
cei
sheat
ed.
(i
).Pr
ocedure:
-A250mlbeakerishalf
-fi
ll
edwithdryice,andthei
nit
ialtemperat
urerecor
ded.
-Theicei
sheated,whil
estir
ri
ngwi t
hat hermometerandt hetemper
aturer
ecor
dedever
y30seconds.
-Heati
ngandrecordi
ngisdoneunt i
ltheresult
antwaterstart
stoboi
l.
-Agraphoft
emper at
ureagainstti
mei splott
ed.
(
ii
).Resul
ts:
o
Temper
atur
es( C) -
10 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Ti
me(seconds)

(
ii
i)
.Gr
aph:
Ef
fectofheatonpur
eice
Temp(C)
o

Ti
me(
seconds)

(i
v).Expl
anati
ons:
 PointA-B:
-Ast hei
ceisheatedthetemperat
ur er
isesst
eadi
lyfr
om -10oCto0oC.
Reason:
-Theheatsuppli
edincreasesthekinet
icener
gyoftheice(sol
idwater
)mol
ecul
es;col
li
sionsbet
ween
them hencei
ncreasedtemperatur
e.
 Poi ntB-C:
-Thetemper at
ureoft heiceremainsconst antevenasheati sapplied.
Reason:
-Heatsuppl i
edisusedt obreaktheforcesofattractionbet
weent hewat ermolecul
esi
nice.
-Thisist hemel ti
ngpoi nthenceatB-Ct heicemel ts.
 Poi ntsC-D:
-AtC, alltheicehasal readymelted(turnedtowat er).
-BetweenCandD, thetemper at
ureofthewat erincreasesasheatingcont i
nues.
Reason:
-Theheatsuppl iedincreasesthekineti
cener gyoft hewatermolecules;thei
rrat
eofcol
li
sioni
ncr
eases
hencei ncreasedt emper at
ures.

 PointsD-E:
-Temperatureofthewaterr
emai nsconstantevenasheatisbeingsuppl
ied.
-PointD-
Ei stheboil
ingpoi
ntie.100oC.
.
Reason:
-Theheatsuppliedisusedtobreaktheforcesofatt
ract
ionbetweenwatermolecul
esi
nthel
iqui
d.

 Poi
ntsE-F:
-Atpoi
ntE,al
lthel
iqui
dwaterhastur
nedint
ovapour.
-Thusbet
weenEandF, thetemper
atureoft
hevapourr
isesasheati
sappl
ied.
Not
e:Heat
ingcur
vef
orani
mpur
esol
id.
Ef
fectofheatoni
mpur
eice

Temp(C)
o

Ti
me(
seconds)

Thecool
ingcurve.
-I
sacurvethatshowshowt het
emper at
ureofasubst
ancechangeswi
tht
imeasi
tiscool
edf
rom agas
i
ntoasoli
d.
-I
tist
heoppositeofaheat
ingcurve.
Exampl
e:t
hecool
ingcur
veofwat
er
Temp(C)
o

Ti
me(
seconds)

Explanat
ions:
 Poi nt
sA-B:
-Gaseousst at
e;temper
atur
eisdecl
ini
ng.
-Heatlossresult
sint
odecreasei
nkinet
icener
gyoft
hegaseousmol
ecul
es.

 Point
sB-C:
-Thisi
sthecondensati
onpoint
;
-Thewatervapourcondensest
othel
iqui
dst
ate;bondsar
efor
medast
hehesti
slost
.

 PointsC-D;
-Temperatureofthel
iqui
dwat eri
sdecl
ini
ng;
-Heatl
ossr esul
tsint
odecreaseinki
net
icener
gyoft
hel
iqui
dmol
ecul
es.

 Point
sD- E;
-Thisi
sthefreezingpoint
;
-Thetemperatureremainsconst
antastheheati
sbeingl
ost
;
-Theheatbeinglostresul
tsi
ntobondformati
on;ast
heli
qui
dfor
msasol
id.

 Point
sE-
F;
-Thewateri
snowinsol
idst
ate.
-Thet
emper
atur
eoft
hesol
iddecl
inesasheati
sbei
ngl
ost
.

Permanentandtemporar
ychanges.
-Heatcausesmattert
ochange.
-Changesduetoheatcaneit
herbeper
manentornon-
per
manent(
tempor
ary)
.

(a).Permanentchanges.
-Ar ealsocal
ledchemicalchanges.
-Involvessubstancest
hatarerelat
ivel
ylessst
abl
etoheat
.

Characteri
sti
csofpermanent(chemical
)changes.
(i
).Newsubst ancesaref
ormed.
(i
i
).Involvesconsider
abl
eheatchanges;ener
gyiseit
hergi
venoutorabsor
bed.
(i
ii
).Themassoft hesubstancechanges.

Typesofpermanent( chemical
)changes.
-Chemicalchangesar eoft
womai ntypes:
 Reversibleper
manentchanges.
 Ir
reversibl
e(non-r
eversi
ble)permanentchanges.

(i
).Rever
sibl
epermanentchanges.
-Arechemicalchangesinwhi
chthefi
nalnewpr
oduct
scanr
ecombi
net
ofor
mtheor
igi
nalsubst
ance,
undercert
aincondit
ions.

Gener
all
y:
A+B C+D
React
ant
s Pr
oduct
s

Examples:
1.Eff
ectofheatonhydr atedbluecopper(I
I)sul
phat
e.
(i
).Apparatus:
-Testtubes,Bunsenburner,t
esttubeholder
-Hydratedcopper(I
I)sulphat
e

(
ii
).Appar
atus:

(i
i)
.Procedure:
–Drycrystal
sofhydr atedbluecopper(I
I)sulphat eareputi
nacleandrytestt
ube.
-Theappar atusarearrangedasabove.
-Thecopper( II
)sulphateisheatedunti
lnof urtherchange.
-Thedeliverytubeisremovedf r
om thecollectedl i
quidwhi
leheat
ingconti
nues.
Reason:
-Toavoidsucki ngbackoft hecondensi
ngl iquidwhi chwoul
dotherwi
serehydrat
etheanhydr
ous=
copper(II
)sulphate
-Thet
esttubeisal
lowedtocoolandtheremai
ningsol
idi
sdivi
dedintotwoport
ions.
-Tooneporti
onofthepowder,adddi
sti
ll
edwater,
whil
etotheotherpot
ionaddthecondensedl
iqui
d.

(i
ii
).Obser
vati
ons:
-Awhi t
esoli
d/powderremainsi
nthetesttubeaft
erheat
ing.
-Acolourl
essli
quidcondensesi
nthetestt
ubedippedint
otheicecol
dwat
er.
-Thecolourl
essli
qui
dturnsthewhit
esoli
dintobl
ue.

(i
v).Expl anat
ions:
-Hydr atedbluecopper( I
I)sul
phatehavewat erofcr
yst
alli
zati
on,givi
ngitthecharact
eri
sti
cbl uecol
our.
-Duringheat i
ng, theheatenergysuppl
iedi
susedt odri
veoutt hewatermol ecul
es(part
icl
es)outofthe
crystals;
-Wi t
houtwat er ,t
hecopper(II
)sulphat
eturnswhiteandthuscalledanhydrouscopper(II
)sulphate;
-Thewat erdrivenoutofthecrystal
scondensesinthetesttubeimmer sedintheicecol
dwat er.

Equati
on Heat
Hydrat
edcopper(
II
)sul
phat
e anhydr
ouscopper(
II
)sul
phat
e+Wat
er
Bl
ue Cool Whi
te

Chemicall
y: Heat
CuSO4.5H2O(s) Cool
CuSO4(s)+5H2O(g);

Confi
rmat orytestforwater.
 Itturnswhi t
eanhydr ouscopper(I
I)sul
phatet
obl
ue;
 Itchangesbl uecobaltchl
ori
depaperpink;
Confi
rmat orytestthatthewaterispur
e:
 Itboilsat100oC;
 Itmel tsat0oC;
 Ithasadensi tyof1gcm-3;
 Ithasar ef
ractivei
ndexof1.33;

Note:
-Thedeli
verytubei
sremovedfrom t
hecoll
ecti
ngli
quidwhil
eheati
ngiscont
inued;toensur
et hatno
watercondensesbacki
ntothecopper(
II
)sulphat
easthiswouldcauser
ehydrat
ion;
-Addit
ionofwatertot
heanhydrouscopper(
III
)sul
phatechangesi
tscol
ourfrom whit
etoblue;

Concl
usion:
Theeff
ectofheatoncopper(
II
)sul
phat
eisar
ever
sibl
echemi
calchange;

2.Effectofheatonammoni um chl
ori
de.
-Whenammoni um chl
ori
dei sheat
ed,i
tproducesammoni
agasandhydrogenchl
ori
degas.
-Thesear eseenasdensewhi t
efumes.
-Reversibl
e,whenammoni aandhydrogenchlori
dear
egasesar
ereact
edorall
owedtocool
,they
produceammoni um chl
ori
de;

I
nsummary: Heat
Ammoni
um chl
ori
desol
id ammoni
um chl
ori
de+hydr
ogenchl
ori
de;
Whi
te Cool Densewhi
tef
umes

Chemical
ly: Heat
NH4Cl(
s)
Cool
NH3(g)+HCl
(
g);
Ammoni
um chl
ori
de Ammoni
agas hydr
ogenchl
ori
degas
3.Decomposit
ionofcal
cium car
bonate.
Insummary: Heat
Calci
um car
bonatesol
id Cal
cium oxi
de+Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;
Cool

(i
i)
.Ir
reversibl
echemi calchange.
-Arechemi calchangesi nwhichther
esult
antproduct
scannotr
ecombi
net
ofor
mtheor
igi
nal
substance(reactant
s);
-Majorit
yoft hechemi calchangesar
eir
rever
sible;

Gener
all
y:
A+B C+D
React
ant
s Pr
oduct
s

Examples:
1.Acti
onofheatonpotassi
um manganat
e(VI
I)
(i
).Apparat
usandchemical
s.
-Bunsenburner
,testt
ube,t
rough,
woodenspl
int
;
-Potassi
um managnate(VI
I)
;

(
ii
).Appar
atussetup.

Potassi
um manganat
e
(VI
I)

Heat

(i
ii
).Pr
ocedure:
-2end-ful
lsofaspatulaofpot
assi
um manganat
e(VII
)areputi
nahar dgl
asstestt
ube;
-Thesetupi sassembledasshownabove;
-Thesolidpotassi
um manganate(
VII
)isheat
ed,
andt her
esul
tantgascol
l
ectedoverwat
er;
-Theresult
antgas(es)i
stest
edwithaglowi
ngspli
nt;

(i
v).Obser
vati
ons:
-Thepurplesol
idturnsbl
ack;
-Acolourl
essgascol l
ect
soverwat
er;
-Thecolourl
essrel
ightsagl
owingspl
int
;

(v)
.Explanati
ons:
-Potassium manganat
e(VI
I)
,apur
plesol
i
dwasdecomposed(
spl
i
ntup)onheat
ingt
oyi
eld(
give
potassi
um manganat
e(II
I)andoxygen.
-Thepotassi
um manganate(I
II
)istheblackresi
due;
-Thecolourl
essgasi
soxygen;andr el
ight
ingaglowi
ngspl
inti
stheconf
ir
mat
oryt
est
;

I
nsummary:
Pot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)→ Pot
assi
um manganat
e(I
II
)+oxygen
Pur
plesol
id Bl
acksol
id Col
our
lessgas

Not
e:Iti
snotpossibl
eforoxygenandpotassi
um manganat
e(I
II
)tor
ecombi
nebackt
opot
assi
um
manganate(
VII
);hencethechangeisi
rr
eversi
ble;

2.Ther
maldecomposi t
ionofcopper(II
)nitr
ate.
-Thebluesol
iddecomposest oform ablacksoli
d;copper(
II
)oxi
de,
red-
brownf
umesofni
tr
ogen(
IV)
oxi
deandacol our
lessgas,oxygen;

I
nsummar y:
Copper(
II
)ni
trat
e→ Copper(
II
)oxi
de+Ni
tr
ogen(
IV)oxi
de+oxygen
Bl
uesol
id Bl
acksol
id Br
own(
red-
brown)f
umes Col
our
lessgas

Note:Fur t
herexamplesofchemicalchanges
-Thebur ningofanysubstance(exceptpl
ati
num);
-Ther usti
ngofiron;
-Additionofwatertocalci
um oxi
de;
-Explosionofnaturalgasorhydrogenwit
hair;
-React i
ngofsodium inwater;

Note:Exot
hermicandendot her
micreact
ions:
(i
).Exot
hermicreacti
ons.
-Arereact
ionsinwhichheatisrel
eased//givenoutt
othesurr
oundi
ng;
-Usuall
ythefinalt
emperatureoft
hereacti
onvessel/
/mixtur
e(e.
g.beakeri
shi
ghert
hani
nit
ial
ly;

Examples:
-Freezi
ng;
-Condensati
on;
-Deposit
ion//subl
imat
ionoff
umest
osol
id;

(i
i)
.Endothermi
cr eacti
ons.
-Arechemicalreacti
onsi nwhi
chheatisabsorbedf r
om t
hesurroundi
ng;
-Thefinalt
emper at
ureoft her
eacti
onvesselorreacti
onmixt
ureisusual
lyl
owert
hant
hei
nit
iali
.e.t
hey
areaccompaniedbyadr opintemperat
ure;

Examples.
-Melt
ing;
-Vapouri
zati
on;
-Subl
imation(ofsol
idt
ogas)

Summar
yonchemi
calchanges.
React
ion Appearance Changesdur
ingr
eact
ion Newsubst
ance(
s) Typeof
ofsubstance change
Heati
nghydr
ated Blue Bluecr
ystal
sturni
ntoawhi
te Anhydrouscopper Chemical
copper(
II
) powder;col
ourl
essl
iqui
d (
II
)sulphateand
sul
phat
e condensesoncool
ing; wat
er

Heating Shi
nypurpl
e Thepurpl
esol
idt
urnsbl
ack; Potassi
um Chemi
cal
;
potassi
um cr
ystal
s evol
uti
onofacol
ourl
essgas; manganate( I
II
)and
manganat e(VI
I) oxygen;
Heating Whit
esoli
d// Densewhi
tef
umedt
hatcool
sto Ammoni agasand Chemi
cal
;
ammoni um powder
; awhit
esol
id; hydrogenchlori
de
chlor
ide gas;
Heatinglead(I
I) Whi
tesol
id Thewhi t
esolidt
urnsi
ntoared -Lead(II
)oxide; Chemi
cal
;
nit
rate; soli
ddur i
ngheat
ingwhichon nit
rogen(IV)oxi
de
coolingturnsyel
low; andoxygengas;
-Decr epit
ati
ngsound;
-Brownf umes;
-colourlessgas;

Heat
inglead(
II
) Whi
tesol
id Thewhi tesolidturnsintoa -Zi
nc(II
)oxide; Chemi
cal
;
ni
tr
ate; yell
owsol idduringheat i
ngwhich ni
tr
ogen(IV)oxide
oncoolingt urnswhi t
e; andoxygengas;
-Decrepitati
ngsound;
-Brownf umes;col ourl
essgas;
Heat
ingcopper Brown -Brownt urnings//solidtur
n -Copper(
II
)oxi
de; Chemi
cal
;
t
urni
ngs tur
nings; black;

Rust
ingofi
ron; Gr
eysol
id -Greysol
idt
urnsi
ntoar
ed -Hydr
atedi
ron(
II
I) Chemi
cal
;
brownsol
id; oxi
de;

Heat
ingCopper(
II
) Bl
uesol
id Thebl uesol
idtur
nsi
ntoabl
ack -Copper(
II
)oxide; Chemi
cal
;
ni
tr
ate; soli
d; ni
trogen(
IV)oxide
-Brownf umes; andoxygengas;
-colourl
essgas;

Heati
ngcopper(
II
) Gr
eensol
id Thegr eensol
idt
urnsi
ntoabl
ack -copper(I
I)oxi
de Chemi
cal
;
car
bonat
e soli
d; andcarbon(IV)
-colourl
essgas; oxi
de;

(b)
.Temporary(non-
permanent)changes.
-Areal
socalledphysi
calchanges;
-Theyarechangesthati
nvolvesubstancest
hatar
emor
establet
oheat;
-Onheati
ngtheydonotdecomposehencenonewsubst ancesar
efor
med;
Charact
eri
sti
csofpermanentchanges.
1.Allar
erever
sibl
euponchangesi ntemper
atur
e;
2.Nonewsubst ancei
sformed(insteadt
herear
eonl
ychangesofst
ate)
;
3.Themassoft hesubst
ancesdonotchange;
Exampl
es:
Sol
id Ori
ginal Obser
vat
ionsdur
ingheat
ingt
hencool
ing
appearance
1.Candl
ewax Whitesti
ckysol
id; -Thesoli
dmel t
sintoacol ourl
essviscousliqui
d;andoncool
ing
sol
idi
fi
est otheoriginalsoli
dwaxagai n;
2.I
odi
nesol
id. Shi
nydark-
grey -Thesoli
dt urnsdirectl
ytopurplevapour(subli
mat i
on)
;
cr
ystal
s; -Oncoolingthepur pleiodi
nevapour( gas)changesdir
ect
lyt
osoli
d
i
odine(depositi
on);

i
e.I
odi
nesol
id═ i
odi
nevapour
;
Dar
kgr
ey Pur
ple

3.Zi
ncoxi
de Whi
tesol
id; -Thewhi
tesol
idturnsyel
lowonheat
inganduponcool
ingchanges
backt
otheori
ginalwhi
tecolour
;
 i
e.Zi
ncoxi
de═ Zi
ncoxi
de;
Whi
te(
col
d) Yel
low(
hot
)

4.I
ce Whi
te -Thesoli
dwatermelt
sintol
iqui
dandonfur
therheat
ingthel
iqui
d
vapour
izesandtur
nsint
ogas;
-Oncoolingt
hegascondensestol
iqui
dwhi
cht henf
reezesback
i
ntosoli
d;

i
.eI
ce═ Wat
er═ Gas

5.Pl
ati
num wi
re; -Awhi
teglowofthemet
ali
sseenonheating,
butoncool
ingt
he
met
alchangesbackt
oit
sori
ginalgr
eycol
our;

6.Lead(
II
)oxi
de; Yel
low -Theyel
lowsol
idturnsredonheati
nganduponcool
ingchanges
backt
otheori
ginalyel
lowcolour
;

i
e.Lead(
II
)oxi
de═ Lead(
II
)oxi
de;
Whi
te(
col
d) Yel
low(
hot
)

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenPhysi
calandChemi
calchanges.

Physicalchange Chemi calchange

1.Producesnonewki ndofsubstance; -Alwayspr oducesanewki ndofsubstance;
2.UIsusually(gener
ally)i
rr
ever
sible; Aregener al
lyir
reversi
ble;withonlyfewexcepti
ons
(i
.e.mostar ei
rreversi
ble);
3.Themassoft hesubst ancedoesnotchange; -Themassoft hesubst ancechanges;
4.Noenergyisgivenoutorabsor bedi
.e.ar
enot -Energyisusual l
ygivenoutorabsor bedi.
eare
accompaniedbygr eatheatchanges; usuall
yaccompani edbygr eatheatchanges;

Constituentsofmat t
er
-Adet ail
edexami nati
onofmatterr
eveal
sthatiti
sbuiltofveryt
inyunit
scalledt
oms;
-Presentlyabout115at omshavebeenident
if
ied;
-Thear rangementandnumberofat omsinasubst ancewillr
esulti
ntoothermuchl
argerconst
it
uent
s
ofmat ter;
-Thesear e:
 El ement s;
 Mol ecules;
 Compounds;
 Mi xtur
es;

1.Theatom;
-I
st hesmall
estparti
cleofmatterthatcantakepartinachemicalr
eact
ion;
-I
tisthesmallestpart
icl
eint
owhi chanelementcanbedi videdwit
houtlosi
ngt
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
he
el
ement ;
-Atomsofvariouselementsalldi
fferfr
om oneanot her
;
Examples:
-Copperismadeupofmanycopperat oms;
-Sodium el
ementismadeupofmanysodi um atoms;

2.El
ements.
-Anelementi
sasubst ancethatcannotbespli
tint
oanythingsimplebyanyknownchemi
calmeans;
-Anelementconsist
sofasi ngletypeofatom;
-Ther
eareabout155knownel ements,
90ofwhi choccurnatur
all
y.
-El
ementsareclassi
fiedintotwomai ngroups;
 Met
als:
-Al
lar
esol
idsatr
oom t
emper
atur
e(exceptmer
cur
y);andar
egoodconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
y;
 Non-metal
s;
-Exist
sassol
idsandgases;
-Allar
epoorel
ectri
cconduct
orsexceptgr
aphi
te;
Examplesofel
ements.
(i
).Met
als:
-Sodi
um, magnesi
um,pot
assi
um,
alumi
nium,
lead,
iron,
zinc,
sil
ver
,gol
d,t
in,
plat
inum,
urani
um,
cal
cium,
manganeseetc.

(i
i).Non-elements.
-Car bon,nit
rogen,sulphur
,oxygen,chl
orine,
fluori
ne,argon,neon,
br omine,
iodi
ne,
sili
con,bor
on,
xenon,
krypton.
3.Mol ecule.
-I
st hesmal lestpart
icleofasubstancethatcanexistindependentl
y;
-I
ti smadewhen2ormor eatoms( si
mil
arordi ssi
milar)ar
echemi call
ycombinedtogether
;
-Howeverat omsofnobl e/i
nertgasesexistassingleatoms;

Note:
-Dependingonnumberofatomsmol
ecul
escanbecat
egor
izedi
nto:
(i
).Monoatomicmolecul
e;
-madeupofonl yoneatom;
Examples:
-Argon;
→
Ar
gonat
om Ar
gonmol
ecul
e;
-Neon;
-Hel
ium;

(i
i)
.Diat
omicmol
ecul
es.
-Madeupof2simil
arat
oms;chemi
cal
lycombi
nes;
Examples
-Oxygengas;
→
Oxygenat
om Oxygenmol
ecul
e;
-Nit
rogengas;
-Hydrogengas;
-Chl
orinegas;

(i
i)
.Tri
atomi
cmolecules.
-Madeupof3similaratoms;chemi
cal
lycombi
nes;
Examples
-Ozonemolecul
e;
→
Oxygenat
om Ozonemol
ecul
e;

Note:
-Othermolecul
esareal
somadef
rom at
omsofdi
ff
erentel
ement
schemi
cal
lycombi
nedt
oget
her
;
Examples:
(i
).Hydr
ogenchlor
ide;
+ →
Hydr
ogen Chl
ori
ne Hydr
ogenchl
ori
demol
ecul
e;
 At
om. At
om;

(
ii
).Wat
ermol
ecul
e;
+ + →
Hydr
ogenat
oms oxygenat
om; Wat
ermol
ecul
e;

4.Compounds.
-Acompoundisapuresubst
anceconsist
ingoftwoormor eelementsthatarechemical
l
ycombined.
-Compoundsusual
lyhavedi
ff
erentpr
operti
esfr
om thoseofit
sconstit
uentelements;
-Proper
ti
esofacompoundareunif
ormthroughoutanygivensampleandf r
om onesampl et
oanother
;

Exampl
esofcompoundsandt
hei
rconst
it
uentel
ement
s.

Compound Constit
uentel ements
Colour
lesswaterliqui d; Oxygenandhydr ogen;
Greencopper(II
)car bonat
e; Copper,carbonandoxygen;
Whitesodium nit
rate; Sodium, nit
rogenandoxygen;
Bl
ackcopper( II
)oxi de; Copperandoxygen;
Bl
uecopper( I
I)nitrate; Copper,nitrogenandoxygen;
Bl
uecopper( I
I)sulphat e; Copper,sulphur,oxygenand
hydrogen;
Ammoni
um chl
ori
de; Nit
rogen, hydrogenandchlor
ine;

Note:
-Carbonatesarederi
vati
vesof(derivedfr
om ormadeof)car
bonandoxygen;
-Nit
ratesarederi
vati
vesofnit
rogenandoxygen;
-Sulphatesar
ederivat
ivesofsulphurandoxygen;
-Hydrogencarbonatesarederi
vativesofhydr
ogen,car
bonandoxygen;

5.Mi
xtur
es
-Asubst
ancet
hatconsi
stsoft
woormor
eel
ement
sorcompoundst
hatar
enotchemi
cal
l
ycombi
ned.

Charact
eri
sti
csofmixt
ures.
-I
tpropert
iesar
etheaverageofthepr operti
esofitsel
ements;
-I
tscomponentscanbeseparatedbyphysi calmeanse.g.f
il
tr
ati
on,
magnet
ism,di
sti
l
lati
onet
c.
-I
tscomponentsarenotnecessaril
yiffixedposit
ions;
-Arefor
medbyphysicalmeans; i
.e.thereisusuall
ynoheatchangedur
ingi
tsfor
mation.

Examplesofmixtures:
1.Ai
r:
-Amixtureofoxygen,nit
rogen,
car
bon(
IV)oxi
de,
wat
ervapour
,andnobl
egases.

2.Sugarsol
uti
on.
-Amixtureofsugarandwat
er.

3.Seawater
.
-Water
,di
ssolvedsal
ts;
Experi
ment:Todist
ingui
shbetweenanelementandacompound.
(i
).Appar
atus.
-Watchglass,
testt
ube,woodenspli
nt,
magnet,i
ronf
il
li
ngs,
sulphurpowder
,di
lut
ehydr
ochl
ori
caci
d.

(i
i)
.Procedur
e.
-Approxi
mately7gofi
ronf
il
li
ngsand4gofsul
phurar
emi
xedi
nat
estt
ubeandt
hemi
xtur
est
rongl
y
heated;

Obser
vations:
-Aredglowst art
sandspreadsthr
oughoutt
hemixt
urefor
mi ngablacksol
id.
-Theblacksolidisi
ron(
II
)sulphi
de.
-Thetwopr oducts/
/substancesi
nsteps1and2aresubjectedt
othefoll
owingt
est
s;

Obser
vations
Test/
/Anal
ysi
s
Iron-sulphurmi xt
ure. Ir
on(II)sul
phide
1.Col
our:Thecolouroft
he -Ther esul
tantsubstanceisyell
ow -Theyel low-greymi xt
urechanges
subst
anceisnoted; -greyduet ot heyell
owsulphurand t oablacksol i
d;ir
on( I
I)sul
phide
thegr eyironpowder ; onheat i
ng;
2.Separ ati
on:Amagneti s -Bef oreheatingtheironcoul
dbe -Magnet i
sm andsedi mentat
ion
passedovert hesubstances separ atedfrom sulphurbyuseofa havenoef fectoniron(II
)sulphi
de;
separately; magnetorsedi ment at
ion;
-Alt
ernat i
vely,waterwasadded Not e:Thesear ephysicalmethods;
toeachsubst ance;
3.React i
onwi t
hdilut
e -Ir
onr eact
edwi thdil
ute -Ir
on( I
I)sulphidereactedwi t
h
hydrochloricacid:Toeachofthe hydrochlor
icacidtoforma hydrochlori
caci dtoproducea
substances, afewdr opsof colourl
essgast hatburnswit
ha colourl
essgaswi t
ha
hydrochloricacidisadded; popsound. characteri
sticpungent(rot
tenegg)
-Thisishydrogengas; smel l
;
-Sulphurisnotaffect
ed; -Thegasi shydr ogensulphide;
4.Heatchange. Noheatwaspr oducedorappl i
ed -Afterheatingthemi xt
ure,the
i
nmi xingironandsulphur; for
mat ionoft henewsubst ance,
i
ron( I
I)sulphideproducedenough
heathencet hebri
ghtredglow;

Explanati
ons:
-Thesef ourexperi
mentssummari
zethefourmai
ndiff
erencesbet
weencompoundsandmi
xtur
es.
-From theresult
s,ir
onandsul
phurpowderisamixt
ure;whil
eir
on(II
)sul
phi
dei
sacompound.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenami
xtur
eandacompound.
Compounds Mixt
ures
1.Component sar ei nfixedposit
ions; -Component
sar
einanyposit
ions;
2.Component scanonl ybesepar atedbychemi cal -Component
scabesepar
atedbyphysi
calmeans;
means; whichr equi r
elargeamount sofenergy;
3.Thepr opert
iesar edi
f f
erentf
rom thoseofthe -Theproper
ti
esaret
heaverageofthepropert
iesof
consti
tuentsubst ances; theconst
it
uentel
ements;
4.Areformedbychemi calmeans/ /methods;i.
e.a -Arefor
medbyphysicalmans;nonewsubstanceis
newsubst ancei sf ormedandt hereisevol
utionof for
medandt her
eisno//negl
igibl
eheatchange;
heat;
5.Format i
oninvol vesheatchanges;ei t
herl
iberati
on -Noheatchangei
nthef
ormat
ionofami
xtur
e;
orabsorption;

Namesandsymbol sofcommonel ements.

Chemicalsymbols.
-Arechemicalshor
thands,
writ
tentoref
ertoelement
s.
-Theyareusuall
ybasedonthelet
ter
softheelement;
-Chemi
calsymbol
sconsi
stofoneort
wol
ett
erswhi
char
eusual
lyder
ivat
ivesoft
heLat
inorEngl
ish
nameoftheel
ement;

Rulesi
nwr it
ingchemi calsymbols.
1.Thefir
stlettermustalwaysbeacapi t
all
ett
er;
2.Thelett
ersshouldnotbej oi
nedwit
heachother,
li
kei
nhandwri
ting;t
heymustbepr
int
ed.
3.I
fpresent,thesecondl et
terofasymbolmustbeasmalll
ett
er;

Note:Theabbreviati
onsoft hechemi calsymbolsaremainl
yderi
vat
ivesofEngl
ish,
Lat
inorGer
man
names.
Examples:
Copperisymbol i
sedasCu;der ivedfrom Cupr
um whichisl
ti
n;
 Iron;→ Fe( Ferrum –Latin)
 Pot assi
um;→ K( Kal
ium –Latin)
 Sodi um;→ Na( Natri
um –Lat i
n)
 Lead;→ Pb( Plumbum –Lat in);
-Thesymbolofeachel ementrepresentsoneatom oft
hatel
ement.
Example:
-Agrepresentsoneat om ofsilver;
-2Agrepresents2at omsofsi lver;

Somecommonel
ement
sandt
hei
rsymbol
s.
Element Lati
n//Gr eek/
/Ger
manname Symbol
Car bon - C
Fluor i
ne - F
Hydr ogen - H
Iodi ne - I
Ni t
r ogen - N
Oxygen - O
Phosphor us - P
Sul phur - S
Alumi nium - Al
Ar gon - Ar
Bar ium - Ba
Cal cium - Ca
Chl or i
ne - Cl
Hel ium - He
Magnesi um - Mg
Neon - Ne
Silicon - Si
Zinc - Zn
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferr
um Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Mer cury Hydagyrum Hg
Pot assi um Kali
um K
Silver Argentum Ag
Sodi um Natri
um Na
Gol d Aurum Au
Tin - Sn
Manganese - Mn

Import
anceofchemicalnamesandsymbol sovercommonnames.
1.Chemicalnamesandsymbolsindi
catethenamesinthecompounds.
Examples:
-Compoundswhosenamesendi n- i
de;contai
nsonlyt
woelements;
  Iron( I
I)sul
phide:ironandsul phur
;
 Magnesi um nit
ri
de:magnesi um andnit
rogen;
-Compoundswhosenamesendi n–at econt
ainthreeel
ementsandoeofthem i
soxygen;
2.Chemi calnamesar euni ver
sal
lyknownandaccept ed;henceprovi
demeanofeasycommuni
cat
ion
amongchemi stsallovertheworld;
Simplewor dequations.
Equati
ons:
-I
sal i
nearsummar yofachemi calreact
ion,
showingthereactant
sandproduct
s.
Examples:
Copper(II)oxide+hydr ogen→ copper+wat er;

Expl
anati
ons:
-Subst
ancesonthelefthandsidearecall
edreactants;
-Subst
ancesontherighthandsidearecall
edpr oducts;
-Theaddit
ionsi
gn(+)ont hel
efthandsidemeans“ r
eactswit
h”;
-Thearr
ow( →)meanst oform;
-Theaddit
ionsi
gn(+)ont heri
ghthandside(productsside)means“
and”
.

Concl
usi
on:
Copper(
II
)oxi
der
eact
swi
thhydr
ogent
ofor
m copperandwat
er;

Note:
-Somechemicalr
eact
ionsarereversi
bleandhencehavetwoopposi
tear
rows( )bet
ween
react
ant
sandproduct
s
-Thearr
ows( )i
nchemi str
ymeansar ever
sibl
echemi
calr
eact
ion;

Furt
herexamples:
1.Copper(I
I)car
bonate→ Copper(
II)oxi
de+car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;
2.Magnesium +oxygen→ magnesium oxi
de;
UNIT3:ACI DSBASESANDI NDICATORS.
Unitcheckli
st
1.Acids:
 Meani ngofaci ds;
 Or ganicaci ds
 Mi neralaci ds;
2.Bases.
 Meani ng;
3.I
ndicators.
 Meani ng;
 Pr eparationofaci d-baseindicators;
 Commer cialaci d- baseindicators;
 Col ourofi ndi cator sinacidsandbases;
 Classif i
cat ionsofsubst ancesasaci dsorbasesusingaci
dbaseindi
cat
ors;
 Theuni ver salindi cator;
 ThepHscal e;
 pHval uesofvar ioussol uti
onsi nuniver
salindi
act
or;
4.Properti
esofaci ds.
 Physi calpr operties;
 Tast e;
 Ef fectonl itmuspaper s;
 El ect r
icalconduct i
vit
y;
 Chemi cal pr operties.
 React i
onwi t
hal kali
sandbases;
 React i
onwi t
hmet al
s;
 React i
onwi t
hcar bonatesandhydrogencarbonat
es;
5.Properti
esofbases
 Physi calpr operties;
 Tast e;
 Text ure;
 Ef fectonl itmuspaper s;
 El ect r
icalconduct i
vit
y;
 Chemi cal pr operties.
 React i
onwi t
haci ds;
 Pr eci pit
ati
onofsomehydr oxi
des;
 Ef fectofheat
6.Usesofsomeaci dsandbases.
1.Acids:
-Aresubstancesthatdissol
veinwat
ert
oreleasehydr
ogeni
ons.
-Acidscaneitherbeorganicaci
dsormi
neralaci
ds;

(i
).Organi cacids:
-Areaci dsfoundi nplantsandanimals;
Exampl es:
-l
acticaci dinsourmi lk;
-Citr
icaci dincitrusfruit
sli
keoranges;
-Ethanoi cacidinvi negar;
-Tartari
caci dinbaki ngpowder;
-Met hanoicaci dinbeeandantst ings;
-Tannicaci dint ea;

(i
i)
.Mineralacids.
-Areacidsmadef r
om mi ner
alscont ai
ningel ement ssuchassul phur,
chlori
ne,ni
tr
ogenetc.
-Areformedf rom r
eactionsofchemi cals;
-Mainexampl esinclude:
 Sul phuri
c(VI)acid(H2SO4);containshydr ogen,sulphurandoxygen;
 Hydr ochlor
icacid;contai
nshydr ogenandchl orine;
 Ni t
ric(V)aci
d( HNO3);containsnitrogen,oxygenandhydr ogen;
Note:
-Mineralacidsaremor epower f
ulthanor gani cacids;becausetheyyiel
d/ /rel
easemorehydrogeni
ons
i
nwat er
-Theyaret husmor ecorrosi
ve.

2.Bases.
-Aresubstancest hatdi ssol
veinwatertoyi
eld//releasehydr
oxyli
ons;
-Justli
keacidst heyar ebitt
ertotast
e;
Examples:
-Sodium hydroxide;
-Ammoni um hydr oxide;
-Calci
um hydroxide;
Note:
-Somebasesi nsolublei nwaterwhil
esomear esolublei
nwater;
-Solubl
ebasesar ecalledalkali
s;

3.Indi
cat ors.
-Aresubst anceswhichgivedef
init
ecol oursinacidi
corbasicsol ut
ions;
-Aresubst anceswhichcanbeusedt odeterminewhet herasubstanceisanaci
dorabase;
-Consequent lyt
heyarecall
edacid-baseindicators;
-Thedet erminat
ioni
sbasedoncol ourchanges, whereeachindicat
orhavepart
icul
arcol
our
ati
onsi
n
acidsandbases.
-Indi
cator scanbecommer ci
all
yorl ocall
ypreparedint hel
aborator
y;

I
ndicator
s:
Experi
ment:pr
epar
ati
onofsi
mpl
eaci
d-basei
ndi
cat
orsf
rom f
lowerext
ract
s.
(i
).Apparat
usandchemi
cal
s.
-Testt ubes;
-Pestleandmor tar
;
-Fl
owerpet als;
-Ethanol/ /propanone;
-Wat er;
-Varioust estsolut
ions:sul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d,hydr
ochl
ori
caci
d,Et
hanoi
caci
d,sodi
um hydr
oxi
de,
magadi
soda, ammoni asol
ution.

(i
i)
.Procedure:
-Flowersfr
om select
edplantsarecoll
ectedandassembl ede.g.bougai
nvil
lea,
hibiscusetc;
-Theyarecrushedinamor tarusingapestleandsomeet hanoladdedwithcontinuedcrushing;
-Theresult
antli
quidisdecantedint
oasmal lbeaker;andit
scolourrecor
ded.
-Usingadropper,twotothreedropsoftheresultantindi
catorareaddedtothetestsolut
ions.

(
ii
i)
.Obser
vati
ons:
(
a).Col
ourofext
racti
naci
dsandbases

Pl
antext
ract Col
ouri
nhydr
ochl
ori
c Colouri
ndil
utesodi
um
aci
d hydroxi
de
1
2

(
b).Resul
twi
thvar
ioust
estsol
uti
ons:
Testsubst
ance Col
our(
change) Typeofsubst
ance(
aci
d/base)
Lemonj uice
Woodash
Ammoni a
Sourmi lk
Vinegar
Nitr
ic(V)acid
Toothpaste
Li
mewat er
Bakingpowder ;
Sugar
Potassium hydr
oxi
de

Note:
-Plantext
ractsacid-
baseindi
cat
orsarenotnor
mallyprefer
redinChemistr
yexper
iment
s.=
Reason:
-Theydon’tgiveconsist
ent(r
epr
oduci
bleresul
tsbecausetheyareimpure.
-Commer cial
indicat
orsgivemoredi
sti
ncti
veandreproducibl
eresul
ts.

Commer
ciali
ndicator
s.
-Ar
ecommerciall
yprepar
edi
ndi
cat
orswhi
char
esol
dinal
readypur
if
iedf
orms.

Advant
agesofcommer ci
ali
ndicator
s.
-Theyarer
elat
ivel
ypurehencegiveconsist
entandrepr
oducibl
er esult
s;
-Theyarer
eadil
yavai
labl
eandeasyt ostoreinaChemistr
ylaboratory;
Mainexampl es:
-Phenolpt
halein;
-Methylorange;
-Bromothymolblue;
-Li
tmuspaper ;

Note:
-Li
tmusi
sabl ueveget
abl
ecompoundwhi chi
sext
ract
edf r
om “
plant
s”call
edlichens;
-Li
tmuspaperisanadsor
bentpaperwhi
chhasbeendippedinl
it
musi ndi
catorsolut
iont
hendr
ied;

Col
our
sofvar
iouscommer
ciali
ndi
cat
orsi
naci
dsandbases.
I
ndi
cat
or Colouri
n.
Neut
ral Base Aci
d
1.Li
tmus; Purple Blue; Red;
2.Phenolphthal
ein; Colourl
ess; Pink; Colour
less;
3.Methylorange; Orange Yell
ow Pink;
4.Bromothymolbl ue Bl
ue Blue Yell
ow;

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofvar
ioussubst
ancesasaci
dsorbasesusi
ngi
ndi
cat
ors.
Subst
ance Col
ouri
n Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Li
tmus Phenol
pht
hal
ein Methylor
ange Br
omothymol
bl
ue
Hydrochlor i
c
acid
Sodium
hydroxide
Omo( det ergent
)
Soda
Actaltablets
Lemonj ui ce
Sourmi lk
Bleach( j
ik)
Freshmi lk
Woodash

Theuni versali
ndi cator.
-Isaf ul
lrangei ndicatorwhichgi
vesr angeofcoloursdependingonthest r
engthoft
heaci
doral
kal
i.=-
Itispreparedbysui t
ablemixingcert
ainindicat
ors;
-Itgivesar angeofcol ourdependingont hestr
engthofaci dsandbases;
-Eachuni versalindicatori
ssuppli
edwi thachart,t
of aci
li
tatet
hiscl
assif
icati
on.

ThepHscal e.
-Isascaleofnumber swhichshowsthest r
engthofacidsorbases.
-Itr
efer
stot hepotenti
al(
power)ofhydrogen;
-Itr
angesfrom 0–1 4;
-Todeterminethestrengt
hofanacidorbase, t
hecolouritgi
vesinuni
ver
sali
ndi
cat
orssol
uti
oni
s=
comparedtot heshadesonthepHc hartofthei
ndicat
or;
Di
agr
am:ThepHscal
e.

Note:
-Thestrongestaci
dhasapHof1;
-Thestrongestal
kalihasapHof14;
-Neutr
alsubstanceshaveapHof7;
-AnypHl essthan7i saci
dicsol
uti
on;whi
leanypHabove7i
sforaal
kal
ine/basi
csol
uti
on;

Col
ourandpHofvar
ioussol
uti
onsi
nuni
ver
sali
ndi
cat
or;
Substance Col
our pHonchar
t Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion
Hydrochlori
cacid
Sodium hydroxi
de
Omo( detergent
)
Soda
Actaltablet
s
Lemonj uice
Sourmi lk
Bleach(ji
k)
Freshmi l
k
Woodash

Proper
ti
esofaci ds.
(a)
.Physicalproper
ti
es.
1.Theyhaveasourt aste.
Examples:
-Thesourt ast
eofcitr
icfr
uit
sisduetotheci
tr
icaci
dint
hem.
-Thesourt ast
einsourmilkisduet
olacti
cacid;

2.Theytur
nbl
ueli
tmust
ored;
-Redli
tmuswi
llr
emainr
edinaci
dicsol
uti
on;bl
uel
it
muswi
llt
urnr
ed;

3.El
ectr
icalconducti
vit
y;
-Aci
dsconductelectri
ccur r
entwhendissolvedinwater;
-Thi
sisbecauset heydissol
veinwatertoreleasehydrogeni
ons;whi
char
etheonest
hatconduct
el
ect
riccurrent
;

4.Thydest
roycl
othi
ngwhenst
rong;i
.e.t
heyatawaycl
othi
ngmat
eri
all
eavi
nghol
esi
nit
;

5.Strongaci dsarecor r
osive;henceabletobur nplantandanimalt
issues;
Chemi calproperti
es.
1.React i
onwi thalkali
sadbases.
-Acidsr eactwithalkali
stof or
m saltandwat eronl
y;
-Theset ypesofr eacti
onsar ecaledneut
l rali
zati
onr eacti
ons;
-Thehydr ogeni onsoft heacidreactwit
ht hehydroxylionoftheal
kalit
oform wat
er;
-Thenameoft hesaltisusuallyderi
vedfrom theacid;
Exampl
es:
Aci
d Der
ivat
ivesal
t
Sul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d Sul
phates;
Hydrochlori
cacid Chl
orides
Nit
ri
c( V)acid Nit
rat
es;
Phosphor i
cacid Phosphates;

Summar
y:
Aci
d+base(
al )→ sal
kal
i t+wat
er;(
aneut
ral
izat
ionr
eact
ion)
;

Examples:
1.Sodi
um hydroxi
de+Hydrochl
ori
caci
d→ Sodium chl
ori
de+water
;
2.Cal
cium oxi
de+Sulphur
ic(VI d→ cal
)aci cium sul
phat
e+water
;

2.React
ionwit
hmetal
s;
-Aci
dsreactwit
hsomemet
alst
opr
oducehydr
ogen;

Exampl es:Reacti
onwi t
hdilut
ehydrochlor
icacidandzi
ncmet
al;
Procedur e:
-2cm3ofhydr ochlori
cacidisputi
nat esttube;
-Aspat ulaend-f
ullofzi
ncpowderisadded.
-Abur ningspli
ntisloweredinthet
esttube.

Observati
ons.
-Eff
ervescenceofacol
ourl
essgas;
-Thecolourl
essgasburnswit
hapopsound;

Expl
anat
ions.
-Zi
ncmetaldi
splacest hehydrogenionsintheaci
dwhichfor
mt hehydrogengas;
-Whenaglowingsplintisi
ntroducedintothehydr
ogengas;i
tburnswit
hapopsound;
-Thi
sist
hechemi caltesttoconfi
rmt hatagasishydr
ogen;

Conclusi
on;
-Thegasproducedishydr
ogengas;
-Thus,aci
dsreactwi
thsomemetalst
opr
oducehydr
ogengas,
andasal
t;

Generalequat
ion:
Metal+Dilut
eacid→ sal
t+Hydr
ogengas;

React
ionequati
on:
Zi
nc+Hydr ochl
ori
caci
d→ Zi
ncchl
ori
de+Hydr
ogenchl
ori
de;

Furt
herexamples:
i
.Magnesium +Dil
utesul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d→ magnesi
um sul
phate+hydr
ogengas;
i
i.Magnesium +Di
lut
eHydrochl
ori
caci
d→ magnesi
um chl
ori
de+Hydrogengas;

3.Reacti
onwi t
hcarbonat
esandhydrogencar
bonat
es.
-Metalcarbonat
esandhydrogencar
bonatesr
eactwi
thaci
dst
ofor
m car
bon(
IV)oxi
de,
wat
erandasal
t;

Generalequati
on:
Metalcarbonate+Dilut
eacid→ Asal
t+wat
er+car
bon(I
V)oxide;
Metalhydrogencarbonate+Di
lut
eaci
d→ Asal
t+water+car
bon( I
V)oxi
de;

Examples:React
ionofsodi
um car
bonat
ewi
thdi
lut
ehydr
ochl
ori
caci
d.
Procedur
e:
-About2cm3ofdilut
ehydr ochl
ori
cacidisputinatestt
ube;
-Aspatulaend-
ful
lofsodium car
bonatepowderisthenadded;
-Aburningspli
nti
scarefull
ylower
edintothetestt
ube.

Appar
atus.

Obser
vati
ons.
-Aneff
ervescenceoccur
s(bubbl
es)
;andacolour
lessgasispr
oduced;
-Thecol
ourlessgasdoesnotrel
i
ghtagl
owingspli
nt;showi
ngthati
tiscar
bon(
IV)oxi
de;

Propert
iesofbases.
Note:
-Basesaresubstancesthatrel
easehydr
oxyli
onswhenaddedt
owat
er;
-Solubl
ebasesar ecal
ledalkal
is;

Exampl
es:
Sodi
um hydr
oxi er→ Sodi
de+Wat um i
ons+hydr
oxyl
ions;

(a)
.Physicalproperti
esofbases
1.Theyarebittertotaste;
2.Theyareslipperyorsoapyt ofeel;
3.Theyturnlit
musbl ue;
4.Theyconductel ectr
icit
y/elect
riccur
rent
.Thisisbecausewhent
heyar
eaddedt
owat
ert
heyr
elease=
hydroxyl
ionswhi char etheonesthatconductel
ectr
ici
ty;

(b)
.Chemicalpropert
ies.
1.Reacti
onwithacids.
-Theyreactwit
hacidst oform asaltandwaterast
heonl
yproducts;
-Thisi
saneut r
ali
zati
onr eact
ion;andisusedtocurei
ndi
gest
ion;

Exampl
e:
-Act
alt
abl
etscont
ainabaset
hatneut
ral
i
zest
hest
omachaci
d.

2.Theyprecipit
atesomemetalhydr
oxides.
-Addit
ionofsomeal kal
ist
osaltsol
uti
onsresul
tsinformat
ionofsoli
ds;
-Mostoft hesearenormal
lyhydr
oxi
des;
-Asoli
dt hatisfor
medwhent wosolut
ionsaremixediscal
ledapreci
pit
ate;

Example:
-Copper(
II)sul
phat
e+Sodi
um hydr de→ Copper(
oxi II
)hydr
oxi
de+Sodi
um sul
phat
esol
uti
on;
Bl
uesol
i
d;
3.Ef
fect
sofheat.
-Mostmetalhydr
oxi
desar
edecomposedbyheatt
ofor
mthei
roxi
desandwat
er;

Generalequat
ion:
Metalhydr deHeat
oxi Met
aloxi
de+Wat
er;

Example:
Zinchydr
oxi
de→ Zi
ncoxi
de+wat
er;

Applicati
onsofaci dsandbases.
Applicati
onofaci ds
1.Manuf actureofaerat eddri
nks;
2.Cleaningmet alsurfacestoremoveoxi del ayer;
3.Sulphuric(VI)acidisusedi ncarbatt
eriest ostoreandproduceelect
ri
cit
y;
4.Treatmentofsomei nsectbi
tes.
Exampl es:
-Waspandbeest ingscanbet reat
edbyappl yingvinegar(
Ethanoi
cacid)orlemonj
uice;
-Theseaci di
csubst ancesneut r
ali
zetheal kali
neinsectsti
ngs;

Usesofbases.
1.Manufactur
eofant
i-
acidt
ablet
stoneut
ral
izeaci
dindi
gest
ionse.
g.actal
;
2.Cal
cium oxi
deadcal
cium chl
ori
dear
eusedt odr
ygasesinthel
aborat
ory;
UNIT4:AI RANDCOMBUSTI ON.
Checkli
st.
1.Component s
2.Deter
mi nat i
onofper cent ageoft heact i
vepar tofair
.
 Bur ningcandl e.
 Heat ingcoppert ur ni
ngs;
 Heat ingmagnesi um t urni
ngs.
 Smoul der ingofwhi t
ephosphor us.
 Rust ingofi r
on;
3.Deter
mi nat i
onofpr esenceofwat erandcar bon( I
V)oxideinwat
er.
4.Fract
ional dist ill
ationofl iquidair.
5.Rusti
ng
 Meani ngandf ormul a;
 Condi tionsnecessar yf orrusting;
 Pr eventionofr ust i
ng;
6.Oxygen
 Labor at orypr epar ati
onofoxygengas;
 Chemi cal testf oroxygengas;
 Alternat ivemet hodsofoxygenpr epar
ation;
 Addi ti
onofwat ert osoli
dsodi um peroxi
de;
 Heat ingpot assium manganat e(VI
I)soli
d.
 Useofoxygen
7.Burni
ngsubst ancesi nai r ;
 Changesi nmass;
 Bur ningsubst ancesi noxygen;
 Met als;
 Non- met als;
 React ivityser ies;
8.Compet it
ionf oroxygenamongmet als;
9.Appli
cat i
onsf ort hecompet i
ti
onf oroxygen;
10.Atmospher icpol l
ut i
on.
Int
roduct
ion:
-Airi
sagaseousmi
xtur
econst
it
utedofsever
algases,
wat
ervapourandpol
lut
ant
s.

Combusti
on:
-I
stheburni
ngofsubst
ances,
usual
lyinpr
esenceofai
r//oxygen;
-Dur
ingcombust
iononl
ytheoxygencomponentofai
risused;.
etheact
ivepar
tofai
r.

Per
cent
agecomposi
ti
onofai
r.
Component Percentagevol
ume.
Nit
rogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon( I
V)oxide 0.
03%
Noblegases( argon) About1%
Watervapour Variabl
e
Smoke/ dustparti
cles Variabl
e;
Others Trace

Not
e:
-Fr
om t
henobl
egasesar
goni
sthemostabundant
,const
it
uti
ngabout0.
93%o
ftheent
ir
e1%

Oxygenandcombust ion.
-Whensubst ancesburninairt
heyconsumeoxygen.
-Thustheprocessofcombust ionuti
li
zesmai nl
yoxygen;
-Thereacti
onsincombust i
onar enormall
yexothermic(giveoutheat
)andof teni
nvol
veflame.=N
ot
e:
Combustioninwhichaf l
amei susediscalledburni
ng;
-I
ncombust ionifal
ltheoxygeninagi venvolumeofairisused,thef
inalvolumeofairr
educesby=
about21.0%;
-Si
nceoxygeni stheonlyconstit
uentofairpart
ici
pat
ingincombust i
onitstermedtheacti
vepar
tofai
r.

Experi
ment s:Determinati
onoftheact
ivepar
tofai
r.
1.Burningcandleinai r
.
Apparatusandr equir
ement s.
-Candle;
-Cork/evapor at
ingdish;
-Sodium hydroxidesoluti
on;

Procedure:
-Acandl eabout3cm longi sputonawi decork/evaporat
ingdish;
-Iti
sthenf l
oatedi
nadi lutesoluti
onofsodium hydroxi
desolutionjustabovethebeehi
veshelf
;
-Iti
scar ef
ull
ycoveredwi thadry100cm3measur ingcyli
nder,duri
ngwhi chthelevel
ofsol
uti
onint
he=
cyli
nderisnotedandmar ked;
-Themeasur ingcyl
inderisr emovedandthecandl eli
t;
-Thelighti
ngcandleisthencover edwit
hameasur ingcyl
inder;
-Theexper i
mentisall
owedt oproceedunti
lthecandlegoesof f
;

Obser
vati
ons:
-Thecandl
ewentoffaft
ersometi
me;
-Thesodi
um hydr
oxidel
eveli
nsi
dethegasj
arri
ses;
-Thesodi
um hydr
oxidel
eveli
nthetr
oughgoesdown;
Di
agr
ams:

Expl
anat i
ons:
-Thecandl ewaxi smadeupofhydr ogenandcar bon,hencecal ledahydrocarbon;
-Duri
ngbur ni
ngitmel t
si nai
rconsumingoxygenandpr oducingcar bon(I
V)oxideandwatervapour
;=-
Thewat ervapourcondensesgi vinganegligi
blevolumeofwat er;
-Theresul t
antcarbon( I
V)oxideisabsorbedbyt hesodium hydr oxi
de;
-Absorpti
onofcar bon( IV)oxi
deinthegasj arcreat
esapar ti
al vacuum wit
hinit;
-Thesodi um hydroxideinthetr
oughr i
sestof i
l
ltheresult
antspace;andhenceadr opi
nthesodium=
hydr
oxidel eveli
nt hetough;

Conclusi
on.
-Oxygenistheactivepar
tofai
rthatisut
il
izedduri
ngbur ni
ng;
-Airi
sbasicall
ymadeupof2par ts;anacti
vepartthatsuppor
tsbur
ningandani
nact
ivepar
tthatdoes=
notsupportburni
ng;

2.Quantit
ativedet
erminati
onofper
cent
ageofoxygeni
nai
r.
Apparatusandchemi cal
s.
-Tough;
-Beehive;
-Candleandgasj ar;
-A30ml r
uler;
-Sodium hydroxi
desoluti
on;

Procedure:
-Theentireappar at
usisarrangedasshownbel ow;
-Anempt ygasj arisinver
tedovert hecandlebefor
eli
ght
ingit;
-Theinit
ialheightA,ismeasur edandrecorded;
-Thegasj aristhenremoved;t hecandleli
tandcoveredwitht
hegasj aragai
n;
-Thesetupi sal l
owedt or
unt i
llthecandleexti
ngui
shes(goesoff
);andthefi
nalhei
ght(
B)oft
heai
r=
columnmeasur ed.

Di
agr
ams
Cal
culations:
-Amountofai rint hegasjariniti
aly=Acm3;
l
-Fi
nalamountofai rr
emainingaf t
erburning;=Bcm3;
-Amountofoxygenused;=( A–B)
Thus;
Percentageofoxygeni nai r
:=(A–B)x10
A
=C%
Sampl edata:
Volumeofai rint hegasjarbeforeburning=
Volumeofai rint hegasjarafterburni
ng=
Volumeofai ruseddur ingburning=
Percentageofai r(byvolume)usedup=Vol umeusedi nbur
ningx100
Ori
ginal (
ini
ti
al)vol
ume
Substi
tuting:

Concl
usi
on:
-Whencandl
ebur
nsi
nai
r,about20%ofai
r,whi
chi
soxygenusedup;

3.Determinat
ionofper
cent
ageofai
rusedupi
nrust
ing.
Apparatus:
-Gasjar;
-Trough;
-Beehive;
-I
ronf i
ll
ings/
/powder

Procedure:
-Thegasj arisdivi
dedi ntofiveequalporti
onsbymar kingaroundi
tusi
ngawat erproofmarker;
-Thegasj ariswetneart hebot tom andsomei r
onfil
li
ngsspr i
nkl
edonit;
-Somewat eri
sputi nat roughandt hejarwit
hironfil
li
ngs//wool//powderinvert
edoverit;
-Theinit
ialcolourofir
onf i
ll
ingsisnoted;
-Thesetupi sleftundisturbedforaf ewdaysuntilt
hewat ershowsnofurt
herchangei nr
isi
ng;

Di
agr
amsofappar
atussetup:

Obser
vat
ions:
-Their
onfil
l
ingschangecolourf
rom agr eyt
oform abrownsol
id;
-Waterl
eveli
nthegasjarri
ses//increasesunt
ilt
hefi
rstmarki
nthegasj
ar;
-Thewaterl
eveli
nthetroughdecreases;

Expl
anations:
-Thegasj ari
smoi stenedtomaket heir
onf i
l
lingsst
ickont oit
ssurfacesothatthefi
ll
i
ngsdonotfall
in=
thewaterwhent hegasj arisinverted;
-Thebrownsubst ancef ormedi scal l
edrustanditschemi calnameishydratedir
on(II
I)oxi
de;
-Duri
ngrust i
ng,oxygeni suti
l
ized, thuscreat
ingapar t
ialvacuum inthegasjar;
-Thi
scausest hewat erleveli
nt hegasj artoriseupandt hewat erl
eveli
nthetroughtogodown;
-Theri
sei nwaterlevelisequivalenttoabout1/ 5oftheor i
ginalai
rvolume,whichtr
anslat
estoabout=
20%;

Concl
usi
on:
-Whenrust
ingoccur
sabout20%o
fai
r,whi
chi
soxygen,
isusedup;

4.Deter
mi nationofper
centageofai
rusedupwhenai
rispassedoverheat
edcopper
.=
Apparat
usandchemi cals.
-Two100cm3syr i
ngeslabel
edYandY;
-Hardglasst estt
ube;
-Glasswool’;
-Bunsenbur ner;
-Copperturnings;

Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofcoppert
urningsisputinahardglasst ubeandglasswool
putatbot
hendsofthe=
tube;
-Allt
heai ri
nthesyr
ingeYisremovedbypushi ngtheplungerinsi
de,uponwhi
chthesyr
ingei
sti
ghtl
y=
fi
xedatoneendoft hetube/
/glasstube;
-Theplungerofsyri
ngeZispull
edoutt othe100cm3mar k;tof
il
litwit
hair
.=
Theappar at
usisarr
angedasbel ow.

Di
agr
am:

-Thetubecontai
ningcopperturni
ngsisstr
onglyheat
ed;
-Airi
sthenpassedovert hehotcoppert
urni
ngsbyslowlypushi
ngthepl
ungerZt
oandf
rof
orsever
al=
ti
mes.
Reason:
-Ensurecomplet
er eact
ionbetweenthehotcoppert
urni
ngsandoxygen(
air
);

-Whennof
urt
herairchangeinvol
umeofairi
nthesyr
ingeoccur
s,t
heappar
atusi
sal
lowedt
ocool
;=-
Thevol
umeofai
rlefti
nsyri
ngeZisrecor
ded;

Obser
vati
ons:
-Thebrownsol
id(copper
)tur
nsi
ntoablacksoli
d(copper(I
I)oxi
de)
;
-Thepl
ungerofsyri
ngeZmovesinwar
dst oapproxi
mately80cm3mark;
Expl
anati
ons:
-Theheatedcopperreactedwit
hoxygeni
nai
rtoform bl
ackcopper(
II
)oxi
de;
-Thepercentageofoxygenthatwasi
ntheai
risappr
oximatel
y20%,causi
ngt
hepl
ungert
omove
i
nwardstot he80cm3mar k;

Equat
ion:
Copper+Oxygen→ Copper(
II
)oxi
de;
(
Brown) (
Col
our
less) (
Black)

2Cu(s)+O2(g)→ 2CuO(s)
Br
own (
Col
our
less) (
Black)

Conclusion:
-Burningofcopperi
nai
rut
il
izesoxygenandpr
oducesbl
ackcopper(
II
)oxi
de.

Sampl eresul
tsandcalculati
ons:
-I
niti
alairvolumeinsyrngeZ=cm3;
i
-Fi
nalai rvol
umei nsyr
ingeZ=cm3;
-Volumeofai rused=(100–80)=20cm3;
Percentageofoxygeninai r=20x100=20%;
100

4.Deter
mi nati
onofper
centageofairusedupwhenai ri
spassedoverheat edMagnesi
um.
-Whent hesamesetupi susedtoinvest
igatethepercent
ageofai rusedupincombusti
onof
magnesium thevolumeofairusedupisrelati
vel
yhigherthant he20%.
Reason:
Magnesium producesalotofheatduri
ngcombust i
onandt husreact
swithbot
hoxygenandnit
rogent
o
for
mt wopr oduct
s;magnesium oxi
deandmagnesi um nitr
iderespecti
vel
y;

Obser
vati
ons:
-Magnesium gl
owsgivi
ngabri
ghtbli
ndi
ngfl
ame;
-For
mationofamixtureoft
wowhitepowder
s.

Equat
ions:
React
ionwithoxygen:
Magnesium +Oxygen→ Magnesi
um oxi
de;
(
Grey) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

2Mg(s)+O2(g)→ 2MgO(s)
(
Grey) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

React
ionwithni
tr
ogen:
Magnesium +Ni
trogen→ Magnesi
um ni
tr
ide;
(
Grey) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

3Mg(s)+N2(g)→ Mg3N2(s)
(
Grey) (
Col
our
less) (
Whi
te)

Note:
-Sodi
um metalwi
llal
soreactwit
hbot
hoxygenandni
tr
ogendur
ingcombust
ion;f
ormi
ngsodi
um oxi
de
andsodi
um nit
ri
derespect
ivel
y;
5.Smoul der
ingofwhi t
ephosphorus.
Apparatusandr equi
rements.
-Graduatedmeasur i
ngcyli
nder;
-Watertough/ /pneumati
ct r
ough;
-Copperwi r
e;
-Whitephosphor us;

Procedure:
-Anempt ymeasur i
ngcyli
nderi
sinvert
edinawat ert
roughandthewaterl
evelnot
ed;
-Asmal lpi
eceofwhi t
ephosphorusisatt
achedtotheendofapieceofcopperwir
ethenput/
/inser
ted
i
ntotheinvertedmeasuri
ngcyli
nderensuringi
tisabovethewat
er;
-Thesetupi slef
tundist
urbedf
or24hour s;

Precaut
ion:
-Avoidcont
actwit
hthephosphor
us;
-Avoidi
nhalat
ionoft
hefumes;

Observati
ons:
-Whitefumesinsidet
hecylinderatt
hestar
toftheexper
iment;
-Aft
er24hour s:
-waterl
eveli
nsidethemeasuri
ngcyli
nderr
ises;
-Waterl
eveli
nt hetr
oughdrops;

Explanati
ons:
-Yell
oworwhi tephosphorussmoulder
sinai
r;duetothef
actthatphosphor
usreactswithoxygento
form phosphor
usoxides;
-Thephosphorusoxidesarethewhit
efumes;
-Thephosphorusoxidesthendissol
vesinwater
;for
mingaci
dicsolut
ionsofphosphori
cacids;
-Thewat erl
evelri
sesinsi
dethecyli
ndert
ooccupythevol
umeofoxygenusedupi nreacti
onwith
phosphorus;

Equati
ons:
Phosphorus+Oxygen→ Phosphor
us(
V)oxi
de
Whi
te/
/yel
low Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes

P4(s)+5O2(g)→ 2P2O5(g);
White Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes
Yel
low

Phosphor
us+Oxygen→ Phosphor
us(
II
I)oxi
de
Whi
te/
/yel
low Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes

P4(s)+3O2(g)→ 2P2O3(g);
White Col
our
less Whi
tef
umes
Yel
low

Conclusion:
-Phosphor ussmolder
seasil
yinair
,react
ingwi
thoxygen(act
ivepartofair
)tofor
m phosphor
us(I
II
)or
phosphor us(V)oxi
de;
-Forthisreasonphosphor
usisstoredunderwat
er;t
opreventitf
rom react
ingwit
hatmospheri
coxygen;

Note:
-Thisr
eact
ioncanbemademuchf
ast
erbyheat
ingt
hecopperwi
re;whi
chwi
llt
ransmi
theatt
othe
pi
eceofphosphorusattheti
p,causingrapi
dburningofphosphor
ust
ogi
vedensewhi
tef
umesof
phosphor
us(V)oxide//phosphorus(I
II
)oxides;

Testforevi
denceofsomecomponent
sofai
r.
1.Watervapour.
(i
).Formati
onofdew;

(i
i)
.Whenwhiteanhydr
ouscopper( I
I)sul
phatei
slefti
ntheopenoverni
ght;i
tfor
msabl
uesol
idof
hydrat
edcopper(
II
)sul
phate;
Reason:
-Thewhit
eanhydrouscopper(I
I)sulphat
eabsorbsatmospher
icwatervapour
;
-Uponhydrat
iont
hecopper(II
)sulphatetur
nsblue;

(i
ii
).Sodi
um hydroxidepell
etsfor
m acol
ourl
esssol
uti
onwhenlefti
ntheopenai
rover
night
.
Reason:
-Thesodium hydroxidepel
letsabsor
bsat
mospheri
cwatervapouranddi
ssol
vesi
nitf
ormingsodi
um
hydroxi
desolut
ion;

(
iv).Whenairi
spassedthroughanhydr
ouscal
cium hydr
oxi
desol
idi
naU-
tubef
orsomet
ime;t
her
eis
for
mat i
onofacol
ourlesssolut
ioni
ntheU-t
ube.
Apparatus:

Reason:
-Theanhydrouscal
cium chl
ori
deabsor
bsat
mospher
icwat
ervapourf
ormi
ngacol
our
lesssol
uti
onof
cal
cium chl
ori
de;

Equati
on:
Cal
cium chl
ori
de+wat
er→ cal
cium chl
ori
desol
uti
on;
Whi
te Col
our
lesssol
uti
on;

Note:
-Substancesthatabsor
bmoi st
urefrom theai
rtoform acol
ourl
esssoluti
onar
ecall
eddeliquescent=
substances.
-Otherexamplesofdeli
quescentsubstancesi
nclude:i
ron(I
II
)chlor
ide,
magnesium chl
ori
deandzi nc=
chl
oride;

2.Carbon(I
V)oxide.
(i
).Gl
assstoppersofreagentbott
lescont
aini
ngsodium hydr
oxidesol
uti
ont
endt osti
ckwhenlef
tonf
or=
sometimeinthelaborat
ory;
Reason:
-Thesodium hydroxi
desoluti
onattheedgesofthestopperi
sexposedtoai
r;andthusreact
swit
h=
atmospheri
ccarbon(IV)oxidefor
mingwhitesodium car
bonatesol
id.

Equati
on:
Sodium hydr
oxide+Car bon( I de→ Sodi
V)oxi um car
bonat
e+Wat
er;
2NaOH(aq)+CO2(g)→ Na2CO3(s)+H2O(l);
(i
i)
.Bubbli
ngatmospher
icai
rthr
oughl
imewat
er(
cal
cium hydr
oxi
de)t
ofor
m awhi
tei
nsol
ubl
esal
tof
cal
cium car
bonat
e.

Appar
atus:

Reason:
-Atmospheri
ccarbon( I
V)oxidereact
swi
thl
imewat
er(
cal
cium hydr
oxi
de)t
ofor
m awhi
tei
nsol
ubl
e
preci
pit
ateofcal
cium carbonat
esalt;

Equati
on:
Cal
cium hydr
oxi
de+Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de→ Cal
cium car
bonat
e+Wat
er;

Ca(
OH)aq)+C
2( O2(g)→ CaCO3(s)+H2O(l);

Note:
-Whent heairisbubbl
edonevenafterthefor
mati
onofthewhit
epreci
pitat
e;t
hewhit
epr ecipi
tat
e
dissol
vesaftersometi
metoform acolourl
esssol
uti
on;
Reason:
-Excesscarbon( I
V)oxi
der
eactswiththecalci
um car
bonat
etofor
m solubl
ecalci
um hydrogen
carbonate.

Equati
on:
Cal
cium car
bonat
e+Wat
er+Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de→ Cal
cium hydr
oxi
desol
uti
on;

CaCO3(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)→ Ca(
HCO3)
2( ;
aq)

Fracti
onaldistil
lati
onofLi quefi
edai r
.
-Airisami xtureofgases;
-Itcanbesepar at
edi ntoitsconst i
tuent
sbyfracti
onaldist
il
lat
ionofli
quidair.
-Duringthepr ocessai rispassedt hroughaseriesofstepsduringwhichitispurif
ied,
some
component sel i
minatedt heni ti
scompr essedintol
iqui
dpr i
ortofract
ionaldist
il
lat
ion.
-Thepr ocesscanbedi vi
dedi ntotwomai nst
ages;
Purif
icati
onandl iquefacti
on;
Fracti
onal dist
ill
ationofai r
;

(a).Puri
fi
cati
onandl i
quef
action.
Step1:Pur i
fi
cati
on:
-Theai ri
spurifi
edbyremovalofdustparti
cles;
-Thi si
sdonet hr
oughthefoll
owingways:
 Passagethroughfi
lt
ers;duri
ngwhichairi
spassedthr
oughaseriesoffi
lt
ers;t
hedustpar
ti
cles
remainwithi
nthefi
lt
erswhiledustfr
eeairpassesont
othenextstage;
  Elect
rost
ati
cpreci
pitat
ionwher
eai
rispassedt
hroughchar
gedel
ect
rodeswhi
cht
rapopposi
tel
y
chargeddustpart
icl
es;

Step2:Removalofcar bon(I
V)oxide.
-Thedust -f
reeairispassedthr
oughachambercontainingcalci
um hydr oxi
desolut
ion;
-Thesodi um hydroxidesol
uti
ondissol
vesthecar
bon(IV)oxidepr esentint
heair
;
-Duringther eact
ion,sodi
um car
bonateandwaterar
ef ormed;
-Overapr olongedt i
me;thesodi
um carbonat
eabsor
bsmor e( excess)carbon(I
V)oxidefor
mingsodi
um
hydrogencar bonate;

Equati
ons:
Sodium hydr
oxide+car bon(IV)oxide→ Sodi
um car
bonat
e+Wat
er;
2NaOH(aq)+CO2(g)→ Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l);

I
nexcess;
Sodium carbonat e+Wat er+Carbon(IV)oxi de→ Sodi
um hydr
ogencar
bonat
e;
Na2CO3(aq)+H2O(l)+CO2(g)→ 2NaHCO3(aq);

Step3:Removalofwat ervapour ;
-Thedust -
fr
ee,CO2–f reeai
rist hencooledto-25oC;
-Thisprocesssolidi
fiesthewat ervapouroutasice;
-Thiscooli
ngpr ocessmaybedoneatt emperaturesaslowas- 80;soastosoli
dif
yanycar
bon(I
V)
oxide(f
reezingpoint-78oC)thatmayhaveescapedabsor pt
ionbythesodium hydr
oxi
de;
-Theremovalofwat ervapourandcar bon(IV)oxidearei
mpor t
antbecausei
tprevent
sbl
ockageoft
he
pi
pesint herestofthesystem;

Step4:Liquef actionofair
;
-Thedr y,dust-f
reeandcar bon( IV)oxide-
freeairi
scompr essedtoabout100at mospheresofpressure;
causingittowar m;
-Thecompr essedai riscooledbyr efr
iger
ation;
-Thecol dcompr essedairismadet oexpandr api
dlybypassagethroughanozzl ewhichcoolsitf
urther
;
-Ther epeatedcompr essi
on, cooli
ngandexpansi onofaircausesitt
oliquef
yatabout- 200oC:
Note:
Atthi
st emper atur eonl
yneonandhel ium whoseboi l
ingpoi
ntsrelowerthan-200oCremainingaseous
stat
es;

(b).Fr actionaldisti
llati
on;
-Thel iquidairnowconsi st
sonl yofnitr
ogen,oxygenandnoblegases(especial
lyargon)
;
-Thel iquidairisfedatt hebottom ofaf r
acti
onati
ngcolumn;
-Itiswar medt oat emper atureof-192oC;
-Nitrogendi sti
lsoverf astat-196oCbecausei thasalowerboi
li
ngpoi nt
;andiscollect
edatthetopofthe
fractionat i
ngcol umn;
Not e:
-Anyvapour sofoxygenandar gonwhi chri
setogetherwi
thnit
rogenvapourcondensei nthecolumn
andf allbackasl iquids;
heni t
rogencol l
ect edis99%pur e;
Thesmal lamount sofi mpur i
ti
esincludeneonandhel i
um;
-Thel iquidsr emainingatt hebot t
om ofthefracti
onati
ngcol
umnaf tervapor
izat
ionofallnit
rogenis
mai
nlyoxygenandar
gon;wi
tht
racesofkr
ypt
onandxenon;

-Theli
quidisagainwar medfurthertoat emper atur 185oC;causi
eof- ngt
hevapour
izat
ionofar
gon
whoseboili
ngpoi ntis-186oC;
-Thi
siscollectedasagasatt hetopoft hef racti
onati
ngcolumn;
-Theresi
duel i
quidismai nlyoxygenwi t
hmi nutequantit
iesofkrypt
onandxenonwhichhaveevenhi
gh
boi
li
ngpoints;
-Theoxygeni sdrainedoffandst oredaspr essurizedoxygeninsteelcyl
inder
s;

Usesoftheproducts:
Oxygen;
-Usedinhospit
alswi t
hpati
ent
swithbreat
hingdiffi
cul
ti
es;
-I
tisusedbymount ai
ncli
mbersanddeep-seadiversf
orbreat
hing;
-I
tisusedtoburnf uel
s;
-I
tiscombinedwithacetyl
enetofor
m oxy-acet
ylenefl
amewhi chisusedi
nwel
ding;
-Duri
ngsteelmakingoxygenisusedtoremovecar bonimpuri
ti
es;

Nit
rogen:
-Manuf act
ureofammoni a;
-Usedinl i
ghtbul
bs;becauseofit
siner
tnatur
eitdiesnotr
eactwit
hthef
il
ament
;
-Asar efri
ger
ante.g.st
orageofsemenforart
if
ici
alinsemi
nat
ion;

Rusti
ng.
-I
sthecorrosi
onofir
oninpresenceofoxygenandmoist
uretof
orm br
ownhydr
atedir
on(I
II
)oxi
de;
-Thechemicalnamerusti
stheref
orehydrat
edir
on(I
II
)oxidewi
tht
heformul
aFe2O3.
2H2O;
-Rustit
sel
fisabrownporoussubstance;

Di
sadvant
ageofr
usti
ng:
-I
tweakenst
hestr
uctur
eoft
hemet
al(
ir
on)andhenceevent
ual
lydest
royst
hem.

Exper
iment
:Toshowt
hecondi
ti
onsnecessar
yforr
ust
ing.

Exper
iment Procedure Observat
ion Explanat
ion
-Twocl eanironnail
sareputi
nsi
de -Ironnai
lsturn -Thereispresenceofbot
h
thetesttube; brownimplying oxygenandwat er;
1 -10cm3oft apwaterar
ethenadded; therei
srusting;
-Examinef ortwodays;

-Twocl eanironnai
lsar
eaddedtothe -Norust
ing -Ther ei swat erbutnooxygenso
testtube; occur
s; nor ust i
ngoccur ;
-10cm3ofboi l
edhotwateri
sadded -Boi l
ingt hewat err emovesany
folowedbyabout3cm3ofoi
l l
; dissolvedoxygen;
2
-Exami nefortwodays; -Addi tionoft heoi lont op
prevent sdi ssolution/ /ent r
yof
anyai rcont ai
ningoxygeni nto
thewat er;
-Twocl eanironnai
lsareaddedtot
he -Norust
ing -Ther ei snoai r/ /oxygenbutno
testtube; occur
s; wat er;
-Pushapi eceofcottonwoolhal
fway -Anhydr ouscal ci um chl or
ide
thetesttube; absor bsanymoi sturef ormthe
3
-Placesomeanhydr ouscalci
um airint hetestt ube;
chlori
deoni tandcorkthet
ube -Cor kingt hetubet i
ghtly
ti
ghtly; prevent smor emoi sturef r
om the
-Exami nefortwodays; atmospher efrom get t
ingintothe
 tubeasthecal ci
um chl
oridemay
getsaturatedandall
owmoi stur
e
i
ntot henails;
-Twocleanironnai
lsar
eaddedt
othe -Somelit
tl
e -Aircontainsandoxygenand
testt
ube; rust
ingoccur
s; somemoi stur
ethatwil
lfaci
li
tat
e
4
-Examinefortwodays; rusti
ng;

-Twocleanironnai
lsar
eaddedt
othe Rusti
ngoccurs; -Rusti
ngoccursduetopr esence
testt
ube; andatafaster ofbothwaterandoxygeni nthe
-Addsalt
ywat er
; rat
ethantherest
; salt
ywater;
5 -Examinefortwodays; -Rusti
ngisfast
erbecauset he
salt
ywatercontai
nsionswhi ch
gainel
ectr
onshencef aci
li
tate
fast
eroxi
dati
onofiron;

Summar
ydi
agr
ams

Furtherexpl
anat
ions:
-Dur i
ngrust
ingt
hef i
rststepist
heoxi
dat
ionofi
ronb7yxygen(
int
heai
r)t
ofor
m anhydr
ousi
ron(
II
I)
oxide;
Equation:
Ir
on+Oxygen→ I r
on( I
II
)oxide;

4Fe(s)+3O2(g)→ 2Fe2O3(s);

-Theanhydr
ousion(II
I)oxi
det
henundergoeshydr
ati
onwi t
hwat
ert
ofor
m br
ownhydr
atedi
ron(
II
I)
oxi
de;
Equat
ion:
Anhydrousi
ron(
III
)oxi
de+Wat er→ Hydr
atedir
on(II
I)oxi
de.
Bl
ack Br
own;

-Rusti
ngoccursfasterinsaltyconditi
ons;
Reason:
-Theini
ti
alstepist
heoxi dati
onofi ron,fr
om iron(
II
)ions(Fe2+)toir
on(II
I)i
ons(Fe3+)
;
-Duri
ngoxidati
oniron(II
)ionsgi veoutelectr
onstoundergooxi dat
ionandformiron(II
I)i
ons;
-Sal
tywatercontai
nssever aldissol
vedsal t
swhosei onseasilyacceptel
ectr
onsfrom thei
ron(I
I)i
ons=
andthusacceler
ati
ngt heoxidationofironandhencer ust
ing;

Pr
event
ionofr
ust
ing.
Not
e:
-Rusti
ngdestroysmateri
als;equipmentandr oofsmadeofiron;
-Rusti
spor ousandthusallowsai randwatertoreachtheir
onbeneath.
-Thusifnotremovedir
onwi llcontinuecor
rodingunti
liti
salleat
enup.

Methodsofprevent i
ngr usti
ng.
1.Gal
vanizi
ng.
-I
sthecoatingofironwi thasmal llayerofzinc;
-Canbedonebyei therdippingt
hei ronobjectinmoltenzinc,spr
ayingwit
hasprayofmolt
enzinc,
orby=
el
ectr
oplati
ng(electrolyt
icdeposit
ion);
-Onexposuretoai rthezincacquiresani nertl
ayerofzincoxidethati
simper
vioust
obothairandwat
er;=-
Their
onbeneat hist huspreventedfrom airandwaterandt husrusti
ng.

Note:
-Their
onisprotectedevenifthezi
nccoati
ngisscrat
ched.
Reason:
-Uponscrat
chingbot htheir
onandzincgetint
ocontactwit
hairandwater
;
-Si
ncezincismor ereacti
vethanir
on,ai
randwaterreact
swithzincatt
heexpense(
inst
ead)ofi
ron;

2.El
ectropl
ati
ng:
-Refer
st oel
ectr
olyti
ccoati
ngofmet al
s( i
ron)withlessr
eact
ive(
lesscorr
osivemetal
s);
-Thi
sisdonet hroughtheprocessofelectr
olysi
swher ef
loeofel
ectr
iccur
rentcausesthel
essr
eact
ive=
metalt
ocoatt hemetalbei
ngpr ot
ectedfrom rust
ing;

Exampl e:
-Mostt incansareinfactmadeyupofst eelcoatedwithat hi
nlayerofti
n.
-Otherthanbei ngnon-t
oxi cti
nisunr
eact i
veandr arel
yreactswiththecont
entsofthecanorai r;=
Note:
-Unlikeingalvanizi
ng,whenanel ect
roplatedmat er
ialget
sscratched,t
hemet alunderneat
h(ir
on)rusts,=
andver yfast;
Reason:
-Bothironandt heelectroplat
ingmet
al (
tin)ar
eexposedt oairandwat er
;
-Sinceironismor ereactivethant
in(t
hel essreacti
veelect
roplat
ingmateri
al)itr
eactswithoxygenand=
waterinpr ef
erencetotin;

-Thisexplai
nwhygal vani
zationismoredurabl
ethanelectr
oplat
ing;
-Otherlessreacti
vemetal
st hatareusedtocoati
ronobject
sincludechromium,sil
verandgol
d;
-Someel ectr
oplati
ngmetalssuchasgol dandsil
veral
soincreasetheaesthet
icval
ueofthe=
el
ectroplat
edobject;

3.Sacri
fi
cialpr
otecti
on.
-Blocksofamor ereact
ivemetalsuchaszincormagnesi um areattachedtothei
ronstr
ucture;
-Themor ereacti
vemetalwil
lbecorrodedinpref
erencetoiron;
-Tokeept heir
onstruct
urefr
om rusti
ng,t
heblockofr eacti
vemet alhastoberepl
acedregularl
y;
-Thismetalisusedforthepr
otecti
onofundergroundwat erpipesaswel l
asshiphull
s;
-Theblocksofreacti
vemetalareeit
heratt
acheddirectl
ytot heir
onst r
uctur
eorconnectedtoitbya=w
i
re.

Di
agr
ams:
4.Painti
ng.
-Thepai ntcoatsthemet alsurfaceandt husprevent
scont actwi
thairandwaterhencenor usti
ng;
-Howeveri fthepaintisscratched,rusti
ngoccursquickly;
-Iti
susedmai nlyinionrail
ings,gates,bri
dges,r
oofs,shipsadcars;
5.All
oying.
-All
oysar emi xt
uresoft woormor emet al
s;
-Thust opreventironfrom rusti
ngi tmaybemi xedwithoneomor emetalsr
esulti
ngintoasubst ance
thatdoesnotr ust;
Example:
-Stai
nlesssteelisanal l
oyofi r
onwi t
hchromium, ni
ckelandmanganeseandi tresi
stantt
or ust
ing.

7.Oili
ngandgr easi
ng;
-Oilisusedinmovingengi nepart
swhi l
egr easeisusedIothermovabl
emet alj
oint
s;
-Theoi l//gr
easeformsabar ri
erthatpreventswaterandairfr
om comingint
ocontactwi
ththemetal
surfaceandhencepr event
ingrust
ing;
-Oili
ngandgr easi
ngar euniquei
nt hesenset hatt
heyaretheonlymethodsthatcanbeusedtopr
event
rusti
ngi nmovablecarparts;

Oxygen.
-Averyimpor t
antconstit
uentofai
r;
-Lavoi
sier(1743–1794) ,AFrenchChemistshowedthatiti
sthecomponentofai
rusedinrespir
ati
on
andalsoinbur ni
ngfuels;
-Iti
sthemostabundantofal lel
ements;occur
ringbot
hfreel
yaswellasincombinat
ionwit
hot her
el
ement s;
-Freel
yitconstit
utesabout21%byvolumeofat mospheri
cair;

Laborat
or ypreparati
onofoxygengas.
Apparatus.
-Zinc;r
ound- bott
omed/ /flaskbottomedfl
ask;thi
stl
e//dr
oppingfunnel
;rubberstopper
,del
ivert
ubes,
rubbertubings,beehiveshelf,
trough,gasj
ars,
woodenspli
nt,
hydrogenperoxide(20%byvolume),
manganese( I
V)oxide.

Di
agr
am;
Procedur
e.
-Somemanganese( I
V)oxi
deisplacedintoaflat
-bot
tomedfl
ask;
-Theapparat
usissetupasshowni nthediagr
am above;
-Addhydrogenper
oxidef
rom athi
stlefunneli
ntothefl
askdr
opwise;
-Thegasiscoll
ect
edasshown;

Observati
ons:
-Bubblesofacolour
lessgasarerel
easedf
rom t
hef
laskt
hrought
hewat
ert
heni
ntot
hegasj
ar;
-Thecolourl
essgascoll
ectsontopofthewat
er;

Explanations:
-Hydr ogenperoxidedecomposesslowlytooxygenandwaterundernormalcondi
ti
ons;
-Thispr ocessishoweversl
owt ocoll
ectenoughvol
umesofoxygen;
-Onaddi t
ionofmanganese(IV)oxi
dethedecompositi
onisspeededup;
-Thusmanganese( IV)oxi
despeedsupt hedecomposit
ionofhydrogenper
oxideandthusact
sasa
catalyst;

Equation:
 Wi t
houtacat alyst:
Hydrogenper oxide→ Wat er+oxygen;
2H2O2(l)→ 2H2O(l)+O2(g)(
slowprocess)

 Wi
thmanganese(
IV)oxi
decat
alyst
:
Manganese(
IV)oxi
de
Hydrogenper oxide Water+oxygen;
2H2O2(l)→ 2H2O(l)+O2(g)( f
ast erprocess)

Note:
Thefi
rstfewbubblesofoxygengasarenotcol
lected.
Reason:Thegasismixedwi t
hairwhi
chwasoriginall
yinai
randhencei
mpur
e.

Methodofcollect
ion;
-Overwatercoll
ecti
on.
Reason:
-I
tisinsol
ubleinwaterandl
essdenset
hanwat
er

Physi
calpr
oper t
iesofoxygengas.
-I
tiscol
ourl
ess;
-I
tisodour
less;
o
-Hasalowb oi
li
ngpointofabout-183 C;
-Al
mostinsolubleinwater(
hencecoll
ect
edoverwat
er)
;

Chemicaltestf
oroxygengas.
-Oninsert
ingaglowingspl
intonagasj
arf
ull
ofoxygengas;
itr
eli
ght
sagl
owi
ngspl
i
nt;

Dryi
ngofoxygengas.
-Theresult
antoxygeni
susual
l
ymoi stduetothef
actthati
tiscoll
ect
edoverwat
er;
-I
frequir
eddrythegascabediedusingei
theroft
hetwomet hods:
(i
).Usi
ngsul
phur
ic(VI)aci
d.
-Bubbl
ingt
hegasthroughawashbot
tl
econt
aini
ngconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d;
-Theconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(VI
)acidabsor
bsmoi st
uref
rom t
hegasl
eavi
ngi
tdr
y;
-Thedrygasist
hendr
awintocoll
ecti
onsyr
inge;

Di
agr
am;

(i
i)
.Usinganhydrouscal
cium chl
ori
de.
-From thef
laskthegasi
spassedt hr
oughaU- t
ubecont ai
ninganhydr
ouscalci
um chl
ori
de;
-Theanhydrouscalci
um chl
orideal
soabsorbsmoi st
urefrom t
hegasleavi
ngitdr
y;
-Thedrygasi st
hendrawnintoacollect
ionsyr
inge;

Di
agr
am:

Alt
ernat
ivemethodsofoxygenpr epar at
ion.
1.Addit
ionofwat ertosodium peroxide.
Apparat
us:
-Sodium per
oxide;round-bot
tomed/ /f l
askbottomedfl
ask;t
hist
le/
/droppi
ngf
unnel
;rubberst
opper
,
del
ivert
ubes,rubbertubings,beehiveshelf,
trough,
gasjar
s,woodenspli
nt,
wat
er;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedur
e.
-Somesodium per
oxideisplacedint
oaf l
at-
bott
omedf lask;
-Theapparat
usissetupasshowni nthedi
agram above;
ddwaterfr
om athist
lefunneli
ntothefl
askdropwise;
-A
Thegasiscoll
ect
edasshown;
Observati
ons:
-Bubblesofacolour
lessgasarerel
easedf
rom t
hef
laskt
hrought
hewat
ert
heni
ntot
hegasj
ar;
-Thecolourl
essgascoll
ectsontopofthewat
er;

Expl
anati
ons:
-Sodi
um peroxi
der eact
swi t
hwatert
ol i
berat
eoxygen;
-Asolut
ionofsodium hydroxider
emainsinthefl
ask;
-Thi
ssoluti
onwillt
ur nl
it
muspaperblueshowi ngi
tisal
kal
ine.

Equati
on:
Sodium peroxide+wat er→ Sodium hydr
oxi
de+oxygen;
2Na2O2(l)+2H2O(l)→ 4NaOH(aq)+O2(g)

Note:
Thefi
rstfewbubblesofoxygengasarenotcol
lected.
Reason:Thegasismixedwi t
hairwhi
chwasoriginall
yinai
randhencei
mpur
e.

Methodofcollect
ion;
-Overwatercoll
ecti
on;
Reason:
-I
tisinsol
ubleinwaterandl
essdenset
hanwat
er;

Chemicalt
estforoxygengas.
-Oninsert
ingaglowingspl
intonagasj
arf
ullofoxygengas;i
trel
ight
sagl
owi
ngspl
int
;

2.Heati
ngpot assium manganate(VII
)sol
id.
Apparatus:
-I
gniti
ont ube//boili
ngtube;meansofheati
ng;soli
dpotassi
um manganat
e(VI
I)
;rubberst
opper
,
del
ivertubes,beehiveshel
f,t
rough,gasj
ars,woodenspl
int,
water
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedur
e:
-Theapparatusissetupasshownabove.
-Somesol i
dpotassium manganate(VII
)isputinahar
digni
tion//combust
iont
ubeandst
rongl
yheat
ed
asshownabove.
heresult
antgasiscoll
ectedoverwaterasshownabove.
Observat
ions;
-Thepurplesoli
dformsabl acksol
id(potassi
um manganat
e( I
I)sol
id)
;
-Bubbl
esofacol
our
lessgasar
eevol
vedandcol
lectoverwat
er;

Expl
anat
ions:
-Uponheati
ngpot
assi
um manganat
e(VI
I)decomposet
omanganese(
VI)oxi
de;pot
assi
um

Equati
on:
Potassi
um manganat e(
VI I)→ Pot
assi
um manganat
e(I
I)+Oxygengas
KMnO4(s)→ KMnO2(s)+O2(g);

Usesofoxygen.
1.Usedinhospi
tal
sforbreathi
ngbypatient
swit
hbr eathi
ngdiff
icul
ti
es;
2.I
tisusedbymount ai
ncli
mber sanddeepseadiversforbreat
hing;
3.I
tisusedtoburnfuel
se.g.burni
ngfuelsf
orpr
opel l
ingrocket
s;
4.Usedinweldi
ngandcut t
ingmetals
Examples:
-I
tcombi neswi
thhydr
ogentofor
m averyhotoxy-
hydr
ogenfl
amethati
susedi
nweldi
ngandcutt
ing
metal
s;
-I
tcombi neswi
thacet
ylenet
ofor
m oxy-
acetyl
enefl
amewhichisal
sousedi
nweldi
ngandcut
ti
ng
metal
s;

5.Duri
ngsteelmaking,oxygenisusedt or
emoveironimpurit
ies.
-Duri
ngthisprocessoxygenisblownoverhotimpureiron.
-Theoxygenreactwithcarbonimpuri
tiesfor
mingcarbon(I
V)oxidewhi
chescapesl
avi
ngpur
eir
on
whichisst
eelduet oi
tshigherpuri
ty;

Burni
ngsubstancesinai
r.
-Whensubstancesburninairt
heymainl
yr eactmai
nlywi
thoxygen(
theact
ivepar
tofai
r)
;
-Somemetalshoweveralsoreactwi
thni
trogen;
-Duri
ngburni
ngt her
eisusuall
ychangei
nmass;

Experi
ment:Toinvest
igat
eburni
ngsubstancesinair
.
Requir
ements:
-Metal(magnesi
um ri
bbon);
cruci
ble;t
ri
podstand;pi
pecl
ayt
ri
angl
e;meansofheat
ing;

Appar
atus.

Procedur
e:
-About1gofmagnesium i
sputinthecruci
ble;
-Thecruci
ble(wit
hthemagnesi
um isthenweighed)
heapparatusi
ssetupasabove;
-Thecruci
bleisheat
edwit
htheli
dl i
ft
edoccasional
ly;soast
oal
lowi
nai
r;
-Nocont entofthecr
uci
bleisal
lowedtoescape;toensur
eal
lpr
oductsoft
hebur
ningar
eret
ained;
-Aft
erallthemagnesium hasburnedt
hecrucibl
eisall
owedt
ocool;
-Thecrucibleandit
scontent
sareweighedagain;

Observat
ions
Massofcr uci
ble+magnesium befor
eburni
ng=xg
Massofcr uci
ble+content
safterbur
ning=yg
Changeinmass=( x–y)g;
Massofpr oductbefor
eburni
ngislower//l
esst
hant
hemassoft
hepr
oductaf
terbur
ning;

Expl
anations:
-Whent hemagnesium i
sburnedinaclosedcruci
blei
nacl osedcontai
ner
,mostoft
heairi
sconsumed;
-I
tistherefor
enecessar
ytoall
owi nai
rsothattheburni
ngcancont i
nue;
-Duri
ngbur ni
ngthemagnesium combi
neswi t
hairtoform anewproduct;
-Magnesium combineswit
hbothoxygenandni t
rogeninairt
oform magnesi
um ni
tr
ideandmagnesi
um
oxi
de;

Equati
ons
Withoxygen:
Magnesium +oxygen→ Magnesi
um oxi
de;
Mg(s)+O2(g)→ MgO(s);

Wit
hni t
rogen:
Magnesium +Ni t
rogen→Magnesi
um ni
tr
ide;
3Mg(s)+N2(g)→ Mg3N2(s);

Conclusi
on:
-Generall
ywhenmet al
sburni
nair,
ther
eisincr
easeinmass;
-Al
lmet al
sreactwit
hoxygentofor
m metaloxi
des;
-Onlymor er
eacti
vemetal
sreactwit
hnit
rogeninai
r;

Note:
-Duri
ngbur
ningi
fthepr
oduct
(s)oft
hebur
ningi
sgaseous,
thent
her
ewoul
dbedecr
easei
nmass.

Examples:
Phosphorus→ Phosphorus( V)oxide;
Lead(II
)nit
rate→ Phosphorus(V)oxide+Nitr
ogen(I
V)oxi
de+Oxygengas;
Calci
um carbonat
e→ Calcium oxide+carbon(I
V)oxi
de;

Burni
ngmetalsinai
randinoxygen.
Requir
ements:
-Metal
s;def
lagr
ati
ngspoon;gasjar
;sour
ceofheat
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus;
Procedure:
-Apieceofsodi um iswarmedonadef l
agrati
ngspoonuntili
tbeginst
oburn;
-I
tisthenlower edintoagasj arofai
rasshownabove;
-Theflamecol ourisnoted;
-Thegasj arisall
owedt ocool;somewat eraddedtotheproduct
(s)i
nthegasjarandshookwel
l;
-Anygasespr oducedar etestedbysmellandalsowi t
hli
tmuspapers;
-Theexper i
mentist henrepeatedwit
hpur eoxygen;
-Thewhol eprocedur ei
srepeatedwithothermetals;

Observations;
-Whensubst ancesbur ninoxygent heyform onlyoxi des;asopposedt oburni
ngsubstancesinair
wheresomer eactwithbot hairandni t
rogen;
-Dif
ferentsubst ancespr oducedi ff
er entfl
amecol ours;
-Manymet alsbur ninairandi noxygenatdi f
fer
entspeeds;wi t
hmor ereact
ivemetal
sbur ningmore
vi
gorouslyt hant helessreactivemet al
s;
-Burningisf asteri
noxygent hani nai r
;
Reason:
-Oxygeni spur ebuti nai
rt hereareot herconst i
tuent ssuchasni t
rogen,car
bon(I
V)oxideandnobl e
gaseswhi chsl owdownt hebur ning;
-I
nai rproduct saregener all
yoxidesandi nsomef ewcases( magnesium andsodi
um)ni t
ridesaswell
;
-Metalsthatt endtobemor ereacti
vear etheonest hatreactwi
thbothoxygenandnitrogen;
-I
noxygenpr oductsarest ri
ctl
yoxi des;
-Someoft henpr oductsar esolublei nwat erwhileot her
sar enot.

Sampleequat i
ons:
Magnesium:
Wit
hoxygen:
Magnesium +oxygen→ Magnesi
um oxi
de;
Mg(s)+O2(g)→ MgO(s);

Wit
hni tr
ogen:
Magnesium +Ni t
rogen→Magnesi um ni
tr
ide;
3Mg(s)+N2(g)→ Mg3N2(s);
Sodium:
Wit
hoxygen:
Sodium +oxygen→ Sodi um oxi
de;
4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s);

Wit
hni tr
ogen:
Sodium +Ni tr
ogen→Magnesium ni
tr
ide;
6Na(s)+N2(g)→ 2Na3N(s);

Summar
y:bur
ningmet
alsi
nai
r.
Met
al Howi
tbur
ns Appear
anceof Nameof Sol
ubi
li
tyof Ef
fectof
 pr
oduct pr
oduct
s producti nwat er solut
ionon
l
itmuspaper
Magnesi
um Burnswi
tha Whi
tepowder Magnesium Slightl
ysol ubl
e; Tur nsblue;
bri
ghtwhi
te oxi
deand alkali
negas
fl
ame; magnesium (ammoni a)is
ni
tr
ide; produceddur i
ng
thepr ocess;
Copper Burnswi t
ha Bl
acksol
id; Copper(
II
) Insoluble; Noeffect;
bluef l
ame; oxi
de;
surfaceturns
black;
I
ron. Glowst ored Brownblack I
ron(
II
)oxi
de I
nsol
ubl
e; Noef
fect
;
hot;produces (dar
kbrown)
sparks; soli
d;
Sodi
um Bunsver y Whitesol
id; Sodium oxi
de Sol uble;alkaline Tur
nsli
tmus
vigorousl
ywi t
h andsodium gas( ammoni a) bl
ue;
agol denyell
ow ni
tri
de i
spr oducedi n
fl
ame; thepr ocess;
Cal
cium Vigorouswi t
ha Whi
tesol
id; Cal
cium oxi
de Slight l
ysol uble; Tur
nsbl
ue;
redflame; andcal
cium alkalinegas
ni
tr
ide; evol vedi nthe
process;
Zi
nc Yell
owsolid Zincoxide Insol uble; Noef
fect
whichcoolsto
white;
Lead Redsolidwhich Lead( I
I)oxi
de I
nsol
ubl
e; Noef
fect
;
coolstoyel
low;
Pot
assi
um Veryvi
gorousl
y Whitesoli
d; Potassium oxi
de Solubl
e;alkal
ine Tur
nsbl
ue;
wit
halil
ac andpot assi
um gasevolvedin
fl
ame; nitr
ide; theprocess;

Note:
-Whenmet alscombi newit
hoxygen, i
tfor
msmet aloxides.Inthesereacti
onsoxygenisaddedt
othe
metals;hencet hereacti
oniscall
edoxidati
on.
-Oxidationr eferstotheaddit
ionofoxygentoasubst ance;
-Ther eactivit
yofvar i
ousmet al
swithoxygendiff
ers.
-Thear rangementoft hemetalsinor
derofthei
ractivit
yformst hereact
ivi
tyser
ies;
-Metalli
coxi desgener al
lytur
nlit
muspaperblueandar ethussaidtobebasicoxides;
-Somemet all
icoxideshoweverhavebot haci
dicandbasi cpropert
iesandarethuster
medamphoteri
c
oxi
dese. g.alumi ni
um oxi
des;

TheReact ivi
tyseri
esofmetals;
Potassium; Mostr eact
ive;
Sodium;
Calcium;
Alumi ni
um;
Zinc; i
ncreasi
ngreacti
vit
y;
Ir
on;
Lead;
Copper ;
Mer cury;
Sil
ver ;
Gol
d; Leastr
eact
ive

Burni
ngnon-metalsi
noxygen
Requi
rements:
-Non-met
als;def
lagr
ati
ngspoon;gasj
ar;sour
ceofheat
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus;

Procedure:
-Apieceofsul phurisheatedonadef lagrat
ingspoonuntili
tbeginst
oburn;
-I
tisthenlower edintoagasj arofoxygenasshownabove;
-Theflamecol ourisnoted;
-Thegasj arisall
owedt ocool;somewat eraddedt otheproduct
(s)i
nthegasj
arandshookwel
l;
-Anyresultantsoluti
onistestedwithli
tmuspaper s;
-Anygasespr oducedar etestedbysmel landalsowithli
tmuspapers;
-Theexper i
mentist henrepeatedwithpureoxygen;
-Thewhol eprocedur ei
srepeatedwi t
hothernon-metalssuchascarbonandphosphor
us;

Explanati
ons:
1.Sulphur.
-Burnsinoxygenwi t
habl uefl
ametogi
veacol
our
lessgaswi
thachoki
ngi
rr
it
ati
ngsmel
l;
-Thegasi ssul
phur(IV)oxide;
Equation:
Sulphur+Oxygen→ Sul phur(I
V)oxi
de;
S+O2(g)→ SO2(g);
-Thesulphur( IV)oxi
dedi ssol
vesi
nwat
ert
ofor
m sul
phur
ousaci
d,whi
cht
urnsl
it
musr
d;
SO2(g)+H2O(l)→ H2SO3(l);

2.Carbon
-Glowsredt
ogiveacol
our
lessgast
hatf
ormsawhi
tepr
eci
pit
atei
nli
mewat
er;
-ThegasisCar
bon(I
V)oxi
de;
Equati
on:
Carbon+Oxygen→ Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;
C+O2(g)→ CO2(g);
-TheCar bon( I
V)oxidedi ssol
vesi
nwat
ert
ofor
m weakcar
boni
caci
d,whi
cht
urnsl
it
musr
d;
CO2(g)+H2O(l)→ H2CO3(l);

Note:
-I
nl i
mit
edoxygent
hecar
bonunder
goespar
ti
aloxi
dat
ionf
ormi
ngcar
bon(
II
)oxi
de;
Equati
on:
2C(s)+O2(g)→ 2CO(g)

3.Phosphorus.
-Burnsinoxygenwit
hawhi t
eflametogivedensewhi tef
umes;
-Thewhitefumesareei
therphosphorus(V)oxi
deorphosphorus(I
II
)oxi
de;
-Bothsoli
ds//fumesdi
ssolveinwatertoform phosphor
icaci
d;

Equat i
ons:
Wi thli
mit
edsuppl yofoxygen:
Phosphor us+Oxygen→ Phosphor
us(
II
I)oxi
de;
P4(s)+3O2(g)→2P2O3(g);

Wi thexcessoxygen.
Phosphor us+Oxygen→ Phosphor
us(
V)oxi
de;
P4(s)+5O2(g)→P2O10(g);

Summar
y:ef
fect
sofbur
ningnon-
met
alsi
nai
r.
Non-
met
al Howi tbur
nsin Nameofpr oduct
s Appear
anceoft
he Eff
ectofsol
uti
on
oxygen for
med pr
oduct onlit
muspaper
Sul
phur Burnswithabl
ue Sulphur(
IV)oxi
de Whit
efumes; Turnsed
fl
ame;
Carbon Glowsred Carbon(I
V)oxi
de Col
ourl
essgas; Tur
nsr
ed;
Phosphor
us Burnswithawhit
e Phosphorus(
V) Whit
efumes Tur
nsr
ed;
fl
ame oxi
deand
phosphor
us(II
I)
oxi
de

Precaut
ions:
Theexperimentshoul
dbedonei nafumecupboar
d.
Reason:
Product
sofbur ni
ngsulphurandphosphor
usi
nairar
epoi
sonous.

Note:
-Mostnon-met
all
icoxi
desareacidi
cinnat
ureandtheref
oret
urnli
tmusredandarethusrefer
redt
oas
aci
dicoxi
des;
-Somenon-metal
li
coxidesfor
m oxi
deswhicharenei
theraci
dicnorbasi
candar
et huster
medneutral
oxi
des;e.
g.car
bon(II
)oxideandwater(
hydrogenoxi
de);

Competit
ionf orcombi
nedoxygenamongel
ement
s.
Apparat
us:
-Metaloxides,sour
ceofheat
,metal
s.

Procedur
e:
-Aspatul
aendf ul
lofcopper(
II
)oxi
deinabot
tl
etop.
-Magnesium powderandmixedwell
;
-Recordtheobser
vati
ons;
-Theexperi
mentisrepeat
edusingot
hermet
aloxi
deswi
thvar
iousot
hermet
alsl
ikezi
nc,
ironet
c.

Obser
vat
ions:
Met
al Magnesi
um Zi
nc I
ron Lead Copper
Met al
oxide
Magnesi um Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
oxide(whit
e)
Zincoxide Whit
e Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
(white) magnesi
um
oxi
deandgrey
zi
ncmetal
I
ron(
II
I)oxi
de Whit
e Whit
ezinc Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
magnesi
um oxi
deandiron;
oxi
deandgrey
i
ronmetal
;

Lead(II
)oxi
de Whi te Whit
ezinc Ir
on(
II
I)oxi
de Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
(yel
lowwhen magnesi um oxi
deandlead; andl
ead;
oxideand
Copper(
II
) Whi te Whi tezinc Browni r
on(
II
I) Yellowlead(
II
) Nor
eact
ion
oxi
de(Bl
ack magnesi um oxideand oxideand oxideand
oxideand browncopper browncopper browncopper
browncopper met al; met al met al
met al;

Expl anat ions:

-Amor er eact ivemet altakesawayoxygenf rom al essreact i
vemet al;
-Thi sisbecauseamor er eactivemet alreactsmor er eadil
ywi thalessr eact
ivemet al
;
-Theser eact ionsar ecal leddi splacementr eact
ions;
-Somemet alscandi splaceot hermet alsf rom theiroxidesuponheat ing;
-Met alswhi char ehi gheri nt her eact
ivityseriescandi splacemet alswhi charelowerinthereact
ivit
y
ser i
esf rom t heiroxides;
-Fr om t het abl enoneoft hemet alscandi spl
acemagnesi um from it
soxi de,whil
ecoppercanbe
displacedf rom i t
soxi desbyal lt
hemet als.
-Thusf rom t hel i
stmagnesi um i sthemostr eactivewhi lecopperi stheleastreacti
ve.
-Suchr esul tsofdi splacementr eacti
onscanal sobeusedt odevelopar eacti
vit
yser i
esofthemet al
s
(element s)concer ned.
Sel ectedequat ions:
1.Copper( II)oxi de+Magnesi um → Magnesi um oxi de+Copper
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.

2.Zi
nc(
II
)oxi
de+Magnesi
um → Magnesi
um oxi
de+Zi
nc
Whitewhencol
d Gr
ey Whi
te Gr
ey.
Yel
lowwhenhot
ZnO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);

3.Copper(
II
)oxi
de+Zi
nc→ Zi
ncoxi
de+Copper
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whitewhencol
d Br
own.
Yel
lowwhenhot
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);

4.Lead(
II
)oxi
de+Magnesi
um → Magnesi
um oxi
de+Lead
Yel
lowwhencol
d Gr
ey Whi
te Gr
ey.
Redwhenhot
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);

5.Copper(II
)oxide+Zinc→ Magnesium oxi
de+Copper
CuO(s)+Zn(s)→ MgO(s)+Zn(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.
Typi
calreact
ivi
tyser
iesf
rom theresul
tsabove:
Magnesium ↑Mostreactive
Zinc
Ir
on
Lead
Copper ↓Leastr eactive

Note:
-Removalofoxygeni scal
ledreduct
ion;
-Additi
onofoxygeniscall
edoxidati
on;
-Asubst ancet
hatlosesoxygenduri
ngar eacti
oni
ssaidtobereducedwhi
leasubst
ancet
hatr
emoves
oxygenfrom anot
heriscall
edreduci
ngagent ;
-Asubst ancet
hatgainsoxygenduri
ngar eacti
onissai
dtobeoxidi
zedwhi
leasubst
ancet
hatl
oses/
donatesoxygentoanotheriscall
edanoxidizi
ngagent;

Exampl es:
1.Copper(II)oxi
de+Magnesi um → Magnesi
um oxi
de+Copper
CuO(s)+Mg(s)→ MgO(s)+Cu(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.

Reducingagent:magnesi
um
Oxi
dizi
ngagent :Copper(
II
)oxide
Oxi
dizedspecies:Magnesium
Reducedspecies:Copper

2.Copper(II
)oxide+Zinc→ Magnesium oxi
de+Copper
CuO(s)+Zn(s)→ MgO(s)+Zn(s);
Bl
ack Gr
ey Whi
te Br
own.
Reducingagent:Zinc
Oxi
dizi
ngagent :Copper(
II
)oxi
de
Oxi
dizedspecies:Zinc
Reducedspecies:Copper

-I
ntheabover eacti
onsbothreductionandoxi
dati
ontakepl
aceatt
hesameti
me;
-Areact
ioninwhi chbot
hr educti
onandoxidat
ionoccuratt
hesameti
meiscal
ledar
edoxr
eact
ion;
“r
ed”fr
om reducti
onand“ ox”from oxi
dati
on;

Applicati
onofRedoxreacti
ons:
1.Extracti
onofmetal
s;
-Oresofmet al
ssuchaszi nc,
iron’
leadet
careroast
edi
nairtof
orm cor
respondi
ngmetaloxides;
-Themet aloxi
desarethenreducedtocorr
espondi
ngmetal
susi
ngcommonr educi
ngagentslike
carbonandcarbon(II
)oxide.

Examples:
Zinc(
II
)oxide+Car
bon(
II
)oxi
de→ Zi
nc+car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;

Atmospher
icpol l
uti
onandpercentagecomposi
ti
onofair.
-Humanactivit
ieshavechangesthenormalcomposit
ionofai
rinsomeplaces;
hi
shasnotonl yalter
edthepercent
agecomposit
ionofthemaincomponentsbutal
soaddedot
her
-T=
component
si ntotheair.
Exampl es:
-Mi ni
ngincreasest heamountofdustparti
clesint heai
r;
-Geot her
malpowerdr il
li
ngmayresulti
ntoemi ssionofgasesli
kehydrogensul
phi
de,sul
phur(I
V)oxi
de
i
nt otheair;
-Industri
alprocessesl i
kemanufact
ureofnitri
c( V)aci
d,cont
actprocessetcmayaddgasesil
ke
sulphur(IV)oxide,nit
rogenoxi
desint
ot heai
r ;

Thesegasesandemi ssionscauseatmospher icpollut

ion:
-Gasesli
kesul phur(I
V)oxideandnitr
ogen( IV)oxidedi ssolveIr
ainwatertofor
m acidicrai
nthat
causescorrosionofbuil
dings,i
ronsheetroofing,bleachingofplants;i
rr
it
ati
oninbodiesandr espir
ator
y
surf
acesinani malsetc;
-Dustpart
iclesmaybl ockstomatainplants;causesmogf ormat
ionhencereducingvisi
bil
it
y(leadi
ngto
morecasesofr oadacci
dents).

Usesofoxygen:
1.Usedf orbreathinginhospi t
alsfropatient
swi thbreathi
ngdi ff
icul
ti
es.
2.Usedf orbreathingbymount aincli
mber sanddeepseadi vers.
3.Usedt oburnf uelse.g.burningfuelst
opr opelrockets.
4.Manuf act
ureoft heoxy-acet
yleneflamet hatisusedinwel dingandcut t
ingofmetals;
5.Removalofi roni mpurit
iesdur i
ngsteelmaki ngi.
e.oxygeni sblownt hr
oughi mpur
ei r
on;t
heoxygen
thenreactswithcar bonimpur i
tiesformingcarbon( I
V)oxidewhi chescapesl eavi
ngbehindpur
eiron
(steel
).

UNIT5:WATERANDHYDROGEN.
Checkli
st:
1.I
ntroduction
2.Burni
ngcandl ewaxi nair
.
3.Reactionofwat erwi t
hmet al
s
 Sodi um
 Pot assium
 Cal ci
um
4.Reactionofmet al
swi t
hsteam.
 Cal ci
um
 Magnesi um
 Zinc
 Iron
 Alumi nium
5.Hydrogen
 Hydr ogen;
 Reduct ionpr opert
yofhydrogen
 Bur ninghydr ogeninair;
6.Usesofhydr ogen
Intr
oduction:
-Wat eri
st hemostabundantsubstancesonear t
h;
-Itcoversabout71%oftheearth’
ssur face;
-Mai nsourcesofwateri
ncludeseas,lakes,r
iver
s,oceans.

Burni
ngcandl
ewaxi
nai
r.
Apparat
us:

Procedur
e.
-Thecandlei
slitunderthefunnelandthesuct
ionpumpt
urnedon.
-Thesetupisleftundi
sturbedforabout15minut
es.

Observations;
-Thecandl econt inuest oburn.
-Dropletsofacol ourl
essl i
quidinthetubeA;
-Thecol ourl
essl iqui
dt urnswhiteanhydr ouscopper(I
I)sul
phat
etobl
ueandbl
ueanhydr
ouscobal
t(I
I)
chl
oridei nt
opi nk;
-Awhi teprecipitateformsi nthecalci
um hydroxideintubeB;
-Depositsofabl acksol i
dont heinnersidesofthefunnel;

Explanations;
-Thesuct i
onpumpensur escontinuoussupplyofai rhencethecandleconti
nuest oburn;
-Candl ewaxbunsi noxygent oform carbon(I
V)oxideandst eam;
-Thecar bon( IV)oxi
dei ssuckedoutt hr
ought heapparatusbythesuctionpump;
-Car bon(IV)oxideformsawhi t
epr eci
pitat
eofcalcium car
bonatewhenbubbl edthroughli
mewater
(calcium hydroxide)
-Incompl etecombust ionofthecarbonint hecandlewaxpr oducescarbonparti
cleswhichcool
sand
deposi t
sasbl acksolids;

Equat i
ons:
Ast hecandlebur ns:
Car bon+Oxygen→ Car bon(
IV)oxi
de;
C(s)+O2(g)→ CO2(g);

Hydr ogen+Oxygen→ Car bon(

IV)oxi
de;
2H2(s)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(g);

Fort hef
or mati
onoft heblackdeposit
s( soot
)
Carbon+Oxygen→ Car bon+Car bon(IV)oxi
de;
2C(s)+O2(g)→ C(s)+CO2(g);
Inthecalcium hydr oxide:
Carbon(IV)oxide+cal cium hydr
oxide→ Calcium car
bonat
e+Wat
er
Col
our
less Col
our
less Whi
tepr
eci
pit
ate Col
our
less
CO2(g)+Ca(
OH)aq)→ C
2( aCO3(s)+H2O(l);

-Thesteam condensesi
ntowaterintheboil
ingt
ube;
-Watertur
nswhi t
eanhydrouscopper(I
I)sul
phatet
oblueandbl
ueanhydr
ouscobal
tchl
ori
depaperi
nto
pi
nk;

Generalequat
ion:
Hydrocarbon+Oxygen→ Wat
er+Car
bon(
IV)oxi
de;

Conclusi
on:
-Candlewaxisacompoundofcar bonandhydr ogenonl
y;andsuchcompoundsar
edefi
nedas
hydrocar
bons;
-Whenbur nedinai
r(oxygen)hydr
ocarbonspr
oducecarbon(IV)oxi
deadst
eam (
water
);
-Otherexamplesofhydrocar
bonsincl
ude:pet
rol;di
esel
;ker
oseneetc;

Note:Ef
fect
sofr
epeat
ingt
hesameexper
imentwi
thoutasuct
ionpump.
Apparat
us:

Observat
ions:
-Thecandlewentoff;
-Deposit
ionofbl
acksoli
donthei
nnersi
desoft
hef
unnel
;
-Nocolourl
essli
quidint
ubeA;
-Nowhi t
epreci
pit
ateint
ubeB;

Expl
anat
ions:
-Thecar
bon( I
V)oxi
deandsteam pr
oducedwouldaccumulatei
nt hefi
lt
erfunnelhencemakingt
he
fl
ametogoof f
;
-I
ncompletecombust
ionoft
hecandlewouldproducecar
bonpar t
icl
eswhichcoolassoot ;
-Onl
ynegli
gibl
eamountofwaterandcarbon(
IV)oxidewouldpassthroughtheapparatus;

Reacti
onsofwat erwit
hmet al
s:
1.Potassium.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpieceofpotassium met
ali
scutanddroppedi
ntoat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresultantsolut
ionistest
edwit
hli
tmuspaper;
Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser vati
onsandexpl anations:
-Themet alfl
oatsont hewat ersurface;becausei tislessdenset hanwat er;
-Ahi ssingsoundi sproduced;duet opr oduct
ionofhydr ogengas;
-Itexplosivelymel t
sintoasi l
verybal lthendisappear sbecauser eacti
onbet weenwat
erandsodi um i
s
exothermi c(producesheat).Ther esultantheatmel tsthepotassium duet oit
slowmelt
ingpoint
.
-Itdartsont hesur f
ace;duet opropulsionbyhydr ogen;
-Themet alburstsintoal i
lacflame;becausehydr ogenexpl odesi nt
oaf l
amewhicht henburnsthe
smallquant it
iespotassium vapourpr oduceddur ingt hereact
ion;
-Ther esultantsolut
ionturnsblue;becausepot assium hydroxidesoluti
onf or
medisastrongbase;

(b)
.Reactionequat i
ons.
EquationI
2K(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2KOH(aq)+H2(g);

EquationII
4K(s)+O2(g)→ 2K2O(s);

Equat i
onII
I:
K2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2KOH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
uti
ononl it
muspaper ;
-Li
tmuspapertur
nsblue;sodium hydroxi
defor
medishi
ghl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
argenumber
ofhydr
oxyli
onswhichresul
tintoalkal
inecondi
ti
ons/
/hi
ghpH;

2.Sodium.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpi
eceofsodi
um met
ali
scutanddr
oppedint
oat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresult
antsol
uti
onist
est
edwit
hli
tmuspaper
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:
Obser vati
onsandexpl anati
ons:
-Themet alfloat
sont hewat ersurface;becauseiti
slessdensethanwat er;
-Ahi ssingsoundi spr oduced;duet oproducti
onofhydrogengas;
-Itvigorousl ymeltsintoasi l
veryballthendisappearsbecausereacti
onbet weenwaterandsodi
um i
s
exothermi c(producesheat )
.Ther esult
antheatmeltsthesodium duetoitsl
owmel t
ingpoint
.
-Itdartsont hesur f
ace;duet opropulsionbyhydrogen;
-Themet almaybur stintoagol denyel l
ow fl
ame;becausehydr ogenmayexpl odeintoaflamewhi
ch
thenbur nst hesodium;
-Ther esultantsoluti
ont ur
nsblue;becausesodi um hydr
oxidesolut
ionformedisastrongbase;

(b)
.Reacti
onequat i
ons.
EquationI
2Na(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)+H2(g);

EquationI
I
4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s);

EquationI
II:
Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
uti
ononl it
muspaper ;
-Li
tmuspapertur
nsblue;sodium hydroxi
defor
medishi
ghl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
argenumber
ofhydr
oxyli
onswhichresul
tintoalkal
inecondi
ti
ons/
/hi
ghpH;

3.Calcium.
Procedur e:
-Asmal lpieceofcalci
um met aliscutanddr oppedint oatroughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Afil
terf unnelisi
nvertedoveri t
;
-Atestt ubef i
ll
edwithwat eristheninvertedoverthef unnel
;
-Thegasgi venoutiscollectedasshowni ntheappar atusbelow.
-Ther esultantgasisthent est
edwi t
habur ni
ngsplint;
-Ther esultantsol
uti
oni nthet r
oughist estedwit
hl i
tmuspaper .

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser
vati
onsandexpl
anati
ons:
-Cal
cium si
nkst
othebot
tom oft
hebeaker
;becausei
tisdensert
hanwat
er;
-Sl
owef f
ervescenceofacolour
lessgas;duetoslowevol ut
ionofhydrogengas;
-Soapysolut
ionformed;duetoformat
ionofalkal
inecalcium hydr
oxide;
-Awhitesuspensioni
sf or
med;becausecalci
um hydroxideissli
ghtl
ysolubl
einwat
er;

Reactionequation:
Ca(s)+H2O(l)→ Ca(OH)2(aq)+H2(g);

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsoluti
ononl it
muspaper ;
-Li
tmuspaperslowlyturnsblue;cal
cium hydroxi
deformedi
sslight
lysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngasmal
l
numberofhydroxyli
onswhi chresul
tint
oal kal
inecondi
ti
ons//highpH;

4.Magnesium andot hermetals.

-Magnesium reactswithat
mospher i
coxygentoform magnesi
um oxi
dethatcoastt
hemetalsurface;
-Thusbefor ereacti
ngitwi
thwat erthi
soxidel
ayerhast oberemovede.g.bypoli
shi
ngmet alsurface
usi
ngsandpaper ;
-Reactionbetweenmagnesi um andcoldwat erisgeneral
lyver
yslow;wi t
hveryslow evoluti
onof
hydrogengas;
-Zincandironmet al
sdonotr eactwi
thcoldwater;

React i
onofmet al
swit
hst eam.
Note:
-Met al
sthatreactwi
thcoldwat erwoul dreactveryexplosi
vel
ywithst
eam andthust
hei
rreact
ionswith
steam shoul
dnotbeat tempt edinthelaborat
ory;
-Howeversomemet alswhi chreactonlysparinglywit
hcoldwaterordonotreactwi
thcol
dwat eratal
l
reactwithst
eam toproducer especti
vemet aloxideandhydrogengas;

1.Magnesium
Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofwetsandisputatthebot t
om ofaboil
ingtube;
-Asmal lpi
eceofmagnesium r
ibboniscleanedandputint hemiddl
eofthecombustiont
ube;
-Themagnesi um r
ibboni
sheatedstr
onglythenthewetsandi swarmedgently;
-Thedel i
verytubeisremovedbefor
eheat ingstops;andt hegasproducedistest
edusingabur
ning
spli
nt;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observati
onsandexplanat
ions.
-Magnesium bur
nswi t
habr i
ghtbli
ndi
ngfl
ame;
-Greysoli
d(magnesium)formsawhi t
esol
id;duet
oformati
onofmagnesi
um oxi
de;
-Evol
utionofacolourl
essgasthatbur
nswithapopsound;conf
ir
mingi
tishydr
ogen;
Reacti
onequat i
on.
Magnesium +St eam → Magnesi um oxi
de+Hydr
ogengas;
Mg(s)+H2O(g)→ MgO(s)+H2(g);

2.Zinc
Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofwetsandisputatthebott
om ofaboili
ngtube;
-Asmal lpi
eceofzincputi
nthemiddleofthecombustiontube;
-Thezincisheatedstr
ongl
ythenthewetsandiswar medgently;
-Thedel i
veryt
ubei sremovedbefor
eheat i
ngstops;andt hegaspr
oducedi
stest
edusi
ngabur
ning
spli
nt;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observati
onsandexplanat
ions.
-Zi
ncmet aldoesnotburnbutrat
herglows;
-Greysoli
d(zinc)f
ormsayellowsoli
dwhi chcool
stoawhi
tesol
id(
zincoxi
de)
;
-Evol
utionofacolourl
essgasthatproducesapopsoundwhenexposedtoabur
ningspl
int
;conf
ir
ming
i
tishydrogen;

React
ionequati
on.
Zi
nc+St eam → Zi
ncoxi
de+Hydr
ogengas;
Gr
ey Col
our
less Yel
lowwhenhot Col
our
less
Whit
eoncool
ing
Zn(s)+H2O(g)→ ZnO(s)+H2(g);

3.Ir
on
Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofwetsandisputatthebott
om ofaboil
ingtube;
-Asmal lpi
eceofironputi
nthemiddleofthecombusti
ontube;
-Theironisheatedstr
ongl
ythenthewetsandiswarmedgently;
-Thedel i
verytubeisremovedbefor
eheat i
ngstops;andthegasproducedi
stest
edusi
ngabur
ning
spli
nt;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:
Observati
onsandexplanat
ions.
-I
ronmet aldoesnotburnbutrathergl
ows;
-Greysoli
d(zinc)f
ormsabl acksoli
d;duet
ofor
mati
onoftri
-i
rontet
ra-
oxi
de;
-Evol
utionofacolourl
essgast hatbur
nswit
hapopsound;confi
rmingi
tishydr
ogen;

React
ionequat
ion.
I
ron+Steam → Tri
-i
ront
etr
a-oxi
de+Hydr
ogengas;
Gr
ey Col
our
less Bl
ack Col
our
less

3Fe(s)+4H2O(g)→ Fe3O4(s)+4H2(g);

4.Aluminium
Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofwetsandi sputatthebott
om ofaboi
li
ngtube;
-Asmal lpieceofalumi
nium puti
nthemi ddl
eoft
hecombusti
ont ube;
-Thealumi nium i
sheat
edstrongl
ythenthewetsandiswarmedgently;
-Thedel i
veryt ubeisr
emovedbef or
eheat i
ngst
ops;andthegaspr oducedi
stest
edusi
ngabur
ning
spli
nt;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observati
onsandexpl anati
ons.
-Aluminium burnsi nsteam butther eact
ionquicklyst ops;becauset her eact
ionformsal ayerof
alumini
um oxidethatcoatsthemetalsurf
acepreventi
ngf urtherreact
ion;
-Greysolid(al
uminium)formsawhi t
esolidofaluminium oxide;
-Sli
ghtevoluti
onofacol ourl
essgasthatburnswit
hapopsound;conf ir
mingitishydrogen;
-Thepr oducti
onoft hegashoweverstopssoonaf terther eact
ionstartsbecausetheoxidelayerstops
furt
herreacti
on;

React
ionequat
ion.
Al
uminium +St
eam → Zi
ncoxi
de+Hydr
ogengas;
Gr
ey Col
our
less Whi
te Col
our
less

2Al
s)+3
( H2O(g)→ Al
2O3(
s)+3H2(g);

5.Othermet
als.
-Leadandcopperdonotr
eactwi
thst
eam;

Summar
yoft
her
eact
ionbet
weenmet
alswi
thcol
dwat
erandst
eam
Met al Act
ionofmetalonwat
er Acti
onofmet
alonst
eam
Potassium Vi
olent Expl
osive
Sodi um Vi
olent Expl
osive
Calcium Moderat
e Viol
ent
Magnesi um Ver
yslow Rapid
Alumi ni
um Noreacti
on Slow
 Zinc Nor
eact
ion Sl
ow
Ir
on Nor
eact
ion Sl
ow
Lead Nor
eact
ion Noreact
ion
Copper Nor
eact
ion Noreact
ion

Note:
-Metalscanthusbearrangedinor derofthei
rreact
ivi
ti
eswit
hwater
;resul
ti
ngt
oar
eact
ivi
tyser
ies
si
mi l
art
othatobt
ainedf
ormr eact
ionbetweenmetalswit
hoxygen;

React
ivi
tyser
iesofmet
als:
Potassi
um; Mostr
eact
ive;
Sodium;
Calci
um;
Magnesium
Alumini
um;
Zinc; i
ncr
easi
ngr
eact
ivi
ty;
Ir
on;
Lead;
Copper; Leastr
eact
ive;

Hydrogen
-Anelementthatdoesnotexi
stf
reel
yinnat
ure;
-General
lyexi
stsincompoundssuchaswater
,sugar
s,f
uel
set
c;

Labor
atoryprepar
at i
onofhydrogengas.
Note:
-Hydrogengasisgeneral
lypreparedbythereact
ionbet
weendil
uteaci
dsandmet
als;
-Mostsuit
ableacidsaredil
utehydrochl
ori
cacidanddil
utesul
phuri
c(VI
)aci
d;
-Mostsuit
ablemet ali
szincmetal;

Appar
atus:

Procedure:
-Zincgranul
esar
eaddedt odilut
esulphur
ic(VI)acid;
-Smallamountsofcopper(II
)sulphat
eareaddedt othezi
nc–aci
dmi
xtur
e;
Reason:Toactasacatalysthencespeedupt hereacti
on;
-Theresul
tantcol
ourlessgasi scol
lect
edoverwater;
Reason:Thegasisinsolublei
nwat er;
-Ifthegasi srequir
eddr y,thegasi spassedthroughconcent
rat
edsul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
doraU-
tube
cont
aini
ngcalcium chlor
ide;

Di
agr
amsf
ordr
yingt
hegas:

Zi
ncgr
anul
es
-Thedrygasi
scoll
ectedbyupwarddeli
ver
y(downwar
ddisplacementofai
r)
;
Reason:I
tisl
essdensethanai
r(not
ethathydr
ogeni
stheli
ghtestgasknown);

Note:
-Nitri
c( V)aci di snotusedi npr epar at
ionofhydr ogengas;exceptver ydi l
utenit
ric(V)acidand
magnesium
Reason:Ni tri
caci di sast r ongoxidizingagenthencet hehydr ogenformedi simmediatel
yoxidizedto
water
-Potassi
um, sodium, l
ithium andcal cium arenotusedinl aborat or
ypreparat
ionofhydrogengas;
Reason:Theyr eactexpl osivelywithaci ds;
-Magnesi um isnotusual lyusedf orl aborator
ypreparat
ionofhydr ogen;
Reason:Iti sexpensi ve;
-Pr i
orto usi ng i tf orpr eparati
on ofhydr ogen;alumi nium shoul d be washed wi t
h concentrat
ed
hydrochl
or icacid;
Reason:Tor emovet hepr otecti
veoxi del ayerthatusual lyf ormsont healumini
um sur f
aceoni t
s
exposuret oair;
-Hydrogengaspr oducedf rom i r
onmet altendstohaveaf oulsmel l
;
Reason:I rongi vesami xtureofgasesduet oimpurit
iesi nt hei r
on;thefoulsmel li
susual l
yduet o
producti
onofhydr ogensul phidethatr esultsfr
om sul
phi deimpur i
ti
esintheir
onmet al;

React i
onequat ions:
I
.Iron+Sul phur ic(VI
)acid→ Iron( I
I)sul
phat
e+Hydr
ogengas;
Fe(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ FeSO4(aq)+H2(g)

I
I.I
ron( I
I)sul
phi de+Sulphur i
c(VI
)aci d→ I
ron(
II
)sul
phat
e+Hydr
ogensul
phi
degas;
FeS(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ FeSO4(aq)+H2S(g);

Othersour
cesofhydr
ogen.
-Cracki
ngofal
kanes;
-Fr
act
ionaldi
sti
ll
ati
onofpet
rol
eum;

Properti
esofHydrogengas;
Physicalpr
operti
es.
1.Colourl
essandodour l
ess;
2.Iti
sinsolubl
einwat er
;
3.Iti
slessdenset hanair(
iti
sthel
ight
estgasknown)
;

Chemicalproperti
es.
1.I
thasnoef f
ectonl i
tmuspaperi
mplyingt
hatiti
sneut ral
;
2.I
tburnswi thapopsoundwhenmi xedwit
hair;
3.Purehydrogenbur nsquiet
lywi
thabluefl
amepr oducingwater
;
4.Hydrogendoesnotsuppor tcombusti
onbutitburnsinair;
5.I
tisar educingagent;

Chemicalt
estforhydr
ogen;
-Whenabur ni
ngsplinti
sintr
oducedi
ntoagasjarf
ullofhydrogengas;thegasbunswi
tha“
pop
sound”
Note:
-Theint
ensit
yofthe“popsound”di
mini
shesast
hepur
it
yofhydrogenincr
eases;

Reacti
onsofhydrogen:
1.Passinghydr
ogenoverheatedcopper(
II
)oxi
de;
Requir
ements:
Copper(II
)oxi
de;porcel
ainboat
;meanofheati
ng;combust
iont
ube;dr
yhydr
ogengas;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedure:
-Apparatusar earrangedasshownabove;
-Dryhydr ogengasi spassedt hroughthecombust iont ubeforsomet i
mepr iortoheatingtheoxi
de;
Reason:
 Todr iveoutal lt heairf rom t
heappar at
uswhi chmayot herwiser e-oxi
dizethemet alaft
er
reduct ion.
 Ami xtureofhydr ogenandai rwi
llexplodewhent hecombust i
ontubei sheated;
-Thegasi scont inuousl ycoll
ectedatthej etandtested;unt i
lthegasbur nssmoot hlywit
houta“pop”
sound;
-Thegasi st henli
tatthej etandthecopperoxi deheated;
-Thisisdoneunt ilnof urt
herchange;
-Theappar atusisallowedt ocoolashydr ogenisstil
lcont i
nuouslyall
owedt opasst hrough;
Reason:
 Topr eventre-entryofatmospher i
coxygenwhi chwi llr
e-oxi
dizethehotmet albacktothemetal
oxide;
-Excesshydr
ogenmustbeburntatt
hej
etsothatexcessgasi
snotal
lowedt
oescapei
ntot
heai
r;
Reason:
 Themixtur
eofhydr
ogenandoxygeni
sexplosivewheni
gni
ted;

Observationsandexplanat i
ons
-Thebl acksoli
dturnsintoabr ownsol i
d;
-Dropletsofacolourl
essl i
quidont hecoolerpartsofthecombustiont
ube;
Reason:
Thehotbl ackcopper(II
)oxi deisreducedbyhydr ogengasi nt
obrowncoppermet
alwhi
lehydr
ogengas
i
soxidizedt owater;
-Thecol ourl
essli
quidisconf i
rmedt obewat erby:
 Addi ngdropsofi ttoanhydrouscopper( I
I)sulphatewhichf
ormsabluesol
id;
 Addi ngdropsofi tontoblueanhydrouscobal t(I
I)chl
ori
dewhichtur
nspi
nk;

React
ionequati
ons:
I
nthecombust i
ontube:
Copper(
II
)oxide+Hydrogen→ Copper+Wat
er;
Bl
acksol
id Col
our
lessgas Br
ownsol
id Col
our
lessl
iqui
d
CuO(s)+H2(g)→ Cu(s)+H2O(l);

Atthej et
:
-Hydr ogenburnswi t
habl uef
lamepr
oduci
ngwat
er;
Equat i
on:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(l);

Concl
usion:
-Hydrogenisar educingagentandt husreducest
hecopper(
II
)oxi
det
ocoppermet
alswhi
lehydr
ogen
i
tsel
fundergoesoxi dati
ont
of orm water
;
-Hydrogenisthereducingagent;
-Copper(I
I)oxideistheoxi
dizingagent;

2.PassinghydrogenoverheatedLead(
II
)oxide;
Requir
ement s:
Lead(I
I)oxide;por
cel
ainboat;meanofheat
ing;combust
iont
ube;dr
yhydr
ogengas;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.

Procedure:
-Apparatusarearrangedasshownabove;
-Dryhydrogengasi spassedthroughthecombustiont
ubeforsomet
imepriortoheatingtheoxi
de;
Reason:
 Todr iveoutal ltheairf rom t
heappar at
uswhichmayot her
wiser e-oxi
dizethemet alaft
er
r
eduction.
 Ami xtureofhydrogenandai rwi
llexpl
odewhenthecombusti
ontubeisheated;
-Thegasi scontinuouslycol
lectedatthejetandtest
ed;unt
ilt
hegasburnssmoot hlywit
houta“pop”
sound;
-Thegasi st henli
tatthejetandthecopperoxideheated;
-Thisisdoneunt i
lnofur
therchange;
-Theappar atusisall
owedt ocoolashydrogenissti
llcont
inuousl
yall
owedtopassthrough;
Reason:
 Topr eventre-
entryofatmosphericoxygenwhi chwil
lre-
oxidi
zethehotmetalbacktot
hemet
al
oxi
de;
-Excesshydr ogenmustbebur ntatt
hejetsothatexcessgasisnotall
owedtoescapeint
otheai
r;
Reason:
 Themi xt
ureofhydrogenandoxygenisexplosivewhenignit
ed;

Observationsandexplanations
-Theyellowsolidtur
nsr edonheati
ngthenfinal
lyint
oagr eysol
id;
-Droplet
sofacol our
lessliquidont
hecoolerpart
soft hecombusti
ont
ube;

Reason:
Thehotr edlead(II
)oxi
deisr educedbyhydr ogengasi ntogr
eyleadmetalwhil
ehydr
ogengasi
s
oxi
dizedtowater;
-Thecolour
lessli
qui
disconfi
rmedtobewat erby:
 Addingdropsofi
ttoanhydrouscopper(I
I)sulphatewhi
chfor
msabluesoli
d;
 Addingdropsofi
tontoblueanhydrouscobalt(I
I)chl
ori
dewhi
chtur
nspink;

Reacti
onequat
ions:
Inthecombust
iontube:
Lead(II
)oxi
de+Hydr ogen→ Lead+Wat
er;
Yel
low-
col
d;r
ed-hot Col
our
lessgas Gr
eysol
id Col
our
lessl
iqui
d
PbO(s)+H2(g)→ Pb(s)+H2O(l);

Atthej et
:
-Hydr ogenburnswi t
habl uef
lamepr
oduci
ngwat
er;
Equat i
on:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(l);

Concl
usion:
-Hydrogenisareduci
ngagentandthusr
educest
hel
ead(
II
)oxi
det
oleadmet
alswhi
lehydr
ogeni
tsel
f
undergoesoxi
dati
ontofor
m water
;
-Hydrogenist
hereduci
ngagent;
-Lead(II
)oxi
deistheoxi
dizi
ngagent
;

3.Passinghydr
ogenoverheatedI
ron(I
II
)oxide;
Requir
ements:
Ir
on(II
I)oxi
de;por
cel
ainboat;meanofheat
ing;combust
iont
ube;dr
yhydr
ogengas;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus.
Procedure:
-Apparatusar earrangedasshownabove;
-Dryhydr ogengasi spassedt hroughthecombust iont ubeforsomet imepr iortoheatingtheoxide;
Reason:
 Todr iveoutal lt heairf rom theappar at
uswhi chmayot herwiser e-oxi
dizethemet alaft
er
reduct ion.
 Ami xtur eofhydr ogenandai rwillexplodewhent hecombust i
ont ubei sheated;
-Thegasi scont inuousl ycoll
ectedatt hej etandtested;unt i
lthegasbur nssmoot hlywit
houta“ pop”
sound;
-Thegasi st henl i
tatthej etandthecopperoxi deheated;
-Thisisdoneunt ilnof urt
herchange;
-Theappar atusi sallowedt ocoolashydr ogenisstil
lcont i
nuouslyallowedt opasst hrough;
Reason:
 Topr eventr e-entryofatmospher i
coxygenwhi chwi llr
e-oxi
dizet hehotmet albackt ot
hemet al
oxide;
-Excesshydr ogenmustbebur ntatthejetsot hatexcessgasi snotal lowedt oescapei ntotheair;
Reason:
 Themi xtur
eofhydr ogenandoxygeni sexpl
osivewheni gni
ted;

Observationsandexplanations
-TheBr ownsolidtur
nsi nt
oagr eysoli
d;
-Dropletsofacolour
lessliquidonthecool
erpar
tsoft
hecombust
iont
ube;

Reason:
Thehotbr owniron(
III
)oxideisr educedbyhydrogengasi ntogreyir
onmetalwhil
ehydr
ogengasi
s
oxi
dizedtowater;
-Thecolourl
essli
qui
disconf i
rmedt obewaterby:
 Addingdropsofittoanhydrouscopper(I
I)sulphatewhi
chformsabluesol
id;
 Addingdropsofitontoblueanhydrouscobalt(I
I)chl
ori
dewhichtur
nspi
nk;

React
ionequat
ions:
I
nthecombustiontube:
I
ron(I
II)oxi
de+Hydrogen→ I
ron+Wat
er;
Br
ownsol
id Col
our
lessgas Gr
eysol
id Col
our
lessl
iqui
d
Fe2O3(s)+3H2(g)→ 2Fe(s)+3H2O(l);

Atthej et
:
-Hydr ogenburnswi t
habl uef
lamepr
oduci
ngwat
er;
Equat i
on:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(l);

Concl
usion:
-Hydrogenisareduci
ngagentandthusr
educest
hei
ron(
II
I)oxi
det
oir
onmet
alwhi
l
ehydr
ogeni
tsel
f=
under
goesoxidat
iontofor
m wat
er;
-Hydr
ogenisther
educingagent;
-I
ron(I
II
)oxi
deistheoxidi
zingagent
;

Note:
-Hydrogendoesnotr
educe(
removeoxygen)f
rom oxi
desofmet
alsabovei
tint
her
eact
ivi
tyser
ies;

Product
sofburni
nghydrogengasi
nair
.
Apparat
usandrequi
rements:
-Theappar
atusisar
rangedasshownbelow.

Procedur e:
-Apparat usisarr
angedasshownbel ow.
-Ast r
eam ofhydr ogeni
spassedt hr oughanhydr ouscal
cium chl
oride;
-Thegasi stest
edforpuri
tybycollect i
ngsampl esoverthej
etandt est
ingwit
habur ni
ngspl
int
.
Note:pur ehydrogengasshouldbur nsmoot hl
ywi t
houtthet
ypical“popsound”;
-Thegasi sthenli
tandthepumpt unedon;
-Thepr oduct sofburni
nghydr ogeni sdr ownint hr
oughtheappar at
ususingt hepumpforabout15
minutes;
-Thepr oductcondensingint het estt ubeincol dwateristestedwi t
hwhiteanhydrouscopper(
II
)
sulphateandbl uecobal
tchlor
idepaper ;

Observati
ons:
-Purehydrogenbur nswithabluef
lame;
-Acolourl
essliquidcondensesint
hetestt
ubeimmersedincol
dwat
er;
-Theliqui
dturnswhi t
eanhydrouscopper(
II
)sul
phat
eblue;
-Thecolourl
essliquidtur
nsblueanhydr
ouscobal
tchl
ori
depink;

Expl
anat
ions:
-Thecal
cium chl
orideintheU-
tubei
susedtodrythegas;
-Thepur
edr yhydrogengasburnswit
habluefl
amet ofor
m steam whi
chcondensesi
ntol
iquidwat
er;
-Waterturnsanhydr ouscopper(I
I)chl
ori
defrom whit
et oblue;andturnsblueanhydrouscobal
t
chl
ori
depaperintopink;
React i
onequat i
ons:
Atthej et
:
2H2(g)+O2(g)→ 2H2O(g);

UsesofHydr ogen
1.Largescal emanuf actureofammoni aint heHaberpr ocess;
2.Hydr ogenat ionfort hemanuf actureofmar gari
ne.
-Thisr eferstohar deni ngofoilsint
of ats.
-Inthisr eactionHydr ogengasi sbubbl edintoli
quidoilinpr esenceo0fnickelcatal
yst;
-Theoi ltakesuphydr ogenandi sconver tedintofat;
3.Hydr ogeni susedi nweat herball
oonsbecausei ti
slighterthanai r
;
-Usual lyar adiotransmi tteri
sconnect edtoaweat herballoonf i
ll
edwithair;astheballoonfloat
sinair
the transmi ttercollect sinformation whi ch is conveyed t o weatherstations forinter
pretat
ion by
met eorologists;
4.Ami xtureofhydr ogenandoxygenf ormst hever yhotoxy- hydrogenfl
ame( wit
htemper at
uresupt o
o
2000Ct hatisusedi nwel dingandcut ti
ngmet als;
5.Itisusedi nrocketf uelsforpropulsionofr ockets;
6.Manuf actureofhydr ochlor
icacid;dur i
ngwhi chhydr ogeni sburntinchl
orine;