1. All non-zero digits are significant.

For example, in 285 cm, there are three significant

figures and in 0.25 mL, there are two significant figures.
2. Zeros preceding to first non-zero digit are not significant. Such zeros indicates the position
of decimal point.
For example, 0.03 has one significant figure and 0.0052 has two significant figures.
3. Zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. Thus, 2.005 has four significant figures.
4. Zeros at the end or right of a number are significant provided they are on the right side of
the decimal point. For example, 0.200 g has three significant figures.
5. Counting numbers of objects. For example, 2 balls or 20 eggs have infinite significant
figures as these are exact numbers and can be represented by writing infinite number of zeros
after placing a decimal.
i.e., 2 = 2.000000
or 20 = 20.000000
• Addition and Subtraction of Significant Figures
In addition or subtraction of the numbers having different precisions, the final result should
be reported to the same number of decimal places as in the term having the least number of
decimal places.
For example, let us carry out the addition of three numbers 3.52, 2.3 and 6.24, having
different precisions or different number of decimal places.

The final result has two decimal places but the answer has to be reported only up to one
decimal place, i.e., the answer would be 12.0.
Subtraction of numbers can be done in the same way as the addition.

The final result has four decimal places. But it has to be reported only up to two decimal
places, i.e., the answer would be 11.36.
• Multiplication and Division of Significant Figures
In the multiplication or division, the final result should be reported upto the same number of
significant figures as present in the least precise number.
Multiplication of Numbers: 2.2120 x 0.011 = 0.024332
According to the rule the final result = 0.024
Division of Numbers: 4.2211÷3.76 = 1.12263
The correct answer = 1.12
• Dimensional Analysis
Often while calculating, there is a need to convert units from one system to other. The
method used to accomplish this is called factor label method or unit factor method or
dimensional analysis.
• Laws of Chemical Combinations
The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following five basic
laws.
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Law of Gaseous Volume (Gay Lussac’s Law)
(v) Avogadro’s Law
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
The law was established by a French chemist, A. Lavoisier. The law states:
In all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of the reactants is equal to that of the
products.
In other words, matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
The following experiments illustrate the truth of this law.
(a) When matter undergoes a physical change.

It is found that there is no change in weight though a physical change has taken place.
(b) When matter undergoes a chemical change.
For example, decomposition of mercuric oxide.

During the above decomposition reaction, matter is neither gained nor lost.
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
According to this law:
A pure chemical compound always consists of the same elements combined together in a
fixed proportion by weight.
For example, Carbon dioxide may be formed in a number of ways i.e.,

(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions

If two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the weight of one of the elements
which combines with a fixed weight of the other in these compounds, bears simple whole
number ratio by weight.
For example,

(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes

The law states that, under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, whenever gases
combine, they do so in volumes which bear simple whole number ratio with each other and
also with the gaseous products. The law may be illustrated by the following examples.
(a) Combination between hydrogen and chlorine:

(b) Combination between nitrogen and hydrogen: The two gases lead to the formation of
ammonia gas under suitable conditions. The chemical equation is

(v) Avogadro’s Law: Avogadro proposed that, equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure should contain equal number of molecules.
For example,
If we consider the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce water, we see that two
volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to give two volumes of water
without leaving any unreacted oxygen.
• Dalton’s Atomic Theory
In 1808, Dalton published ‘A New System of Chemical Philosophy’ in which he proposed
the following:
1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms.
2. All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including identical mass. Atoms
of different elements differ in mass.
3. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of atoms. These are neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
• Atomic Mass
The atomic mass of an element is the number of times an atom of that element is heavier than
an atom of carbon taken as 12. It may be noted that the atomic masses as obtained above are
the relative atomic masses and not the actual masses of the atoms.
One atomic mass unit (amu) is equal to l/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope. It
is also known as unified mass.
Average Atomic Mass
Most of the elements exist as isotopes which are different atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers and the same atomic number. Therefore, the atomic mass of an
element must be its average atomic mass and it may be defined as the average relative mass
of an atom of an element as compared to the mass of carbon atoms (C-12) taken as 12w.
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. It is
obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by number of its atoms and adding
them together.
For example,
Molecular mass of methane (CH4)
= 12.011 u + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
Formula Mass
Ionic compounds such as NaCl, KNO3, Na2C03 etc. do not consist of molecules i.e., single
entities but exist “as ions closely packed together in a three dimensional space as shown in -
Fig. 1.5.
In such cases, the formula is used to calculate the formula mass instead of molecular mass.
Thus, formula mass of NaCl = Atomic mass of sodium + atomic mass of chlorine
= 23.0 u + 35.5 u = 58.5 u.
• Mole Concept
It is found that one gram atom of any element contains the same number of atoms and one
gram molecule of any substance contains the same number of molecules. This number has
been experimentally determined and found to be equal to 6.022137 x 1023 The value is
generally called Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant.
It is usually represented by NA:
Avogadro’s Number, NA = 6.022 × 1023
• Percentage Composition
One can check the purity of a given sample by analysing this data. Let us understand by
taking the example of water (H20). Since water contains hydrogen and oxygen, the percentage
composition of both these elements can be calculated as follows:
• Empirical Formula
The formula of the compound which gives the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of
yarious elements present in one molecule of the compound.
For example, the formula of hydrogen peroxide is H202. In order to express its empirical
formula, we have to take out a common factor 2. The simplest whole number ratio of the
atoms is 1:1 and the empirical formula is HO. Similarly, the formula of glucose is C 6H1206. In
order to get the simplest whole number of the atoms,
Common factor = 6
The ratio is = 1 : 2 : 1 The empirical formula of glucose = CH20
• Molecular Formula
The formula of a compound which gives the actual ratio of the atoms of various elements
present in one molecule of the compound.
For example, molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide = H202and Glucose = C6H1206
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
Where n is the common factor and also called multiplying factor. The value of n may be 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6 etc.
In case n is 1, Molecular formula of a compound = Empirical formula of the compound.
• Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations
The word ‘stoichiometry’ is derived from two Greek words—Stoicheion (meaning element)
and metron (meaning measure). Stoichiometry, thus deals with the calculation of masses
(sometimes volume also) of the reactants and the products involved in a chemical reaction.
Let us consider the combustion of methane. A balanced equation for this reaction is as given
below:
Limiting Reactant/Reagent
Sometimes, in alchemical equation, the reactants present are not the amount as required
according to the balanced equation. The amount of products formed then depends upon the
reactant which has reacted completely. This reactant which reacts completely in the reaction
is called the limiting reactant or limiting reagent. The reactant which is not consumed
completely in the reaction is called excess reactant.
Reactions in Solutions
When the reactions are carried out in solutions, the amount of substance present in its given
volume can be expressed in any of the following ways:
1. Mass percent or weight percent (w/w%)
2. Mole fraction
3. Molarity
4. Molality
1. Mass percent: It is obtained by using the following relation:

2. Mole fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total
number of moles of the solution. For a solution containing n2 moles of the solute dissolved in
n1 moles of the solvent,
3. Molarity: It is defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 litre of the solution.

4. Molality: It is defined as the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent. It is

denoted by m.

• All substances contain matter which can exist in three states — solid, liquid or gas.
• Matter can also be classified into elements, compounds and mixtures.
• Element: An element contains particles of only one type which may be atoms or molecules.
• Compounds are formed when atoms of two or more elements combine in a fixed ratio to
each other.
• Mixtures: Many of the substances present around us are mixtures.
• Scientific notation: The measurement of quantities in chemistry are spread over a wide
rhnge of 10-31to 1023. Hence, a convenient system of expressing the number in scientific
notation is used.
• Scientific figures: The uncertainty is taken care of by specifying the number of significant
figures in which the observations are reported.
• Dimensional analysis: It helps to express the measured quantities in different systems of
units.
• Laws of Chemical Combinations are:
(i) Law of Conservation of Mass
(ii) Law of Definite Proportions
(iii) Law of Multiple Proportions
(iv) Gay Lussac’s Law of Gaseous Volumes
(v) Avogadro’s Law.
• Atomic mass: The atomic mass of an element is expressed relative to 12C isotope of carbon
which has an exact value of 12u.
• Average atomic mass: Obtained by taking into account the natural aboundance of different
isotopes of that element.
• Molecular mass: The molecular mass of a molecule is obtained by taking sum of atomic
masses of different atoms present in a molecule.
• Avogadro number: The number of atoms, molecules or any other particles present in a
given system are expressed in terms of Avogadro constant.
= 6.022 x 1023
• Balanced chemical equation: A balanced equation has the same number of atoms of each
 element on both sides of the equation.
• Stoichiometry: The quantitative study of the reactants required or the products formed is
called stoichiometry. Using stoichiometric calculations, the amounts of one or more reactants
required to produce a particular amount of product can be determined and vice-versa.

Class 11 Chemistry Notes

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