UNIT-1 Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) SDLC stands for Software Development Life Cycle, which is a process that software development organizations use to plan, design, build, test, and deliver software applications. The SDLC process outlines the steps and stages involved in creating a software product, from the initial planning phase to the final deployment and maintenance phase. The goal of the SDLC is to ensure that the software is of high quality, meets the requirements of the end-users, and is delivered on time and within budget. The SDLC process provides a structured and systematic approach to software development that helps to minimize risks and ensure that the end result is a high-quality software product. ZN vanes | sn | wth é Fig:Phases of SDLC 1. Planning ‘The first phase in the SDLC is planning. In this phase, someone identifies the need for anew or enhanced system. In larger organizations, this recognition may be part of a corporate and systems planning process. Information needs of the organization as a whole are examined, and projects to meet these needs are proactively identified. The organization's information system needs may result from requests to deal with problems in current procedures, from the desire to perform additional tasks, or from the realization that information technology could be used to capitalize on an existing opportunity. In smaller organizations, determination of which systems to develop may be affected by ad hoc user requests submitted as the need for new or enhanced systems arises, as well as from a formalized information planning process. It is further divided into two sub-phases: i. Project identification and Selection During project identification and selection, an organization determines whether resources should be devoted to the development or enhancement of each information system under consideration. The outcome of the project identification and selection process is a determination of which systems development projects should be undertaken by the organization ii, Project initiation and Planning Project initiation focuses on activities designed to assist in organizing a team to conduct project planning. Project planning focuses on defining clear.discrete activities and the work needed to complete each activity within a single project. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, Bhadrapur2. Analysis ‘The second phase in the SDLC is analysis. During this phase, the analyst thoroughly studies the organization's current procedures and the information systems used to perform organizational tasks. Analysis has two subphases. The first is requirements determination. In this subphase, analysts work with users to determine what the users want from a proposed system, The requirements determination process usually involves a careful study of any current systems, manual and computerized, that might be replaced or enhanced as part of the project. In the second part of analysis, analysts study the requirements and structure them according to their interrelationships and eliminate any redundancies. The output of the analysis phase isa description of the alternative solution recommended by the analysis team. 3. Design The third phase in the SDLC is design. During design, analysts convert the description of the recommended aitemative solution into logical and then physical system specifications. The analysts must design all aspects of the system, from input and output screens to reports, databases, and computer processes. The analysts must then provide the physical specifics of the system they have designed, either as 2 model or as detailed documentation, to guide those who will build the new system, That part of the design process that is independent of any specific hardware or software platform is referred to as logical design. Theoretically, the system could be implemented on any hardware and systems software, The idea is to make sure that the system functions as intended. Logical design concentrates on the business aspects of the system and tends to be oriented to a high level of specificity. Once the overall high-level design of the system is worked out, the analysts begin turning logical specifications into physical ones. This process is referred to as physical design. As part of physical design, analysts design the various parts of the system to perform the physical operations necessary to facilitate data capture, processing, and information output. 4, Implementation Implementation includes coding, testing, installation, documentation, training and support. The physical system specifications, whether in the form of a detailed model or as detailed written specifications, are turned over to programmers as the first part of the implementation phase. During implementation, programmers turn system specificationsinto a working system that is tested and then put into use. During coding, programmers write the programs that make up the system. Sometimes the code is generated by the same system used to build the detailed model of the system. During testing, programmers and analysts test individual programs and the entire system in order to find and correct errors. During installation, the new system becomes part of the daily activities of the organization. Application software is installed, or loaded, on existing or new hardware, and users are introduced to the new system and trained. 5. Maintenance When a system is operating in an organization, users sometimes find problems with how it works and often think of better ways to perform its functions. Also, the organization's needs with respect to the system change over time, In maintenance, programmers make the changes that users ask for and modify the system to reflect evolving business conditions. These changes are necessary to keep the system running and useful. Ina sense, maintenance is not a separate phase but a repetition of the other life cycle phases required to study and implement the needed changes. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, Bhadrapur‘There are 4 main activities performed in this phase: a) Obtaining maintenance requests b) Transforming requests into changes ) Designing changes d)_ Implementing changes Phase Products, Outputs, or Deliverobles Plonning Priorities for systems and projects; an architecture for data, networks, and selection hardware, and information systems management are the result of associated systems Detailed steps, or work plan, for project Specification of system scope and planning and highlevel system requirements or features Assignment of team members and other resources System justification or business case Analysis Description of current system and where problems or opportunities exist, with @ gonoral recommendation on how to fix, enhance, or replace current system Explanation of alternative systems and justificotion for chosen clternative Design Functional, detailed specifications of all system elements (dota, processes, inputs, and outputs) Technical, detailed specifications of all system elements (programs, files, network, system software, etc.) ‘Acquisition plan for new technology Implementation Code, documentation, training procedures, and support capabilities ‘Maintenance New versions or releases of software with associated updates fo documentation, Haining, and support Table: Deliverables of SDLC phases System Development Methodology or Software Process Model itis standard process followed in an organization to conduct all the steps necessary to analyze, design, implement, and maintain information systems. Traditional Waterfall Model of System Development ‘The waterfall model isa linear, sequential approach to the software development lifecycle (SDLC) that Is popular in software engineering and product development. The watertall model uses a logical progression of SDLC steps for a project, similar to the direction water flows over the edge of a cliff. It sets distinct endpoints or goals for each phase of development. Those endpoints or goals can't be revisited after their completion. ‘Advantages of waterfall model: Simple method and easy to use, phases are clear, suitable for smaller projects, Easy to manage Disadvantages of waterfall model: Doesr’t allow much revision, not suitable for complex projects, doesn’tinclude a feedback path, customer can see working model of the project only at the end Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurPlanning Analysis Logical Design Physical Design |implemertation Maintenance Fig: Waterfall model Spiral Model of System Development Spiral model is one of the most important Software Development Life Cycle models, which provides support for Risk Handling. In its diagrammatic representation, it looks like a spiral with many loops. The exact number of loops of the spiral is unknown and can vary from project to project. Each loop of the spiral is called a Phase of the software development process. The Spiral model is called a Meta- Model because it subsumes all the other SDLC mode's. For example, a single loop spiral actually represents the Iterative Waterfall Model. The spiral model incorporates the stepwise approach of the Classical Waterfall Model. The spiral model uses the approach of the Prototyping Model by building a prototype at the start of each phase asa risk-handling technique. Also, the spiral model can be considered as supporting the Evolutionary model - the iterations along the spiral can be considered as evolutionary levels through which the complete system is built. ‘Advantages of spiral model 1. Risk Handling 2. Good for large projects 3. Flexibility in Requirements 4. Customer Satisfaction Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurDisadvantages of spiral model 1. Complex 2. Expensive 3. Too much dependability on Risk Analysis 4. Difficulty in time management ‘Cumulative cost Progress 2. Identify and resolve risks Determine objectives Implementation 4, Plan the Release next iteration 3. Development and Test Fig: Spiral Model Agile Methodology an iterative approach to project management and software development that helps teams deliver value to their customers faster and with fewer headaches, Instead of betting everything on a "big bang" launch, an agile team delivers work in small, but consumable, increments. Requirements, plans, and results are evaluated continuously so teams have a natural mechanism for responding to change quickly. Agile project management is nota singular framework — rather, it can be used as an umbrella term to include many different frameworks. Agile project management can refer to terms including Scrum, Kanban, Extreme Programming (XP), and Adaptive Project Framework (APF) Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurAgile’s four main values ar + Individuals and interactions over processes and tools + Working software over comprehensive documentation + Customer collaboration over contract negotiation + Responding to change over following a plan yy is = Development ES a oe Methodology oo ° Design ty Prototype ES Fig. Agile Model eXtreme Programming ‘An approach to software development known as “extreme programming" (XP) aims to increase software responsiveness and quality. It promotes frequent releases in quick development cycles as a sort of agile software development, with the goal of increasing productivity and introducing checkpoints where new customer requirements can be accepted, Other characteristics of extreme programming include working in pairs or performing extensive code reviews, unit testing all code, delaying the development of features until they are actually required, a flat organizational structure, simple and clear code, anticipating changes in the customer's requirements over time as the issue is better understood, and regular interaction between programmers and the client. The methodology takes its name from the idea thet the beneficial elements of traditional software engineering practices are taken to "extreme" levels. Advantages of XP: stable system, clear code, less documentation, customer satisfaction Disadvantages of XP: Unclear estimates, stressful, pair program: ‘takes longer Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurCASE tools They are software tools that provide automated support for some portion of the systems development process. CASE tools are used to support a wide variety of SDLC activities. CASE tools can be used to help in multiple phases of the SDLC: project identification and selection, project initiation and planning, analysis, design, and implementation and maintenance. ‘The general types of CASE tools are listed below: * Diagramming tools enable system process, data, and control structures to be represented graphically. + Computer display and report generators help prototype how systems “look and feel.” Display (or form) and report generators make it easier for the systems analyst to identify data requirements and relationships. * Analysis tools automatically check for incomplete, inconsistent, or incorrect specifications in diagrams, forms, and reports. «A central repository enables the integrated storage of specifications, diagrams, reports, and project management information. * Documentation generators produce technical and user documentation in standard formats. * Code generators enable the automatic generation of program and database definition code directly from the design documents, diagrams, forms, and reports SLC Phase Key ives CASEToAI Usage Projet identification Diplay ond aucune highiovel Diagramming ond matrix lok to coals ond acts information| ‘rd slectien| ‘Srgarizationdl infomation Frojeiniioten Develop project ope and __—Repoitory and documertation generators fe develop projec pions ad planning ‘eos Anaiais Determine and stucue sytem Diogromming create process, lpi, ond data models Logica ond physical Creole new yten designs Form and epotgeteraors ls prootype designs andyss and documeniation design igereraes to dene specications Implosion Teale dodgnaino on Crd gare ce enclaly Son ond epee penser to davlo mpon ‘oration sysem ‘docsmentton generaors fo develop sym ond wer documentation Mointencnce Evehe information sytem __Alfols oe used (epee cycle Differentiate between agile methodology and waterfall model. ‘Agile Methodology Waterfall Model it takes iterative approach to software | it takes sequential approach to software development. development. Tt works well when scope of project is unknown. | It works well when the scope of project isknown, beforehand. Tt allows changes to be made even after the | The contract terms wont allow changes to. be development starts. made as the proces is sequential. Customer availability is important throught the | Customer availability is required only while entire project. setting milestone, Provides flexibility to oversee the development | flexibility is limited. of project. Products are tested frequently for bugs and | Testing can't be done during development cycle, errors during develop- ment cycle. but only at the end. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurInformation system Information System (\s) is a set of interrelated components that creates, processes, stores, retrieves and disseminates information to facilitate organizational decision-making process. Information systems also help managers and workers analyze problems, visualize complex subjects, and create new products. The input to such a system is data and processed data becomes information. Information systems are guided by a set of policies, principles procedures and resources. ‘Types of Information System: 1. Transaction Processing System [TPS]: A transaction processing system is a computerized system that performs and records the daily routine transactions necessary to conduct business, such as sales order entry, hotel reservations, payroll, employee record keeping, and shipping. TPS meets the information needs of operational managers, The major purpose of TPS is to answer routine questions and to track the flow of transactions through the organization.it is source of data to MS and DSS. 2. Management information systems [MIS] MIS is a specific category of information systems serving middle management. MIS provide middle managers with reports on the organization's current performance. This information is used to monitor and control the businessand predict future performance. MIS summarize and report on the company's basic operations using data supplied by transaction processing systems. The basic transaction data from TPS are compressed and usually presented in reports that are produced on a regular schedule. MIS are general purpose and well-integrated systems that meet the tactical information needs of middle managers. 3. Decision Support Systems (DSS): Decision support systems are interactive computer based systems, which help decision makers utilize data and models to solve semi-structured problems. A DSS is the type of intelligent support system that integrates intemal and external data with various decision- making models in order to produce alternative solutions to a given problem. It helps to automate routine and repetitive elements in a problem while simultaneously supporting the Use of intuition and judgments. 4, Executive support systems|ESs): It is primarily used by top level management. It is user friendly, interactive system, designed to meet information needs of top management engaged in long-range planning, crisis management, and other strategic decision(unique, non- repetitive and future oriented), which addresses long-term issues such as emerging markets, merger and acquisition strategies, new product development and investment strategies. Thus, Executive information systems are intended to be used by the senior managers directly to provide support to non- programmed decisions in strategic management. ESS assists in the making of decision that requires an in- depth understanding of the firm and of the industry in which the firm operates 5. Expert System (ES): Expert system is an artificial intelligence based system that converts the knowledge, experience, intuition and judgment of human expert to help organizations acquire and retain knowledge that is vital to the competitiveness and success of the company. Expert systems are good at solving semi-structured and unstructured problems and can solve complex problems that require theoretical knowledge and practical experts. Expert systems typically consist of three parts: (1) a knowledge base which contains the information acquired by interviewing experts, and logic rules that govern how that information is applied; Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, Bhadrapur(2) an Inference engine that interprets the submitted problem against the rules and logic of Information stored in the knowledge base; (3) user interface that allows the user to express the problem in a human language such as English. 6. Office Automation System(OAS) Office automation systems are designed to increase the productivity of clerical & knowledge workers and enhance communication in the workplace. Office automation uses software and hardware solutions to ease your workload. Varieties of office automation systems are now applied to business and communication functions that used to be performed manually or in multiple locations of a company, such as preparing written communications and performing regular official activities. Differentiate between Gantt chart and PERT diagram. Gantt Chart PERT Diagram It shown duration of tasks. Tt usually shows dependencies between tasks. Tt shows time overlap between tasks Tt shows tasks that can be done in parallel. Itis employed for small projects. It is used in large and complex projects. ‘Time duration and percentage completion have accurate values, Completion time is decided based upon prediction or past processing. Visually shows stack time in schedule. Show stack time by data in rectangles. Differentiate between structured and object oriented methodologies. Object oriented methodologies Structured methodologies The main focus is on data and real world objects ‘that are important. The main focus is on process and procedures of a system. it uses incremental or iterative methodology. it uses SDLC methodology. The techinque is new and mostly preferred, This techingue is old and not usually preferred. Suitable for projects with changing requirements. user Suitable for projects with well defined user requirements, Low risk and high reusability. High risk and low reusability. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurUNIT-2:Planning Project Identification and Selection, Project Initiation and Planning Project Manager Activities performed by project manager during initiation, planning, execution and termination of project are: 1. Initiating the project. During project initiation, the project manager performs several activities. a) Establishing relationship with customer b) Establishing project initiation plan and management procedures. ) Establishment of projectinitiation team d) Establishing project management environment & workbook e) Developing project charter. 2. Planning the project: Activities performed while planning the project are: a) Describing project scope, alternatives and feasibility b) Dividing project into managable tasks. ©) Estimating resources and creating a resource plan 4d) Developing Preliminary schedule communication plan. e€) Identifying and assessing risk 3. Executing the project: Following activities are performed during project execution. a) Executing baseline project plan b) monitoring project progress ) Managing changes to baseline project plan d) maintaining project workbook e) Communicating project status 4. Closing down the project: The activities performed during this phase are: a) Termination of project. b) conducting post project reviews ) dosing customer contract. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurCorporate Strategic Planning (CSP) Corporate strategic planning is an ongoing process that defines the mission, objectives and strategies of an organization. It's outcomes are: Mission Statement: A statement that makes it clear what business a company i in. Statement of Objective: A series of statement that express on organization’s qualitatuve and quantitative goals for reaching a desired future position. 3. Competitive Strategy: The method by which an organization attempts to achieve its mission and objective. The generic competitive strategies are low cost producer, product differentiation and product focus or niche. Corporate information system planning (CISP) Corporate information system planning is an orderly means of assessing the information needs of an ‘orgainzation and defining the system’s databases and technologies that will best satisfy those needs. It involves the following activities: 1. Describe the current situation a. Top down planning b. Bottom up planning ©. Planning team is chartered to model existing situation d. Matrices are developed to cross reference units 2. Describe the target situation a Update list of orgainzational locations, functions to reflect described locations functions b. Matrices are updated to reflect the future states Planners focus on difference between current lists and future lists and matrices 3. Developing transition strategy and plans a. Broad comprehensive documents are created that looks at both short term and long. term organization development needs b. Consistsa series of project Project charter A project charter is a short document that is prepared for both internal and external stakeholders. it provides high level overview of the project. Itis @ useful communication too! that helps to assure that the organization and other stakeholders understand the initiation of project/ Itis used in project planning to develop Baseline Project Plan(BPP) and Project Scope Statement(PSS]. Baseline Project Plan(BPP) Itisa document that has ll the information collected during project initiation and planning. Once the BPP is completed, a formal review of project pian can be conduted with project clients and other interested parties. It has four major sections: Introduction, System Description, Feasi Issues. y Assessment, Management Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurProject Scope Statement It is a short document prepared for the customer that describes what the project will deliver and outlines all the work required to complete the project. it ensures that both developer and customer gain common understanding of the project. It is very easy to create because it contains high level summary of BPP information. Feasibility Analysis Feasibility analysis is the process of evaluating the potential of @ proposed project or venture. It is used to determine whether the project is viable, and to identify any potential issues that may arise during the implementation of the project. The analysis typically includes a review of technical, financial, legal, and operational aspects of the project, as well as an assessment of the potential risks and benefits. The goal ofa feasibility analysis is to provide decision-makers with a clear understanding of the project's potential and to help them decide whether to proceed with the project or not, ‘Types of project feasibility: 1. Economic feasibility Economic feasibility is a type of feasibility analysis that assesses the potential financial performance of a proposed project or venture. The goal of economic feasibility analysis is to determine whether the project is financially viable, and to identify any potential financial risks or issues thatmay arise during the implementation of the project. Economic feasibility analysis typically includes a review of the project's costs, revenues, and profits. It also involves forecasting future financial performance using techniques such as break-even analysis, net present value (NPV), and internal rate of return (IRR). The analysis will also include identification of potential funding sources and consideration of the projects impact on the overall economy. The goal of economic feasibility analysis is to provide decision-makers with a clear understanding of the project's potential financial performance and to help them decide whether to proceed with the project or not, by comparing the project's expected benefits to its expected costs and evaluating the overall return on investment (RO!| of the project. 2. Techincal feasibility Technical feasibility is the assessment of whether a proposed project or solution can be implemented with the existing technology and resources. It involves determining if the necessary technology and resources are available and if they can be used effectively and efficiently to achieve the project's objectives. The technical feasibility assessment typically includes the following steps: i. Identifying the technical requirements of the project: This includes determining the hardware, software, and other resources that are required to implement the project. Hl, Assessing the availability of the necessary technology and resources: This includes determining if the required technology and resources are currently available or if they need to be developed or acquired. ili, Evaluating the compatibility of the proposed solution with existing systems: This includes determining i the proposed solution can integrate with existing systems and if itis compatible with the existing infrastructure iv. Estimating the costs and benefits of the proposed solution: This includes determining the costs associated with acquiring and implementing the technology and resources and comparing them to the benefits that the project is expected to generate. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, Bhadrapurv. Identifying potential technical risks and developing a risk management plan: This includes Identifying potential technical issues that could arise during the implementation of the project and developing a plan to mitigate or address those risks. 3. Operational feasibility Operational feasibility is the assessment of whether a proposed project or solution can be implemented and sustained within the existing organizational structure and resources. it involves determining if the proposed solution can be effectively and efficiently integrated into the day-to-day operations of the organization and if the necessary resources, including personnel and funding, are available to support the project. The operational feasibility assessment typically includes the following steps: 1. Identifying the organizational impact of the proposed solution: This includes determining how the proposed solution will impact the existing organizational structure, processes, and roles. ii, Assessing the availability of the necessary personnel and resources: This. includes determining if the necessary personnel and resources, such as funding and equipment, are available to support the project. Evaluating the compatibility of the proposed solution with existing organizational policies and procedures: This includes determining if the proposed solution is consistent with existing organizational policies and procedures and if it will require any changes to them. iv. Identifying potential operational risks and developing a risk management plan: This includes identifying potential operational issues that could arise during the implementation of the project and developing a plan to mitigate or address those risks. v. Establishing a support and maintenance plan: This includes determining how the proposed solution will be supported and maintained once it is implemented 4, Schedule feasibility Schedule feasibility is the assessment of whether a proposed project or solution can be completed within the specified time frame. It includes identifying the project milestones and deadlines, assessing the availability of the necessary personnel and resources, evaluating the dependencies between tasks and activities, identifying potential schedule risks and developing a risk management plan, and establishing a project monitoring and control plan. 5. legal and contractual feasibility Legal and contractual feasibility is the assessment of whether a proposed project or solution is compliant with the relevant laws, regulations, and contracts. It involves determining if the proposed project or solution complies with the legal and contractual requirements that may apply to it, such as environmental, health and safety, and data privacy regulations, and if it does not, what are the necessary steps to make it compliant. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, Bhadrapur6. Political feasibility Political feasibility is the assessment of whether a proposed project or solution is likely to be supported and approved by the relevant political stakeholders and decision-makers. it includes identifying the relevant political stakeholders, assessing the political priorities and agendas, evaluating the potential political risks, identifying the necessary funding and approvals, and building support and alliances. Time Value of Money The time value of money (TVM) is a concept that states that money in the present is worth more than the same amount of money in the future. This is because money in the present can be invested and earn interest, whereas money in the future is worth less due to inflation. TVM is used to calculate the present value (PV) of a future cash flow, which is the value of that cash flow today, considering the time value of money. TVM also used 10 calculate future value (FV) of a present cash flow, which is the value of that cash flow in the future, considering the interest rete. ‘The basic formula for calculating the present value (PV) is PY=FV/ (141) * ‘Where FVis the future value, ris the interest rate, and t is the number of time periods. ‘The basic formula for calculating the future value (FV) is: FV=PV* (147) At ‘Where PVis the present value, ris the interest rate, and tis the number of time periods. Net present value (NPV) Net Present Value (NPV) is a financial metric that calculates the present value of future cash flows generated by an investment, minus the initial cost of the investment. It is commonly used to evaluate the economic feasibility ofa project or investment. The formula for NPVis: NPV = (CFI / (141) 41) + (CF2 / (141) 92) +... + (CEn/ (1#r) Sn) - CO Where: CF = cash flow, of the investment. he initial cost iscount rate, n = the number of time periods, CO Return on Investment (ROI) Return on Investment (RO!) s 2 financial metric that measures the efficiency of an investment, by calculating the ratio of the net gain or loss from an investment to the initial investment Cost. It is commonly used to evaluate the economic feasibility of a project or investment, The formula for ROI is: ROI = (Net Gain or Loss from Investment / Initial Investment Cost) x 100 Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurBreak Even Analysis and Break Even Point Break-even analysis is a financial tool used to determine the point at which the revenue of a project orinvestment equals its costs. tis commonly used to evaluate the economic feasibility ofa project or investment. The break-even point is the point at which the total revenue equals the total cost, and itis represented by the intersection of the revenue and cost curves. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurRequirements Determination, Requirements Structuring Methods of Determining System Requirements L Traditional Methods of Collecting System Requirement + Individually interview people informed about the operation and issues of the current system and future systems needs « Interview groups of people with diverse needsto find synergies and contrasts among system requirements * Observe workers at selected times to see how data are handled and what information people need to do their jobs + Study business documents to discover reported issues, policies, rules, and directions as well as concrete examples of the use of data and information in the organization Contemporary Methods for Collecting System Requirements ‘Bringing session users, sponsors, analysts, and others together in a JAD session to discuss and review system requirements ‘* Using CASE tools during a JAD to analyse current systems to discover requirements that will meet changing business conditions + iteratively developing system prototypes that refine the understanding of system requirements in concrete terms by showing working versions of system features Radical methods of determining system requirements ‘Business process reengineering Business Process Reengineering (BPR) isa management approach that involves the radical redesign of core business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in performance. BPR is used to help organizations become more efficient and effective by streamlining processes, reducing costs, and improving customer service. BPR typically involves the following steps: 1 Identifying the current business processes 2. Analyzing the current processes 3, Designing new processes: 4, Implementing the new processes: 5, Measuring the results: ‘+ Disruptive Technologies Disruptive technologies are innovations that fundamentally change the way industries or markets operate. These types of technologies often disrupt established businesses and create new opportunities for growth. Examples of disruptive technologies include the internet, mobile devices, and ride-sharing services. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurQualities and Skills of System Analyst 1. Communication Skills System analysts spend a great deal of time engaging with users, consumers, management and developers according to the nature of the work. The performance of a project may rely on the system analyst clearly communicating information such as project specifications, adjustments required and results of testing. Fluent language skills and written communication abilities are important to succeed as a system analyst. 2. Technical Skills ‘An analyst should know what IT technologies are being used in order to find system solutions, what ‘new potential results can be accomplished across existing systems, and what the latest technology offers, The system analyst must know the methods of system design. 3. Analytical Skills The skill set of an analyst should include excellent analytical abilities in order to better analyse the needs of a client and convert them into application and organizational requirements. Analyzing, information . records, user feedback surveys and workflow to decide which course of action can correct the system issue is one aspect of the job. Good analytical abilities are helpful in effectively conducting the work of the system analyst. 4, Problem-Solving Skills Although analysts are not exceptional in the ability to develop workable solutions to problems, itis a required skill to effectively perform the job. As with most IT positions, the career of the system analyst can be spent coping with regular and random modifications. When these professionals are ‘working to designing custom system solutions, nothing is 100 percent predictable —so finding ways to quickly fix problems and move toward project 's efficient completion is critical in the system. analyst's position. 5. Decision-Making Skills ‘The capacity to make decisions Is another significant system analyst skill. In a broad range of system problems, the system analyst is called upon for sound judgement as ¢ management consultant and developer adviser, any number of which might decide the feasibility of the system. it should be possible for professionals who wish to pursue a career as a system analyst to analyse a situation, gain feedback from stakeholders, and choose a course of action. 6. Managerial Skills The ability to manage projects is another ability a system analyst should possess. Planning the scope of the project, directing team members, managing demands for adjustment, predicting budgets and keeping everyone on the project under assigned time limits are just some of the management skils that a system analyst should have. Supervising projects of all sizes, from conception to completion — and typically simultaneously — will require a high degree of managerial ability Process modelling Process modelling involves graphically representing the functions, or processes, that capture, manipulate, store, and distribute data between a system and its environment and between ‘components within a system. Acommon form of a process model is a data flow diagram (DED). ‘The deliverables and outcomes of process modelling are: 1. Context DFD 2. DFDs of system (Adequately decomposed) 3. Thorough description of each DFD component, Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurData Flow Diagram (DFD) ‘A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the flow of information in a system. it shows the flow of data between external entities and the processes, data stores, and data flows within a system. DFDs are useful for modeling and analyzing the flow of information in a system, and they can be used at different levels of detail to represent different aspects of the system. The various levels of OFD are: 1. Context Level DFO: This is the highest level DFD and shows the overall system boundaries and the relationship between the system and its externalentities. t provides an overview of the entire system and is used to understand the overall flow of data. ‘There are several rules to follow when constructing a context diagram: 1 The context diagram should be simple and easy to understand 2. The context diagram should be a single diagram. it should not be broken down into multiple diagrams or levels. 3. Data stores should not appear in a context diagram. 4. It should show the main components of the system and the flow of data between them. 2. Level 1 DFD: This is the next level of DFD and shows the major processes within the system in more detall. It breaks down the system into smaller subsystems and shows how data flows between them, 43, Level 2 DFD: This level of DFD shows the processes from the level 1 DFD in even more detail. it breaks down the processes into smaller subprocesses and shows how data flows between them. 4, Level n DFD: This level of DFD shows the processes in the greatest level of detail. it breaks down the processes into the smallest possible subprocesses and shows how data flows between them. ous lee cso oer ne | = — ews Gee O40 Generate Payments | (b}tevl0 DF for Hanae Barges Irvectory cone sem Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurLogical modelling Logical modeling is a method used to represent the relationships and constraints among variables in ‘a problem or system using logical operators and logical equations. itis often used in computer science, artificial intelligence, and operations research as a way to formally describe and reason about problems, and to design and analyze algorithms for solving them. Logical models can be used to represent 2 wide range of problems and systems, including knowledge representation, planning, reasoning, and decision making, They can be implemented using various formal languages and tools, such as propositional logic, first-order logic, logic programming, and constraint programming. Decision Tables Decision tables are a graphical method of representing process logic. in decision tables, conditions are listed in the condition stubs, possible actions are listed in the action stubs, and rules link combinations of conditions to the actions that should result. Analysts reduce the complexity of decision tables by eliminating rules that do not make sense and by combining rules with different condition. A decision table is called a process description tool because it provides a clear and structured way to describe the processes or rules that govern a system or problem. It describes how different inputs and conditions are related to different outputs and decisions, and how the system or problem should behave in different scenarios. An example of decision table for payment system is given below. S stands for salary basis and H for hourly basis. Conditions! ules courses ottcton [5513 ays] 6 Condition | Employes ype s[#[slals|[# Stub Hours worked <40| 40] 40 | 40 |>40 | >40 ‘action [Pay base salary x x x me Calculate houry wage x x Calcuate overime Produce absence report x Table: Decision Table Conceptual data modeling Conceptual data modeling is the process of creating a high-level representation of the data requirements of a system or organization. It involves identifying the main concepts, entities, and relationships that are relevant to the system or organization and representing them in a model. It is the first step in the data modeling process, and its main goal is to provide a clear and consistent understanding of the data requirements of the system or organization and ensure that the data model is aligned with the overall goals and objectives of the system or organization, The primary deliverable from the conceptual data modeling step within the analysis phase is an E-R diagram. The other deliverable from conceptual data modeling is a full set of entries about data objects that will be stored in the project dictionary, repository, or data modeling software. The repository is the mechanism that links the data, processes, and logic models of an information system. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurER model and ER diagram ER model (Entity-Relationship model) is a method used to represent the data requirements of a system or organization in a conceptual data model. It is used to capture the overall logical structure of the data and the relationships between the different entities and concepts, without specifying the physical structure or implementation details. The ER model is based on the idea that the data in a system can be represented as entities and the relationships between those entities. ‘An ER diagram (Entity-Rek visually represent the entities, attributes, and relationships in a system or organi ‘are compesed of entities, which are represented as rectangles, and relationships, which are jonship diagram) is a graphical representation of an ER model. It is used to n. ER diagrams represented as diamonds. The entities and relationships are connected by lines, and attributes, which are characteristics of the entities, are represented as oval shapes connected to the entities. ER ciagrams are useful for designing and analyzing data structures and relationships in a system or organization. They can be used to identify the main entities, concepts, and relationships that are important to the system or organization, and to ensure that the data model s flexible and adaptable to changing requirements. They can also be used to communicate the data requirements with different stakeholders, such as developers, testers, and users, in a clear and concise way. > a Sf . _ 2 “2 Specialization Diagnose ‘% Fig: Example of ER Diagram Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, BhadrapurUNIT-4: Design Database Design, Forms and Reports Design, Interface and Dialogue Design Database Design Database design is the organization of data according to a database model. The designer determines what data must be stored and how the data elements interrelate. itis a collection of processes that facilitate the designing, development, implementation and maintenance of enterprise data management systems. It helps to produce database system which have high performance and that can meet the requirements of the users. The main objective of database designing is to produce logical and physical designs models of the proposed database system. Logical Database Design AA logical database is a conceptual representation of a database that describes the relationships between data entities and their attributes, without specifying how the data is physically stored. It is a way of organizing and structuring data in a way that makes it easy to understand, manage, and maintain. The logical database design is typically independent of a specific database management system (DBMS) and is used as a blueprint for physical database design. ‘The logical database is created through a process called logical database design, which involves several steps, including requirements gathering, conceptual data modeling, normalization, and refinement. ‘The end result of the process is a well-organized and structured database that meets the needs of stakeholders, including business users, developers, and database administrators. Physical Database Design A physical database is the actual implementation of a database, where the logical design is translated into a specific database management system (DBMS) and optimized for performance. The physical database represents the storage of data on physical media, such as hard drives or solid-state drives. Physical database designis the process of translating a logical database design into a specific database management system (DBMS) and optimizing it for performance. Physical database design involves several steps, including: 1. Mapping the logical design to the specific DBMS: This involves defining the data structures, such 2s tables, columns, and rows, as well as the relationships between them using keys, indexes, and constraints. 2. Storage allocation: Deciding on the physical storage of the data, taking into consideration factors such as storage capacity, data retrieval speed, and scalability. 3. Performance tuning: Optimizing the physical design to improve the speed and efficiency of data retrieval, insertion, and modification. This may involve using indexing, partitioning, and other techniques to improve query performance. 4. Security: Defining and implementing security measures to protect the data and control access, to it, suchas authentication, authorization, and encryption. 5. Data backup and recovery: Establishing procedures for backing up and recovering data incase of failures or other disruptions. Saugat Gautam, BCA, MMC, Bhadrapur