CHAPTER #8: DIVERSITY AMONG PLANTS

THE EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF PLANTS

In the beginning the plants were restricted only to aquatic conditions.
• The migration started towards land nearly 400 million years ago.
• Many important features of land plants also appear in a variety of protists, primarily green algae.
For example,
• Plants are multicellular, eukaryotic, photosynthetic, autotrophs, as are brown, red and certain
green algae.
• Plants have cell wall made of cellulose. Likewise, green algae, dinoflagellates and brown
algae have also cellulose in their cell walls.
• Chloroplasts with chlorophylls a and b are present in plants as well as in green algae, euglenoids
and a few dinoflagellates.

Biologists have identified the freshwater green algae, as the c loses t relatives of land plants. Both contain a
higher percentage of cellulose in their cell wall, form phragmoplast during cell division, perform photo respiration
and have similar flagellated sperms. Some sequences of nuclear and chloroplast genes are also matching.

Diagnostic Features of Plants

Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with well-developed tissue and have autotrophic nutrition.

 Plants are well protected from being dried up in air by their cuticle, formed from a waxy substance
called cutin.
 The plant body has root, stems and leaves having vascular tissue xylem, phloem and cellulose rich cell
walls.
 Plants show alternation of generation. It consists of the sporophyte the diploid generation that
produces haploid spores by meiosis. Spores develop into a haploid gametophyte generation. The
gametophyte produces gametes that unite to form a diploid zygote.
 The plants are oogamous, the gametes are eggs and sperm.
Non Vascular Plants

General Characteristics of Bryophytes

1) Introduction

• The bryophyta is a group of plants comprising of liverworts, hornworts and mosses.

• Bryophytes are typically quite small and a few exceed 2 centimeters in length.
• They generally require a moist environment for active growth and reproduction, but
some bryophytes tolerate dry areas.
2) Generations

• The gametophytes of bryophytes are green and manufacture their own food.
• They are relatively large and prominent as compared to sporophytes.
• Some of their sporophytes are completely enclosed within gametophyte tissue, others that are
not enclosed; turn brownish or straw coloured at maturity.

3) General Characteristics
The main features of bryophytes are:
• They lack specialized vascular tissues.
• Multicellular sex organs produce embryo.
• Sporophytes are always smaller and obtain their food from the gametophyte.
• Their life cycles involve alternation of generation.
• Bryophytes are also called amphibious plants because they need water for development,
existence and reproduction.
• Their life cycles involve alternation of generation.
• Bryophytes are also called amphibious plants because they need water for development,
existence and reproduction.

Life Cycle of Mosses

The moss plants show two generations the sporophyte and the gametophyte, which regularly alternate with
each other. It is known as alternation of generation. The life cycle is completed when the plant passes
through these two generations.
1) Gametophyte
The matured green shoot is the gametophyte.
• It produces gametes and reproduces by sexual method.
• The sex organ is at the apex of the shoot.
• The male sex organ is known as antheridium and the female sex organ as archegonium.
• The sex organs are intermixed with some multicellular hair like structures, known as
paraphyses.
• The two sex organs may occur on the same plant i.e., monoecious or on two separate plants,
i.e., dioecious.
• In the antheridium the sperms are produced.
• In the archegonium the egg is produced.
• The flagellated sperms swim through the film of water to the egg.
• Fertilization is internal. The diploid zygote divides and forms the embryo.
• The embryo develops into a diploid sporophyte.
2) Sporophyte
The sporophyte c o ns ists of a foot which is embedded in the tissue of the gametophyte and a stalk
with a sporangium.
• Spores are formed in the sporophyte by meiosis, thus the spores are haploid.
• The spore germinates into alga like structure called protonema, having bud and branches.
The bud gives rise to gametophyte.
 Life cycle of Funaria

The Land Adaptations of Bryophytes

The land adaptive characteristics exhibited by nonvascular plants are:
1) The Multicellular Plant Body and Conservation of Water
The plant body of liverworts called thallus is multicellular consists of hundreds of cells e.g. Marchantia
(Mar-kan-shia).
• Only the cells of the upper layer are exposed to the atmosphere.
• Some cells are photosynthetic and some are storage cells.
• Water cannot evaporate from the inner cells because the upper epidermis has covering of cutin,
which is a wax like substance. The layer of cutin is called cuticle.
• Cuticle reduces the evaporation of water in some mosses and liverworts.
2) Absorption of Carbon Dioxide
The upper epidermis in Marchantia has many pores, which open into the air chamber.
• The air chamber is surrounded with photosynthetic cells.
• CO2 is absorbed by large amount of wet surfaces of the photosynthetic cells of the air
chambers.
• CO2 then diffuses into the cytoplasm.
• When CO2 is being absorbed, evaporation of water may occur through the pores.
3) Absorption of Water
The structures for absorption of water in moss and liverworts are rhizoids. These are present on
the lower surface of the Marchantia thallus.
• Rhizoids are long filamentous structures.
• They are unicellular and are extensions of the cell of the lower epidermis.
Rhizoids increase the surface area for absorption of water from the soil and also help in anchorage.
 4) Heterogamy
When two types of gametes are produced, it is called heterogamy.
• Sperms and ova are produced by the nonvascular plants, e.g., Moss, Marchantia etc.
• The sperms are flagellated and motile, require water for reaching egg.
• The egg is large and nonmotile. It contains large amount of food, which is used to nourish the early
stages of the developing embryo after the fertilization of egg.
• Due to the water requirement for fertilization they cannot live away from water.
5) Protection of Reproductive Cells
The moss, Marchantia etc. can be distinguished as male and female plants.
• The sex organs are multicellular and are covered by sterile hairs to prevent the drying of the sex
organs.
• Most of the cells of the sex organs are sterile which form a protective coat around the egg and
sperms.
• Protection of spore is performed by sporangium.

Disk shaped structures that bear antherida

6) Embryo Formation
Fertilization is inside the archegonium.
• The zygote divides to form the embryo and is retained inside the
archegonium.
• The chances of survival of embryo are increased as it is protected by the wall of the
archegonium.
• Embryo is present in all bryophytes and vascular plants.
Alternation of Generations
• The mosses and liverworts have a life cycle with alternating gametophyte and sporophyte
generations.
• It increases the chance of survival of the plants on land.
Importance of Bryophytes
Mosses play an important role in their environment.
• They hold the soil in place and help prevent erosion.
• They provide food for animals, especially birds and small mammals. Commercially the
most important mosses are the peat mosses.
• Their leaves hold water and are beneficial as a soil conditioner.
When added to sandy soils peat moss helps to hold and retain moisture.
Seedless Vascular Plants
1) Introduction
• Seedless vascular plants include ferns and their allies
• Because the seedless vascular plants are not closely related, each type is placed in its own
division.
2) General Characteristics
i) Vascular Tissues
Seedless vascular plants have vascular tissues; xylem and phloem.
ii) Body Structures
The vascular plants have true roots, stems, and leaves.
iii) Support
Xylem, with its strong-walled cells, supports the body of the plant against the pull of gravity.
iv) Cuticle
The leaves are covered by a waxy cuticle.
iv) Stomata
Leaves have small pores called stomata.
v) Sporophyte Generation
The sporophyte generation is diploid and dominant in vascular plants.
vi) Gametophyte Generation
When the spores germinate, a relatively large gametophyte is formed which is independent of the
sporophyte for its nutrition.
vii) Reproduction
The seedless vascular plants (ferns and their allies) disperse the s pec ies by producing windblown
spores.
viii) Reproductive Structures
In these plants, flagellated sperms are released by antheridia and swim in a film of external water to the
archegonia, where fertilization occurs.
ix) Classification
Because the seedless vascular plants are not closely related, each type is placed in its own division. The
seedless vascular plants include;
• whisk ferns (division Psilotophyta),
• club mosses (division Lycopodophyta),
• horsetails (division Equisetophyta), and
• ferns (division Pteridophyta)

1.Psilopsida-Whisk ferns (Simplest known vascular plant)

• The whisk fern lack true roots but bear underground stems called
rhizomes that bear rhizoids.
• Aerial stems have no leaves, they have only tiny scales fork repeatedly and carry on
photosynthesis.
• Sporangia are present at the tips of the branches.
• Most members of this group are extinct.
Example of extinct group is Rhynia. Psilotum is the most common living genus.
 Whisk Fern, Psilotum

2. Lycopsida-Club Mosses
• The plant body consists of a branching rhizome which sends up aerial stems less than 30
cm tall.
• Tightly packed scale like leaves cover the stem and branches of the plants.
• The leaves are microphylls, having only one strand of vascular tissue.
• In club mosses the sporangia are born on terminal clusters of leaves called strobili which are
club shaped.
• They are only living plants to have microphylls.
The familiar members of this group belong to genera Lycopodium and Selaginella

Horsetail, Equisetum

3 Sphenopsida – Horsetails
Sphenopsida commonly known as horsetails, are found in waste and wet places all over the world.
Sphenopsida includes more fossil plants than living one. Today there is only one surviving genus Equisetum.
• A rhizome produces aerial stem.
• The stems are slender, green, hollow structure, and appear jointed as slender green side branches
are present at the nodes.
• The small and scale like leaves also form whorls at the nodes, the nodes are separated by
internodes.
Many horsetails have strobilus at the tips of the stem.
 Horsetail, Equisetum

4.Pteropsida - Ferns
Ferns belong to the group pteropsida, subgroup or class filicinae, which are most abundant group of
seedless vascular plants in warm and moist tropical
region. Ferns range in size from reduced aquatic forms less than a centimetre, to a tree fern more than 24
metres tall, with leaves up to 5 metres or more in length.
• Except few all the ferns are homosporous.
• Sporophyte generation is much larger, more conspicuous, and more complex than the
gametophyte.
• Sporophyte is completely independent.
Sporangia are foliar, i.e. attached to leaves or fronds. When the frond is young and immature, it is coiled. This
pattern of development is called circinate vernation.
Life cycle of Adiantum
Life cycle of Adiantum (Maidenhair fern) contains two generations sporophyte
and gametophyte. Both of these generations are independent.
1) Sporophyte Generation
Sporophyte of Adiantum produces vegetative leaves at start. At later stages, fertile leaves also start
producing along with vegetative leaves.
• Fertile leaves produce sori (singular: sorus) on their underside.
• Sori are group of sporangia.
• These sori are covered with a flap of tissue called false indusium.
a) Sporangium
A mature sporangium is flattened, spherical or ellipsoidal.
• It consists of a stalk and upper swollen portion called capsule.
• Capsule is covered with single layered wall.
• Capsule wall consists of two portions annulus and stomium.
• Annulus portion contains cells with thick cell walls. Stomium consists of cell with thin cell walls.
This is the site for bursting of sporangia
b) Spore Formation
• Inside sporangia, many spores are produced by meiosis of spore mother cells.
• Spore wall contains two layers exine and intine.

c) Release of Spores
• When spores get mature, the wall of sporangia burst.
• Sporangium becomes dry, so the cells of annulus region contract which exerts pressure on
stomium cells.
• Stomium is weak region of wall of sporangia, so sporangia get burst from this region. Bursting
of sporangia cause the dispersal of spores.
d) Spore Germination
• After falling on suitable place, spore germinates.
• During germination, Exine of spore bursts and intine elongates into a tube like structure.
The apical portion of tube gives rise to new generation of Adiantum the gametophyte generation

2) Gametophyte Generation
a) Gametophyte
The shape of gametophyte of Adiantum is heart like.
• It has a notch, where growing point resides.
• Gametophyte of Adiantum is many cells thick from centre and only one cell thick at margins.
• Rhizoids are produced from underside of gametophyte for anchorage and absorption of water
and nutrients.
• Gametophyte contains chloroplasts, so carry out photosynthesis.
• Gametophyte is independent. Two kinds of organs archegonia and antheridia are produced
on gametophyte.
b) Archegonia
Archegonia is flask shaped structure with two portions i.e., ventre and neck.
• Ventre contains egg.
• Neck contains neck canal cells.
c) Antheridia
• Antheridia are globose structures, in which many antherozoids are produced.
• Antherozoids when get mature has two flagella for movement in water.
d) Fertilization
Antherozoids after releasing from antheridia travel through chemotactically towards archegonia.
• Antherozoids fertilize the egg inside archegonia.
• Resultant zygote develops into embryo.
• Embryo starts divisions to form sporophyte.
• Sporophyte remains dependent on gametophyte at start soon it becomes independent. Thus,
the life cycle of Adiantum shows heteromorphic alternation of generation.
Evolution of Leaf
Leaves are present in higher vascular plants. They have evolved from the primitive
vascular plants. There are two main types of leaves in vascular plants:
• Single veined leaves
• Many veined leaves
1) Single Veined Leaves
i) Size
Single veined leaves are small and scale like.
ii) Vascular Bundle
They have single vascular bundle and vein. Therefore they are called single or one veined leaves
or microphyllous leaves.
iii) Example
e.g., club mosses (Lycopodium).
iv) Evolution
• There is no fossil record showing the evolution of single veined leaves.
• However two hypotheses have been proposed to explain their origin:
a) Outgrowth hypothesis b) Reduction hypothesis
a) Outgrowth Hypothesis
According to out-growth hypothesis;
• Single veined leaf originated as simple outgrowth from the naked
branches of the primitive plant.
• The outgrowths had no vascular tissues.
• With the increase in size, vascular tissues were needed for the
transportation of food, water etc. and support.
• Thus vascular supply was extended from main vascular bundle of stem giving rise to a
single veined leaf.
b)The Reduction Hypothesis
The reduction hypothesis states that:
• The early vascular plants had leafless branches.
• These branches were gradually reduced in size.
• Thus by simplification and reduction in size and flattening of the leafless branches the
single veined leaves were evolved.
 2) Many Veined Leaves
i) Size
Many veined leaves are large leaves having prominent blade.
ii) Vascular Bundle
As many veins and vascular bundles are present, so they are called many veined leaves or
megaphyllous leaves,
iii) Example
e.g., Ginkgo etc.
iv) Evolution: From Forked Branches
It is evident from fossil record that many veined leaves have evolved through modification of the forked
branches found in early vascular plants e.g., Rhynia. According to this view;
• The forked branches were changed to a single plane known as planation.
• The branches became flat.
• The spaces between the bundles and branches of vascular tissues became filled with
photosynthetic tissues called webbing.
• The structure resembles superficially to the webbed foot of the duck and thus a many veined leaf
evolved.

Importance of Seedless Vascular Plants

• Lycopodium and Selaginella are chiefly grown as ornamental plants.
• Ducks and other aquatic animals feed upon the rhizome of lycopsida sp.
• The ferns are mostly ornamental plants of gardens and greenhouses.
• Some of them are used in the preparation of bouquets.
• Stems and leaves of tree ferns are used for building purposes.
• Some ferns yield a drug, which is utilized for removing the intestinal parasites.
• Practically all the members of the seedless vascular plants have contributed extensively
to coal formation.
The Seed Plants
The two g r o u p s of seed bearing vascular plants are the gymnosperms and angiosperms.
• The seeds of gymnosperm are produced exposed on the surface of the sporophylls that make
up cones.
• The seeds of angiosperms are usually enclosed by a fruit produced from a flower.
Evolution of Seed

A seed may be considered as a fertilized megasporanguim. It has integument around the embryo. During
evolution the seed has passed through the following stages
1) Development of Heterospory

All seed plants are heterosporous i.e., produce microspore and megaspore in microsporangia and
megasporangia respectively.
• The megaspore grows into a female gametophyte and microspore grows into a male
gametophyte.
• The megaspores of the seed plants are retained inside the sporangium, where the
megaspore develops into a tiny female gametophyte.
2) Evolution of Pollen Tube

The evolution of pollen tube parallels the evolution of seeds.

• The egg is so well protected that flagellated sperm would not have the slightest chance of ever
reaching an egg. This problem has been solved by the development of pollen tubes.
• Once the pollen grain reaches the cone or flower, it germinates.
• The germinated pollen grain is a tiny male gametophyte.
• It produces a long pollen tube, which grows to the ovule and then digests its way through the
protecting layers to the enclosed egg.
3) Evolution of Integument around the Megasporangium and Seed
In carboniferous period fern like plants were present. The sporophyte of these plants had little
protective branch like outgrowths, surrounding the mega sporangium.
• During evolution the outgrowths fused together forming integument, enclosing the
megasporangium.
• Megaspore is retained in the megasporangium. This modified structure is called an ovule.
• The fertilized ovule evolved into seed because of retention of developing embryo.
Gymnosperms (Naked Seed Plants)
A) Definition
Naked seed plants are called gymnosperms
B) General Characteristics
1) Size
The plant body of gymnosperms may be tall, woody, perennial trees or shrubs.
2) Plant Body
The plant body is a sporophyte, differentiated into stem, leaves and root.
3) Roots
Gymnosperms have well developed roots.
4) Stem
Stem is branched with the exception of Cycas, which is rarely branched.
S) Leaves
• There are two types of leaves. The foliage leaves and the scaler leaves. Foliage leaves may be
simple or compound. Scaly leaves are usually minute.
• The leaves are evergreen with thick cuticle.
• Venation is simple.
• The arrangement of leaves may be spiral or cyclic.
• Leaves exhibit xerophytic features like thick and tough cuticle, stomata sunken in pits,
presence of wax on the surface.
6) Vascular Tissues
• Xylem consists of tracheids and xylem parenchyma.
• Vessels and wood fibres are generally absent.
• Companion cells are absent in phloem.
7) Reproduction
• Sporophyte produces cones
• Cones are unisexual
• Cones contain specialized reproductive leaves called sporophylls
• Male and female sporophylls are arranged on straight axis
• Gymnosperms are heterosporous, produce microspores and
megaspores
• There is alternation of generations, i.e., sporophytic and gametophytic generations.
• Polyembryony is of common occurrence, but finally a single embryo
matures.

Female Cone Male cone

Larger in size Smaller in size

On upper part of tree On upper part of tree

Contain special fertile female leaves Contain special fertile male leaves called
called megasporophylls microsporophylls
I
Megaosporophyll produces Microsporophyll produces microspores
macrsospores in ovules

Macroscpore forms female gametophyte Microscpore forms male gametophyte

through meiosis which receive pollens for (pollen) through meiosis which are released
fertiIization. in air

C) Uses of Gymnosperms
o Pine seeds like chilghoza are eaten as dry fruits.
o Ephedrine, a drug from Ephedra is used for the relief of asthma and other respiratory ailments.
o Conifers are a source of soft wood for construction, packing, plywood, board and for making
paper.
o Cycads are grown as ornamental plants.
o A wild cycad serves as a source of sagoIt is pure starch extracted in liquid state and then solidifies to
form small granules. Resins, terpentine, tar and many oils are obtained from conifers
Angiosperms (Enclosed Seed Plant)
Angiosperms are the flowering plants. Their seeds are enclosed by fruits.

LIFE Cycle of a Flowering Plant

There is an alternation of generations in the flowering plants.
• The sporophyte, a diploid dominant generation alternates with haploid inconspicuous
gametophytic generation.
• The main plant body is diploid sporophyte which produces haploid spores.
• Flower is the reproductive structure which bears anthers and carpels as male and female
reproductive parts respectively.
1) Development of Male Gametophyte
Male gametophyte develops in two phases; a) formation of pollen grain and b) germination of pollen grain
a) Formation of Pollen Grains
• When the anther is developing, mitotic divisions produces microspore mother cells.
• Following meiosis in a diploid mother cell, four haploid microspores are produced.
• A microspore divides mitotically into a two celled, pollen grain.
• A tough wall develops around the pollen grain, which protects the
contents of the pollen grain from drying out.
• Cells on the surface of the stigma secrete a sticky nutrient fluid containing sugar and other
substances.
b) Germination of Pollen Grain
• After pollination the pollen grains germinate on the stigma.
• Each pollen grain produces a slender, thin walled pollen tube.
• The pollen tube grows down, through the tissues of the stigma, style and ovary until it reaches
the ovule.
• As the pollen tube develops, the two nuclei of the pollen grain move into it.
• The two nuclei are called generative nucleus and the pollen tube nucleus.
• Generative nucleus divides again to form two somewhat elongated
sperms.
• The tube nucleus is located near the tip of the pollen tube with two sperms following
behind.
The pollen tube, containing tube nucleus and the two sperms (male gametes), is the male gametophyte.
2) Development of Female Gametophyte
• The ovule is an egg shaped structure attached by a stalk, to the inside of the ovary.
• Depending upon the species of the plant involved, an ovary may have one, two, several or even
thousands of ovules.
• The ovule has an opening called micropyle.
• Megaspore mother cell of the ovule undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid cells. Only one
of these cells survives.
• The surviving cell is called the megaspore which divides by mitosis three times to produce eight
haploid nuclei. This structure is called embryo sac.
• Wall formation takes place and these nuclei are converted into cells. The cells of embryo sac are;
a) Antipodal Cells
► 3 in number
► present opposite to micropyle
► have no known function
► sooner or later get disorganized
 b) Synergids
► Synergids are 2 in number
► Present at the micropyler end
► Help in fertilization by guiding the pollen tube
► As soon as their function is over these get disorganized
c) Polar Nuclei
► Polar nuclei are two in number,
► Placed in the centre
► They combine to form a single fusion nucleus
d) Egg
► Egg is one in number
► Present between the two synergids
► It fuses with a sperm to make zygote
• The embryo sac having these cells is called female gametophyte
3) Double Fertilization
• Soon after the tip of the pollen tube enters the embryo sac, the end of the tube ruptures and
releases the two sperms into the embryo sac.
• The first sperm fuses with the egg to form a zygote.
• The zygote develops into an embryonic plant within the ovule.
• The second sperm deposited in the embryo sac by the pollen tube moves to the centre and
unites with the fusion nucleus.
• Union of one sperm with the egg and the second sperm with the fusion nucleus is called
double fertilization.
• It only occurs in the flowering plants.
4) Post Fertilization Events
a) Formation of Endosperm
• After fertilization fusion nucleus develops into an endosperm. It is triploid, i.e., consists of three
sets of haploid number of chromosomes because two polar nuclei, and one sperm nucleus fuses
to form it .
• Endosperm divides, enlarges and is used as store of food for the young embryo
b) Formation of Embryo
• Zygote develops into an embryonic plant within the ovule
• The embryo consists of:
► One or two cotyledons
► Epicotyl
► Hypocotyl.
• Both epicotyl and hypocotyl are the parts of the rod-like axis attached to the cotyledons.
• In some plants cotyledons digest and absorb endosperm as the ovule is maturing into seed.
c) Formation of Fruit
• The ovary wall enlarges and ripens to become the fruit.
Angiosperms- Successful Land Plants
1) Vascular Bundle
They have true roots, stems and leaves. The vascular tissue is well developed. Xylem tissue contains
xylem vessels as well as tracheids.
2) Leaves
Leaves are generally broad, expanded blades and are very efficient in absorbing light for photosynthesis.
Shedding of leaves during cold or dry spells is also an advantage for survival in harsh environment.
3) Habitat
Angiosperms are found in all types of habitats and some have even returned to water.
4) Reproductive Organs
The reproductive organs are the flowers which are modified for wind and insects pollination.
5) Life Cycle
The life cycle demonstrates adaptations of angiosperms on land.
• Fertilization takes place through pollen tube independent of external water.
• Double fertilization increases reproductive success.
• Following fertilization the ovules located in ovaries develop into seed.
An ovary wall is transformed into a fruit. Fruits provide protection for seed.