ANTENNA & WAVE PROPAGATK 1146 ox] (AMIETE, May 1972) 11.16. IONOSPHERIC ABNORMALITIES : = a The ionosphere is highly dependent upon the Sun and hence its See, ae The variations are of two types e.g. normal and abnormal. The former includes dit ; Seasonal, height and thickness variations while the abnormal variations are mainly due to the fact that our Sun is @ VARIABLE STAR. This includes Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID) (or Dellinger Fadeout), Ionospheric Storms, Sporadic E-layer reflections, Tides and Winds, Sunspot cycle, Fadings, Whistlers etc. Important among these are described below, briefly. . 11.16.1. Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID) or Mongel-Dellinger Effect (AMIETE, May 1971, Nov. 1966, 1990) C.D. is caused due to sudden appearance of solar flares i.e. bright spots on the solar disc, which are due to gigantic emissions of hydrogenrTrom tie Sun. The solar Tlares are sudden and unpredictable but more likely during peak Solar activity than when the sun is“quiet". The X-rays radiation following solar flares increases tremendously the ionization dénsity right down to the Day A a result of intense increase in ionization density of the D-region, Causes the increase in the absorption of short wave (High frequency) signals and increased reflection of atmospheric noise ‘as well, Consequently, the value of lowest usable frequency (LUF) increases beyond Maximum usable frequency (MUF), resulting in complete black out of all high frequency sky wave communication via ionosphere. (This type of SID may last from a few minutes to about an hour and takes place simultaneously every where on the sunlit portions of the globe. The phenomenon of complete black. out is known as sudden ionospheric disturbances (SID) and was first observed by Mongel and Dellinger, hence S.1.D. is often referred formly as Mongel-Dellinger effect or simply Dellinger fadeout or Dellinger drop outs. It may, however, be noted that during SID the VLF propagation actually inorowe Further, SID rarely occur during the sun spot minimum and its frequency of occurrence increases rapi the sun spot cycle advances. The intensity of disturbances tends to be greatest in the region where the sun’s radiation is perpendicular i.e. greater at noon than at other time of the day and greater at the equator rather than at higher altitudes. Lastly, the SID is only ionospheric phenomenon for which the correlation between the various effects are certain (It does not occur in the night and also not inE, F; and F2 layers where air density is relatively lowyt is caused due to radiation of intense UV. ‘from the solar flares, the upper ionosphere arid cause very strong increase in ionization in the D-region, 1116.2. Jonospheric Storms. which penetrates (AMIETE, June 1983) Tonospheric disturbances, sometimes, in the form. of increased absorption of sky waves and an, abnormal change in the critical frequency of F2 and layers occur,fonospheric storms last one or more days. These disturbances are rather world wide and occur simultaneously in the day and night parts of the globe.) ~ that radio wave propagation becomes erratic and then it is generally necessary to lower the working frequency in order to maintain the communication. An ionospheric storm causes an abnormal decrease in the critical frequency and hence the corresponding virtual height of F2 layer increases, Besides Delayer ionization increases and so also the absorption The effects of an ionospheric storm on the short wave (High ee) radio transmission is to narrow the range of frequencies of communication over a given circuit It is caused by the particle emissions from the Sun, usuall ic storms © _ 4 7 ly the @ and B rays. Ionospheric storm ca aan ane it ie 3 10 4 days to come to the normal Condition It has a tendency to re-occur in, fals of 27. 's which is the peri Y a ‘ < eS les atte He Period of the Sun's rotation. Its effect is more near polar region and hecomes, Ps Daring ionosphere Storms signal strengths drop and fuctuate quite rapidly,)It is observed tat 1on8 time Variation in the ionosphere corresponds to variations i ivitv.Tf «ily observ’ indication ofthe solar variation isthe size and the number.’ SOU aetivitv.The most easly Obst \ 1 number @ te igen Aner De Dom ¢{fii SPOS Changes overa cycle fom nini - ae Sait has a mean pes ci fromminimun 10 maxinsim and again minimum is called sun spots cycles 11.163. Su pe seek! "The sun has ae Cycle (AMIETE, May 1977, Dec. 1989, Meerut Univ. M.Sc. Phy. 1978) nt variations are slight evele (sun spot cycle) over which its output varies tremendously. Although r may Vary fifty fee oot ie solar output of ultra-violet rays, coronae, flares, particles radiation and sun ming: er that period. The extent of solar disturbances are measured by a method of sun-spot Ithas been ob: ‘ . sted in Fig 1 Bsetved that ionospheric characteristig closely follow the eleven years sun spot cycle as stan spo! main is Observed from the figure tha( critical frequencies ofthe ionosphere are highest ji Boon azima and lowest during sun spot minima) During the period of minimum sunspot activity, ifs Bh wo} 4 f ae 3 pty ie 25 00 Eas zB B+ 22 oon a Gaz Tosa mee Tas rae ones (a) Sun spot number. (b) Critical frequency of Fa-layer. 4.11.29. (a) Variation of sun spot number (yearly average). Fig. 11.29. (b) Critical frequency with year. slower frequencies are only usable at night and higher frequencies are rarely used for long distance amunication)\As is seen from the Fig. 11.29 (a, b) that critical frequency closely follows the sun spot cycle ing minimum value at about 6 MHz and maximum value at about 12 MHz, i.e. in the ratio of 1.8. Similarly E layeralso varies from 3.1 MHz to 3.8 MHz ora ratio of 1.2 (not shown in the diagram)/Hence prediction inospheric characteristics based on eleven years sun spot cycle can be made in advance. After knowing spheric characteristics, the frequency selection can accordingly be made for communication. ) _11.16.4, Tides and Winds in the Ionosphere (AMIETE May 1970, 71, Nov. 67, 71, 73) Cthe atmosphere also experience tidal pulls of the Sun and the Moon)justas happens in case of oceans. iver, in case of atmosphere or ionosphere the solar tidal effects get much more amplified/It is because etesonance phenomenon as the free period of oscillation of the atmosphere coincides approximately with obrtdal period of 12 hours. The effect is further complicated-by thermal heating of the atmosphere by iditions of the sun, which has a 24 hours time period) (i.e. twice that of the tidal period), The lunar tidal ‘detectable, though feeble and was first found by Appleton and Weeks for E-layer. The ionized particles s, is affected by the magnetic field of the earth, as upper atmosphere, while exciting these tidal motion: ) ; ig ion or electron constitute current and hence affected by a magnetic field, thus the ions and electrons ‘Upper atmosphere follow earth's magnetic field rather than moving horizontally:) The Fo la i Ff tidal motions because itis situated highest having lowest particle . er has highest speed of ti f " Thus'the effect of tides is experienced most by the Fz-layer. Tidal effect also causes small peak of tum ionization density in the region of about mid-night. Winds (ie, the motion of the ionized particles) in ionosphere is mainly caused by tides) Although, at gn her effect my be responsible for it. For, motion of turbulence in the Fz-layer also suggest e *ofonaspherig-ind, Direct evidence of ionospheric winds is derived from the observed motion of 2 Clouds ad the molion of ionized meteor trails.) | Ysa 2 (AMIETE, June 1975, 79, Nov. 1966, 69) dings. oh ast e WS nciao inthe received signal strengthat the receiver or a random variation ine Wal 's known as fading, Fading of radio waves is the name given to undesirable variations int loudness of the waves heceived at the receiver. Lis caused by variation in the heights and det nsityANTENNA & WAVE FROPAGRTGy 1146 pete i i if the ionosphere. Fading is the common characteristic of the sky wa (hgh fogenies short wavs) geal ating may be sib, rapd, equecy selective g gee bat Me case fading caused due to interference between two waves of different path lengths. Because, the signal received at any instant and atany receiving pointis the vector sum ofall the wave, received. It results as the signal waves leave the transmitter at same time but arrive at the reoeive follow feet Fading is more likely with higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths). In normal fading Vatatio, is of few db while when fading is severe, change in the signal strength may occur from 10 db to 20 dp, ing i iti E rt i ial circumstances like SID If the fading is total, it is called as fade-out which may occur in speci 1 Tonospheric storms during sun spot cycle etc, Fading is a gradual phenomenon followed by recovery yi fade-out usually occurs quickly. Now the various types of fadings encountered in the radio wave Propagatior are described below. ¥ : : 88 (a) Selective fading. ( Produces serious distortion of modulated signal. Since the fading is frequency selective, itis just possible for adjacent portion of a signal to fade independently, although their frequen separation is only a few dozen Hertz. Selective fading is more prevalent at high frequencies for which sky wave proagation is used. Tt can play havoc with amplitude modulated signals and at high percentage o| modulation, AM signals ae more distorted by selective fading rather than SSB signals (Hence selective fading can be reduced by using Exalted Carrier Reception and also single side band (SSB) sytem.) (b) Interference Fading. {Qmerference ||, fading is the most serious type of fading and it is | produced by the interference between upper and | lower rays of a sky wave, between sky waves / ‘reaching the receiver by different number of hops or different paths and even between a ground wave and a sky wave) particularly at the lower end of the HF band (Fig, 11.30 (@)]. Interference fading also occurs because of the fluctuations of Fit: 11-30. (a) Interference fading due %0 lower and upper rays of height (or ionic density) in the ionospheric layer, fey noha) and due to multihops propagations. ifa single sky wave frequency is in use. 4ay2 = reflecied from F-layer ince the ionosphere’ is subject to con-" 3 = ground wave, interfering at point M, producing louder weak tinual Se fluctuations arid'so also the returned ‘Sstnal depending whether in phase or ou of phase. sky wave)As the path length of each wave is Subject to conti at th Y Space diversity or fre (©) (Absorption Fading . This. of fadi different amount of sorption ot Pate ; quency diversity reception. 1g Occurs due to variations of signal strength with the the transmission medium, This type of fadi Ng Occurs due to the change of polarization of the down ofa down coming sky waveis constantly changing, This isa ordinary waves (with random amplitude and phase) vi “i Nee : ft. antenna i ing, giving rise to chang amplitudes inthe receiver and producing polarization fading) changing, giving rise to height fie Fate. Tis pe Of fading occurs at distances near the skip distance, Any variation int The most common m he May Move the receiving point in-out of the skip zone.) a ayaa inthe resve HoweverAVCisna econ ig i 10 use a automate volume cont (AVC drop below the noise level and no ame help selective fading as components of the ee‘WAVE PROPAGATION ae - Y— (thé best way to minimi; 1149) ae minimize fading is to employ a diversity recep 1116.6. Whistlers ity reception system.) The sensitive audio amplifiers were (AMIETE, June 1979) tones during World-War-I. Besides the used to listen secretly the private conversation-on the distant Mexnding tone. In the output of recei usual atmospheric noises, the listeners frequently heard whistler sweat couring tansiont clecuoeag ee wes Whistling tone with gradual ling pitch. This wpe of nese atmospheric whistlers ar \gnetic disturbances are called whistlers. Jt has now been determined ton along the lines of the i aed with electromagnetic pulses of audio frequency radiation 8 ern hemisphere)Ger earth’ s magnetic field between conjugate points in the northern hemisphere 1 A eal tin m) erally, the lightening discharges generate the pulses which may "bounce" back sdfonh several times before disappearing, between the two hemispheres. ; e various whistlers are, long whi wt fu and the noise whistlerst eee isics of whistlers are found chiefly by the proper- ‘softhe ionosphere at the top of the pulse trajectory ahkight of two to ten earth radiiX{Vhistlers provide owerful means in the study of Composition of the getatmosphere:) Fig. 11.31 shows that audio-frequency waves ted by lightening flashes in the polar area may Fig. 11.31. Lines of earth's magnetic field atong which Airavel through the ionosphere. (AF radio wave are propagated. 6.7., Luxembourg effect or Ionospheric Cross-Modulation (AMIETE, May 1971) While listening to a distant medium frequency broadcasting station, sometimes it is seen that there + continuous background of some more powerful station, usually of lower frequency. This effect was ened when R/T stations-first began to use high power. For example, a radio tuned to radio station cenbourg (230 KHz) received the background of the radio station Paris (182 KHz). Since this;phenomenon slsstobserved by the listeners involving radio Luxembourg and hence itis termed as "Luxembourg effect” ‘phenomenon has been under thorough investigation and it was apparent from the investigations that the ‘erence is most marked when 6) Ghe two transmitting stations were nearly on the same great circle bearing from the receiver, and ') The interfering ‘station is géographically between the receiver and the wanted transmitting =a The. only cure for this unfortunate mixing of two transmission is appeared to be a reduction of the ‘ion ofthe sky wave. The reason for this is that the action of the ionosphere upon a radio wave is not 4ie-effect is not proportional to the amplitude of the wave. : Consequencily there is a possibility of production of cross-modulation products duc to the interaction ‘Mong radio waves passing through the ionosphere, simullaneously-Under favourable, conditions, the dof the eroes sncctation is sufficient to produce appreciable inferference, as has been observed. In S08 modulation is found to occur between two modulated rf. signals inside the ionosphere and the s = Unwanted signal is superimposed on the desired signal and hence the annoyance or the radio wave is incident on the ionosphere, it sets the electrons in motion and thereby increase Ged théir motion. Another radio wave propagating in this medium will be more absorbed due to Motion of the electrons, than it would have been in the absence of the former wave. Therefore, Wave is amplitude modulated (i.e. amplitude varies) the second wave will undergo variable ‘ota second wave after reflection through such a medium will also vary its amplitude according oy ‘variation of the first wave. In other words, the amplitude of the second wave is also modulated | With the amplitude modulation of the first Wave similar to that in ‘absorption modulation’ \Phe 41150 ANTENNA & Wave Rap max interaction takes place at a height about 80 to 85 kmLThe cross mod Povidesamey | calculating the collision frequency> tbody 11.16.8. Statics or Atmospheric Noise or Atmospherics (AMIETE, Nov. 1966, 73, 76, 78, June 1977, 1980, Deg Gris well known that inspite of perfection in the Propagation conditions and at the transmiter, received signals at the output of the receiver may be almost unintelligible due to noise and Static) The mea nearly always contains a background of various clicks, bangs, rumbles, rattles and crashes eterand digay when the antenna s disconnected from the receiver. This noise is due tothe voltage induced in antenna either man-made'noise or naturally occurring noise. The noise induced through antenng areas oe " Antenna is of sufficen, magnitude and is a practical factor in finding the minimum usable signal(The noise is in Beneral classifi into ulation effect 9 (@) Statics or atmospheric noise or simply atmospherics and * (b) Man-made noise. 5 Noise picked up by the antenna due to natural causes, is referred to as atmospheric noise or atmospherics or static or Radio wave generated by natural causes are called Static)It is caused by naturd electrical disturbances mainly thunder storm.and other similar natural electrical disturbances, Itis in the form of impulse and its energy is found distributed thrqughout most of the frequency range used in radio (The field strength of static from nearby thunder storm is on the avera, ge inversely proportional (nearly) tothe Frequency. Thus energy in the static decreases as the frequency is increased. Hence most stare found at low frequencies) Since dtmospherics (or statics) is really a radio signal produced by nature, itis ropagated in the same Ways as the radio waves are, and under suitable conditions itis reflected by the ionosphere too. Atmospheric impulses may, therefore, travel great distances over the earth under the favourable conditions, Hence the broadcast and lower frequencies are greatly attenuated during day time, so very little atmospherics come on these bands (MF and LF) during day times from Sreat distances. Most of the day time atmospherics on LF and ME bands are due to local thunder’ storms. However, at ni ight the sky waves propagate with less attenuation, 50 the atmospherics level increase in night time than da Propagation conditions, although the atmospheric noise levelis relatively much less than at lower- frequencies. The higher the frequency, the lower the atmospheric ime wi ics. Short wave atmospherics travel great distance i i day time with very less attenuation, and hence the atmospherics heard at any place may have come from s distant point, Further, in the frequency rangé of 9 1021 Mf, though no atmospheric or man made noise are preset Stl itis found that some noise is picked up in the antenna, This sole originated frm the radi st Which emit radio waves ~ and from the certain region of intearcie space. This form of noise is norm limiting noise inthis frequency range, : : eric At about above 30 MHz, no energy is reflected from the ionosphere and hence distant atmos has no effect and atmospheric duc to local thunder storms only may be heard. in, the rain, / [anor ‘ype of interference frequently observed in an airplane Passing through snow OF ay airplane omes clectr ‘ally charged to such a high potential w.r.t. the surrounding space fateh discharge — a bluish discharge — breaks Outat some sharp point on the plane. This corona discharbe™’ 5 i serious produces interference with radio reception is called precipitation sate and particularly 8 dod short wave and lower frequencies. may be reduce oawires oF ti loo} ippit it by the use of antennas cither insulated wire oop and equipping the plane with discharger means.a p10. WAVE PROPAGATION. 11169 aw nee Nels Cia generated by most electrical appliances and electcally operated ees.) a is partic ly strong in cities, industrial areas and near the ignition system of internal justion engines)(Ignition systems, diathermy machines power line discharges, and sparking brushes on ors generators: all cause an interference with radio reception As a matter of fact, and device which produce Metical spark can interfere with radio reception. Such fnan-made noises once produce by the device, taied by the power lines connected 1 the device. It, then, either carried directly into the receiver the power lines or radiated in the neighbourhood of the antenna and induced along with the desired 1161 nade noise is in general of either Hiss type or Impulse type. n the former type of noise, the Tike a continuous noise. It may be produced 4es occur So close together that they overlap and hence sound commutator sparking in d.c. motors and a.c, series motors. In the latter type, the noise consists of separate distinct pulses of very high amplitude and is generated by separated electrical sparks such as occur in sion systems, switches key clicks and ac. ieaks) ‘Out of many ways to minimize the noise in the receiver, ssisrof a capacitor of 0.1 p1 F across the a.c. lines right at the appliance 01 series with their centre point connected to ground. © 44.16.10. Polar Cap Absorption. (In addition 10 ionospheric storm: surbances which occur throughout the polar region in high geomagnetic ents or more correctly, solar proton events (SPE) hey are p' cone of the simplest way is to use a line filter) + sometimes two such capacitors s, there are in frequent but major latitudes. These are called polar rimarily caused by high energy are accompanied absorption ev lar protons which are guided by the earth's magnetic field towards the polar regiofXSPEs ionization resulting in strong absorption of HF and VHF radio waves) the SPE itself can last for up to a week Or yaconsiderable increase in bps ; \tal polar radio wave, black out may exist for up to a day but tore, Solar proton events are almost always preceded by a majo m-spot maximum. iL17, TONOSPHERY Besides criti ‘sorption of radio When eadin waves Das! + flare and occur most frequently at solar ABSORPTION (AMIETE, May 1970, 1992) frequencies and virtual heights of the ionospheric layers, there 8 third factor (ie. rayriz\h the ionospheric layers) which imits the radio transmission over’ the large distance. vie egh an ionized layer, ikcause electrons to vibrate. glecirons gives 5s thro gh an iO et ae molecules and ofits energy PY colliding with neighbouring YP erha amonnt of energy which