EEE314

BASIC ELECTRICAL MACHINES II [2 UNITS]

TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through the process of electromagnetic induction. Or seen as a static device that transfers AC electrical power from
one circuit to the other at the same frequency but the voltage level is usually changed.
It is most commonly used to increase ('step up') or decrease ('step down') voltage levels between circuits.

So, based on:

• Construction (transformer core): we have core type, shell type and berry type transformers
• Number of phases: we have single and three phase transformers
• Application (purpose): we have power, distribution, isolation, impedance matching, testing, instrument (PT
– Potential Transformers and CT – Current Transformers) transformers etc.
• Voltage ratio: we have step-up and step-down transformers
Others are:
• Insulation used: we have dry type and oil immersed transformers
• Windings: we have autotransformers and two winding transformers

1-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
For generation, transmission and distribution of electric power, AC system is adopted instead of DC system because
voltage level can be changed comfortably by using a transformer. For economic reasons, high voltages are required
for transmission whereas for safety reasons, low voltages are required for utilisation. Transformer is an essential part
of power system. Hence, it is rightly said that transformer is a backbone of a power system.

Figure: Block diagram of a single-phase transformer

When the voltage is raised on the output side (V2 > V1), the transformer is called a step up transformer, whereas, the
transformer in which the voltages is lowered on the output side (V2 < V1) is called a step down transformer. Also, the
pictorial view of a power transformer is shown

Figure: Pictorial view of a transformer

Applications
The main applications of the transformers are given below:
(a) To change the level of voltage and current in electric power systems.
(b) As impedance-matching device for maximum power transfer in low-power electronic and control circuits.
(c) As a coupling device in electronic circuits.
(d) To isolate one circuit from another, since primary and secondary are not electrically connected.
(e) To measure voltage and currents; these are known as instrument transformers.
Transformers are extensively used in AC power systems because of the following reasons:
1. Electric energy can be generated at the most economic level (11–33 kV)
2. Stepping up the generated voltage to high voltage, extra high voltage - EHV (voltage above 230
kV), or to even ultra high voltage - UHV (750 kV and above) to suit the power transmission requirement and thus
minimise losses and increase transmission capacity of lines.
3. The transmission voltage is stepped down in many stages for distribution and utilisation for
domestic, commercial and industrial consumers.
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦/𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑆 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦/𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Working Principle Of A Transformer 𝑍1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑍2 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐸1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑀𝐹
𝐸2 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑀𝐹
𝑋1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑋2 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅2 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼2 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼W = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼
𝐼m = 𝐼µ = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼
𝑋o = 𝑁𝑜 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅o = 𝑁𝑜 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼o = 𝑁𝑜 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐼 = 𝐼m + 𝐼W
𝐼2′ = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐼 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑖. 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic induction.
A single-phase transformer consists of two windings placed over a laminated silicon steel core.
The winding having less number of turns is called low-voltage winding and the winding having more number of turns
is called high voltage winding.
Also, the winding to which AC supply is connected is called a primary winding and the other one is called a secondary
winding to which load is connected. Once AC supply of voltage V1 is given to primary winding, an alternating flux is
set-up in the magnetic core which links with the primary and secondary winding. Consequently, self-induced emf E1
and mutually-induced emf E2 are induced in primary and secondary, respectively. These induced emf’s are developed
in phase opposition to V1 as per Lenz’s law. The self-induced emf in the primary is also called back emf since it acts
in opposite direction to the applied voltage.
Although, there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary winding, still electric power is transferred
from one circuit (primary side) to the other circuit (secondary side). It is all because of magnetic coupling, i.e., the
alternating flux which is set-up in the core linking with both the windings. The magnitude of induced emf in a coil
depends upon rate of change of flux linkages i.e., e N. Since, the rate of change of flux for both the winding is the
same, the magnitude of induced emf in primary and secondary will depend upon their number of turns, i.e., primary
induced emf E1 N1 and secondary induced emf E2 N2. When N2 > N1, the transformer is called a step-up transformer,
on the other hand, when N2<N1, the transformer is called step-down transformer.
Turn ratio: The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio, i.e., turn ratio = N1/ N2.
Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is called voltage
transformation ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.

Elements Of a Transformer
The following are the major elements of a transformer:
(i) Magnetic circuit mainly comprises of transformer core having limbs (windings are placed here) and yokes (joins
the limb).
(ii) Electric circuits mainly comprise of windings, insulation and bushings (insulating structure).
(iii) Tank mainly comprises of cooling devices, conservator (for oil storage) and ancillary apparatus (auxiliary parts).
The construction of a transformer depends largely on its size and the duty which it is to perform. Designers make
necessary changes as per the requirement. In practice, continuous improvements are being made in the construction
of transformers.
Transformer Winding
Transformer windings may be classified into two groups viz. concentric winding and sandwiched winding. Concentric
windings are used in core type transformers as shown in Fig. (a) below. Sandwiched windings are almost exclusively
used in shell type transformers as shown in Fig.(b) below.

Figure: Single-phase transformer (sectional view)

The positioning of the H.V. and L.V. windings with respect to the core is also very important from the point of view
of insulation requirement. The low-voltage winding is placed nearer to the core in the case of concentric windings
and on the outside positions in the case of sandwiched windings.

Concentric Windings may be classified into four major groups, viz.

1. Spiral windings.
2. Helical winding.
3. Crossover winding.
4. Continuous disc winding

Insulation
The insulation employed in a transformer may be classified into two major groups e.g., major and
mirror insulation.
• Major insulation: The insulating cylinders between the low voltage winding and the core and those between
the high voltage and the low voltage windings, the insulating barriers which are inserted between adjacent
limbs when necessary and the insulation between the coils and the core yokes etc., fall into the category of
major insulation.
• Minor Insulation: This is the insulation on individual turns and between layers.

On the basis of core construction and the arrangement to windings, the transformers are named as (i) core type
transformers (ii) shell type and Berry-type transformers.
(i) core type transformers: In Such transformers the magnetic core is built up of laminations to form a rectangular
frame. The laminations are cut in the form of L-shape strips as shown below.

(ii) shell type transformers: In such transformers, each lamination is cut in the shape of E’s and I’s as shown below.

Berry type transformer: A berry type transformer is a specially designed shell type transformer and is named after its
designer. The transformer core consists of laminations arranged in groups which radiate from the centre as shown (as
top view) below.
Comparison Between Core-Type And Shell Type Transformers

An Ideal Transformer
To understand the theory, operation and applications of a transformer, it is better to view a transformer first as an ideal
device. For this, the following assumptions are made:
(i) Its coefficient of coupling (k) is unity.
(ii) Its primary and secondary windings are pure inductors having infinitely large value.
(iii) Its leakage flux and leakage inductances are zero.
(iv) Its self and mutual inductances are zero having no reactance or resistance.
(v) Its efficiency is 100 percent having no loss due to resistance, hysteresis or eddy current.
(vi) Its transformation ratio (or turn ratio) is equal to the ratio of its secondary to primary terminal
voltage and also as the ratio of its primary to secondary current.
(vii) Its core has permeability () of infinite value.
Thus, a transformer is said to be an ideal one, if it has no ohmic resistances, moreover whole of
the flux set-up in the core is considered to be linking with its primary and secondary turns, i.e., it
carries no leakage flux. In other words, a transformer is said to be ideal one, when it has no losses,
i.e., copper or iron losses. In actual practice, such a transformer cannot exist, but to begin with it
may be considered so.
For an ideal transformer, the output must be equal to input (since it has no losses), therefore

𝐸1 𝐼1

Hence, primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.

Emf Equation
When sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, a sinusoidal flux, as shown below is set
up in the iron core which links with primary and secondary winding.
Figure: Wave diagram of flux (let it be called fig 2.19)
Thus,

Above, clearly show that emf induced per turn on both the sides i.e., primary and secondary is the same.
Rewriting in terms of maximum flux density Bm, we have that

Equivalent Circuit Of A Transformer

Figure: Equivalent circuit of a transformer (for an ideal situation)

Voltage Regulation
When a transformer is loaded, with a constant supply voltage, the terminal voltage changes due to
voltage drop in the internal parameters of the transformer i.e., primary and secondary resistances and inductive
reactances. The voltage drop at the terminals also depends upon the load and its power factor. The change in terminal
voltage from no-load to full-load at constant supply voltage with respect to no-load voltage is known as voltage
regulation of the transformer.
When load is connected to the secondary output terminal, the terminal voltage goes down, or when the load is
removed, the terminal voltage goes up. Thus, the regulation of a transformer will depend on which voltage value is
used as the reference voltage, load or no-load value.
Voltage regulation can be express as percentage change between the no-load condition and full-load conditions as
below (note that voltage regulation when expressed as a fraction or unit-change of the no-load terminal voltage, can
be defined in one of two ways, voltage regulation-down (Regdown) and voltage regulation-up (Regup):
𝑉𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
a) % Voltage Regulation (up) = * 100
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑉𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
b) % Voltage Regulation (down) = * 100
𝑉𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Losses In A Transformer
The losses which occur in an actual transformer are:
(i) Core or iron losses, subdivided into:
(a) Hysteresis loss
(b) Eddy current loss
(ii) Copper losses

Efficiency Of A Transformer
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input power, the two being
measured in same units (either in watts or in kW).

If x is the fraction of the full load, the efficiency of the transformer at this fraction is given by the relation;

Transformer Tests
All the transformers are tested before placing them in the field. By performing these tests, we can determine the
parameters of a transformer to compute its performance characteristics (like voltage regulation and efficiency etc.).
Therefore, to furnish the required information open circuit and short circuit tests are conducted conveniently without
actually loading the transformer. The other important tests which are conducted on a transformer are polarity test,
voltage ratio test and Back-to-back test.

Application-Based Classification Of Transformers

The transformers are often classified according to their applications. Following are the important
types of transformers:
(i) Power Transformers: These transformers are used to step up the voltage at the generating station for transmission
purposes and then to step down the voltage at the receiving stations. These transformers are of large capacity
(generally above 500 kVA). These transformers usually operate at high average load, which would cause continuous
capacity copper loss, thus affecting their efficiency. To have minimum losses during 24 hours, such transformers are
designed with low copper losses.
(ii) Distribution Transformers: These transformers are installed at the distribution sub-stations to step down the
voltage. These transformers are continuously energised causing the iron losses for all the 24 hours. Generally, the load
on these transformers fluctuates from no-load to full load during this period. To obtain high efficiency, such
transformers are designed with low iron losses.
(iii) Instrument Transformers: To measure high voltages and currents in power system potential transformer (P.T.)
and current transformer (C.T.) are used, respectively. The potential transformers are used to decrease the voltage and
current transformers are used to decrease the current up to measurable value. These are also used with protective
devices.
(iv) Testing transformers: These transformers are used to step up voltage to a very high value for carrying out the
tests under high voltage, e.g., for testing the dielectric strength of transformer oil.
(v) Special purpose transformer: The transformers may be designed to serve special purposes, these may be used
with furnaces, rectifiers, welding sets etc.
(vi) Auto-transformers: These are single winding transformers used to step down the voltages for starting of large
three-phase squirrel cage induction motors.
(vii) Isolation transformer: These transformers are used only to isolate (electrically) the electronic circuits from the
main electrical lines; therefore, their transformation ratio is usually one.
(viii) Impedance matching transformer: These transformers are used at the output stage of the amplifier for
impedance matching to obtain maximum output from the amplifiers.
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
Three phase system is invariably adopted for generation, transmission and distribution of electrical power due to
economical reasons. Usually, power is generated at the generating stations at 11kV (or 33kV), whereas, it is
transmitted at 750kV, 400kV, 220kV, 132kV or 66kV due to economical reasons. At the receiving stations, the voltage
level is decreased and power is transmitted through shorter distances. While delivering power to the consumers, the
voltage level is decreased to as low as 415V (line value - Nigeria) for safety reasons. From construction point of view,
three-phase transformers are also classified as (i) Core type transformers (ii) Shell type transformers

Important relations in three-phase connected system:

Star-connections

Delta-connections

For both star and Delta, we have that

Three-Phase Transformer Connections

As mentioned earlier, the standard nomenclature for phases is A, B, C. Capital letters A, B, C are used for HV (High
Voltage) windings, lower case letters a, b, c for LV (Low Voltage) winding and (A), (B), (C) for a tertiary winding if
provided. Neutral terminals precede line terminals. Each winding has two ends designated by the subscript numbers
1, 2. The interconnection of the phase windings to give a three-phase, three-wire or three-phase, four wire supply
provides three alternative modes of connection (i) delta or mesh (ii) star and (iii) zig-zag. But the first two are the
most popular.
Vector or Phasor groups: This are use to denote different connection methods for polyphase transformers. This
knowledge is required for connecting the polyphase transformers in parallel. According to the phase displacement
which exists between the line voltages on the two sides of the transformer, these combinations can be arranged in the
following four main groups:
Group 1: With 0° phase displacement: Connections with symbolic notation Yy0, Dd0, Dz0
Group 2: With 180° phase displacement: Connections with symbolic notation Yy6, Dd6, Dz6
Group 3: With 30° lag phase displacement: Connections with symbolic notation Dy1, Yd1, Yz1
Group 4: With 30° lead phase displacement: Connections with symbolic notation Dy11, Yd11, Yz11
Among the above, the most popular method of connecting transformers is the delta–star connections (Dy11 – Check
it out). Other less popular ones are Dd, Yy and Yd winding connections. D or d is delta connection and Y or y is Star
connection.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
When the primaries and secondaries of the two or more transformer are connected separately to the same incoming
and outgoing lines to share the load, the transformers said to be connected in parallel.

Necessity Of Parallel Operation Of Three-Phase Transformers

The following are the reasons for which transformers are connected in parallel:
(i) Increased Load Demand - When the load demand increases beyond the full-load capacity of the transformer. To
meet the additional demand on a power system, it becomes necessary either to replace the existing unit with a large
capacity unit or to install an additional unit to carry the increased portion of the load.
(ii) No Transportation Problems - It is easy to transport small transformers when compared to a single large unit
transformer of the same rating. Also, if installation site is located far away, then transportation of smaller units is
easier and may be economical.
(iii) Continuity of Supply - In case of a fault in the transformer, it is difficult to maintain the continuity of supply to
the load with a single large transformer. In parallel operation, the faulty transformer gets isolated from the load, and
the remaining transformers still serve the load. This increases the reliability of the system.
(iv) Expansion of Substation - It is easy to expand the substation with parallel operation of transformers by connecting
the new transformer in parallel with the existing transformer. Thereby increasing the overall capacity of the substation.
(v) Limitation of Transformer Ratings - It is impossible to build each and every transformer according to the load
requirement. Hence, two or more transformers are connected to meet the large load demand.

Conditions For Parallel Operation Of Three-Phase Transformers

The following conditions are to be fulfilled if two or more Three-phase transformers are to be operated successfully
in parallel to deliver a common load.
(i) Both the transformers should have same transformation ratio i.e., the voltage ratings of both primaries and
secondaries must be identical.
(ii) Both the transformers should have the same percentage (or per unit) impedance.
(iii) Both three-phase transformers must have the same phase-sequence i.e., the transformers must be properly
connected with regard to their phase-sequence.
(iv) In case of three-phase transformers, the two transformers must have such connections that there should not be
any phase displacement between the secondary line voltages.
(v) The transformers’ windings resistance to reactance ratio should same or else the power factors of the transformers
supplying the load will be different with respect to their ratings.
(vi) Voltage ratio of all connected transformers must be same.
(vii) The polarity of all connected transformers must be same in order to avoid circulating currents in transformers.
Polarity of a transformer means the instantaneous direction of induced emf in secondary. If polarity is opposite to
each other, huge circulating current flows.
OVERVIEW OF DC MACHINES
A DC machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. When it converts mechanical power (T) into
DC electrical power (EI), it is known as a DC generator. On the other hand, when it converts DC electrical power
into mechanical power it is known as a DC motor.
Although battery is an important source of DC electric power, but it can supply limited power. There are some
applications where large quantity of DC power is required (such as in chemical and metal extraction plants, for
electroplating and electrolysis processes etc.), at such places DC generators are used to deliver power. We will
thus start off with DC generator.

DC GENERATOR
An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (or electrical machine) that converts mechanical energy or power
(T) into DC electrical energy or power (EI) is called DC generator.

Figure: Block diagram of electro-mechanical energy conversion (Generator action)

Working Principle
The basic principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction i.e., “When a conductor cuts across the
magnetic field, an emf is induced in it.”

Figure: Generation of emf

Consider Fig.(a) above, here, when a conductor is moved vertically upward or downward, the deflection in the
galvanometer clearly shows that an emf is induced in the conductor since flux is cut by the conductor. But, when
it is moved horizontally (left or right), there is no deflection in the galvanometer which shows that no emf is
induced in the conductor since flux cut is zero and conductor moves just parallel to the magnetic lines of force. In
fact, in a generator, a coil is rotated at a constant speed of radians per second in a strong magnetic field of constant
magnitude as shown in Fig.(b) above. An emf is induced in the coil by the phenomenon of dynamically induced
emf (e = Blv sin; e sin). The magnitude and direction of induced emf changes periodically depending upon sine
of angle . The wave shape of the induced emf is shown in fig(c) below, which is AC for internal as well as external
load. This AC is converted into DC with the help of commutator (explained in subsequent page). Thus, the working
principle of a DC generator is electro-magnetic induction.

Figure: (c) Wave shape of induced emf

Main Parts Of DC Machines And Their Functions

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke
The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed is called yoke. It also helps to fix the
machine on the foundation. It serves two purposes:
(i) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
(ii) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is made of cast steel or fabricated
rolled steel since these materials have better magnetic properties as compared to cast iron.

2. Pole Core and Pole Shoes

The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke by bolts. They serve the
following purposes:
(i) They support the field or exciting coils.
(ii) They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
(iii) Since pole shoes have larger X-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.

3. Field or Exciting Coils

In DC motors, they provide the magnetic field which the armature reacts against in order for the armature to spin.
In DC generators, the field coil can either be on the rotating part of the electrical machine (the rotor) or the
stationary part (the stator). On an alternator, the rotor coil provides the excitation.

4. Armature Core
It is cylindrical in shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer periphery slots are cut which accommodate
the armature winding. The armature core serves the following purposes:
(i) It houses the conductors in the slots.
(ii) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.
At the outer periphery of an armature core, slots are cut. In these slots, number of conductors are placed which are
connected with each other in proper arrangement forming series–parallel paths depending upon the requirement.
This arrangement of connections is known as armature winding. To understand the armature winding schemes, it
is desirable to have an idea about the following terms:
• Conductor: The length of wire embedded in armature core and lying within the magnetic field is called
the conductor. It may be having one or more parallel strands. Total number of conductors in the armature
winding are represented by the symbol Z.
• Turn: Two conductors lying in a magnetic field connected in series at the back, so that emf induced in
 them is additive is known as a turn.
• Coil: A coil may be a single turn coil having only two conductors or it may be a multi-turn coil having
more than two conductors. Multi-turn coils are used to develop higher voltages. When the armature
conductors are more, it is not feasible to use single turn coils because it will require large number of
commutator segments and if used, it will not give spark-less commutation. Moreover, it will not be
economical due to use of more copper in the end connections. The total number of coils in the armature
winding are represented by symbol ‘C’.
• Coil side: Each coil (single turn or multi-turn) has two sides called coil sides. Both the coil sides are
embedded in two different slots as per the winding design (nearly a pole pitch apart).
• Coil group: A group of coils having one or more coils.
• Winding: When number of coil groups are arranged on the armature in a particular fashion as per the
design, it is called an armature winding.
• Inductance effect: All the coils have some inductance effect as current is changing in them. Due to
inductance effect, the flow of current is opposed causing reduction in resultant output voltage.

5. Armature Winding
The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably connected. This is known as armature winding.
The armature winding acts as the heart of a DC machine. It is a place where one form of power is converted to the
other form i.e., in case of generator, mechanical power is converted into electrical power and in case of motor,
electrical power is converted into mechanical power. Armature windings are of two types, namely:
(i). Gramme-ring winding and (ii). Drum Winding
The gramme-ring type of armature winding was an early form of armature winding. This winding was replaced by
more efficient drum type winding. The gramme-ring type of armature winding had the following disadvantages:
• Only half the coil is available to link with the pole flux. The other half of the portion of winding lies inside the
core which are used only as connectors. Thus, there was wastage of copper.
• As each turn was to pass through the centre of the core, it was thus difficult to wind, and requires more labour.
Hence, was costlier.
• The maintenance and repairs were more costly.
• Insulation of winding was also difficult.
• For the same pole flux and armature velocity, the emf induced in ring winding was half of that induced in the
drum winding having same number of coils.
• Construction was having a large air gap, so stronger field excitation was required to produce the required flux.

While for Drum winding, the conductors are housed in slots cut over the armature surface and connected to one
another at the front and back through connectors. It has the following two main advantages:
• Whole of the copper used is active except end connectors, i.e., it cuts flux and, therefore, is active in generating
emf.
• The coils can be pre-formed and insulated before placing on the armature, which reduces the construction
cost.
In general, there are two types of drum type armature windings: (a) lap winding (b) wave windings.
Lap winding may be further classified as a simplex (single) or multiplex (double or triple) windings.
(a) Lap winding: In this winding, the connections are such that the number of parallel paths is equal to
number of poles. Thus, if machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there will be P parallel, paths,
each path will have Z/P conductors in series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to the number parallel
paths. Out of which half the brushes are positive and the remaining (half) are negative.
 Lap windings

(b) Wave winding: In this winding, the connections are such that the numbers of parallel paths are only
two irrespective of the number of poles. Thus, if machine has Z armature conductors, there will be only two parallel
paths each having Z/2 conductors in series. In this case, the number of brushes is equal to two i.e., number of
parallel paths.

Wave winding
Applications Of Lap And Wave Windings
• The lap winding contains more number of parallel paths and provides large current. Hence, this winding is
applied to the generators which are to deliver more current.
• Wave winding is more suitable for small generators specially these are meant for 500–600 V circuits. The
main advantage of wave winding is that it gives more emf than lap winding for given number of poles and
armature conductors. Whereas, the lap winding would require large number of conductors for the same emf.
This will result in higher cost of winding and less utilisation of space in the armature slots.
• In wave winding, equalising connections are not necessary, whereas in lap winding, these are required
definitely. It is because, in wave winding the conductors of the two paths are distributed in such a way that
they lie under all the poles, therefore, any inequality of pole fluxes affects two paths equally, hence their
induced emfs are equal. But, in lap winding, each parallel path contains conductors which lie under one pair
of poles, hence unequal voltages are produced which set-up a circulating current causing sparking at the
brushes. Thus, in general practice, wave winding is preferred, the lap winding is only used for low-voltage,
high-current machines.

6. Commutator
It is an important part of a DC machine and serves the following purposes:
(i) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit through brushes.
(ii) It converts the alternating current (AC) induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current (DC) in
the external load circuit in generator action, whereas, it converts the alternating torque into unidirectional
(continuous) torque produced in the armature in motor action. The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made
up of wedge-shaped hard drawn copper segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin sheet of
mica. The segments are held together by means of two V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut into the
segments. Each armature coil is connected to the commutator segment through a riser.

7. Brushes
The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link between the armature winding and the
external circuit. They are usually made of high-grade carbon because carbon is conducting material and at the same
time in powdered form provides lubricating effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular
position around the commutator by brush holders and rocker. Brushes are used to collect the current due to the induced
emf from the armature coils in a DC generator. On another note, when DC voltage is applied across the brushes, it
passes electric current to the rotor windings. In summary, a brush is a device which conducts current between
stationary wires and moving parts, most commonly in a rotating shaft.

8. Brush Rocker
It holds the spindles of the brush holders. It is fitted on to the stationary frame of the machine with nut and bolts. By
adjusting its position, the position of the brushes over the commutator can be adjusted to minimise the sparking at the
brushes. Brush rockers for DC motors ensure precise positioning of the carbon brush on the commutator at all times,
even under the toughest conditions.

9. End Housings
End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support bearings. The front housing supports the bearing
and the brush assemblies whereas the rear housing usually supports the bearing only.

10. Bearings
The bearings may be ball or roller bearings these are fitted in the end housings. Their function is to reduce friction
between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of
bearings as it is very hard material.

11. Shaft
The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is used to transfer mechanical power
from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature core, commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.

Emf Equation
Let,
P = Number of poles of the machine.
Ø = Flux per pole in Wb
Z = Total number of armature conductors.
N = Speed of armature in rpm
Thus, we conclude that the induced emf is directly proportional to flux per pole and speed. Moreover, the polarity of
the induced emf depends upon the direction of magnetic field and the direction of rotation. If either of the two is
reversed, the polarity of induced emf i.e., brushes is reversed, but when both are reversed the polarity does not change.
This induced emf is fundamental phenomenon to all DC machines whether they are working as generator or motor.
However, when the machine is working as a generator, this induced emf is called generated emf and is represented as

It is also equal to:

Eg = V + IaRa
Whereas, in case the machine is working as a motor, this induced emf is called back emf as it
acts opposite to the supply voltage V. Then

It is also equal to:

Eb = V - IaRa
Torque Equation
We know that when a current carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field a force is exerted on it which exerts
turning moment or torque (F*r). This torque is produced due to electro-magnetic effect, hence is called
electromagnetic torque.
Let P = No. of poles.
Ø = Flux per pole in Wb.
r = Average radius of armature in metre.
l = Effective length of each conductor in metre.
Z = Total armature conductors.
Ia = Total armature current.
A = No. of parallel paths.

Carrying out the necessary substitutions given the above, we thus have that

Alternatively,
The power developed in the armature is given as

𝑃𝑍∅𝐼𝑎
𝑇= 𝑁𝑚 (𝐴𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒)
2𝜋𝐴

Thus, we conclude that torque produced in the armature is directly proportional to flux per pole and armature current.
Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed in the armature depends upon the direction of flux or
magnetic field and the direction of flow of current in armature conductors. The direction of torque produced and hence
the direction of rotation is reversed if either of the two is reversed. But when both are reversed the direction of torque
does not change.

Armature Reaction
When a DC generator is loaded, current flows through the armature conductor in the same direction as that of the
induced (or generated) emf. The armature conductors carrying current, produce their own magnetic field called
armature field. The effect of armature field produced by the armature current carrying conductors on the main
magnetic field is known as armature reaction. Alternatively, for a DC machine, there exists two types of magnetic
fluxes (armature flux and main field flux); thus, the effect of the armature flux on the main field flux is called armature
reaction.

Commutation
In a DC machine, one of the major functions is the delivery of current from the armature (rotating part) to the external
circuit (stationary part) or vice versa. This operation is conducted with the help of brushes and commutator. During
this operation, one of the armature coils moves from the influence of one pole to the other and consequently the
current in this coil is reversed. While moving from one pole to the other, the coil is short circuited by the brushes
through commutator segments for a fraction of a second (say about 1/500 second). This operation is called
commutation.
Thus, the process in which a coil is short circuited by the brushes through the commutator segments while it passes
from the influence of one pole to the other is called commutation. In this process, the current in the coil is reversed.
The duration for which a coil remains short circuited is called commutation period.

Good Commutation and Poor Commutation

• Good Commutation
Good commutation means no sparking at the brushes and the commutator surface remains unaffected during
continuous operation of DC machines.
• Poor Commutation (Causes of sparking at brushes)
A machine is said to have poor commutation if there is sparking at the brushes and the commutator surface gets
damaged during its operation. Sparking at the brushes results in overheating at the commutator brush contact and
pitting of commutator. These effects are cumulative, since any sparking impairs the contact which increases heating
and further aggravates the situation. Poor commutation may be caused by mechanical or electrical conditions. The
mechanical conditions for poor commutation may be due to uneven surface of the commutator, non-uniform brush
pressure or vibrations of brushes in the brush holder etc. By making proper mechanical arrangements, the sparking
due to mechanical conditions can be avoided (or eliminated). The electrical conditions for poor commutation are
development of emf in the coils undergoing commutation which may be due to armature reaction or inductance effect
of the coil.

Methods of Improving Commutation

Commutation may be improved by employing following methods:
1. By use of high resistance brushes.
2. By shifting of brushes.
3. By use of interpoles or commutating poles.
4. By use of compensating winding.

Types Of DC Generators
D.C. generators are generally classified according to the methods of their field excitation. On the basis of this criteria,
they can be classified as:
1. Separately excited DC generators
2. Self excited DC generators – these are further classified as:
(i) Shunt wound DC generators
(ii) Series wound DC generators
(iii) Compound wound DC generators. It further has the following types:
(a) Long shunt compound wound generators
(b) Short shunt compound wound generators (there exists cumulatively compound wound/over-compounded type and
differential type depending on series field flux interaction)
3. Aside from the above, there are also permanent magnet type DC generators. In these generators, no field winding
is placed around the poles. These machines have fairly constant magnetic field. Although these machines are very
compact but are used only in small sizes like dynamos in automobiles etc. The main disadvantages of these machine
are that the flux produced by the magnets deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the characteristics of
the machine.

Applications of DC Generators
Depending upon the characteristics of various types of DC generators, their important applications are given below:
1. Separately excited DC generators: Although, these generators are more costly than self excited generators as they
require a separate source for their field excitation. But their response to the change in field resistance is quicker and
more precise. Therefore, these are employed where quick and definite response to control is important such as Ward–
Leonard System of speed control.
2. Shunt-wound DC generators: As they provide constant terminal voltage, they are best suited for battery charging.
Along with field regulators, they are also used for light and power supply purposes.
3. Series-wound DC generators: These generators have very few applications. Their best application is in the DC
locomotives, where they supply field current for regenerative braking. They are also employed in series arc lighting.
Another application of these generators is as series boosters for increasing DC voltage across the feeders.
4. Compound-wound DC generators
(i) Over-compounded type. These are more suited for lighting and power services, as they compensate for the voltage
drop in the lines and voltage at the terminals of the load remains constant.
(ii) Differential-compounded type. They are usefully employed for arc welding purposes. In such cases, generator is
practically short-circuited every time the electrode touches the metal plates to be welded.

Losses in a DC Machine
A DC machine is used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy or vice-versa. While doing so, the whole
of input energy does not appear at the output but a part of it is lost in the form of heat to the surroundings. This wasted
energy is called losses in the machine. These losses affect the efficiency of the generator. A reduction in these losses
leads to higher efficiency. Thus, the major objective in the design of a DC machine is the reduction of these losses.
The various losses occurring in a DC machine can be sub-divided as:
1. Copper losses.
2. Iron losses
3. Mechanical losses.

1. Copper losses: The various windings of the DC machine, made of copper, have some resistance. When current
flows through them, there is power loss proportional to the square of their respective currents. These power losses are
called copper losses. In general, the various copper losses in a DC machine are:
2. Iron losses: The losses which occur in the iron parts of a DC generator are known as iron losses or core losses or
magnetic loss. These losses consist of the following:
(i) Hysteresis loss.
(ii) Eddy current loss
3. Mechanical losses: As the armature of a DC machine is a rotating part, some power is required to overcome:
(i) Air friction of rotating armature (windage loss)
(ii) Friction at the bearing and friction between brushes and commutator (friction loss). These losses are known as
mechanical losses. To reduce these losses, proper lubrication is done at the bearings.

Also, the losses in a DC generator may also be sub-divided into:

1. Constant losses (The losses in a DC machine which remain the same at all loads). Has the underlisted
subdivisions:
(i) Iron losses; (ii) Mechanical losses; (iii) Shunt field copper losses
2. Variable losses (The losses in DC machine which vary with load). Has the underlisted subdivisions:
(i) Armature copper loss; (ii) Series field copper loss (iii) Interpole winding copper loss and (iv) Compensating
winding copper loss.

Stray Losses: The sum of the iron losses and mechanical losses in a DC machine are known as stray losses i.e., Stray
losses = Iron losses + Mechanical losses.

Power Flow Diagram

For Generator Action
The mechanical power (Tm) is supplied to the generator which is converted into electrical power (VIL). While
conversion, various losses occur in the machine.

Figure: Power flow diagram of a DC generator

For Motor Action

Figure: Figure: Power flow diagram of a DC Motor

Efficiency of a DC Machine
(i) When machine is working as a generator
The ratio of output power to the input power of a DC generator is called its efficiency.

(ii) when machine is working as a motor

DC MOTORS
A machine that converts mechanical power into DC electrical power is called a DC generator. The same machine
when used to convert DC electrical power into mechanical power, it known as a DC motor. From construction point
of view, there is no difference between a DC generator and motor. The DC motors are very useful where wide range
of speeds and perfect speed regulation is required such as electric traction. An electro-mechanical energy conversion
device (electrical machine) that converts DC electrical energy or power (EI) into mechanical energy or power (T) is
called a DC motor. Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines, e.g., hammers, presses, drilling
machines, lathes, rollers in paper and steel industry, blowers for furnaces, etc., and domestic appliances, e.g.,
refrigerators, fans, water pumps, toys, mixers, etc. The block diagram of energy conversion, when the electro-
mechanical device works as a motor, is shown below.

Figure: Block diagram of electromechanical energy conversion (motor action)

Working Principle Of DC Motors

The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, a mechanical force is experienced by it. The direction of this force is determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
and its magnitude is given by the relation:
F = Bil (newton)
For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field produced by a bipolar machine [see
Fig.(a) below]. When DC supply is connected to the coil, current flows through it which sets up its own field as shown
in Fig.(b) below. By the interaction of the two fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and the coil), a resultant
field is set up as shown in Fig.(c) below. The tendency of this is to come to its original position i.e., in straight line
due to which force is exerted on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.

Figure: Working principle of a motor

PS: MNA = Magnetic Neutral Axis and is the axis along which no emf is generated in the armature conductors..

Back Emf
For motors, the direction of induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. That is why this induced emf is called
back emf (Eb). The magnitude of this induced emf is given by the relation;
It is also given as

Electromagnetic Torque Developed in DC Motor

The electrical power which is supplied to a DC motor is converted into mechanical power. The conversion of power
takes place in the armature as stated below:
The power developed in the armature is given as

Shaft Torque
In DC motors, the whole of the electromagnetic torque (Te) developed in the armature is not available at the shaft. A
part of it is lost to overcome the iron and mechanical (friction and windage) losses. Therefore, shaft torque (Tsh) is
somewhat less than the torque developed in the armature. Thus, in case of DC motors, the actual torque available at
the shaft for doing useful mechanical work is known as shaft torque.

Brake Horse Power (B.H.P.)

2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑠ℎ
Output in B.H.P =
60∗746
Comparison of Generator and Motor Action
It has been seen that the same machine can be used as a DC generator or as a DC motor. When it converts mechanical
energy (or power) into electrical energy (or power), it is called a DC generator and when it is used for reversed
operation, it is called a DC motor. The comparison of generator and motor action is given below:

Types Of DC Motors
On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding, DC motors can be classified as;
1. Separately excited DC motors
Its voltage equation is as below

2. Self excited DC motors: These motors can be further classified as;

(i) Shunt motors
(ii) Series motor

(iii) Compound motor

The compound motor can be further subdivided as;

(a) Cumulative compound motors

(b) Differential compound motors

Applications Of DC Motors
As per the characteristics of DC motors, different types of DC motors are applied for different jobs as explained
below:
1. Separately excited motors: Very accurate speeds can be obtained by these motors. Moreover, these motors are
best suited where speed variation is required from very low value to high value. These motors are used in steel rolling
mills, paper mills, diesel – electric propulsion of ships, etc.
2. Shunt motors: From the characteristics of shunt motors, it shows that it’s almost a constant speed motor. It is,
therefore, used;
(i) Where the speed between no-load to full load has to be maintained almost constant.
(ii) Where it is required to drive the load at various speeds (various speeds are obtained by speed control methods)
and any one of the speeds is required to be maintained almost constant for a relatively long period. As such, shunt
motors are most suitable for industrial drives such as lathes, drills, grinders, shapers, spinning and weaving machines,
line shafts in the group drive, etc.
3. Series motors: The characteristics of a series motor reveal that it is a variable speed motor i.e., the speed is low at
higher torques and vice-versa. Moreover, at light loads or at no-load, the motor attains dangerously high speed. It is,
therefore, employed:
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of starting to accelerate heavy loads quickly.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and speed is required to be adjusted automatically.
As such, series motors are most suitable for electric traction, cranes, elevators, vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing
machines, fans and air compressors, etc.
4. Compound motors: The important characteristic of this motor is that the speed falls appreciably on heavy loads
as in a series motor, but at light loads, the maximum speed is limited to safe value. It is therefore used:
(i) Where high torque is required at the time of starting and where the load may be thrown off suddenly.
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations. As such, cumulative compound motors are best suited for
punching and shearing machines, rolling mills, lifts and mine - hoists, etc.

Speed Regulation
The speed regulation of a DC motor is defined as the change in speed from full load to no-load and is expressed as a
percentage of the full load speed.
(know how to use the above formula to solve problems)
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
We daily use many devices that convert one form of energy into another form. For example, a heater converts electrical
energy into heat energy while an electric bulb converts electrical energy into light energy. Furthermore,
energy conversion takes place between well known pairs of forms of Energy: Electrical Chemical, Electrical
Thermal, Electrical Optical, Electrical Sound, and Electrical Mechanical (which is our
main focus here) are common forms with numerous varieties of engineering applications. However, electromechanical
conversion devices (i.e., devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa) find wide
practical applications. For example, an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. On the other
hand, an electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. A major reason for the widespread use
of electro-mechanical energy conversion devices is that they are relatively efficient and permit an easy control.
The conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy or vice versa is known as electromechanical energy
conversion. Electromechanical energy conversion involves the interchange of energy between an electrical system
and a mechanical system through the medium of a coupling electric field or magnetic field. Therefore, an
electromechanical conversion system has three essential parts, namely: an electrical system, a mechanical system
and a coupling field (electric or magnetic). The figure below shows the block diagram of an electromechanical
energy conversion system. Note that from left to right, the system represents conversion from electrical to mechanical.
However, from right to left, it will represent conversion from mechanical to electrical.

Figure: Electromechanical Energy Conversion System

OR

Coupling Field
Figure: Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Thus, Electromechanical energy conversion is done with the aid of rotary motion (rotary machines) or translatory
(linear) motion (linear machines and actuators). Transformers and solid-state converters do not belong to the group of
electromechanical energy conversion devices because they only convert one kind of electrical energy to another kind
of electrical energy with different parameters (change in voltage, current, frequency, number of phases, conversion of
DC into AC current, etc) without any motion.
For an electromechanical system, the following terms are important:
(i) Electrical port (=armature terminals): receiving/delivering electrical energy
(ii) Mechanical port (=shaft): delivering/receiving mechanical energy
(iii) Coupling field: Magnetic field or Electric field
Even though, theoretically, both the types fields mentioned above are able to convert the energy, the magnetic medium
is most popular since the voltage levels required are not very high, and the devices of given power rating are smaller
in size and are economical. Hence, more emphasis will be made on the magnetic medium.
• Electric field as coupling medium
Electromechanical energy conversion can take place when electric field is used as the medium. Consider two
oppositely charged plates of a capacitor which are separated by a dielectric medium. A force of attraction exists
between the two plates that tends to move them together. If we allow one plate to move in the direction of the force,
we are converting electrical energy into mechanical energy. On the other hand, if we apply an external force on one
plate and try to increase the separation between them, we are then converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electrostatic microphones and electrostatic voltmeters use electrostatic (electric) fields for energy conversion. It is
important to note that the quantity of energy that can be converted by a device using electric field as a medium is
relatively small. It is because the amount of force developed by an electric system is usually very small even when
the applied voltage is high.
• Magnetic field as a coupling medium
Electromechanical energy conversion can also take place more effectively when magnetic field is used as the medium.
Consider the case of a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. The conductor experiences a force that
tends to move it. If the conductor is free to move in the direction of the magnetic force, the magnetic field helps the
conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. This is essentially the principle of operation of all electric
motors. On the other hand, if an externally applied force moves the conductor in a direction opposite to the magnetic
force, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. The generator action is based on this principle. Note that
in both cases, the magnetic field acts as a medium for energy conversion.
It is important to note that the quantity of energy that can be converted by a device using electric field as a medium is
relatively small. It is because the amount of force developed by an electric system is usually very small even when
the applied voltage is high and the physical dimensions of the system are quite large. However, when magnetic field
is used as a medium, a system with the same physical dimensions develops a much larger force than a system using
an electric field as a medium. For this reason, the use of electric field as a medium for energy conversion has limited
applications.

Electromechanical Energy Conversion Devices

Electromechanical energy conversion takes place through electric field or magnetic field as the medium. Although
the various conversion devices operate on common set of physical principles, the structure of the devices depend on
their function. Electromechanical energy conversion devices can be divided into following three categories:
1. Transducers: these conversion devices are used for measurement and control. They generally operate under linear
input-output conditions and with relatively small signals. Examples include microphones, pickups and loudspeakers.
Transducer is most important for electrical energy conversion.
2. Force producing devices: these conversion devices are meant for producing force or torque with limited
mechanical motion. Examples include relays, solenoid, actuators and electromagnets.
3. Continuous energy conversion devices: These devices continuously convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy or vice versa. They are used for bulk energy conversion and utilization. Motors and generators are the examples
of such conversion devices.

Features Of Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Electromechanical energy conversion takes place through the medium of magnetic field. The following salient
features are worth noting in this energy conversion:
1. As with any energy conversion system, the principle of conversion of energy holds good in case of
electromechanical energy conversion. That is, energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be changed
from one from another.
2. During electromechanical energy conversion, various losses occur in the system. This is illustrated in the figure
below which shows the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Thus, the electrical energy loss (i2r) is due to current flowing in the winding (having resistance R) of the energy
converter. The field loss is due to changing magnetic field in the magnetic core. The mechanical loss is the friction
and wind age loss due to the motion of the moving components. All these losses are converted into heat and raise the
temperature of the energy conversion system.
3. Electromechanical energy conversion is a reversible process except for the losses in the system. The term reversible
means that the energy can be transferred back and forth between the electrical and the mechanical systems. However,
each time we go through an energy conversion process, some of the energy is used up to meet the losses in the
conversion process. These losses are converted into heat and are lost from the system forever.
4. Electromechanical conversion devices are built with air gaps in the magnetic circuit to separate the fixed and
moving parts. Most of the MMF (Magneto-Motive Force) of the winding is required to overcome the air-gap
reluctance so that most of the energy is stored in the air gap and is returned to the electric source when the field is
reduced.
5. The electromechanical energy conversion system can be analyzed by using principle of conservation of energy,
laws of electric and magnetic field, electric circuit and Newtonian mechanics.
6. The rotating electrical machine (motor and generators) continuously convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy or vice versa. The figure below shows the block diagram of electromechanical energy conversion in an
electrical machine. The primary quantities involved in the mechanical system are torque (T) and speed (wm) while the
analogous quantities in the electrical system are voltage (e) and current (i) respectively.

Energy Balance Equation/Energy Flow Diagram

It is obvious that an electrical motor receives energy at the electrical port and delivers it at the mechanical port. While
an electric generator receives the energy at the mechanical port and delivers it at the electrical port.
An electromechanical energy conversion system has three essential parts, an electrical system, a mechanical system
and a coupling magnetic field. Since conversion of energy from one form into another form satisfies the principle of
conservation of energy, the energy transfer equation is as under:

In text form is:

Electrical Energy (Input from source) = Mechanical Energy Output + (Increase in energy stored in coupling
field) + (Energy loss) (1)
The transfer equation above is applicable to all conversion devices. For motor action, the electrical and mechanical
energy terms have positive values. For generator action, the electrical and mechanical energy terms have negative
values.
During this energy conversion, energy loss (which is dissipated as heat) occurs due to three causes:
(i) i2r loss in the winding of the energy converter
(ii) Core or field loss due to changing magnetic field
(iii) Mechanical loss is the friction and windage loss due to the motion of moving parts.
These can be either neglected or attached to electrical port, mechanical port and coupling magnetic field respectively,
for simpler analysis.
All these losses (i-iii) are converted to heat. If the energy losses in the electrical system, the coupling magnetic field
and the mechanical system are grouped with the corresponding terms in eqn. (1), the energy balance equation can be
written as under:

(2)

Now consider a differential time dt during which an increment of electrical energy dW𝑒 flows to the system. During
this time dt, let dW𝑓, be the energy supplied to the field and dW𝑚 the energy converted to mechanical form. In
differential form, eqn. (2) can be expressed as
dWelec = dWfield + dWmech
It is natural that this equation has +ve signs for electrical and mechanical energy terms when the device is motoring.
For generating mode, however, both the terms assume –ve signs.
In case no mechanical work is done or loss is experienced, the above eqn. reduces to the eqn. below indicating that
Electrical energy input is stored in the magnetic field.
dWelec = dWfield
Where:
dWelec = Electrical Energy (Input energy)
dWmech = Mechanical Energy (Output energy)
dWfield = Energy stored in the magnetic field (coil)

Figure: Energy Flow in Electromechanical Energy conversion device

PROTECTION OF MACHINES
Electrical energy systems consist of various equipment connected together. Typically, power is generated at lower
voltages (a few kV) (3-phase ac voltage source) which is stepped up by a transformer and fed into a transmission grid.
A transmission grid is a meshed network of high voltage lines and transformers. It can have multiple voltage levels
like 400 kV, 220 kV, etc. The power is delivered to load centers which may be far off (even thousands of km's apart).
At load centers, voltage levels are stepped down by step down transformers in multiple stages and finally power is
delivered to the end user. A unique feature of electrical energy systems is its natural mode of synchronous operation.
It implies that during steady state, the electrical frequency is same all through the system irrespective of the
geographical location. This closely knits the system together.

Why do we need Protection?

Electrical power system operates at various voltage levels from 415 V to 400 kV or even more. Electrical apparatus
used may be enclosed (e.g., motors) or placed in open (e.g., transmission lines). All such equipment undergoes
abnormalities in their life time due to various reasons. For example, a worn-out bearing may cause overloading of a
motor. A tree falling or touching an overhead line may cause a fault. A lightning strike (classified as an act of God!)
can cause insulation failure. Pollution may result in degradation in performance of insulators which may lead to
breakdown. Under frequency or over frequency of a generator may result in mechanical damage to its turbine requiring
tripping of an alternator. Even otherwise, low frequency operation will reduce the life of a turbine and hence it should
be avoided. It is necessary to avoid these abnormal operating regions for safety of the equipment. Even more important
is safety of the human personnel which may be endangered due to exposure to live parts under fault or abnormal
operating conditions. Small current of the order of 50 mA is sufficient to be fatal! Whenever human security is
sacrificed or there exists possibility of equipment damage, it is necessary to isolate and de-energize the equipment.
Designing electrical equipment from safety perspective is also a crucial design issue. To conclude, every electrical
equipment has to be monitored to protect it and provide human safety under abnormal operating conditions. This job
is assigned to electrical protection systems. It encompasses apparatus protection and system protection.

Basic Requirements/Desirable Attributes of Protection System

Protection system is an extremely important part of the power system as it is provided to operate under abnormal
conditions to prevent failure or isolate trouble and limit its effect. Every protection system which isolates a faulty
element is required to satisfy the following basic requirements: (i) reliability and simplicity; (ii) selectivity and
discrimination; (iii) sensitivity; and (iv) speed of operation; (v) dependability; (vi) security. Without reliability and
selectivity, protection of systems would be rendered largely ineffective and could even become a liability.

(i). Reliability and Simplicity

Reliability is the basic requirements of protection system as it is provided to improve the reliability of the whole
system. Reliability means that the protection system must be ready to function, correctly at all times and under all
conditions of any fault and abnormal conditions of the power system for which it has been designed.
Reliability is a qualitative term. Reliability of protective systems is assessed from statistical data. It cannot be easily
specified in terms of a mathematical expression with certainty. Statistical survey and records give idea about reliability
of protective systems. With the growing size of systems, use of EHV lines, interconnections and use of large
generators and transformers, the importance of reliability of protective systems has increased.
Inherent reliability is a matter of design based on long experience. This can be achieved partly by (i) simplicity and
robustness in construction; (ii) high contact pressure; (iii) dust free enclosures; (iv) good contact material; (v) good
workmanship, and (vi) careful maintenance.
Simplicity is closely associated with reliability. Simplicity of construction and good quality of relay, correctness of
design and installation and good maintenance and supervision etc., are the main basic factors which influence the
protective reliability. As a rule, the simple the protective scheme and lesser the number of relays, circuits and contacts
it contains, the greater will be its reliability. A quantitative measure for reliability is defined as follows:
 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
% Reliability = 𝑥 100
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 + 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
(ii). Selectivity and Discrimination
Selectively is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system in trouble and disconnect
or isolate the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system i.e., the protective system must be able to discriminate
between those conditions for which prompt operation is required and those for which no operation or time-delay
operation is required.
A well designed and efficient protective system should be selective i.e., it should be able to detect the point at which
the fault occurs and cause the opening of the circuit breakers nearest to the fault with minimum or no damage to the
system. If the protective system is not selective and operates for faults beyond its protective zones, a larger portion of
the system will get disconnected unnecessarily, causing embarrassment to supplier and consumers.
Selectivity is absolute if the protection responds only to the faults within its own zone, and relative if it is obtained by
grading the settings of the protective relays of several zones all of which may respond to a given fault. Systems of
protection which in principle are absolutely selective are called the unit systems. Systems in which selectivity is
relative are non-unit systems. Differential protection and frame leakage protection fall in the former category while
the current time graded protection and distance protection fall in the latter category.
(iii). Sensitivity
Any protective system must be sufficiently sensitive so that it will operate reliably when required under the actual
condition that produces the least operating tendency.
Sensitivity of any protective scheme refers to the smallest value of actuating quantity at which it starts operating in
relation with the minimum value of fault current in the protected zone. Sensitivity of a protective relay is a function
of volt-amperes input to the relay coil necessary to cause its operation. The smaller the volt-ampere input required to
cause relay operation, the more sensitive is the relay.
A protection with high degree of sensitivity is more complex and uses more equipment and circuitry and is, therefore,
more expensive. Such protection is employed only in that case where simpler arrangement cannot be applied because
of low degree of sensitivity.
(iv). Speed of Operation
The protective system should disconnect the faulty section as quick as possible. This is desirable for many reasons
such as (i) reduction in the amount of damage incurred; (ii) improvement in power system stability; (iii) less
annoyance to electric power consumers and decrease in total outage time for power consumers; (iv) decrease in
likelihood of development of one type of fault into other more severe type and; (v) permit use of rapid reclosure of
circuit breakers to restore service to consumers. However, too fast operation may result in undesired operation during
transient faults.
(v). Dependability
A relay is said to be dependable if it trips only when it is expected to trip. This happens either when the fault is in it's
primary jurisdiction or when it is called upon to provide the back-up protection. However, false tripping of relays or
tripping for faults that is either not within its jurisdiction, or within its purview, compromises system operation. Power
system may get unnecessarily stressed or else there can be loss of service. Dependability is the degree of certainty
that the relay will operate correctly:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
% Dependability = 𝑥 100
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
Dependability can be improved by increasing the sensitivity of the relaying system.
(vi). Security
Security is a property used to characterize false tripping on the relays. A relay is said to be secure if it does not trip
when it is not expected to trip. It is the degree of certainty that the relay will not operate incorrectly:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
% Security = 𝑥 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠
False trips do not just create nuisance. They can even compromise system security. Security of the relaying system
can be improved by improving selectivity of the relaying system.

E.g
The performance of an overcurrent relay was monitored over a period of one year. It was found that the relay operated
14 times, out of which 12 were correct trips. If the relay failed to issue trip decision on 3 occasions, compute
dependability, security and reliability of the relay.
Soln
Number of correct trips = 12
Number of desired trips = 12 + 3 = 15
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 12
% Dependability = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 80%
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 15

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 12

% Security = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 85.71%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 14

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 12

% Reliability = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100 = 70.59%
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 + 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 15+2

Zones of Power System Protection

All electrical power system works under zone protection and which can be divided in to several zones of protection.
Each zone of protection, contains one or more components of a power system [such as generators, transformers,
motors, buses, lines (transmission, sub-transmission, distribution), etc] in addition to two circuit breakers.
When a fault occurs within the boundary of a particular zone, then the protection system responsible for the protection
of the zone acts to isolate (by tripping the Circuit Breakers) every equipment within that zone from the rest of the
system.

Figure A: Different Protection Zones

Figure: Further picture clarity of how figure A could be like (although not exhaustive)

Circuit Breakers are inserted between the component of the zone and the rest of the power system. Thus, the location
of the circuit breaker helps to define the boundaries of the zones of protection. Different neighboring zones of
protection are made to overlap each other, which ensure that no part of the power system remains without protection.
When faults occur in the overlapped region, a tripping sequence of different circuit breakers will be initiated to
disconnect the faulty element.
Overlapping zones have a powerful advantage; if a power system does not contain overlapping zones in its protective
zone. It therefore means then that if fault occurs in the equipment not lying in any one of the zones, no circuit breaker
would be tripped. The fault which occurs in the unprotected system will damage the equipment and hence disturb the
continuity of the supply.

Consider the two protective zones above: zone 1 and zone 2. Here, zone 2 overlap zone 1. If a fault occurs in zone 2,
the circuit breakers of zone 2 will trip alongside with those of zone 1 to isolate the fault.
Protection zones are classified into the following:
- Primary or main protection
- Backup (secondary) protection (not all zones have this though)
Some of the protecting zone has backup protection for their primary protection.
The primary or main protection is the first line of defense in a power system's protection scheme. It is designed to
immediately sense and respond to faults in order to isolate the faulty portion of the system from the healthy portion.
The power system is divided into various zones of protection, and for each zone, there is a specific protective scheme.
When a fault occurs in a protected zone, it is the duty of the primary or main relays to detect the fault and take action
to isolate the faulty element. The primary protection is designed to be selective, meaning that it should only isolate
the faulty portion of the system and avoid disconnecting the supply of power to healthy circuits and equipment. This
is done by using relays that are sensitive to different types of faults and can quickly detect and respond to the specific
type of fault that has occurred.
One of the main advantages of primary protection is that it can quickly clear faults and restore power to the healthy
portion of the system. This is done by re-closing the circuit breaker after the fault has been cleared and restoring the
supply of power to the healthy portion of the system. Whereas
Back-up protection is an additional layer of protection that is provided in case the primary protection fails to operate.
The primary protection may fail due to a variety of reasons such as circuit breaker failure, tripping mechanism failure,
current or voltage supply failure to the relay, failure of current transformers (CT) or potential transformers (PT), or
the main protective relay failure. Back-up protection operates independently of the factors that cause primary
protection to fail. It is designed to sense faults immediately, but it should not operate instantaneously. It must only
operate when primary protection fails to operate.
When the primary protection fails, the backup protection takes over and isolates the faulty section from the healthy
one, to minimize the damage caused by the fault and restore power quickly.
In case the main protection is made inoperative for maintenance, testing, etc., the back-up protection acts as the
primary protection. The back-up protection is usually provided for short circuits only, for economic reasons and
technical facts. This is because short circuits are the most common type of fault in power systems and have the most
severe consequences. It's worth noting that providing backup protection for other types of faults such as earth faults,
overvoltages, and overcurrents can be more complex and costly.

Types of Protection
Protection systems can be classified into apparatus protection and system protection.
A. Apparatus Protection
Apparatus protection deals with detection of a fault in the apparatus and consequent protection. Apparatus protection
can be further classified into following:
• Transformer Protection
• Generator Protection
• Motor Protection
• Busbar Protection
• Transmission Line Protection and feeder protection

B. System Protection
System protection deals with detection of proximity of system to unstable operating region and consequent control
actions to restore stable operating point and/or prevent damage to equipment. Loss of system stability can lead to
partial or complete system blackouts. Under-frequency relays, out-of-step protection, islanding systems, rate of
change of frequency relays, reverse power flow relays, voltage surge relays etc are used for system protection. Wide
Area Measurement (WAM) systems are also being deployed for system protection. Control actions associated with
system protection may be classified into preventive or emergency control actions.

Analogy with Functioning of a Human being (A & B Above)

A human being is a complex system that performs through various apparatus like legs, hands, eyes, ears, heart, bones,
blood vessels etc. The heart is analogous to an electrical generator and stomach to the boiler. The eating process
provides raw material to generate calories. The power generated is pumped by heart through a complex network of
blood vessels. The primary transmission is through arteries and veins. Furthermore, distribution is through fine
capillaries. The system operator is the brain which works on inputs of eyes, ears, skin etc. Diagnosing abnormality in
any of these organs and taking remedial measures can be thought of as job of "apparatus protection". However, does
this cover the complete gambit of anomalies? Are fever, infection etc, a specific apparatus problem? Why does it
cause overall deterioration in functioning of the human being? The answer lies in the fact that the system which
encompasses body has also abstraction like the mind. Overall health is not just an aggregation of apparatus. It is
something much more complex. It involves complex process and associated dynamics (biological, chemical,
mechanical etc.) and control. Thus, protecting a system is not just apparatus protection but something much more.
Since we cannot define this "much more" clearly, it is complex and challenging. Monitoring of system behavior,
taking corrective measures to maintain synchronous operation and protecting the power system apparatus from
harmful operating states is referred as system protection.