ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely thank our principal Sir Prof. Dr. Saradindu Panda, for providing all the
required resources and facilities under one roof in our college, without which it was not
possible to complete the project report.

I would also like to express my gratitude to our HOD Sir Shri Baibaswata Das. Without
his kind support it would never been possible to complete this project report.

In regard to the above I would also like to convey my special thanks and regards to our
Structural Analysis teacher Mr. Baibaswata Das sir. I have received throughout help and
support to understand the subject and prepare the report.

Arindam Mukherjee
Roll No. - 25501322032
IMPORTANCE OF ARCH STRUCTURE:
In architecture, an arch is an opening in a structure that is curved on top and designed to
distribute weight. Arches are used in structural engineering (a branch of civil engineering that
deals with large buildings and similar structures) because they can support a very large mass
placed on top of them.
The major advantages of arch bridges include their resistance to bending forces, their pressure-
resistant design, their ability to be made from virtually anything, their structurally sound
composition, their lack of distortion, their increased strength over time, and their economic
advantages.
Arch, Curved structure that spans the opening between two piers or columns and supports
loads from above. The masonry arch provides the stepping stone from the post-and-beam
system to the evolution of the vault, and was first widely used by the Romans. Its construction
depends on a series of wedge-shaped blocks (voussoirs) set side by side in a semicircular
curve or along two intersecting arcs (as in a pointed arch). The central voussoir is called the
keystone, and the two points where the arch rests on its supports are known as the spring
points. An arch can carry a much greater load than a horizontal beam of the same size and
material, because downward pressure forces the voussoirs together instead of apart. The
resulting outward thrust must be resisted by the arch’s supports. Present-day lightweight
monolithic (one-piece) arches of steel, concrete, or laminated wood are highly rigid, and thereby
minimize horizontal thrust.

Arch construction depends essentially on the wedge. If a series of wedge-shaped blocks—i.e.,

ones in which the upper edge is wider than the lower edge—are set flank to flank in the manner
shown in the figure, the result is an arch. These blocks are called voussoirs. Each voussoir
must be precisely cut so that it presses firmly against the surface of neighbouring blocks and
conducts loads uniformly. The central voussoir is called the keystone. The point from which the
arch rises from its vertical supports is known as the spring, or springing line. During construction
of an arch, the voussoirs require support from below until the keystone has been set in place;
this support usually takes the form of temporary wooden centring. The curve in an arch may be
semicircular, segmental (consisting of less than one-half of a circle), or pointed (two intersecting
arcs of a circle); noncircular curves can also be used successfully.

In masonry construction, arches have several great advantages over horizontal beams,
or lintels. They can span much wider openings because they can be made from small, easily
carried blocks of brick or stone, as opposed to a massive, monolithic stone lintel. An arch can
also carry a much greater load than a horizontal beam can support. This carrying
capacity stems from the fact that pressure downward on an arch has the effect of forcing the
voussoirs together instead of apart. These stresses also tend to squeeze the blocks outward
radially; loads divert these outward forces downward to exert a diagonal force, called thrust, that
will cause the arch to collapse if it is not properly buttressed. Hence, the vertical supports, or
posts, upon which an arch rests must be massive enough to buttress the thrust and conduct it
into the foundation (as in Roman triumphal arches). Arches may rest on light supports, however,
when they occur in a row, because the thrust of one arch counteracts the thrust of its
neighbours, and the system remains stable as long as the arches at either end of the row are
buttressed. This system is used in such structures as arched stone bridges and ancient Roman
aqueducts.

Arches were known in ancient Egypt and Greece but were considered unsuitable for
monumental architecture and seldom used. The Romans, by contrast, used the semicircular
arch in bridges, aqueducts, and large-scale architecture. In most cases they did not use mortar,
relying simply on the precision of their stone dressing. The Arabs popularized the pointed arch,
and it was in their mosques that this form first acquired its
religious connotations. Medieval Europe made great use of the pointed arch,
which constituted a basic element in Gothic architecture. In the late Middle Ages the segmental
arch was introduced. This form and the elliptical arch had great value in bridge engineering
because they permitted mutual support by a row of arches, carrying the lateral thrust to the
abutments at either end of a bridge.

Modern arches of steel, concrete, or laminated wood are highly rigid and lightweight, so that the
horizontal thrust against the supports is small; this thrust can be further reduced by stretching a
tie between the ends of the arch.

IMPORTANCE OF CABLE STRUCTURE:

In cable structures they are used as tensile members, and they help control member stress and
deformation of frame structures. They enable systems to be constructed for balancing entire
structural frames, and by applying tension to these cables, structural members can be made
resistant to compression.
Cables are flexible structures that support the applied transverse loads by the tensile resistance
developed in its members. Cables are used in suspension bridges, tension leg offshore
platforms, transmission lines, and several other engineering applications.
Cables sometimes are used in building construction as an alternative to such tension members
as hangers, ties, or tension chords of trusses. For example, cables are used in a form of long-
span cantilever-truss construction in which a horizontal roof girder is supported at one end by a
column and near the other end by a cable that extends diagonally upward to the top of a vertical
mast above the column support (cable-stayed-girder construction, Fig. 5.100). Cable stress an
be computed for this case from the laws of equilibrium.

Cables also may be used in building construction instead of girders, trusses, or membranes to
support roofs, For the purpose, cables may be arranged in numerous ways. It is consequently
impractical to treat in detail in this book any but the simplest types of such applications of
cables. Instead, general procedures for analyzing cable-supported structures are presented in
the following.

Simple Cables

An ideal cable has o resistance to bending. Thus, in analysis of a cable in equilibrium, not only
is the sum of the moments about any point equal to zero but so is the bending moment at any
point. Consequently, the equilibrium shape of the cable corresponds to the funicular, or
bending-moment, diagram for the loading (Fig. 5.101a). As a result, the tensile force at any
point of the cable is tangent there to the cable curve.
The point of maximum sag of a cable coincides with the point of zero shear.
(Sag in this case should be measured parallel to the direction of the shear forces.)
Stresses in a cable are a function of the deformed shape. Equations needed for analysis,
therefore, usually are nonlinear. Also, in general, stresses and deformations cannot be obtained
accurately by superimposition of loads. A common procedure in analysis is to obtain a solution
in steps by using linear equations to approximate the nonlinear ones and by starting with the
initial geometry to obtain better estimates of the final geometry.

Cable Systems:

Analysis of simple cables is described in Art. 5.16.1. Cables, however, may be assembled into
many types of systems. One important reason for such systems is that roofs to be supported
are two- or three-dimensional. Consequently, three-dimensional cable arrangements often are
advantageous. Another important reason is that cable systems can be designed to offer much
higher resistance to vibrations than simple cables do.
Like simple cables, cable systems behave nonlinearly. Thus, accurate analysis is difficult,
tedious, and time-consuming. As a result, many designers use approximate methods that
appear to have successfully withstood the test of time. Because of the numerous types of
systems and the complexity of analysis, only general procedures will be outlined in this article.

Cable systems may be stiffened or unstiffened. Stiffened systems, usually used for suspension
bridges are rarely used in buildings. This article will deal only with un-stiffened systems, that is,
systems where loads are carried to supports only by cables.
Often, unstiffened systems may be classified as a network or as a cable truss, or double-layered
plane system.
Networks consist of two or three sets of cables intersecting at an angle (Fig. 5.102). The cables
are fastened together at their intersections.
Cable trusses consist of pairs of cables, generally in a vertical plane. One cable of each pair is
concave downward, the other concave upward (Fig. 5.103).
Cable Trusses. Both cables of a cable truss are initially tensioned, or prestressed, to a
predetermined shape, usually parabolic. The prestress is made large enough that any
compression that may be induced in a cable by loads only reduces the tension in the cable;
thus, compressive stresses cannot occur. The relative vertical position of the cables is
maintained by verticals, or spreaders, or by diagonals.
Diagonals in the truss plane do not appear to increase significantly the stiffness of a cable truss.
Figure 5.103 shows four different arrangements of the cables, with spreaders, in a cable truss.
The intersecting types (Fig. 5.103b and c) usually are stiffer than the others, for given size
cables and given sag and rise.

For supporting roofs, cable trusses often are placed radially at regular intervals (Fig. 5.104).
Around the perimeter of the roof, the horizontal component of the tension usually is resisted by
a circular or elliptical compression ring. To avoid a joint with a jumble of cables at the center, the
cables usually are also connected to a tension ring circumscribing the center.
Properly prestressed, such double-layer cable systems offer high resistance to vibrations. Wind
or other dynamic forces difficult or impossible to anticipate may cause resonance to occur in a
single cable, unless damping is provided. The probability of resonance occurring may be
reduced by increasing the dead load on a single cable. But this is not economical, because the
size of cable and supports usually must be increased as well. Besides, the tactic may not
succeed, because future loads may be outside the design range. Damping, however, may be
achieved economically with interconnected cables under different tensions, for example,
with cable trusses or networks.