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 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-II

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

AKASH NR 210217101002
CHRISTAN L 210217101014
HIRTHIK ROSHAN R 210217101020
SURYA M 210217101046

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

AERONAUTICAL

APOLLO ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2020

i
 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – II

DESIGN OF PASSENGER AIRCRAFT

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY

AKASH NR 210217101002
CHRISTAN L 210217101014
HIRTHIK ROSHAN R 210217101020
SURYA M 210217101046

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

AERONAUTICAL

APOLLO ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2020

ii
 ANNA UNIVESITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Report titled “AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – II,

DESIGN OF PASSENGER AIRCRAFT ” is the bonafide work of “AKASH NR
(210217101002) CHRISTAN L (210217101014) , HIRTHIK ROSHAN R
(210217101020), SURYA M (210217101046) ” who carried out the work under my
supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Mrs.S.IRISH ANGELIN MR. N RAJAMURUGU

SUPERVISOR HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL
APOLLO ENGINEERING COLLEGE APOLLO ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Anna University Anna University
Chennai – 600 025 Chennai – 600 025

Submitted for the viva voice conducted on

EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my heart full thanks to ASST Prof. Mr. N RAJAMURUGU (Head of
Aeronautical Department) for giving me his able support and encouragement. At this
juncture I must emphasis the point that this DESIGN PROJECT would not been possible
without the highly informative and valuable guidance by ASST Prof. Mrs.S.IRISH
ANGELIN being a source of constant encouragement and a pillar of support in all that we
do, be it academic or extracurricular.
It is worth mentioning about my team mates, friends and colleagues of the Aeronautical
Department, for extending their kind help whenever necessity arose. I thank one and all who
have directly or indirectly helped me in making this design project a great success.

iv
 ABSTRACT
In this project we have designed 450 seated Passenger Aircraft. We have taken the sufficient
steps to make sure that the aircraft what we are designing is in an optimum range. The
aircraft parameters like cruise velocity, cruise altitude, wing loading etc. and weight
estimation, airfoil selection, wing selection, landing gear selection have been made with
extreme care. The adequate details have been collected to make our calculation easier and to
make design more precision. The details have been collected from various sources which are
given in the bibliography.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

1 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING 1

1 SCHRENK’S CURVE 1

1.1 LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION 2

1.1.1 lift at Root 2

1.1.2 lift at Tip 2

1.2 ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION 4

1.3 LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING 5

1.3.1 Description 5

1.3.2 Loads Acting on Wing 5

1.3.3 Self-Weight Of The Wing (Y3) 6

1.4 REACTION FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 6

1.5 SHEAR FORCE 7

1.6 BENDING MOMENT 8

1.7 TORQUE DIAGRAM 9

vi
2 DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING 14

2.1 WING DESIGN

2.1.1 Function Of The Structure 14

2.1.2 Wing Structural Layout 14

2.1.3 Basic Functions Of Wing 16

2.1.4 Structural Members

2.2 SPAR SELECTION 18

2.2.1 Maximum Bending 18

2.2.2 Load Factor 18

2.2.3 Bending Stress 18

SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION 19

3 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT 22

FUSELAGE

3.1 LOADS AND ITS 22

DISTRIBUTION
3.1.1 Introduction 22
3.1.2 Loads In Fuselage 23
3.1.3 Cog Calculation 23
3.2 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 24

4 DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE 25

FUSELAGE STRUCTURE 26

FUSELAGE LAYOUT CONCEPTS 27

4.2.1 Mass Boom & Longeron Layout 27

vii
 4.2.2 Semi-Monocoque Layout 28
4.3 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS 30
4.4 FUSELAGE SHEAR FLOW 31
4.4.1 Open Section 31
4.4.2 Closed Section 34

5 DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES 38

5.1 MANEUVERING LOADS ON AIRCRAFT

CONTROL SURFACES 38
5.2 MANEUVER LOADS 40
5.3 STABILIZER 42
5.4 STABILITY 45
6 DESIGN OF WING-ROOT ATTATCHEMENT 49
6.1 GEOMETRY OF THE WING 49
6.2 DETERMINATION OF THE MAC 51
7 LANDING GEAR DESIGN. 54
7.1 INTRODUCTION 52
7.1.1 Tricycle-Type Landing Gear 52
7.1.2 Nose Landing Gear 52
7.1.3 Main Landing Gear 53
7.1.4 Fuel Tank 54
7.2 TIRE SELECTION 54
7.2.1 Tire Sizing 54
7.2.2 Nose Wheel Calculation 56
7.2.3 Main Wheel 57
viii
 8 PREPARATION OD DETAILED REPORT WITH 65
CAD
DRAWINGS.
8.1 INTRODUCTION 59

8.1.1 Design Constraints 59

8.2 DESIGN ASPECTS 61

8.3 DESIGN PROCESS AND SIMULATION 63

8.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

8.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN PHASE 64

DETAIL DESIGN PHASE 64

9 CONCLUSION 65

10 REFERENCE 66

ix
 LIST OF SYMBOLS

SYMBOLS ABBREVIATION
b Wing span
S Wing area
AR Aspect ratio
V Velocity
M Mach Number
T Thrust
R Range
E Endurance
ρ Density
(L/D) Lift to Drag Ratio
CL Coefficient of lift
CD Drag Coefficient
CD0 Induced Drag Coefficient
W0 Overall weight
Wc Crew Weight
WP Payload Weight
Wf Fuel Weight
We Empty Weight
T/W Thrust loading
W/S Wing loading
(t/C) Thickness to Chord Ratio
α Angle of Attack
x
 CR Root Chord
CT Tip Chord
Cm Mean Chord
λ Taper Ratio
Λ Swept Angle
V∞ Free Stream Velocity
L Lift
D Drag
(R/C) Rate of Climb
RT Turn Radius
ω Turn Rate
ϕ Glide Angle
SD Ground Roll Distance

xi
 AIM OF THE PROJECT
The aim of this design project is to design a 450 seated passenger aircraft by comparing the
data and specifications of present aircrafts in this category and to calculate the performance
characteristics. Also necessary graphs need to be plotted and diagrams have to be included
wherever needed.

The following design requirements and research studies are set for the project :

 To provide the passengers with high levels of safety and comfort.

 To operate from regional and international airports.

 To use advanced and state of the art technologies in order to reduce

the operating costs.

 To offer a unique and competitive service to existing scheduled operations.

 To assess the development potential in the primary role of the aircraft.

 To produce a commercial analysis of the aircraft project.

xii
xiii
 CHAPTER 1
PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING

INTRODUCTION:
Flight regime of any aircraft includes all permissible combinations of
speeds, altitudes, weights, center of gravity, and configurations. This regime is
shaped by aerodynamics, propulsion, structure, and dynamics of aircraft. The
borders of this flight regime are called flight envelope or manuevering envelope.
The safety of human onboard is guaranteed by aircraft designer and manufacturer.
Pilots are always trained and warned through flight instruction manual not to fly
out of flight envelope, since the aircraft is not stable, or not controllable or not
structurally strong enough outside the boundaries of flight envelope. A mishap or
crash is expected, if an aircraft is flown outside flight envelope. The flight
envelope has various types; each of which is usually the allowable variations of
one flight parameter versus another parameter. These envelopes are calculated and
plotted by flight mechanics engineers and employed by pilots and flight crews. For
instance, the load masters of a cargo aircraft must pay extra caution to the center of
gravity location whenever they distribute various loads on the aircraft. There are
several crashes and mishaps that safety board's report indicated that load master are
responsible, since they deployed more loads than allowed, or misplaced the load
before take-off. Nose heavy and tail heavy are two flight concepts that pilots are
familiar and experienced with, and are trained to deal with them safely.

1 SCHRENK’S CURVE:
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in chord length, angle of
attack and sweep along the span. Schrenk’s curve defines this lift distribution over
the wing span of an aircraft, also called simply as Lift Distribution Curve.
Schrenk’s Curve is given by

Y= (Y1+Y2)/2

1
Where

Y1 is Linear Variation of lift along semi wing span also named as L1

Y2 is Elliptic Lift Distribution along the wing span also named as L2

1.1 Linear Lift Distribution:

Lift force is found the line joining the aerodynamic centers of chords along the
wing span. Hence, the wing is rotated about the wing root so that the line joining
the aerodynamic centers becomes the horizontal line.

1.1.1 Lift at root:

𝐿R = ρv2ClCR/2

= (1.225 x (750)2 x 0.03 x 9.67)/2

LR = 99948.5 N/m

1.1.2 Lift at tip:

𝐿T =ρv2CLCT/2

= (1.225 x (750)2 x 0.03 x 2.9)/2

LT = 29974.2 N/m

By representing this lift at sections of root and tip we can get the equation for the
wing.

Equation of linear lift distribution for starboard wing

𝑌1 = −𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐

Where, m = (LR− LT)/ 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛

= (99948.5 – 29974.2)/ 31.45

m = 2224.9

Y1 = − (2224.9) 𝑥 + 99948.5

2
 Equation of linear lift distribution for port wing we have to replace x by –x in
general, 𝑌1 = − (2224.9) 𝑥 + 99948.5

SEMI SPAN (m) LINEAR LIFT DISTRIBUTION (x 103)

0 99.948
4 91.049
8 82.149
12 73.249
16 64.35
20 55.45

3
1.2 ELLIPTIC LIFT DISTRIBUTION:
The lift distribution assumes an ideal and efficient use of wing area lift generation.
The wing area required to generate a required lift is found to be minimum when the
plan form is elliptic in shape. When lift distribution is elliptic, The Oswald’s
efficiency factor is one.

In elliptic lift distribution, the lift distribution over the span of wing is assumed to
be in semielliptical shape. In graph of the lift per unit span Vs span wise distance,
area under the curve gives lift which is equal to weight of the airplane for steady
level flight. The major axis of ellipse and hence its equation

Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight

Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get

(L/2) = (W/2) = πab1/4

A = πab1/4 m2

Where b1- is Actual lift at root and a- is wing semi span

Lift at tip,

b1=4W/2πa

= (4x2840666.98)/ (2π x 31.45)

b1 = 57501.6 N/m

4
Lift at tip,
Y2 = (2𝑏1/ 𝑎 ) √𝑎2 − 𝑥2
Y2 = 3656.69√989 – 𝒙𝟐
SEMI SPAN (m) ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION (x 103)
0 114.996
4 114.062
8 111.213
12 106.295
16 99
20 88.745

1.3 LOAD ESTIMATION ON WING

1.3.1DESCRIPTION

The solution methods which follow Euler’s beam bending theory (σ/y=M/I=E/R)
use the bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular
section of the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in
the transverse direction. Most engineering solution methods for structural
mechanics problems (both exact and approximate methods) use the shear force and
bending moment equations to determine the deflection and slope at a particular
section of the beam. Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as analytical
expressions in terms of span wise location. The bending moment produced here is
about the longitudinal (x) axis.

1.3.2 Loads Acting On Wing:

As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard wing at first. There
are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction which can
cause considerable shear forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:
• Lift force (given by Schrenk’s curve)
• Self-weight of the wing
• Weight of the power plant
• Weight of the fuel in the wing

5
1.3.3 Self-Weight Of The Wing (Y3):
Self-weight of the wing,

(WWING/WTOT) = 0.12 WWING

= 0.12 x 2251591

= 270190.9 N

WPORT WING = -135095.45 N (Acting Downwards)

WSTARBOARD WING = -135095.45 N (Acting Downwards)

Assuming parabolic weight distribution, Y3 = k (x- (b/2)) 2

Where,

WSB = k ( 𝑎3/ 3)

K = -13.03

Y3 = − 13.03(x – 31.45)2

SEMI SPAN (m) SELF-WEIGHT OF THE WING (x 103)

0 -12.888
4 -9.818
8 -7.165
12 -4.929
16 -3.11
20 -1.708

1.4 REACTION FORCE

From the values taken from the net based on the literature survey and
the lift curve distribution we have tabulated the weight of each component of the
aircraft as follows, The wing is fixed at once end and free at other end which is a
cantilever beam

6
CURVE / COMPONENT AREA EN CLOSED / CENTROID (from wing
STRUCTURAL root) (m)
WEIGHT (N)

Y1 / 2 134830 10
Y2 / 2 96658.951 8
Wing 113794 10
Fuel 127924.126 12
Power plant 21719.34 8

1.5 SHEAR FORCE:

Force acting on a substance in a direction perpendicular to the extension of

the substance, as for example the pressure of air along the front of an airplane
wing. Shear forces often result in shear strain. Resistance to such forces in a fluid
is linked to its viscosity. Also called shearing force. Using normal method by the
help of FBD,

Shear Force at E = 0 (x = 20)

Shear Force at D = 127924.126 N (x = 12)

Shear Force at C = 148960.126 N (x = 10)

Shear Force at B = 223899.737 N (x = 8)

Shear Force at A =201951.354 N (x = 0)

7
1.6 BENDING MOMENT:

A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external

force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most
common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.

Using normal method with the help of FBD,

Bending Moment at E = 0 (x = 20)

Bending Moment at D = 0 (x = 12)

Bending Moment at C = 148960.126 Nm (x = 10)

Bending Moment at B =223899.737 Nm (x = 8)

Bending Moment at A = 253564.765 Nm (x = 0)

8
1.7 TORQUE DIAGRAM:

1.7.1. Torque Due to Normal Force:

T1 = 1/ 2( 𝐶𝑛𝜌𝑉2𝑐 ×0.05 𝑐 )

= 0.5 x CL cos α + CD sin α x 1.225 x (255.55)2 x c x 0.05 c

= 861.95 c2

Where, c= 861.95 ( 0.176x + 3.32)2

X T1

0 9500

4 13957.190

8 19268.016

12 25433.23
16 32452.845

20 40328.847

9
1.7.2 Torque Due to Chord wise Force:

T2 = F2 x 0

=0

1.7.3 Torque Due to Moment:

T3 = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑐 (1/2) 𝜌 𝑉2𝑐2

= - 1199.99 c2

Total Torque:

T = T1 + T2 + T3

10
 CHAPTER - 2
DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT WING
2.1 FUNCTION OF THE STRUCTURE
The primary functions of an aircraft’s structure can be basically broken
into the following:

 To transmit and resist applied loads.

 To provide and maintain Aerodynamic shape.
 To protect its crew, passenger, payload, system,etc..,
For majority of aircraft, this leads to use of semi monocoque design (i.e. a thin,
stressed outer shell with addition stiffening member) for the wing, fuselage &
empennage. These notes will discuss the structural layout possibilities for each of
these main areas, i.e. wing, fuselage & empennage.

2.1.1 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT

Specific Roles of Wing (Main Wing) Structure:

The Specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:

 To transmit:
1. Wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam

2. Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriages, etc.., to the main beam.

3. Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the
main beam.

 To react against:
1. Landing loads at attachment points

2. Loads from pylons/store

3. Wing drag and thrust loads

11
 To provide:
1. Fuel tank age space

2. Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and Aero-elastic requirements

 To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:

1. Span wise members (known as spars or booms)

2. Chord wise members (ribs)

3. A covering skin

4. Stinger

2.1.2 Basic Functions Of Wing Structural Members:

The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered
independently as:

SPARS

Form the main span wise beam. Transmit bending and torsion loads. Produce a
closedcell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.

In particular:

Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin. Flanges -
resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.

12
SKIN:

To form impermeable aerodynamics surface . Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs

& stringers. Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).React axial bending loads
(with stringers).

STRINGERS:

Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
React axial bending loads.

RIBS:

Maintain the aerodynamic shape. Act along with the skin to resist the distributed
aerodynamic pressure loads. Distribute concentrated loads into the structure &
redistribute stress around any Discontinuities. Increase the column buckling
strength of the stringers through end restraint. Increase the skin panel buckling
strength.

SPARS:

These usually comprise thin aluminum alloy webs and flanges, sometimes with
separate vertical stiffeners riveted on to the webs.

Types of spars:
In the case of a two or three spar box beam layout, the front spar should be located
as far forward as possible to maximize the wing box size, though this is subject to
there being: • Adequate wing depth for reacting vertical shear loads. • Adequate
nose space for LE devices, de-icing equipment, etc.

This generally results in the front spar being located at 12% to 18% of the chord
length. For a single spar D-nose layout, the spar will usually located at the
maximum thickness position of the aerofoil section (typically between 30% & 40%
along the chord length).

For the standard box beam layout, the rear spar will be located as for aft as
possible, once again to maximize the wing box size, but positioning will be limited
by various space requirements for flaps, control surfaces, spoilers etc. This usually
results in a location somewhere between about 55%and 70% of the chord length. If

13
any intermediate spars are used, they would tend to be spaced uniformly unless
there are specific pick-up point requirements.

An I-beam is a special type of joist that is made of structural steel. The I- beam is
an important part of buildings, especially larger ones, to ensure that they will be
sturdy and safe. Ibeams are normally made out of steel because the properties of
steel allow for it to withstand extremely heavy loads. The I-beam gets its name
from its shape. The beam itself looks like a giant capital I.

Advantages and Disadvantages to Using an I-beam

An I-beam is less likely to warp or bend then wood because of their sound
structure. This allows designers to create vast open spaces that normally couldn’t
be done. Another huge positive to the I-beam is that it can withstand the same load
as a wood beam that’s much larger than it.A huge disadvantage to the I-beam is
that it’s very susceptible to heat. If it gets heated up it can bend and fail causing a
huge problem. I-beams are usually insulated to protect them from the heat because
of this fact.

2.2 SPAR SELECTION

The maximum bending moment from previous section was found to be as
31093883 N-m. Therefore we define middle Spar at 45% of chord.

2.2.1 Maximum Bending:

MAX B.M = 1.5xnxM max

=1.5x7.75x31093883

=361466385 (N-m)

2.2.2 Load Factor:

n=0.95 (From ADP-I)

2.2.3 Bending Stress:

σ = (MxY)/I I=bd3/12

d = wing area / wing span

14
= 39.7/11.04

d = 3.590614 m

Y = (t/c) x (Croot/2)

(t/c) = 0.159764

CR=5.993357488

Y = 0.4787613

Area of Spar = 60% of wing area

=0.6*39.7

=23.82 m2

B=13.79 cm

D= 28.27 cm

d= 21.375 cm

b= 3.4475 cm

Depth of Web d= (28.27-(2x3.4475))

= 21.375

X=6.895 cm

Y=13.64955 cm

Ixx= 2455735 cm4

2.3 SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION

The flow of shear force externally and internally in the structural section is called
shear flow.

Shear flow over the I section,

15
Shear flow over middle spar (considering thin wall section t<<d,b)

Shear flow over the flange, q = 𝑉𝑄 𝐼

Where, Q = y A

{y =𝑑⁄2 , A =(𝑏⁄2 − 𝑥)𝑡}

Substituting all the values we get,

Q = 𝑉𝑡𝑑/2I x [(𝑏/2) − 𝑥 ]

Where,

d = Depth of the section

b = Base length of the section

t = Thickness of the section

I = Moment of inertia of the section ( 𝐵𝐷3 − 𝑏𝑑3 ) /12

Therefore,

Figure 2.2: I Section Spar

q = 733.3824(5.1713 – x)

@ x = b/2, q = 3792.5040 (N/m)

16
 @ x = 0, q = 0 (N/m)

@ x = -b/2, q = -3792.504 (N/m)

Shear flow of Web, q = 𝑉𝑄 𝐼 Where, Q = y1 A1 + y2 A2

=𝑑 (𝑏𝑡) + y + 1 (𝑑 − 𝑦) {𝑡 (𝑑 − 𝑦)} 2 2 2 2 On simplification we get, Q =

bt𝑑 + 𝑡 𝑑2 ( − 𝑦 ) 2 2 4 Substituting all the know values, q = 𝑉𝑡 [ 𝑑𝑏 + 1 𝑑2 ( − 𝑦
)] 𝐼 2 2 4 @ y = d/2, q = 7585.00827 N/m

@ y = d, q = 11504.0205 N/m

@ y = -d/2, q = -7585.00827 N/m

Therefore the shear flow over the middle spar,

17
 CHAPTER 3

PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

The fuselage can be considered to be supported at the location of center of

Lift of main Wing, the loads on the fuselage structure are then due to the shear
force And bending moment about that point. The loads come from a variety of
fuselage Components, for example the weight of pay loads, fuel, fuselage structure,
and tail Control lift force. Note that the coordinates along the fuselage is denoted
as X and The fuselage is L. The generic load arrangement is listed in below table to
form a Table we want to know tail lift, so that tail lift calculation is given by

3.1 LOADS AND ITS DISTRIBUTION:

3.1.1 Introduction:

To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases. The main
Components of the fuselage loading diagram are:

• Weight of the fuselage

• Engine weight

• Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers

• Tail lift

• Weight of crew, payload and landing gear

• Systems, equipment, accessories

Symmetric flight condition, steady and level flight: (Downward forces negative)
Values for the different component weights are obtained from aerodynamic design
Calculations.

18
3.1.2 Loads In Fuselage:

Figure 3.1: Load Distribution in Fuselage

Table 3.1: Component Weights and C.G Values of the Aircraft.

MOMENTUM
S.NO COMPONENT DISTANCE =( DISTANCE
FROM WEIGHT x
TIP(m) (kg) WEIGHT)(Nm)

1 Cockpit 3.688 500 18089.64

2 Nose landing 5.567 3128.5 170854.4867
gear
3 Fuselage 7.316 52142.17 3598988.615
4 Payload 9.149 250000 22437922.5
5 Main landing 9.331 20335.44 1861447.408
gear
6 Power plant 11.939 1996 233774.6936
7 Vertical 13.589 3476.145 463398.2505
stabilizer
8 Horizontal 14.367 6952.23 979849.1733
stabilizer

19
 3.1.3 COG CALCULATION:

COG = (ΣWELEMENT x COGELEMENT)/ΣWELEMENT

COG = 9.069449802 m

3.2 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT:

Table 3.2: Bending Moment and Shear Force

S.No COMPONENT DISTANCE MOMENTUM=(Distance SHEAR BENDING

FROM WEIGHT X Weight) (N- M) FORCE(N) MOMENT
TIP(M) (kg) (N-m)

1 Cockpit 3.688 500 37856.79 4905 18089.64

2 Nose landing 5.567 3128.5 320471.088 35595.585 188944.126
gear

3 Fuselage 7.316 7.316 2143619.84 527529.512 3787932.74

4 Payload 9.149 9.149 403005000 2980029.51 26225855.2
5 Main landing 9.331 20335.44 8151188.62 3179520.17 28087302.6
gear

6 Power plant 11.939 1996 233774.6936 3199100.93 28321077.3

7 Vertical 13.589 3476.145 2740286.74 3233201.92 28784475.5
stabilizer

8 Horizontal 14.367 6955.23 5139927.78 3301403.29 29764324.7

stabilizer

20
Figure 3.2: SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

21
 CHAPTER 4

DETAILED DESIGN OF AN AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

4.1 FUSELAGE STRUCTURE:
 The fundamental purpose of the fuselage structure is to provide an envelope
To support the payload, crew, equipment, systems and (possibly) the power-
plant. Furthermore, it must react against the in-flight maneuver,
pressurization and gust Loads; also the landing gear and possibly any power-
plant loads. It must be also be Able to transmit control and trimming loads
from the stability and control surfaces Throughout the rest of the structure.

 Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an
Important structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all
load Producing components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail,
landing gear etc. And thus redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of
housing or Accommodating practically all equipment, accessories and
systems in addition to Carrying the payload.

 Because of large amount of equipment inside the fuselage, it Is necessary to

provide sufficient number of cutouts in the fuselage for access and
Inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities result in fuselage
design Being more complicated, less precise and often less efficient in
design.

 As a common member to which other components are attached, thereby

Transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long hollow beam.
The Reactions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be considered
as Concentrated loads at the respective attachment points.The balancing
reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the Weight of the
fuselage structure and the various components inside the fuselage. These
reaction forces are distributed all along the length of the fuselage, though
Need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is subjected to mainly
Unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis due
to itssymmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading.

22
  symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main load in the
case offuselage is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is
transferred tofuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of
both wing andfuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams
for the respectivemembers. The maximum bending stress produced in each
of them is checked toless than the yield stress of the material chosen for the
respective member

4.2 FUSELAGE LAYOUT CONCEPTS:

There are two main categories of layout concept in common use;

• Mass boom and longeron layout
• Semi-monocoque layout

4.2.1 Mass Boom &Longeron Layout:

This is fundamentally very similar to the mass-boom wing-box concept
Discussed in previous section. It is used when the overall structural loading is
Relatively low or when there are extensive cut-outs in the shell. The concept
Comprises four or more continuous heavy booms (longeron), reacting against any
Direct stresses caused by applied vertical and lateral bending loads. Frames or
solid Section

23
4.2.2 Semi-Monocoque Layout:

 The semi-monocoque is the most often used construction for modern, high-
Performance aircraft. Semi-monocoque literally means half a single shell.
Here, Internal braces as well as the skin itself carry the stress. The vertical
structural Members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The
heavier vertical Members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated
loads. These members Are also found at points where fittings are used to
attach other units, such as theWings and stabilizers.

 Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend
Across several points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other
Longitudinal members known as stringers. Stringers are more numerous and
Lightweight than longerons. The stringers are smaller and lighter than
longerons And serve as fill-ins.They have some rigidity but are chiefly used
for giving shape and for Attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons
hold the bulkheads and formers.

 The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. All these joins together to
form a Rigid fuselage framework. Stringers and longerons prevent tension
and Compression stresses from bending the fuselage. The skin is attached to
the Longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members and carries part of
the load.

24
Fuselage Diameter =1.559165 m

Radius =1.559165/2 (m)

Radius =0.7795825 (m)

Area =𝜋𝑟2 (m2)

Area =1.909299399 (m2)

(Area / Length)= thickness(b)

(1.909299399/5.45)=0.35

Thickness (b) = 0.3503

Area of Stringers=Area/16
=1.909299/16
(AS) =0.11933121

B1=AS+(b*b/6)*2(2+(Y2/Y1))

B1=0.11933121+2(0.3503*0.306247/6)*(2+(0.894/1.192))
B1= 0.21767 m2

B2=0.11933121+ 2(0.3503*0.306247/6)*(2+(0.596/0.894))
B2= 0.21469 m2

B3=0.11933121+2(0.3503*0.306247/6)*(2+(0.298/0.596))
B3= 0.20873 m2

B4=0.11933121+2(0.3503*0.306247/6)*(2+(0))
B4= 0.19085 m2

25
4.3 FUSELAGE STRESS ANALYSIS:

Figure 4.3: Fuselage Layout

Σ=(Mx*y)/Ixx(N/m2)

Ixx= ⅀ Ai yi

Ixx = (4*0.21767*0.2982) + (4*0.21469*0.5962) + (4*0.20873*0.8942) +

(4*0.190*1.1922)

Ixx = (2.134351) (m4)

Σ = (1.0121060x106xy)/2.134351

=474198.5*y (N/m2)

26
 Table 4.1: Fuselage stress value table.

Stringers Y(m) σz (Pa)

1 0.298 141311.1
2,16 0.596 282622.3
3,15 0.894 423933.5
4,14 4.192 565244.6
5,13 0 0
6,12 -1.192 -565245
7,11 -0.894 -423933
8,10 -0.596 -282622
9 -0.298 -141311

4.4 FUSELAGE SHEAR FLOW:

σz= (-v/ Ixx ) ⅀ Aiyi + q0(N/m2)

The above equation is for shearflow in open section. So we make a cut on
one of the skin panels and calculate the shearflow values for open section.
The fuselage is subjected to a vertical shear load of 100kN applied at a
distance of 0.4m from the vertical axis of symmetry as shown in below figure to
calculate the shear flow.

4.4.1 OPEN SECTION:

27
Q = - (100x10^3/2.134351) ⅀ Ai yi + q0 (N/m)

= -46852.6 ⅀ Ai yi + q0

Q12= (-46852.6x0)

Q12=0 (N/m)

Q23= (-46852.6x0.18251x0.894) +0

Q23=-7644.7 (N/m)

Q34= (-46852.6x0.596x0.19145) -7644.7

Q34=-12991 (N/m)

Q45= (-46852.6x0.15569x0.298) -12991

Q45=-15165 (N/m)

Q56= -15165(N/m)

Q67= (-46852.6x0.15569x-0.298) -15165

Q67=-12991 (N/m)

Q78= (-46852.6x0.19145x-0.596) -12991

Q78=-7644.7 (N/m)

Q89= (-46852.6x0.18251x-0.894) -7644.7

Q89=0 (N/m)

Q1, 16= (-46852.6x0.17953x1.192) +0

Q1, 16= -10026 (N/m)

Q16, 15= (-46852.6x0.18251x0.894) -10026

28
Q16, 15= -17671 (N/m)

Q15, 14= (-46852.6x0.19145x0.596) -17671

Q15, 14=-23017 (N/m)

Q14, 13= (-46852.6x0.15569x0.298) -23017

Q14, 13= -25191(N/m)

Q13, 12= -25191(N/m)

Q12, 11= (-46852.6x0.15569x-0.298) -25191

Q12, 11= -23017 (N/m)

Q11, 10= (-46852.6x0.19145x-0.596) -23017

Q11, 10= -17671 (N/m)

Q10, 9= (-46852.6x0.18251x-0.894) -17671

Q10, 9=-10026 (N/m)

Table 4.2: Shear Flow Values for open Section.

Skin Panel Boom B (m2) Y(m) q0p

(N/m)
1 2 - - - 0
2 3 2 0.18251 0.894 -
7644.66
3 4 3 0.19145 0.596 -
12990.7
4 5 4 0.155691 0.298 -
15164.5
5 6 5 - 0 -
15164.5

29
 6 7 6 0.155691 -0.298 -
12990.7
7 8 7 0.19144 -0.596 -
7644.66
8 9 8 0.18251 -0.894 -
0.00813
1 16 1 0.17953 1.192 -1006.5
16 15 16 0.18251 0.894 -
17671.1
15 14 15 0.19145 0.596 -
23017.2
14 13 14 0.155691 0.298 -25191
13 12 13 - 0 -25191
12 11 12 0.155691 -0.298 -
23017.2
11 10 11 0.19145 -0.596 -
17671.1
10 9 10 0.18251 -0.894 -
10026.5

The shear flow q0 in the fuselage panel is now found bytaking moment about

Centre C,

Af = π x 1.1922
= 4.46557 m2

A1,2 = A2,3 = A16,1

= 4.46557/16
=0.2791 m2

Therefore,

0.4x100x10^3= 2x 0.2791x{(7644.66+12990.7+15164.5)x2}-2x

(10026.5+17671.1+23017.2+25191)}+8.93115 q0

Q0= 9491.95 (counter-clockwise)

We obtain a complete shear flow distribution over the fuselage,

30
4.4.2 CLOSED SECTION:

Q= - (100x10^3/2.134351) ⅀ Ai yi + q0 (N/m)
= -46852.6 ⅀ Ai yi + q0

Q12=-9492 (N/m)

Q23= (-46852.6x0.18251x0.894) -9492

Q23=-17137.61 (N/m)

Q34= (-46852.6x0.596x0.19145) -17137.61

Q34=-22482.68 (N/m)

Q45= (-46852.6x0.15569x0.298) -22482.68

Q45=-24656.45 (N/m)

Q56= -24656.45(N/m)

Q67= (-46852.6x0.15569x-0.298) -24656.45

Q67=-22482.68 (N/m)

Q78= (-46852.6x0.19145x-0.596) -22482.68

Q78=-17136.61 (N/m)

Q89= (-46852.6x0.18251x-0.894) -17136.61

Q89=-9491.951 (N/m)

Q1, 16= (-46852.6x0.17953x1.192) -9491.951

Q1, 16= 534.49416 (N/m)

Q16, 15= (-46852.6x0.18251x0.894) +534.49416

Q16, 15= 8179.149 (N/m)

31
Q15, 14= (-46852.6x0.19145x0.596) +8179.149

Q15, 14=13525.227 (N/m)

Q14, 13= (-46852.6x0.15569x0.298) +13525.227

Q14, 13= 15698.997 (N/m)

Q13, 12= 15698.997 (N/m)

Q12, 11= (-46852.6x0.15569x-0.298) +15698.997

Q12, 11= 13525.227 (N/m)

Q11, 10= (-46852.6x0.19145x-0.596) +13525.227

Q11, 10= 8179.149(N/m)

Q10, 9= (-46852.6x0.18251x-0.894) +8179.149

Q10, 9=534.49416 (N/m)

From the above table we get,

Q8, 9= q1, 2 =-9491.951 (N/m)

Q7, 8= q2, 3 =-17136.606 (N/m)

Q6, 7= q3, 4 =-22482.684 (N/m)

Q5, 6= q4, 5 =-24656.454 (N/m)

Q9, 10= q16, 1 =534.494155 (N/m)

Q10, 11= q15, 16 =8179.14897 (N/m)

Q11, 12= q14, 15 =13525.2274 (N/m)

Q12, 13= q13, 14 =15698.9968 (N/m)

32
33
 CHAPTER-5
DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES
5.1 MANEUVERING LOADS ON AIRCRAFT CONTROL
SURFACES:
Aircraft load estimation combines aerodynamics, structures, and weights.

Load estimation remains a critical area because an error or faulty assumption will

make the aircraft too heavy or will result in structural failure when real loads are

encountered in flight.

Loads acting on the aircraft can be classified according to the following load

categories:

5.2 TYPES OF LOADS

Air Loads:

Maneuver Gust, Control deflection, Component interaction and Buffet.

Landing:

Vertical load factor, Spin up, spring back, Crabbed, One wheel, Arrested and

Braking.

Inertia Loads:

Acceleration, Rotation, Dynamic, Vibration and Flutter.

Power Plants Loads:

Thrust, Torque, Gyroscope, Vibration and Duct pressure.

Tafe Off Loads:

Catapult

Aborted

34
Taxi:Bumps

Turning

Other Loads:

Towing

Jacking

Pressurization

Bird strike

Crash

Limit Load:

The largest load the aircraft is expected to encounter without any permanent

deformation is known as limit load or applied load.

Design Load:

To provide a margin of safety, the aircraft structure is always designed to

withstand higher load than the limit load. The highest load the aircraft is designed

to withstand without breaking is the design or ultimate load.

Load Sources:

There are generally two cases of the load sources:

1. Maneuverability cases

2. Environment cases

Maneuverability Cases:

In this the loads which ac on the aircraft is due to the pilot’s action.

Environment Cases:

In this the loads are imposed by the environment on the aircraft where it operates.

35
E.g. turbulence loads, kinetic heading loads, bird strike etc.

5.3 MANEUVER LOADS:

The greatest air loads on an airplane usually come from the generation of lift

during high-g maneuvers. Aircraft load factor (n) expresses the maneuvering of an

aircraft as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity.

5.3.1 Maneuvering Loads on Elevator:

Operation of the control surfaces produces air loads in several ways. The greatest
impact is in the effect of the elevator of the elevator on angle of attack and hence
the load factor.

Deflection of control surfaces produces additional loads directly upon the wing.
Maneuver speed or pull up speed (Vp), is the maximum speed at which the pilot
can fully deflect the control without damaging either the airframe or the control
themselves.
The loading distribution of a horizontal tail consisting of a fixed stabilizer
and a moving elevator. Under some combinations of angle of attack and elevator
position the stabilizer and elevator will actually have loads n the opposite
directions.
For design purposes, the elevator load is assumed to equal 40% of the total
required tail load but in the opposition direction. The distributed load shown on the
stabilizer must then be equal 140% of the tail load. The smoothest pull up possible,
with a moderate load factor, will deliver the greatest gain in the altitude and will
result in better overall performance.
The normal stall entered from straight level flight or an un-accelerated
straight climb, will not produce added load factors beyond the IG of straight and
level flight. In this event recovery is affected by snapping the elevator control

36
forward, negative load factors, those which impose a down load on the wings. A
recovery from stall is made by dividing only to crushing or design maneuvering
airspeed, with a gradual pull up as soon as the airspeed is safely above stalling, can
be affected with the load factor not to exceed 2 or 2.5.
5.3.2 Maneuvering Loads on Ailerons:

In the level turning flight, the lift of the wing is canted so that the horizontal
component of the lift exerts the centripetal force to turn the total lift on the wing in
‘n’ times the aircraft weight W.

n- load factor

Turn rate (Ѱ) = g*(n2)

0.5/V = 68.76 ̊/ second

Instantaneous Turn Rate:

If the aircraft is allowed to slow down during the turn which is known as
instantaneous turn, the load factor ‘n’ will be limited only by the maximum lift
coefficient or structural strength of the aircraft.

Sustained Turn Rate:

In a sustained turn rate, the aircraft is not permitted to slow down or lose

altitude during the turn. In a sustained turn the thrust must equal load factor ‘n’

times the weight. Thus the maximum load factor for sustained turn can be

expressed as the product of the thrust of the thrust to weight and lift to drag ratios,

assuming that the thrust axis is approximately aligned with the flight directions.

5.3.3 Maneuvering Loads on Rudder:

In flight yaw control is provided by the rudder and the directional stability

by vertical stabilizer. The vertical stabilizer and the rudder must be capable of

37
generating sufficient yawing moments to maintain directional control of the

aircraft. The rudder deflection, necessary to achieve these yawing moments and

the resulting sideslip angles place significant aerodynamic loads on the rudder and

on the vertical stabilizer.

Both are designed to sustain in several lateral loading conditions leading to

the required level of structural strength.

With the aircraft in un-accelerated and stabilized straight flight, the rudder is

suddenly displaced to the maximum available deflection at the current airspeed.

5.4 STABILIZER
5.4.1 Horizontal Stabilizer:

The horizontal tail of the aircraft is conventional and consists of a fixed tail

box. The horizontal stabilizer is usually a two spar structure consisting of a Centre

structural box section and two outer sections. The stabilizer assembly is

interchangeable (symmetrical airfoil section) as a unit at the fuselage attach points

and the outer sections are interchangeable at the attachment to the center box.

The two basic horizontal stabilizer box constructions for modern transports :

1. Box constructions with spars, closer light rib spacing (usually less than 10

inches) and surface (may be tapered skins) without stringer reinforcement. The

feature of this design is the low manufacturing cost and high torsional stiffness

require by the flutter analysis.

2. Box construction with spar stronger ribs and surface skins with stringer

reinforcements (skin-stringer or integrally stiffened panels) is a lighter weight.

38
5.4.2 Vertical Stabilizer:

The structural design of the vertical stabilizer is essentially the same as for

the horizontal stabilizer is essentially the same as for horizontal stabilizers. The

vertical stabilizer box is a two or multi spar structure (general aviation airplanes

usually use single spar design) with cover panels (with or without ribs). The root of

the box is terminated at the aft fuselage conjuncture with fittings or splices.

5.5 WING FUEL TANKS:

In addition to providing the required strength and stiffness, the structural box

almost always has to provide fuel space. Integral tanks, as opposed to separate

internally supported types, are preferred since their use enables the maximum

advantage to be taken of the available volume. Integrally machined or moulded

constructions, which use a small amount of large components, are obviously an

advantage since sealing is reduced to a minimum. The major problem occurs at

tank end ribs, particularly in the corners of the spar web and skins, and at lower

surface access panels. The corner difficulty is overcome by using special

“suitcase” corner fittings.

Access panels should be large enough for a person to get through so that the

inside can be inspected and resealed if necessary. On shallow section wings, the

access has to be in the lower surface so that the operator can work in an acceptable

way even if the depth is insufficient to climb in completely. Apart from the sealing

problems, lower surface access panels are in what is primarily a tension skin and so

introduce stress concentrations in an area where crack propagation is a major

consideration. The access panels are arranged in a span-wise line so the edge

39
reinforcing can be continuous and minimum stress concentration due to the
cutouts. Access panels are often designed to carry only shear and pressure loads,
the

wing bending being reacted by the edge reinforcing members. A deep wing can

avoid these problems by using upper surface access panels but this is not
apreferred aerodynamic solution.

5.6 AUXILIARY SURFACES:

The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to

that of the wing but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part

due to the need to provide hinges or supports. The latter implies that each auxiliary

surface is a well-defined.

5.6.1 Hinged Control Surfaces:

Conventional training edge control surfaces are almost invariably supported

by a number of discrete hinges, although continuous, piano type, hinges may be

used for secondary tabs. To some degree the number and location of the discrete

hinges depends upon the length of the control. The major points to be considered

are:

The bending distortion of the control relative to the fixed surface must

be limited so that the nose of the control does mot fouls the fixed

shroud.

The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending

moments should be equalized as far as is possible.

Structural failure of a single hinge should be tolerated unless each

hinge is of fail-safe design and can tolerate cracking one load path.

40
These points suggest the use of a relatively large number of discrete hinges

but there are difficulties associated with this solution there are the obvious loads

likely to be induced in the control by the distortion under load of the main surface

to which it is attached may be significant.

These problems do not arise if only two hinge points are used as any span-wise

distortion or misalignment can be accommodated by designing one of the hinges so

that it can rotate about a vertical axis. When more than two hinges are used the

„floating_ hinge concept cannot fully overcome the problems.

5.6.2 Pivoted Control Surfaces:

In certain high-performance aircraft, the whole of a stabilizing or control

surface on one side of the aircraft may be pivot about a point on its root chord.

Clearly in this case, the structural considerations are dominated by the need to

react all the forces and moments at the pivot and operating points. Thus the

structural layout may consist of an integral root rib or pivot or stub spar

arrangement to which is attached a number of shear webs fanning out towards the

extremities of the surface, possibly in conjunction with full depth honeycomb.

High skin shear loading is inevitable due to the need to bring the loads to the two

concentrated points. Shear loads due to torsion may be limited by locating the

operating point on the root rib some distance away from the pivot.

5.7 STABILITY:
Stability is the tendency of a system, when disturbed from an equilibrium

condition, to return to that condition. The first is static stability, the initial

tendency or response of a system when it is disturbed from equilibrium. If the

41
initial response of the system when disturbed is to move back toward equilibrium,

then the system is said to have positive static stability. Figure (a) illustrates this

situation for a simple system. When the ball is displaced from the bottom of the

depression, forces resulting from the ball’s weight and the sloped sides of the

depression tend to move described as statically stable.

Figure 5.1: Simple Systems with Positive, Negative, and Neutral Static Stability

5.7.1 Dynamic Stability:

The second type of stability which a stable system must have is dynamic

stability. Dynamic stability refers to the response of the system over time. Figure

42
6.5 (a) shows the time history of a system which has positive dynamic stability.

Note that the system also has positive static stability, because its initial tendency

when displaced from the zero displacement or equilibrium axis is to move back

toward that axis. As the system reaches equilibrium, the forces and/or moments

which move it there also generate momentum which causes it to overshoot or go

beyond the equilibrium condition. This in turn generates forces which, because the

system is statically stable, tend to return it to equilibrium again. These restoring

forces overcome the momentum of the overshoot and generate momentum toward

equilibrium, which causes another overshoot when equilibrium is reached, and so

on. This process of moving toward equilibrium, overshooting, then moving toward

equilibrium again is called an oscillation. If the time history of the oscillation is

such that the magnitude of each successive overshoot of equilibrium is smaller, as

in Figure (a), so that over time the system gets closer to equilibrium, then the

system is said to have positive dynamic stability. Note that the second graph in

Figure 6.5 (a) shows a system which has such strong dynamic stability that it does
not oscillate but just moves slowly but surely to equilibrium

43
.(b)Neutral Dynamic Stabilityz

c) Negative Dynamic Stability

Time Histories of Systems with Positive, Neutral, and Negative Dynamic

44
The springs and shock absorbers on an automobile are familiar examples of

systems with positive static and dynamic stability. When the shock absorbers are

new, the system does not oscillate when the car hits a bump. The system is said to

be highly damped. As the shock absorbers wear out, the car begins to oscillate

when it hits a bump, and the oscillations get worse and take longer to die out as the

shock absorbers get more worn out. The system is then said to be lightly damped.

A system which has positive static stability but no damping at all continues

to oscillate without ever decreasing the magnitude or amplitude of the oscillation.

It is said to have neutral dynamic stability because over time the system does not

get any closer to or farther from equilibrium. The time history of a system with

positive static stability but neutral dynamic stability is shown on the left-hand

graph of Figure 5.2(b). On the right side of Figure 5.2(b) is a time history of a

system with neutral static and dynamic stability. When displaced from its intial

condition, it is still in equilibrium, like the ball on the flat surface, so it has no

tendency to return to the zero-displacement condition.

The time histories in Figure 5.2(c) are for systems with negative dynamic

stability. The one on the left has negative static stability as well, so it initially

moves away from equilibrium and keeps going. The time history on the right is for

a system which is statically stable, so it initially moves toward equilibrium, but the

amplitude of each overshoot is greater than the previous one. Over time, the system

gets further and further from equilibrium, even though it moves through
equilibrium twice during each complete oscillation.

45
 CHAPTER-6
DESIGN OF WING-ROOT ATTATCHMENT
1 INTRODUCTION

After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of

the aircraft to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities

are in general, a function of the thickness of the airfoil section that is used in the

wing structure. The first step towards designing the wing is the thickness

estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn depends on the critical mach number

of the airfoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach number corresponding to the

wing section. The critical Mach number can well be delayed by the use of an

appropriate Sweepback angle to the wing structure.

6.2 GEOMETRY OF THE WING:

The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the Wing

loading (W/S), And Sweepback angle at quarter chord (Λqc). The Take-off Weight

that was estimated in the previous analysis is used to find the Aspect Ratio (b2/S).

The value of S also enables us to calculate the Taper ratio (λ)

Wing geometry is described by

a. Plan-form shape

b. Aspect ratio (which is already obtained from comparative graphs)

c. Wing sweep

d. Taper ratio

e. Aerofoil shape and thickness along the span

46
f. Geometric twist (change in aerofoil chord incidence angle along the span).

The maximum design velocity is 2270.5 Km/Hr. We choose to use a swept

wing.

Initially the primary aerodynamics data was obtained from the design data

sheet. The parameters known include:

Wing span, b = 11.04 m

Wing Area, S = 39.7 m2

Aspect ratio, AR = b2

/S = 3.06505

Taper Ratio λ = 0.206 (from Adp-I)

We know that taper ratio,

λ = Ct = 0.206Cr

Where,

Ct is the root chord

Cr is the tip chord

Ct =0.206 Cr

Also,

S/2 = b/2 (Ct + Cr)/2

39.7/2

= 11.04/2 ((0.206 Cr + Cr) / 2)

Hence

Cr = 5.96m

Also Ct = 1.22m

47
The leading edge sweep angle 45°. Hence we get the plan form as shown

Figure 6.1: Geometry of the Wing

6.3 DETERMINATION OF THE MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD:

Mean chord

= {(2/3)*Cr (1+λ+ λ2

)}/ (1+λ)

= 4.11559 m

Distance of the mean chord = {b*(1+2 λ)}/{6*(1+λ)}

From the aircraft centre line = 2.1543 m

Mean Aerodynamic centre = ac=c/4

=4.11559/4

= 1.0288975 m

48
Figure 6.2: Mean aerodynamic chord

49
 CHAPTER 7
LANDING GEAR DESIGN

7.1 INTRODUCTION:
Every aircraft maintained in today’s Aerospace Company is equipped with a
landing gear system. Most Aerospace company aircraft also use arresting and
catapult gear. The landing gear is that portion of the aircraft that supports the
weight of the aircraft while it is on the ground. The landing gear contains
components that are necessary for taking off and landing the aircraft safely. Some
of these components are landing gear struts that absorb landing and taxiing shocks;
brakes that are used to stop and, in some cases, steer the aircraft; nose wheel
steering for steering the aircraft; and in some cases, nose catapult components that
provide the aircraft with carrier deck takeoff capabilities.

7.1.1 Tricycle-Type Landing Gear

The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing
gear. It is comprised of main gear and nose gear. Tricycle-type landing gear is used
on large and small aircraft with the following benefits:

1. Allows more forceful application of the brakes without nosing over when
braking, which enables higher landing speeds.

2. Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing and
ground maneuvering.

3. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the aircraft center of gravity is

forward of the main gear, forces acting on the center of gravity tend to keep the
aircraft moving forward rather than looping, such as with a tail wheel-type landing.

7.1.2 Nose Landing Gear

The nose landing gear (NLG) hydraulically retracts forward into a wheel well
under the cockpit and provides a steering system which is automatically activated

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when the wheel is on the ground. During taxing the steering system allowes 15
degrees of turn while 45 degrees are possible to maneuver the aircraft

The NLG incorporates a small taxi light, which is mounted on the actuator strut,
above the larger landing light, and has two gear doors. The larger forward gear
door is operated hydraulically and opens only during extension and retraction. On
the ground it can be opened manually for servicing. The smaller aft door is linked
to the NLG´s leg. It is pushed open when the gear is lowered and pulled into it´s
closed position when the gear is retracted.

7.1.3 Main Landing Gear

The main landing gear ( MLG) also retracts forward, fullfilling a 90 degrees turn to
lie flat in the wheel wells. They are equipped with carbon heat-sink type brakes by
Bendix and an anti-skid system by Hydro-Aire. The brake system features an
emergency system that provides hydraulic accumulator pressure to power the
brakes in case of a malfunction or loss of the normal hydraulic system. When the
emergency system is active the anti-skid system is not available.

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Each MLG has three doors. The two forward doors are operated hydraulically and
open only during extension and retraction but can be opened manually for
maintenance works on the ground. The aft door is mechanically linked to the strut
and remains open when the MLG is extended
7.1.4 Fuel Tank:
The volume of the fuel tank is,

Volume of fuel=weight of fuel/density of fuel

The density of fuel is taken as 800Kg/m3

V = (16257.47326) / 800

V = 20.32184157m3

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7.2 TIRE SELECTION
7.2.1 Tire Sizing

The “wheel” is the circular metal object upon which the rubber “tire” is
mounted.The “brake” inside the wheel slows the aircraft by increasing the rooling
friction. however,the term “wheel” is frequently used to mean the entire wheel
/brake/tire assembly.

The tire are sized to carry the weight of the aircraft. typically the main tires
carryabout 90% of the total aircraft weight. Nose tires carry only about 10% of the
static loadbut experience higher dynamic loads during landing.

The early conceptual design, the engineer can copy the tires size of a similar
designor use a statistical approach. rapidly estimation main tire sizes.These
calculated values for diameter and width should be increased about 30% if the
aircraft is to operate from rough unpaved runway.Nose tires can be assumed to be
about 60-100% size of the main tires. The front tire of a bicycle or quadricycle
gear aircraft are usually the same size as the main tires

Table 7.1: Statistical Tire Sizing

Diameter Width
A B A B
Noitiva larneg 1.51 0.349 0.7150 0.312
Business twin 2.69 0.251 1.710 0.216
Tranport/bomber 1.63 0.315 0.1043 0.480
Jet fighter/trainer 1.59 0.302 0.0980 0.467

Main wheel diameter or width(in) =AxWwB

Nose wheel diameter or width(in) = AxWw B
Where, WwB – Weight on wheel
WL= WT.O – 0.8Wf
WL = 31359.26993 – (0.8x16257.47326)
WL= 18353.29132 kg

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7.2.2 Nose Wheel Calculation:

Load taken by each wheel = (10%W L)/(Number of wheel)

WL=(0.1x18353.29132x9.81)/(1)

WL= 18004.57879 N (4047.59031691157 lbs)

Nose wheel diameter = AxWwB

Nose wheel diameter = 1.59x(4047.590317)0.302

Nose wheel diameter = 19.5330689 in(0.49613995006 m)

Nose wheel width = AxWWB

Nosewheel width = 0.0980x(4047.5903167)0.467

Nose wheel width = 4.740093in(0.12983625m)

Pressure = 200psi = 14.28x105N/m2

AP = (WW)/P

AP = (18004.57879)/(14.28x105)

AP= 0.012608248m2

AP = [2.3√ (WxD) ]x[ (D/2) – RT ]

0.01260824 = [2.3√ (0.1298x0.49613) ]x[ (0.496139/2) – RT ]

RT = 0.467163371m

Runway loading :

Runway loading = (load on each wheel)/(Area of contact)

Runway loadingNLG = (load on each wheel)/APN

Runway loadingNLG = (18004.57879)/(0.012608248)

Runway loading NGL=1.428x106N/M2

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7.2.3 Main wheel :

Load taken by each wheel = (90%WL)/(Number of wheel)

WL = (0.9x18353.29132x9.81)/(2)

WL = 81020.60453N (18214.156420 lbs)

Main wheel diameter = AxWwB

Main wheel diameter = 1.59x(18214.156420)0.302

Main wheel diameter =30.76384828in(0.781401746312m)

Main wheel width = AxW wB

Main wheel width = 0.0980x(18214.156420)0.467

Main wheel width = 9.568351in(0.24303609m)

Pressure = 200psi = 14.28x105N/m2

AP = (WW)/P

AP = (81020.60453)/(14.28x105)

AP = 0 .056737118m2

AP = [2.3√ (W*D) ]*[ (D/2) – RT ]

0.1157= [2.3√ (0.4*1.139) ]*[ (1.139/2) – RT ]

RT = 0.273873854m

Runway loading :

Runway loading = (load on each wheel)/(Area of contact)

Runway loadingMLG = (load on each wheel)/APM

Runway loadingMLG = (81020.60453)/(0.05673118)

Runway loadingMLG = 1.428x106N/m2

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Nominal working stress on concrate runway(σ) =2.75MN/m2

concrete elastic modulus(E) = 2.75Gpa

σ/E = (2.75x106)/(27.5x109)

σ/E = 1x10-4

working stress = 1.071x106N/m2

=1.428x106<2.75x106

Hence satisfied

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 CHAPTER 8
PREPARATION OF DETAILED REPORT WITH CAD
DRAWINGS
8.1 INTRODUCTION:
The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which aircraft are
designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and manufacturer
demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc. For some types of
aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities. This
article deals with powered aircraft such as airplanes.Aircraft design is a
compromise between many competing factors and constraints and accounts for
existing designs and market requirements to produce the best aircraft.

8.1.1 Design Constraints:

Purpose

The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners

are designed for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel

efficiency.

Aircraft regulations

Another important factor that influences the design of the aircraft are the

regulations put forth by national aviation airworthiness authorities.

Airports may also impose limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum wingspan

allowed for a conventional aircraft is 80 m to prevent collisions between aircraft

while taxiing.

Financial factors and market

Budget limitations, market requirements and competition set constraints on the

design process and comprise the non-technical influences on aircraft design along

57
with environmental factors. Competition leads to companies striving for better
efficiency in the design without compromising performance and incorporating new
techniques and technology.

Design optimization

Aircraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with consideration of all
the constraints on their design. Historically design teams used to be small, usually
headed by a Chief Designer who knows all the design requirements and objectives
and coordinated the team accordingly. As time progressed, the complexity of
military and airline aircraft also grew. Modern military and airline design projects
are of such a large scale that every design aspect is tackled by different teams and
then brought together. In general aviation a large number of light aircraft are
designed and built by amateur hobbyists and enthusiasts.

Computer-aided design of aircraft

In the early years of aircraft design, designers generally used analytical theory to
do the various engineering calculations that go into the design process along with a
lot of experimentation. These calculations were labour-intensive and time-
consuming. In the 1940s, several engineers started looking for ways to automate
and simplify the calculation process and many relations and semi-empirical
formulas were developed. Even after simplification, the calculations continued to
be extensive. With the invention of the computer, engineers realized that a majority
of the calculations could be automated, but the lack of design visualization and the
huge amount of experimentation involved kept the field of aircraft design stagnant.
With the rise of programming languages, engineers could now write programs that
were tailored to design an aircraft. Originally this was done with mainframe
computers and used low-level programming languages that required the user to be
fluent in the language and know the architecture of the computer. With the
introduction of personal computers, design programs began employing a more
user-friendly approach

8.2 DESIGN ASPECTS

The main aspects of aircraft design are:
1. Aerodynamics
2. Propulsion
3. Controls
4. Mass

58
5. Structure
All aircraft designs involve compromises of these factors to achieve the design
mission.

Wing design
The wings of a fixed wing aircraft provide the necessary lift for take-off and cruise
flight. Wing geometry affects every aspect of an aircraft’s flight. The wing area
will usually be dictated by aircraft performance requirements (e.g. field length) but
the overall shape of the planform and other detail aspects may be influenced by
wing layout factors. The wing can be mounted to the fuselage in high, low and
middle positions. The wing design depends on many parameters such as selection
of aspect ratio, taper ratio, sweepback angle, thickness ratio, section profile,
washout and dihedral. The cross-sectional shape of the wing is its airfoil. The
construction of the wing starts with the rib which defines the airfoil shape. Ribs
can be made of wood, metal, plastic or even composites.

Fuselage
The fuselage is the part of the aircraft that contains the cockpit, passenger cabin .

Propulsion
Aircraft propulsion may be achieved by specially designed aircraft engines,
adapted auto, motorcycle or snowmobile engines, electric engines or even human
muscle power. The main parameters of engine design are
• Maximum engine thrust available
• Fuel consumption
• Engine mass
• Engine geometry
The thrust provided by the engine must balance the drag at cruise speed and be
greater than the drag to allow acceleration. The engine requirement varies with the
type of aircraft. For instance, commercial airliners spend more time in cruise speed
and need more engine efficiency. High-performance fighter jets need very high
acceleration and therefore have very high thrust requirements.

Weight
The weight of the aircraft is the common factor that links all aspects of aircraft
design such as aerodynamics, structure, and propulsion together. An aircraft's
weight is derived from various factors such as empty weight, payload, useful load,
etc. The various weights are used to then calculate the center of mass of the entire
aircraft. The center of mass must fit within the established limits set by the
manufacturer.

59
Structure
The aircraft structure focuses not only on strength, stiffness, durability (fatigue),
fracture toughness, stability, but also on fail-safety, corrosion resistance,
maintainability and ease of manufacturing. The structure must be able to withstand
the stresses caused by cabin pressurization, if fitted, turbulence and engine or rotor
vibrations.

8.3 DESIGN PROCESS AND SIMULATION

The design of any aircraft starts out in three phases Conceptual Design

FRONT VIEW

SIDE VIEW

60
 TOP VIEW

8.4 conceptual design

Steps involved in conceptual design,

 Comprehensive market survey.

 Studies on operating conditions for the airplane to be designed and on
relevant design requirements (specified by Airworthiness Authorities).
 Evaluation of similar existing designs and Studies on possibilities of
introducing new concepts.

61
  Collection of data on relevant power plants.
 Laying down PRELIMINARY SPECIFICATIONS.

It depends on what are the major factors for designing the aircraft.

1. Power plant location

2. Selection of engine

3. Wing selection

8.4 Preliminary design phase

The design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase is then tweaked
and remodeled to fit into the design parameters. In this phase, wind tunnel testing
and computational fluid dynamic calculations of the flow field around the aircraft
are done. Major structural and control analysis is also carried out in this phase.
Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any are corrected and the final
design is drawn and finalized. Then after the finalization of the design lies the key
decision with the manufacturer or individual designing it whether to actually go
ahead with the production of the aircraft. At this point several designs, though
perfectly capable of flight and performance, might have been opted out of
production due to their being economically nonviable.

8.5 Detail design phase

This phase simply deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft to be
manufactured. It determines the number, design and location of ribs, spars, sections
and other structural elements All aerodynamic, structural, propulsion, control and
performance aspects have already been covered in the preliminary design phase
and only the manufacturing remains. Flight simulators for aircraft are also
developed at this stage

62
 CONCLUSION
The preliminary design of a 450 seated commercial passenger aircraft
is done and the various design considerations and performance parameters
required are calculated and found out. The obtained design values are not
necessarily a definite reflection of the airplane's true and conceptualized design,
but the basic outlay of development has been obtained.

The final design stays true to the desired considerations of a long range
aircraft that can provide high fuel efficiency as well. There is no ideal design as
such and continuous changes, improvements and innovations serve to make the
design as ideal as possible, while always looking to achieve optimum
performance.

The challenges we faced at various phases of the project made clear the
fact that experience plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft or
aircraft component. A lot of effort has been put into this project and as much as
we have worked, we have learnt in turn.

63
 REFERENCE

1. Ira h. Abbott, Albert e. Von Doenhoff, and Louis S. Stivers,

Jr,”Summary of Airfoil Data”, National advisory committee for
aeronautics, 1947.

2. John T.Lowry., “Performance of Light Aircraft”, American

institute of aeronautics and astronautics, Washington.D.C,
1935.

3. Dr.lng.S.F.Hoerner, ”Fluid –Dynamic Drag”, Hoerner fluid dynamics.

1992.

4. J.B. Russell, “Performance and Stability of Aircraft”. ISBN 0-

340-63170-8. Arnold 1996.

5. Mark D. Ardema, Mark C. Chambers, Anthony P. Patron, Andrew

S. Hahn, Hirokazu Miura, and Mark D. Moore, “Analytical
Fuselage and Wing Weight Estimation of Transport
Aircraft”,1996.

6. http://www.worldofkrauss.com/
7. http://faculty.dwc.edu/sadraey/V-n%20diagram.pdf
8. http://www.cta-dlr2009.ita.br/Proceedings/PDF/60272.pdf
9. http://www.emteq.com/aircraft-structural-analysis-modifications.php
10. http://www.biznet.org.au/member.asp?id=1094&pid=184
11. http://www.cp.berkeley.edu/cds_ucb/UCB-05100.pdf
12. http://www.aer.ita.br/~bmattos/download/fuselagem-design.pdf
http://adg.stanford.edu/aa241/fuselayout/sstfuse.html

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