energies

Article
A General Transformer Evaluation Method
for Common-Mode Noise Behavior
Kaining Fu 1,2 , Wei Chen 1,2, * and Subin Lin 1,2
1 College of Electrical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350001, China; [email protected] (K.F.);
[email protected] (S.L.)
2 Fujian Key Laboratory of New Energy Generation and Power Conversion, Fuzhou 350108, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-138-6063-8957




Received: 29 April 2019; Accepted: 20 May 2019; Published: 23 May 2019


Abstract: In isolated power converters, the transformer is a key part of voltage transformation
and isolation. Since common-mode (CM) noise is rather difficult to suppress compared with
different-mode (DM) noise, more and more scholars are paying attention to the characteristics of
CM noise, especially in high-frequency CM noise behaviors. CM noise can be further divided into
conducted CM noise and radiated CM noise, and the main focus of this paper is on conducted CM noise.
The CM coupling capacitance of the transformer is one of the main contributors of CM noise, which has
been verified in many previous studies. Hence, eliminating the CM noise in a transformer coupling
path can significantly lower the whole CM noise level of the converter. Professional conducted
electromagnetic interference (EMI) testing instruments are quite expensive. In this paper, a general
transformer evaluation technique for CM noise behavior is proposed. Only a signal generator and
oscilloscope can achieve transformer CM noise behavior evaluation. PCB planar flyback transformers
are designed, and a series of noise spectrums and voltage waveforms can verify the effectiveness
of the proposed transformer evaluation method. The flyback adapter porotype can pass the EMI
standard limited line EN55022 class B by the proposed evaluation method.

Keywords: CM noise; transformer; interwinding capacitance; EMI; evaluation method

1. Introduction
Switch-mode power supplies (SMPSs) have been widely used in both high power applications
and low power applications. The flyback converter is one of the most commonly used topologies,
especially in low power isolated converters such as mobile phone chargers, laptop power adapters,
etc. Higher switching frequency and higher power density are the future development tendencies
for isolated power converters, in order to achieve lower cost and smaller volume size. The efficiency,
power density, and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) are the key factors for power supplies,
but they contradict each other. Since a higher switching frequency is helpful to achieve higher power
density, it also brings many challenges in electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues. Figure 1 shows
the propagation paths of electromagnetic interference noise in the isolated power converter.
Generally, EMI noise can be categorized into conduction emission (CE), EMI noise, and radiation
emission (RE) EMI noise. For radiation emission EMI noise, it will radiate electromagnetic energy into
space, which will be received by the antenna. Then, the EMI receiver will display the noise spectrum
of RE EMI noise. For conductive emission EMI noise, it can be further decoupled as different-mode
(DM) noise and common-mode (CM) noise according to its propagation path. For DM noise, it will
flow through L and N lines in the opposite direction. For CM noise, it will flow through L and N
lines in the same direction to ground. The CM noise is harder to be suppressed compared to the DM
noise because of its complex conduction paths influenced by stray inductive parameters and capacitive

Energies 2019, 12, 1984; doi:10.3390/en12101984 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 1984 2 of 21
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

capacitive parameters.
parameters. Besides, theBesides,
generation theand
generation andmechanism
conduction conductionofmechanism
the CM noise of is
the
notCM noise is not
well-known or
well-known orespecially
well-modeled, well-modeled, especially in ranges.
in high-frequency high-frequency ranges. The
The interwinding interwinding
capacitance capacitance
of the transformer of
the transformer and the parasitic capacitance between the drain of primary MOSFET
and the parasitic capacitance between the drain of primary MOSFET and the ground are the main and the ground
are the
CM main
noise CM noisepaths
conduction conduction paths [1]. Eliminating
[1]. Eliminating the CM noise the flowing
CM noise flowingtransformer
through through transformer
coupling
coupling
path path can significantly
can significantly lower thelowerwholetheCM whole
noiseCMlevelnoise level
of the of the converter,
converter, which istohelpful
which is helpful to
pass the
pass the EMI standard limited lines EN55022 class B [2]. Besides, magnetic components,
EMI standard limited lines EN55022 class B [2]. Besides, magnetic components, such as CM chock, such as CM
chock,
DM DMand
chock, chock, and transformer,
transformer, alsoleakage
also exhibit exhibit of
leakage of magnetic
magnetic flux,
flux, which which
will causewill cause near-field
near-field coupling
coupling and worsen the filtering effect of the
and worsen the filtering effect of the EMI filter [3]. EMI filter [3].

Figure
Figure 1. Propagation paths
1. Propagation paths of
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic interference
interference noise
noise in
in an
an isolated
isolated power
power converter.
converter.

A series of CM noise eliminating techniques have been proposed in [4–10], and these techniques
A series of CM noise eliminating techniques have been proposed in [4–10], and these techniques
can be mainly categorized
can be mainly categorizedinto intotwotwotypes:
types:The The first
first is is
to to eliminate
eliminate thetheCMCM noise
noise flowing
flowing through
through the
the parasitic capacitance between the drain of the primary MOSFET
parasitic capacitance between the drain of the primary MOSFET and the ground. For this part of CM and the ground. For this part
of CM ifnoise,
noise, if the heatsink
the heatsink is attached is attached to the primary
to the primary MOSFET, MOSFET,
it will, viait will, via the parasitic
the parasitic capacitance capacitance
between
between
the heatsink and the ground to line impedance stabilization network (LISN) [11]. If the[11].
the heatsink and the ground to line impedance stabilization network (LISN) If the
heatsink is
heatsink is connected to the primary ground, this part of the CM noise
connected to the primary ground, this part of the CM noise will not flow to LISN, it will just circulate will not flow to LISN, it will
just circulate
internally internally
between between side
the primary the primary side and the
and the heatsink. Theheatsink.
second isThe second isthe
to optimize to design
optimize of the
the
design of the transformer in order to attenuate the CM noise flowing
transformer in order to attenuate the CM noise flowing through the coupling capacitance of the through the coupling capacitance
of the transformer.
transformer. ScholarsScholars
have have proposed
proposed many manykinds kinds of noise
of noise cancellationtechniques
cancellation techniques[5–6,12–13].
[5,6,12,13].
Adding Y-cap can make the CM noise flowing through the
Adding Y-cap can make the CM noise flowing through the interwinding capacitance of the interwinding capacitance of the transformer
circulate
transformer internally
circulate instead
internally of being
insteaddetected
of being bydetected
LISN. However, if the capacitance
by LISN. However, of the Y-cap
if the capacitance is
of the
too
Y-caplarge thislarge
is too technique may cause
this technique maylarge
causeleakage currentcurrent
large leakage [4], which[4], is harmful
which to the to
is harmful human body.
the human
Besides, isolated power converters without a Y-cap are the development
body. Besides, isolated power converters without a Y-cap are the development tendency in the future. tendency in the future.
Adding
Addingdoubledoubleshielding
shielding copper
copper foilfoil
between
between the adjacent
the adjacent primary and secondary
primary and secondarywindings can totally
windings can
eliminate CM noise in the transformer path, but this technique
totally eliminate CM noise in the transformer path, but this technique is impractical since is impractical since it will increase
it will
the manufacturing
increase cost, winding
the manufacturing cost, loss, and complicate
winding the manufacturing
loss, and complicate process [5].
the manufacturing The basic
process [5]. CM
The
noise
basic balance
CM noise principle
balanceofprinciple
[6,7] is toofachieve
[6–7] iszero voltagezero
to achieve difference
voltagebetween the adjacent
difference between primary and
the adjacent
secondary
primary and winding
secondary layers, whichlayers,
winding can makewhich surecanthat
make thesureinduced
that theelectric charge
induced in the
electric secondary
charge in the
side is equal to zero. Then there is no CM current flowing through
secondary side is equal to zero. Then there is no CM current flowing through transformer coupling transformer coupling path.
Hence, [5] proposed
path. Hence, that adjusting
[5] proposed the winding
that adjusting arrangement
the winding of the primary
arrangement and secondary
of the primary wining
and secondary
layers can achieve voltage potential balance between the adjacent
wining layers can achieve voltage potential balance between the adjacent primary and secondary primary and secondary winding
layers.
winding This method
layers. Thiswill
methodlimit will
the flexibility of the winding
limit the flexibility of the arrangement.
winding arrangement.
There
There are many studies analyzing the modeling of
are many studies analyzing the modeling of the
the parasitic capacitance of
parasitic capacitance of the
the transformer.
transformer.
Reference
Reference [12] proposed that the parasitic capacitance of a transformer with two windings can
[12] proposed that the parasitic capacitance of a transformer with two windings can bebe
modeled with six capacitances to apply the energy conservation. However, this model is too complex
to achieve circuit analysis. The equivalent lumped capacitance is used to represent the CM noise
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 3 of 21

modeled with six capacitances to apply the energy conservation. However, this model is too complex
to achieve circuit analysis. The equivalent lumped capacitance is used to represent the CM noise
behavior of the transformer [7,13–15], which can keep the displacement current rule. Then, the CM
noise behaviors of the isolated power converters such as flyback converter, forward converter, and LLC
resonant converter are analyzed in [7,8] based on displacement current rule. With the help of the
previous efforts [7,8,12–16], this paper will propose a general transformer evaluation method for CM
noise behavior. Only a signal generator and an oscilloscope can effectively evaluate the CM noise
behavior of the transformer in the low-frequency range, which is easy to be implemented without the
expensive cost of the professional CE EMI testing instruments.
This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the capacitance model of the transformer is
first introduced for CM noise analysis. Based on the model, the CM noise flowing characteristic in
the transformer coupling path is analyzed under different circuit configurations. In Section 3,
the displacement current flowing through transformer coupling path under different winding
arrangements is calculated. In Section 4, a general transformer evaluation method for CM noise
behavior is proposed, and some key factors are also analyzed and discussed in detail. In Section 5,
several transformers with different winding configurations are used to evaluate by the proposed
method, and the measured noise spectrums can verify the effectiveness of the proposed evaluation
method. Section 6 concludes this paper.

2. Lumped Capacitance Model of the Transformer

2.1. Transformer CM Noise Model

Many previous references have proposed the CM noise model of the transformer. As shown in
Figure 2a, for four terminals of a transformer there are six equivalent lumped capacitances [12]. CAB and
CCD represent the intrawinding capacitance, which has nothing to do with the CM displacement
current conduction between primary and secondary and can be neglected in the CM noise model.
The voltage potential of terminals A, B, C, and D are defined as VA , VB , VC , and VD , respectively.
The displacement current flowing through the interwinding capacitance CAC , CBD , CBC , and CAD can
be calculated by
d(V −V ) d(V −V )
iTrans = CAC Adt C + CBD Bdt D
d(V −V ) d(V −V )
+CBC Bdt C + CAD Adt D
(1)
= (CAC + CAD ) dV A dVB
dt + (CBD + CBC ) dt
dV dV
−(CBC + CAC ) dtC − (CBD + CAD ) dtD
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Primary Winding Secondary Winding Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Primary Voltage Static Point Secondary Voltage Hot Point

A CAD C A C
CAC Csp

v P
CAB CCD vs vP
vs
B CBD B Cps D
CBC D
Primary Voltage Hot Point Secondary Voltage Static Point

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 2.2. Lumped capacitance
Lumped modelmodel
capacitance of theoftransformer. (a) Six-capacitance
the transformer. model. (b) model.
(a) Six-capacitance Two-
capacitance model. model.
(b) Two-capacitance

There are three

In a flyback lumped
topology, thecapacitances—C BC, CBD
winding connection is, shown
and CACin—to determine
Figure theBdisplacement
2a. Points current
and C are voltage hot
flowing through transformer coupling path. To further simplify the expression (2), C
points, which are connected to the primary MOSFET and the secondary diode, respectively. PointsBC
BC + CBD and C A
+and
CACDare
aredefined
voltageas Cps and
static Csp,which
points, respectively. For flyback
are connected to thetopology with three-wires
primary ground (L, N, andground,
and the secondary GND
wires), the voltage difference between the primary ground (PG) and the secondary ground (SG) can
be omitted due to the small voltage drop on LISN. For flyback topology with two-wires (L and N
wires), the voltage difference can also be neglected if the parasitic capacitance Csg between the
secondary ground and the ground is far larger than CQ (CQ is the equivalent lumped capacitance of
the transformer and it will be introduced in Section 4). The CM current flowing through the
transformer can be expressed as
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 4 of 21

respectively. Because points A and D will not generate dv/dt, the expression (1) can be further simplified
as (2):
dVB dV
iTrans = (CBC + CBD ) − (CBC + CAC ) C (2)
dt dt
There are three lumped capacitances—CBC , CBD , and CAC —to determine the displacement current
flowing through transformer coupling path. To further simplify the expression (2), CBC + CBD and
CBC + CAC are defined as Cps and Csp , respectively. For flyback topology with three-wires (L, N,
and GND wires), the voltage difference between the primary ground (PG) and the secondary ground
(SG) can be omitted due to the small voltage drop on LISN. For flyback topology with two-wires (L and
N wires), the voltage difference can also be neglected if the parasitic capacitance Csg between the
secondary ground and the ground is far larger than CQ (CQ is the equivalent lumped capacitance of the
transformer and it will be introduced in Section 4). The CM current flowing through the transformer
can be expressed as
dVB dV
iTrans = Cps − Csp C (3)
dt dt
where Cps is an equivalent lumped capacitance, which represents that the primary CM noise source
generates CM current flowing through Cps to the secondary side. It is connected between the primary
voltage hot point and the secondary static point. Similarly, Csp represents that the secondary CM noise
source generates CM current flowing through Csp to the primary side.
Figure 2b depicts the transformer winding two-capacitance model. Here, ips is defined as V p *Cps
and isp is defined as V s *Csp . If ips is equal to isp , the CM current flowing through transformer will have
the opportunity to be totally canceled due to their same amplitudes and opposite phases.

2.2. CM Noise Circuit Model

Figure 3a is the CM noise circuit model of the flyback converter when the diode is used in the
secondary side. It can clearly find that the CM current isp is antiphase with ips and ipg . It is possible
to make a balance among isp , ips , and ipg . ipg is the displacement current flowing through parasitic
capacitance between the drain of the primary MOSFET and the ground. Figure 3b show the CM noise
circuit model of the flyback converter when the MOSFET is used in the secondary side. The phase of
the secondary CM noise source has inversed if the secondary MOSFET is located in the secondary
ground to simplify its gate driving. It is impossible to make a balance among isp , ips , and ipg . In order
to improve this situation, an antiphase winding is added between the adjacent primary and secondary
windings to generate an antiphase CM displacement current to cancel isp and ips . Z1–Z6 represent
the parasitic parameters of the CM noise conduction paths. n and n1 are the turn ratio between the
primary winding and the secondary winding and between the primary winding and the antiphase
winding, respectively.
 Energies 2019, 12, 1984 5 of 21
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Path 1 Path 1
Cpg Z1 Z2 Path 2 Cpg Z1 Z2 Path 2
Path 3 Path 3
Z3 Z3
Cps Cps
v P LISN(25Ω) nv P v P
LISN(25Ω) nv P

Z4 Z5 Csp Z4 Z5 Csp

(a) (b)

Z1 Z2 Path 1
Cpg Path 2
Z3 Path 3
Path 4
Cps nv
v
1 P

P LISN(25Ω) Ca nv P
Z6

Z4 Z5 Csp
(c)
Figure
Figure 3.3.
Flyback
Flybackcircuit model
circuit modelforfor
common-mode
common-mode (CM)
(CM)noise analysis.
noise analysis.(a)(a)
Circuit model
Circuit modelwith
withdiode
diode
rectification
rectificationinin
the
thesecondary
secondaryside.
side.(b)(b)
Circuit model
Circuit modelwith synchronous
with synchronous rectification
rectificationinin
the secondary
the secondary
side. (c)(c)
side. Circuit model
Circuit model with
withantiphase
antiphase CM CMnoise cancelation
noise method.
cancelation method.

3.3.Calculation
Calculationofof the
the CMCM Displacement
Displacement CurrentFlowing
Current Flowingthrough
throughTransformer
TransformerCoupling
CouplingPath
Path
Figure4a–c
Figure 4a–cshows
shows the
the transformer
transformer winding
winding structure
structure with
with thethe different
different winding
winding arrangements.
arrangements.
Variouskinds
Various kindsofofwinding
windingarrangements
arrangementsare areproposed
proposedininprevious
previousreferences
referencesfor forsome
someparticular
particular
considerations. For instance, the transformer with interleaved winding structure
considerations. For instance, the transformer with interleaved winding structure can afford can afford the minimal
the
windingwinding
minimal loss at thelosscostat of
thelarge
costinterwinding capacitance,capacitance,
of large interwinding which will which
worsenwillEMIworsen
characteristic.
EMI
The transformer
characteristic. Thewith PS ( primary
transformer withsecondary)
PS ( primarywinding structure
secondary) can lower
winding the EMI
structure cancharacteristic
lower the EMI but
this action will sacrifice the efficiency of the converter. For calculating the CM
characteristic but this action will sacrifice the efficiency of the converter. For calculating the CMdisplacement current
flowing through
displacement theflowing
current inerwindingthroughcapacitance of the transformer,
the inerwinding capacitance itofshould be noticeditthat
the transformer, onlybe
should the
displacement current flowing through the adjacent primary and secondary
noticed that only the displacement current flowing through the adjacent primary and secondary winding can be called CM
noise current.
winding can be Hence,
called CM the following will introduce
noise current. Hence, thethe basic method
following of calculating
will introduce the displacement
the basic method of
current flowing
calculating through transformer
the displacement couplingthrough
current flowing path under different winding
transformer couplingarrangements.
path under different
winding arrangements.
It is assumed that the turn number of windings Wp1, Wp2, Wp3, Wp4, Ws1, and Ws2 are Np1, Np2, Np3,
Np4, Ns1, and Ns2, respectively. Hence, the voltage potential distribution along each turn can be
expressed as follows. The voltage differences between two terminals of the primary winding, and
between two terminals of the secondary winding are defined as vp and vs, respectively. They should
satisfy
vp Np N p1 + N p2 + N p3 + N p4
= = (4)
vs Ns N s1 + N s2

vp =vB -vA

 (5)
 vs =vD -vC
where vA, vB, vC, and vD are the voltage potentials of the primary and secondary winding terminals.
It is assumed that the voltage potential distribution along each winding is evenly and linearly
distributed. The reason why the voltage potential varies linearly along the winding is that the effect
of leakage inductance, the skin effect, and the proximity effect are ignored. The expressions of the
voltage potential distribution of each layer are as follows.
 vs1 ( N pi ) = N s1 + vC (10)
Ns h

vs x
vs2 ( N pi ) = − Ns2 + vD (11)
Ns h
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 6 of 21

Symmetry Symmetry
Wp1 Wp2 Wp3 Wp4 Ws1 Ws2 Wp1 Wp2 Ws1 Ws2 Wp3 Wp4
Graphic symbol Graphic symbol
Primary Winding Primary Winding
Insulation Tape Insulation Tape
Secondary Winding Secondary Winding

Magnetic Core Magnetic Core

Air Gap Air Gap

A B C D A C D B

(a) (b)
Symmetry
Wp1 Wp2 Ws1 Wp3 Ws2 Wp4
Graphic symbol
Primary Winding
Insulation Tape
Secondary Winding

Magnetic Core
Air Gap

A C D B

(c)
Figure 4. Winding
Figure 4. Windingstructure.
structure.
(a) (a) PS winding
PS winding structure.
structure. (b) Sandwitch
(b) Sandwitch winding structure.
winding structure. (c)
(c) Interleaved
Interleaved winding
winding structure. structure.

The
It is structure
assumed that capacitance,
the turn C str, can of
number bewindings
approximated asp2 a, W
W p1 , W plate
p3 , Wcapacitor to calculate
p4 , W s1 , and W s2 are Nits
p1 ,
capacitance.
Np2 , Np3 , NReference [15]Ndeduced
p4 , N s1 , and the accurate
s2 , respectively. formula:
Hence, the voltage potential distribution along each
turn can be expressed as follows. The voltage differences between two terminals of the primary
2pe oe r h
winding, and between two terminals Cstrof=the secondary − d 2 <<are
, d1winding h defined as vp and vs , respectively.(12)
They should satisfy ln(d1 / d 2 )
vp Np Np1 + Np2 + Np3 + Np4
= = (4)
vs Ns Ns1 + Ns2
(
vp = vB − vA
(5)
vs = vD − vC
where vA , vB , vC , and vD are the voltage potentials of the primary and secondary winding terminals.
It is assumed that the voltage potential distribution along each winding is evenly and linearly
distributed. The reason why the voltage potential varies linearly along the winding is that the effect of
leakage inductance, the skin effect, and the proximity effect are ignored. The expressions of the voltage
potential distribution of each layer are as follows.
vp x
vp1 (x) = Np1 + vA (6)
Np h
vp x vp
vp2 (x) = − Np2 + (Np1 + Np2 ) + vA (7)
Np h Np
vp x vp
vp3 (x) = Np3 + (Np1 + Np2 ) + vA (8)
Np h Np
vp x
vp4 (Npi ) = − Np4 + vB (9)
Np h
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 7 of 21

vs x
vs1 (Npi ) = Ns1 + vC (10)
Ns h
vs x
vs2 (Npi ) = − Ns2 + vD (11)
Ns h
The structure capacitance, Cstr , can be approximated as a plate capacitor to calculate its capacitance.
Reference [15] deduced the accurate formula:

2πεo εr h
Cstr = , d1 − d2 << h (12)
ln(d1 /d2 )

where ε0 is the permittivity of the vacuum and εr is the relative permittivity of the dialect between
the two adjacent winding layers. d1 and d2 are the distance between the primary (secondary) and the
center column of the magnetic core.

3.1. PS Winding Arrangement

Figure 4a shows a transformer winding structure under PS arrangement. For calculating the CM
displacement current iCM_dis under a PS winding arrangement, calculating the displacement current
between the layers W p1 and W s1 is enough. Then, the CM displacement current iCM_dis is

dQP4S1
iCM_dis =
Rdt
d h Cp4−s1
= dt 0 h  (vp4 (x) − vs1 (x))

dx (13)
vp  
= Cp4−s1 dt 2 − Np Np3 + 2vB − 12 Nvs NS1
d 1
+ 2vC
S

where Cp4-s1 is the structure capacitance between the adjacent layers P4 and S1 that can be calculated
according to (12).

3.2. Sandwich Winding Arrangement

Figure 4b shows a transformer winding structure under the sandwich structure. The CM
displacement current between adjacent primary and secondary winding is represented by ip2s1 and
ip3s2 . Then, the total CM displacement current is

d
iCM_dis = (
dt  QP2S1 + QP3S2
) 
R h Cp2−s1 R h Cp3−s2
d
= dt 0 h ( vp2 ( x ) − v s1 ( x )) dx + 0 h ( vp3 ( x ) − v s2 ( x )) dx
(14)
   
d 1 vp  v
s
= dt 2 Cp2−s1 Np 2Np1 + Np2 +2vA − Ns Ns1 +2vC
  
vp 
+ 12 Cp3−s2 Np (2Np1 + 2Np2 + Np3 ) + 2vA − − Nvss Ns1 + 2vD

where Cp2-s1 and Cp3-s2 are the structure capacitance between adjacent layers P2 and S1 and between
layers P3 and S2 that can be calculated according to (12).
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 8 of 21

3.3. Interleaved Winding Arrangement

Figure 4c shows a transformer winding structure under interleaved structure. The CM
displacement current between the adjacent primary and secondary winding are ip2s1 , ip3s1 , ip3s2 and
ip4s2 . Then, the total CM displacement current is

d
iCM_dis = (
dt QP2S1 + QP3S1 + QP3S2 + QP4S2
)
d Cp2−s1
R h Cp3−s1
= dt h (vp2 (x) − vs1 (x))dx + 0 h (vp3 (x) − vs1 (x))dx

Cp3−s2 R h Cp4−s2
+ h (vp3 (x) − vs2 (x))dx + 0 h (vp4 (x) − vs2 (x))dx
   
n vp
= d 1
dt 2 Cp2−s1 + Np2 ) + 2vA − Nvss Ns1 + 2vC
Np (2Np1 (15)
   
1 vp vs
+ 2 Cp3−s1 Np (2Np1 + 2Np2 + Np3 ) + 2vA − Ns Ns1 + 2vC
   
vp
+ 12 Cp3−s2 Np (2Np1 + 2Np2 + Np3 ) + 2vA − − Nvss Ns1 + 2vD
   
vp
+ 12 Cp4−s2 − Np (Np4 ) + 2vB − − Nvss Ns1 + 2vD

where Cp2-s1 , Cp3-s1 , Cp3-s2 and Cp4-s2 are the structure capacitance between adjacent layers P2 and S1,
layers P3 and S1, layers P3 and S2, and layers P4 and S2, respectively. They can be calculated according
to (12).
According to (13)–(15), it can find that the CM displacement current is generated due to the
existence of the voltage potential distribution along with the adjacent primary and secondary winding.
Only the displacement current flowing through the adjacent primary and secondary winding can
contribute to forming the CM current. The essence of the CM displacement current is the electric
charge induced in the secondary side. Hence, if the average voltage potential distributions along the
primary and secondary winding are equal, there is no CM charge induced in the secondary side.

4. Evaluation Method of the Transformer

4.1. Previous Evaluation Method

Many previous references also have discussed the issue on how to evaluate the CM noise behavior
of the transformer [17–20]. Figure 5a,b depicts the traditional transformer CM characteristic evaluation
method. Using impedance analyzer to measure the CM capacitance of the transformer is impractical.
Because this method will not make the primary and the secondary winding build the voltage potential
distribution along each winding, and this method can only measure the structure capacitance of the
transformer. According to (13)–(15), it can find that the CM displacement current is both related to
the structure capacitance between adjacent primary and secondary winding layers and the voltage
potential distribution of the winding; merely measuring the structure capacitance cannot effectively
reflect the CM displacement current characteristic of the transformer. As have discussed above, the CM
noise in transformer coupling path is formed by the voltage potential distribution. Therefore this
method cannot totally represent the conductive CM noise behavior of the transformer.
Energies 2019,
Energies 12, x1984
2019, 12, FOR PEER REVIEW 11 9of
of 23
21
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21
Impedace analyzer Impedace analyzer
Impedace analyzer Impedace analyzer

Cps Cps
Cps Cps

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 5. Transformer evaluation by impedance analyzer.
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Transformer
Transformer evaluation
evaluation by
by impedance
impedance analyzer.
analyzer.
In order to take the voltage potential distribution along with the winding into consideration,
In order
reference [19],toproposed
take the using
voltage anpotential
EMI receiverdistribution
(spectrum along with the
analyzer, winding
network into consideration,
analyzer) consideration,
with a TG
option to measure the insertion loss (IL) in order to evaluate the transformer as shown inwith
reference
reference [19],
[19], proposed
proposed using
using ananEMIEMI receiver
receiver (spectrum
(spectrum analyzer,
analyzer, network network
analyzer)analyzer)
with a TG a TG
option
Figure 6.
option
to measureto measure
the the
insertion insertion
loss (IL) loss
in (IL)
order in
to order
evaluate to evaluate
the transformerthe transformer
as
The positive terminal of the TG is connected to voltage hot point of the primary side and the ground shown in as shown
Figure 6. in
The Figure
positive6.
The positive
terminal of
terminal of theterminal
TG TG of the
is connected
is connected TG is connected
to voltage
to the primary to voltage
hotvoltage
point of hot point
the primary
static of
point. TG the
side primary
willand side
the ground
output and the ground
terminal
sinusoidal of
signal
terminal
TG is of
connected TG istoconnected
the primary to the primary
voltage static voltage
point. static
TG point.
will output
assigned on the primary winding, and its amplitude is 1 V. Then, the secondary winding will form TG will output
sinusoidal sinusoidal
signal assignedsignal
on
assigned
the voltage
the primary onpotential
the primary
winding, and winding, and its
its amplitude
distribution along isamplitude
with 1 each
V. Then, isthe
turn. 1InV. Then,
secondary
this thewinding
method, secondary willwinding
the transformer form is thewill form
voltage
regarded
theavoltage
potential
as potential distribution
pure distribution
capacitance along with along
to conduct each with each
turn.
CM noise. In
Thethisturn.
CM method, In thisthe
displacement method, the transformer
transformer
current is regarded
will is as
flow through regarded
a pure
this
equivalent CM noise capacitance and generate voltage drop in resistor R2, as shown in Figure this
as a pure
capacitance capacitance
to conduct to
CM conduct
noise. CM
The noise.
CM The
displacementCM displacement
current will current
flow through will flow
this through
equivalent CM
6b.
equivalent
noise CM
capacitance noise
and capacitance
generate and
voltage generate
drop in voltage
resistor R ,drop
as in
shown resistor
in R
Figure
Resistor R2 is located in the RF input terminal. Based on2the definition of the insertion loss,2a lumped 2 , as
6b. shown
Resistor inR Figure
is 6b.
located
Resistor
in the RFRinput
equivalent 2 is located
terminal.
capacitance inCthe RF input
Based on theterminal.
definitionBasedof theon the definition
insertion of the insertion
loss, a lumped
Q can be calculated to evaluate the CM noise characteristic of the transformer,
equivalent loss, a lumped
capacitance
equivalent
C Q can
according be capacitance
calculated
to (16). to C can
evaluate
Q be calculated
the CM to
noise evaluate the
characteristic CMof noise
the characteristic
transformer, of the
according transformer,
to (16).
according to (16).
11
CCQQ == q 1 (16)
CQ = 2π f 10 40−IL 40 − IL
− 10 4
(16)
2π f 10 4010− IL − 10 4 (16)
10

2π f 10 10 − 104

Hot point Hot point Static point

CQ
x x
Vac
UP Hot point
CQ
US TG Hot point icmC Static point
TG Vac Q

x x
R1=50 Ω
Vac
U
u 0
P

CQ 0 uUS
TG R1=50 Ω icm
TG Static point Static point Vac
R1=50 Ω R2=50 Ω icm R1=50 Ω
u 0 0 u R2=50 Ω
U1
Static point Static point RF

RFΩ
R2=50 icm
EMI Receiver or Spectrum Analyzer
U1 R2=50 Ω
RF
(a) (b)
RF
Figure
EMI6.
Figure Dynamic
Receiver
6. orCM
Dynamic noise
noise capacitance
Spectrum
CM Analyzer evaluation
capacitance evaluation method.
method. (a)
(a) Transformer
Transformer terminals
terminals connection
connection
method.
method. (b)
(b) Equivalent
Equivalent circuit.
circuit.
(a) (b)
This method
This method
Figure isisvery
6. Dynamic very
CM effective
effective to evaluate
to evaluate
noise capacitance the noise
the CM
evaluation CM noise(a)behavior
behavior
method. of the transformer
of the transformer
Transformer in low-
inconnection
terminals low-frequency
frequency range
rangemethod.
since since thecircuit.
theEquivalent
(b) capacitive capacitive
coupling coupling contributes
contributes more in more in low-frequency
low-frequency range,
range, and forand for
higher
higher frequency
frequency range inductive
range inductive couplingcoupling is a major
is a major factor factor for conductive
for conductive CM noise.
CM noise. However,
However, the
the main
mainThis method
drawback is very
of this effective
method is thattoneeds
evaluate the CM
expensive testnoise behavior
instruments (EMIof the transformer
receiver with TGin low-
option
frequency range since the capacitive coupling contributes more in low-frequency range, and for
Energies 2019,
Energies 12, x1984
2019, 12, FOR PEER REVIEW 1010ofof 21
21

higher frequency range inductive coupling is a major factor for conductive CM noise. However, the
drawback
main of this
drawback method
of this is that
method needs
is that needsexpensive
expensivetest instruments
test instruments(EMI (EMIreceiver
receiverwith
with TG option
TG option
or spectrum analyzer with TG option). Many transformer manufacturers
or spectrum analyzer with TG option). Many transformer manufacturers do not have enough moneydo not have enough
money
to affordtothese
afford these professional
professional instruments.
instruments. Besides,
Besides, precise precise of
calibration calibration of these professional
these professional instruments
is also needed, which complicates the measurement process. Reference [21][21]
instruments is also needed, which complicates the measurement process. Reference proposedusing
proposed using
numerical algorithms to achieve parameter extraction and parameter identification of
numerical algorithms to achieve parameter extraction and parameter identification of the transformer.the transformer.
Besides, some
Besides, some numerical
numerical methods
methods for
for transformer
transformer evaluation
evaluation inin [9,22]
[9,22] have
have been
been proposed
proposed to to design
design
wire-wound transformers. However, these evaluation methods are based on the
wire-wound transformers. However, these evaluation methods are based on the finite element finite element method
(FEM) commercial
method simulation
(FEM) commercial software, i.e.,
simulation Ansys i.e.,
software, Maxwell
Ansyswhich is toowhich
Maxwell expensive
is tooto expensive
be purchased by
to be
some transformer manufactures.
purchased by some transformer manufactures.
4.2. Proposed Evaluation Method
4.2. Proposed Evaluation Method
Based on the above considerations, this paper proposes a practical CM noise characteristic
Based on the above considerations, this paper proposes a practical CM noise characteristic
evaluation method to achieve the same evaluation effect as discussed above. Only a signal generator
evaluation method to achieve the same evaluation effect as discussed above. Only a signal generator
and an oscilloscope can achieve the same evaluation effect in low-frequency EMI noise as shown in
and an oscilloscope can achieve the same evaluation effect in low-frequency EMI noise as shown in
Figure 7. The positive terminal of the signal generator is connected to the primary voltage hot point
Figure 7. The positive terminal of the signal generator is connected to the primary voltage hot point
and the ground terminal of the signal generator is connected to both primary voltage static point
and the ground terminal of the signal generator is connected to both primary voltage static point and
and one terminal of R . The other terminal of R2 is connected to the secondary voltage static point.
one terminal of R2. The2 other terminal of R2 is connected to the secondary voltage static point. The
The secondary voltage hot point is open. In this measurement process, the CM displacement current
secondary voltage hot point is open. In this measurement process, the CM displacement current flows
flows through the distributed CM coupling capacitance Cinterwinding between the adjacent primary
through the distributed CM coupling capacitance Cinterwinding between the adjacent primary and
and secondary layers and generates a voltage drop in resistor R2 . For transformers with different
secondary layers and generates a voltage drop in resistor R2. For transformers with different winding
winding arrangements, the CM displacement current flowing through the transformer will be different.
arrangements, the CM displacement current flowing through the transformer will be different. Then,
Then, the voltage drop measured by voltage probe in Channel 2 of the oscilloscope can reflect the size
the voltage drop measured by voltage probe in Channel 2 of the oscilloscope can reflect the size of
of the CM displacement current flowing through the transformer.
the CM displacement current flowing through the transformer.

Signal Generator
Primary Hot Point Secondary Hot Point
A Oscilloscope

v P Cinterwinding vS
v ac

Channel l Channel 2

R1=50Ω
Primary Static Point Secondary Static Point
B
R2
C
U1
D
icm
Sampling Resistor
Figure 7. Transformer evaluation method.
Figure 7. Transformer evaluation method.
4.2.1. Selection of Resistor R2
4.2.1. Selection of Resistor R2
It seems that the evaluation methods of the EMI receiver with TG option and the signal generator
It seems
are the same.that the evaluation
However, there is amethods of the
significant EMI receiver
difference in the with TG option
selection of the and the signal
resistance of Rgenerator
2 that will
are the same. However, there is a
be analyzed in detail in the following.significant difference in the selection of the resistance of R 2 that will

be analyzed
The EMI in receiver
detail in the
withfollowing.
TG option and the network analyzer are high-precision instruments
The EMI receiver
for measuring small with TG option
signals. and the network
Its sampling resistor analyzer are high-precision
R2 depicted in Figure 6a instruments
uses precisionfor
measuring small signals. Its sampling resistor R 2 depicted in Figure 6a uses precision noninductive
noninductive resistance, which means that the resistor component R2 can be regarded as pure
resistance, which means that the resistor component R2 can be regarded as pure resistance. Then, the
impedance will remain unchanged equaling to 50 Ω as the frequency increases. The EMI receiver and
network analyzer are both used in conductive EMI noise frequency ranges (150 KHz–30 MHz) due
to the EMI test standard of the switch-mode power supplies (SMPSs). The insertion loss (IL) and S
parameters can be measured by these instruments. Hence, the tiny voltage drop in resistor R2 can be
precisely measured due to its high precision. However, if the same resistance is used for resistor
Energies 2019, 12, 1984
R2
11 of 21
in the proposed evaluation method to sample the CM noise voltage, it will be impractical. That is
because the size of the CM noise displacement current is extremely tiny, which is at the level of
resistance.
microampere. Then, thethe
Then, impedance will remain
voltage drop unchanged
in R2 is tiny, equaling
which cannot be to 50 Ω asmeasured
precisely the frequency
by theincreases.
voltage
The EMI receiver and network analyzer are both used in conductive
probe. Hence, choosing a proper resistance is critical in the proposed evaluation method. EMI noise frequency ranges
(150 The
KHz–30 MHz) due
distributed CM tocoupling
the EMIcapacitance
test standard of ofthethe switch-mode
transformer power supplies
is represented as a (SMPSs).
lumped
The insertionCloss
capacitance Q for(IL) and S parameters
simplifying can beFigure
the analysis. measured by these
8 shows theinstruments. Hence,ofthe
equivalent circuit tiny
the voltage
proposed
drop in resistor
evaluation method. R 2 can be precisely measured due to its high precision. However,
The CM displacement current icm flowing through the lumped equivalent if the same resistance
is used for resistor
capacitance CQ can R be2 in the proposed
expressed as evaluation method to sample the CM noise voltage, it will be
impractical. That is because the size of the CM noise displacement current is extremely tiny, which is at
v
the level of microampere. Then, the voltage icmdrop
= in Rac2 is tiny, which cannot be precisely measured by
1 (17)
the voltage probe. Hence, choosing a proper resistance R1 +R 2 + is critical in the proposed evaluation method.
jw CQ
The distributed CM coupling capacitance of the transformer is represented as a lumped capacitance
CQ forThe simplifying
voltage drop theUanalysis. Figure 8 shows the equivalent circuit of the proposed evaluation
2 in sampling resistor R2 is
method. The CM displacement current icm flowing through the lumped equivalent capacitance CQ can
be expressed as vac
U2 = R2
vac 1 (18)
icm =R1 +R 2 + 1
(17)
R1 +R2 + jw CjωC
Q Q

v ac
1
jw CQ

R1=50Ω
icm

R2

Figure 8. Equivalent circuit of the proposed evaluation method.

Figure 8. Equivalent circuit of the proposed evaluation method.

The voltage drop U2 in sampling resistor R2 is

In order to represent the variation tendency of the CM displacement current icm and the voltage
drop U2 in resistor R2 versus the resistance of R2, the vaccapacitance of CQ will be assumed to be a certain
U2 = R2 (18)
value. For different value of CQ, the basic variation
R1 +R2 + tendencies
1 of icm and U2 are almost the same. In
jωCQ
the analysis, it is assumed as 10 pF. The root mean square (RMS) of Vac is 4 V. Then, the size of the
In
CM order to represent
displacement the variation
current icm and the tendency
voltage ofdrop
the CM displacement
U2 can be calculatedcurrent
undericmdifferent
and the voltage drop
frequencies.
U 2 in
For resistor
general R2 versus
isolated theits
SMPS, resistance
switch frequency from 10 kHzoftoC1QMHz,
of R2 , theiscapacitance will be andassumed to befrequency
a switching a certain
value. For different value
will be chosen as signal excitationof C Q , the basic variation tendencies of i
frequency to evaluate the transformer. Figurecm and U 2 are almost the
9a,b shows same.
the
In the analysis, it is assumed as 10 pF. The root mean
frequency-dependent curve of icm and U2. Figure 9a shows that the largersquare (RMS) of V is 4 V. Then, the size
ac resistance of R2 will cause of the
CM
less displacement current iicm
displacement current and the voltage drop U2 can
cm for the same transformer.
be calculated
Figure 9b showsunder different
that larger frequencies.
resistance of R2
For general isolated SMPS, its switch frequency is from 10 kHz to 1 MHz, and
will cause a larger voltage drop in itself. If the resistance of R2 is equal to 50 Ω, the voltage drop a switching frequency
in R2
will be too
will be chosen
tiny as
to signal excitation
be precisely frequency
measured. to evaluate
Therefore, the transformer.
the resistor with 50 Ω isFigure 9a,b shows
impractical for usethe
in
frequency-dependent curve of icm and U . Figure 9a shows that the larger
this evaluation method due to the limitation of probe accuracy. In order to acquire a larger voltage
2 resistance of R 2 will cause
less
dropdisplacement current
in R2, the effective icm for the same
implementation is totransformer.
increase theFigure 9b shows
resistance of R2 tothat
samplelarger
theresistance of R2
larger voltage.
will
The cause
voltagea larger
drop involtage
R2 willdrop in itself.
increase If the
if the resistance
resistance of Rof2 is
R2increased. 50 Ω, the if
is equal toHowever, voltage drop in Rof2
the resistance
will be too tiny to be precisely measured.
R2 is too large, it will also be unreasonable Therefore, the resistor with 50 Ω is impractical for use in
this evaluation method due to the limitation of probe accuracy. In order to acquire a larger voltage
drop in R2 , the effective implementation is to increase the resistance of R2 to sample the larger voltage.
The voltage drop in R2 will increase if the resistance of R2 is increased. However, if the resistance of R2
is too large, it will also be unreasonable
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 21
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 12 of 21

4
R2=50Ω R2=50Ω
2.5x10-4 R2=500Ω R2=500Ω
R2=1kΩ R2=1kΩ
R2=5kΩ 3 R2=5kΩ
2.0x10-4
R2=10kΩ R2=10kΩ
R2=50kΩ R2=50kΩ

U2（V）
1.5x10-4
R2=100kΩ R2=100kΩ
icm (A)

-4
1.0x10

1
5.0x10-5

0.0 0
104 105 106 104 105 106
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9. (a)
9. (a) Variation
Variation tendency
tendency ofoficm
icmwith
withdifferent
different resistance
resistance of
of R
R22..(b)
(b)Variation
Variationtendency
tendencyofof
U2Uwith
2
different
with differentresistance ofof
resistance . 2.
R2R

ForFor larger
larger resistance
resistance of2 ,Rthe
of R 2, the voltage
voltage difference
difference between
between thethe primary
primary ground
ground andand
thethe secondary
secondary
ground
ground willwill change.
change. TheThe voltage
voltage potential
potential distribution
distribution of theofsecondary
the secondary winding
winding will change
will change versusversus
R2
R2 resistance,
resistance, and theand theofvalue
value of the CM
the lumped lumped CM capacitance
capacitance of the transformer
of the transformer can change. can
The change.
following The
following
will willinfluence
analyze the analyze the influence
of R 2 of
resistance Ron
2 resistance
the lumpedon the lumped
equivalent equivalent
capacitance capacitance
C Q in detail.C Q in detail.
A transformer
A transformer with
with a single
a single layer
layer of the
of the primary
primary andandthethe secondary
secondary winding
winding is used
is used to illustrate
to illustrate
thisthis phenomenon,
phenomenon, as as shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 10a.10a. Figure
Figure 10b10b shows
shows thethe voltage
voltage potential
potential distribution
distribution of the
of the
primary
primary andand secondary
secondary winding
winding andand their
their expression
expression cancan be given
be given as follows
as follows

VpVp
vp (xv（ x）=
)p = x x (19)
(19)
h h
Vp V x x
vs (x)v（=
s x）=
Nps N + V+ V (20)
(20)
Np N h s h d d
p

where Np and Ns are the turns of the primary and secondary winding, respectively. V d is the voltage
where Np and Ns are the turns of the primary and secondary winding, respectively. Vd is the voltage
difference
Energies 2019,between
x FOR the
12,betweenPEERprimary ground and the secondary ground. h is the height of the core window.
difference theREVIEW
primary ground and the secondary ground. h is the height of the core13 of 21
window.
According to (19) and (20), the dynamic CM capacitance CQ can be calculated as
Symmetry
Q
Graphic
CQ = symbol h (m) Vp
Ns
WP1 WS1 Vp Np
Primary Winding
1 C0 Tapeh
=Insulation
V h  (v（x）− v（x）)dh
0 p s
Secondary
p Winding
(21)
1
Magnetic 
Core  Vp  
= C0 Vp −  N s + 2Vd  
Air
2VpGap  
  Np  
PG
1  N  10 2V
=SGC0 1 − s  − C0Vd d Vp Voltage(V)
2  N p  2 Vp

From (21), it can be(a) found that the dynamic CM capacitance C(b) Q is not only determined by the

structure capacitance
Figure C0 and the terminal connection (b)
of winding,potential
but alsodistribution.
determined by the voltage
Figure 10.
10. (a)
(a) Transformer
Transformer winding
winding structure.
structure. (b) Voltage
Voltage potential distribution.
potential difference Vd between the primary ground and the secondary ground.
The essential
4.2.2.According
Ground reason
Potential
to (19) for this
Difference
and (20), phenomenon
the dynamic is that Vd changes
CM capacitance CQ canthe
bevoltage potential
calculated as distribution of
the secondary winding and the resultant electric charges induced in the secondary side can also be
For isolated converters with three wires (L, N, and GND lines), the secondary ground is directly
changed. Hence, the resistance of R2 should be chosen appropriately.
connected to ground. This means the voltage difference between the primary ground and the
secondary ground is just the voltage drop in LISN by common-mode noise, as shown in Figure 11a,
if the voltage drop of the rectifier bridge is ignored. Obviously, the voltage drop in LISN is usually
very small, compared with the voltages of the primary and secondary noise sources, i.e., the voltages
of primary MOSFET and secondary MOSFET. Therefore, the potential difference between the
primary ground and the secondary ground can be omitted when the isolated converter has three
wires. In this kind of circuit configuration, the resistance chosen for R2 should be as small as possible,
 PG
SG 0 Vp
Vd Voltage(V)

(a) (b)
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 13 of 21
Figure 10. (a) Transformer winding structure. (b) Voltage potential distribution.

4.2.2. Ground Potential Difference

Q
CQ = Vp
For isolated converters with three wires (L,
R N, and GND lines), the secondary ground is directly
1 C0 h
connected to ground. This means the = Vvoltage (vp (x) − vs (xbetween
0 difference
))dh
p h   the primary ground and the
(21)

secondary ground is just the voltage drop 1 in LISN by Vcommon-mode
p noise, as shown in Figure 11a,
= 2Vp C0 Vp − Np Ns + 2Vd
if the voltage drop of the rectifier bridge is ignored.

Ns
 Obviously, the voltage drop in LISN is usually
2Vd
1 1
=
very small, compared with the voltages of C
2 the 1 −
0 primary 2 C0 secondary
Np − and Vp noise sources, i.e., the voltages
of primary MOSFET and secondary MOSFET. Therefore, the potential difference between the
From (21), it can be found that the dynamic CM capacitance CQ is not only determined by the structure
primary ground and the secondary ground can be omitted when the isolated converter has three
capacitance C0 and the terminal connection of winding, but also determined by the voltage potential
wires. In this kind of circuit configuration, the resistance chosen for R2 should be as small as possible,
difference V d between the primary ground and the secondary ground.
and the voltage drop in R2 should be maintained so that it can be precisely measured.
The essential reason for this phenomenon is that V d changes the voltage potential distribution of
For isolated converters with two-wires (L and N wires), the secondary ground is floating. So the
the secondary winding and the resultant electric charges induced in the secondary side can also be
voltage drop between the primary ground and the secondary ground is determined by both the value
changed. Hence, the resistance of R2 should be chosen appropriately.
of CM current and the parasitic capacitance Csg between the secondary ground and ground as shown
in Figure
4.2.2. 11b.Potential
Ground In this case, whether the voltage difference between the primary ground and the
Difference
secondary ground can be ignored or not depends on the value comparison of Csg and CQ. If CQ is
For isolated converters with three wires (L, N, and GND lines), the secondary ground is directly
much smaller than Csg, the voltage difference between the primary ground and the secondary ground
connected to ground. This means the voltage difference between the primary ground and the secondary
can be regarded as 0. If the condition mentioned above cannot be met, the accuracy of the proposed
ground is just the voltage drop in LISN by common-mode noise, as shown in Figure 11a, if the voltage
method will be affected. However, the transformer CM coupling path is one of the major CM noise
drop of the rectifier bridge is ignored. Obviously, the voltage drop in LISN is usually very small,
conduction paths. Eliminating the CM noise flowing through transformer coupling path can
compared with the voltages of the primary and secondary noise sources, i.e., the voltages of primary
significantly lower the CM noise of the whole converter. When the designed transformer can achieve
MOSFET and secondary MOSFET. Therefore, the potential difference between the primary ground
zero CM noise in transformer coupling path, the voltage difference between the primary ground and
and the secondary ground can be omitted when the isolated converter has three wires. In this kind of
the secondary ground can be omitted. Hence, when the isolated converter is with two wires, the
circuit configuration, the resistance chosen for R2 should be as small as possible, and the voltage drop
proposed method still can precisely evaluate the transformer with the minimum value of the CM
in R2 should be maintained so that it can be precisely measured.
noise. Therefore, the resistance of R2 should be chosen as small as possible.

SG

CQ CQ
Csg
Vp Vp

PG SG PG

LISN LISN

(a) (b)
Figure 11.
Figure 11. (a)
(a) Equivalent
Equivalent circuit
circuit with
with three
three wires
wires (L,
(L, N,
N, and
and G
G lines).
lines). (b)
(b) Equivalent
Equivalent circuit
circuit with
with two
two
wires (L and N lines).
wires (L and N lines).

For isolated converters with two-wires (L and N wires), the secondary ground is floating. So the
voltage drop between the primary ground and the secondary ground is determined by both the value
of CM current and the parasitic capacitance Csg between the secondary ground and ground as shown in
Figure 11b. In this case, whether the voltage difference between the primary ground and the secondary
ground can be ignored or not depends on the value comparison of Csg and CQ . If CQ is much smaller
than Csg , the voltage difference between the primary ground and the secondary ground can be regarded
as 0. If the condition mentioned above cannot be met, the accuracy of the proposed method will be
affected. However, the transformer CM coupling path is one of the major CM noise conduction paths.
Eliminating the CM noise flowing through transformer coupling path can significantly lower the CM
noise of the whole converter. When the designed transformer can achieve zero CM noise in transformer
coupling path, the voltage difference between the primary ground and the secondary ground can be
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 14 of 21

omitted. Hence, when the isolated converter is with two wires, the proposed method still can precisely
evaluate the transformer with the minimum value of the CM noise. Therefore, the resistance of R2
should be chosen as small as possible.
Based on the above discussion, the resistance of sampling resistor R2 should be chosen appropriately.
If the resistance of sampling resistor R2 is too small it can lead to a small voltage drop in R2 , which cannot
be precisely measured by the voltage probe. If the resistance is too large it can lead to a large voltage
drop in R2 , which will change the voltage potential distribution of the secondary winding and the
lumped equivalent capacitance of the transformer will be changed at the same time. It should be
pointed out that the main drawbacks and limitations of the proposed evaluation method are that
it can only effectively evaluate low-frequency CM noise behaviors of the transformer. Because the
transformer is regarded as a pure capacitance to conduct CM noise in the proposed evaluation method
the capacitive coupling plays a major role in low-frequency CM noise conduction. In the high-frequency
range, both capacitive and inductive coupling will make a difference in high-frequency CM noise and
the transformer cannot be regarded as a pure capacitance to conduct CM noise. Besides, the proposed
evaluation method may not be applicable to do further analysis in high-frequency CM noise compared
with the previous methods with EMI receiver and network analyzer. That is due to the accuracy of
the test instrument. Higher frequency CM noise suppression can be solved by the design of the CM
EMI filter.

5. Experimental Results
In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed evaluation method, a flyback converter
prototype with the different winding arrangement of the PCB planar transformer is used to verify.
The secondary side of the designed transformer is connected to MOSFET to achieve synchronous
rectification and its detailed circuit specification is shown in Table 1. The designed flyback adapter has
three wires.

Table 1. Prototype specification.

Input Output Switching Frequency Transformer

90–230 V 9 V/2 A 85 kHz EID22.5/12.3, PC95, NP = 20, NS = 2, PSP

There are three planar transformers with different turns of the compensation winding. They are
labeled as 1#, 2#, and 3#, respectively. For 1#, 2#, and 3# transformers, the turns of the compensation
winding are 8, 10, and 12 turns, respectively. The compensation winding is inserted in between the
adjacent primary and secondary windings.
The measurement platform is shown in Figure 12, where the signal generator is Agilent 33522 A and
the oscilloscope is Agilent DSO-X3024 A. The differential probe is Agilent N2790 A. As for the selection
of the sampling resistor, the basic principles have been discussed in Section 4. Hence, this section
will verify the significance of selecting a proper resistance of the sampling resistor. Besides, it is also
important to select a suitable signal source applied in the primary winding.
 adjacent primary and secondary windings.
The measurement platform is shown in Figure 12, where the signal generator is Agilent 33522 A
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and the oscilloscope is Agilent DSO-X3024 A. The differential probe is Agilent N2790 A. As15 forofthe
21

selection of the sampling resistor, the basic principles have been discussed in Section 4. Hence, this
5.1. Measurement Voltage Waveform
section2019,
Energies will12,
verify
1984 the significance of selecting a proper resistance of the sampling resistor. Besides, it
15 of 21
The
is also signal generator
important to selectcan output sinusoidal
a suitable signal,
signal source square
applied signal,
in the and triangular
primary winding. signal. As shown
in Figures 13–15, different kinds of excitation sources are used to evaluate the transformer,
respectively. The resistor R2 with 10k Ω is used and the frequency of the signal source is 85 kHz
determined
Energies byx the
2019, 12, FORswitching
PEER REVIEW frequency of the converter. The peak-to-peak value of the signal 17 source
of 23
is 4 V.
Figure 13a–cVoltage
5.1. Measurement showsWaveform
the measurement voltage waveforms of the primary winding and the
sampling
The signal generator cansignal
resistor when the output generator outputs
sinusoidal signal,triangular signal
square signal, assigned
and on signal.
triangular two terminals
As shown of
the primary winding. It can find that the triangular signal excitation has
in Figures 13–15, different kinds of excitation sources are used to evaluate the transformer, been distorted. This
phenomenonThe
respectively. is due to theRpower
resistor limitation of the signal generator. It is clear that the peak-to-peak
2 with 10k Ω is used and the frequency of the signal source is 85 kHz

determined by the switching frequencyisofthe

value of the voltage in 1# transformer theminimum
converter.andThethe peak-to-peak
peak-to-peak value
value of the
of the voltage
signal source in
3#4transformer
is V. is the maximum. As has been analyzed in section 4, 1# transformer has the minimum
valueFigure
of CQ, 13a–c
which shows
will lead
thetomeasurement
the lowest level of CMwaveforms
voltage noise spectrum.
of theHowever,
primary there
windingis a problem
and the
in waveform distortion of the signal source applied in primary winding,
sampling resistor when the signal generator outputs triangular signal assigned on two terminalswhich may affect theof
precision of the evaluation method.
the primary winding. It can find thatFigure 12. Test platform.
the triangular signal excitation has been distorted. This
phenomenon is due to the power limitation of the signal generator. It is clear that the peak-to-peak
5.1. Measurement Voltage Waveform
value of the voltage in 1# transformer is the minimum and the peak-to-peak value of the voltage in
3# transformer
The signalisgenerator
the maximum. As has
can output been analyzed
sinusoidal signal, in section
square 4, 1#and
signal, transformer
triangularhas the minimum
signal. As shown
value of CQ13–15,
in Figures , which will lead
different kindsto the lowest level
of excitation of CM
sources arenoise
usedspectrum.
to evaluateHowever, there isrespectively.
the transformer, a problem
in
Thewaveform with 10k Ω
resistor R2distortion of isthe signal
used source
and the applied
frequency of in
theprimary winding,
signal source which
is 85 kHz may affect
determined bythe
the
precision
switchingoffrequency
the evaluation
of themethod.
converter. The peak-to-peak value of the signal source is 4 V.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 13. Voltage waveform under triangular signal excitation. (a) 1# transformer. (b) 2# transformer.
(c) 3# transformer.

Similarly, Figure 14a–c shows the measurement voltage waveforms of the primary winding and
the sampling resistor when the sinusoidal signal is assigned on two terminals of the primary winding.
The sinusoidal (a)
degree of the signal source is very(b)
well compared with that shown (c) in Figure 13. The
measurement results are the same as that of using the triangular signal and the sinusoidal signal
Figure 13. Voltage waveform under triangular signal excitation. (a) 1# transformer. (b) 2# transformer.
source does13.
Figure notVoltage
distortwaveform
much. under triangular signal excitation. (a) 1# transformer. (b) 2# transformer.
(c)
(c)3#
3#transformer.
transformer.

Similarly, Figure 14a–c shows the measurement voltage waveforms of the primary winding and
the sampling resistor when the sinusoidal signal is assigned on two terminals of the primary winding.
The sinusoidal degree of the signal source is very well compared with that shown in Figure 13. The
measurement results are the same as that of using the triangular signal and the sinusoidal signal
source does not distort much.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Voltage
Voltagewaveform
waveformunder
undersinusoidal excitation.
sinusoidal (a) (a)
excitation. 1# 1#
transformer. (b) 2#
transformer. (b)transformer. (c)
2# transformer.
3#
(c)transformer.
3# transformer.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 14. Voltage waveform under sinusoidal excitation. (a) 1# transformer. (b) 2# transformer. (c)
3# transformer.
 Energies 2019, 12, 1984 16 of 21
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 15. Voltage waveform under rectangular excitation. (a) 1# transformer. (b) 2# transformer. (c)
Figure 15. Voltage waveform under rectangular excitation. (a) 1# transformer. (b) 2# transformer.
3# transformer.
(c) 3# transformer.
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23
Figure 15a–c shows
Figure 13a–c showsthe the measurement
measurement voltage
voltage waveforms
waveforms of theof the primary
primary windingwinding and the
and the sampling
sampling resistor
resistor when thewhen
signalthe square signal
generator outputs is triangular
assigned on two assigned
signal terminalson of two
the primary
terminalswinding. It can
of the primary
clearly
winding. It can find that the triangular signal excitation has been distorted. This phenomenon is the
find that the square signal has distorted severely, which cause the voltage waveform on due
sampling
to the power resistor to be nooflonger
limitation the signala standard rectangular
generator. It is clearwave.
that There are two peaks
the peak-to-peak in the
value rising
of the and
voltage
falling edges of theisvoltage
in 1# transformer in R2. and the peak-to-peak value of the voltage in 3# transformer is the
the minimum
Compared
maximum. As haswith theanalyzed
been experiment results4,from
in Section Figures 13–15,
1# transformer has the theminimum
sinusoidal signal
value of Csource
Q , whichhas a
will
minimum
lead to thedistortion
lowest level degree.
of CMHence, the sinusoidal
noise spectrum. signal
However, source
there is a is recommended
problem in waveform as andistortion
excitation of
source to be
the signal applied
source on the
applied in primary
primary winding.
winding, which may affect the precision of the evaluation method.
Figure
Similarly,16a–c shows
Figure the measurement
14a–c results of thevoltage
shows the measurement voltagewaveforms
waveform in of sample resistor
the primary when
winding
(a) (b) (c)
the
andsignal generatorresistor
the sampling outputswhen sinusoidal signal assigned
the sinusoidal signalon is two terminals
assigned on twoof the primaryof
terminals winding.
the primaryThe
Figure
resistor R 2 15. Voltage
50 Ω waveform
is used. It under
is clearrectangular
that the excitation.
peak-to-peak (a) 1# transformer.
winding. The sinusoidal degree of the signal source is very well compared with that shown in Figure2#,
with values of the (b)
sample2# transformer.
voltages in(c)
1#, 13.
and 3#
The 3# transformer.
transformers
measurement are almost
results are thethe samesame. As have
as that been
of using theanalyzed
triangular in signal
Sectionand 4, this phenomenon
the sinusoidal signalis
duo the tiny CM displacement
source does not distort much. current flowing through R 2 , which is out of the minimum
Figure 15a–c
measurement scope shows
of the the measurement voltage thewaveforms of the primary winding and the
Figure 15a–c shows thevoltage probe. voltage
measurement Therefore,waveforms resistor
of the with 50 Ω
primary is impractical
winding and thetosampling
be used
sampling
in resistor
the proposed when
evaluationthe square
method. signal is assigned on two terminals of the primary winding. It can
resistor when the square signal is assigned on two terminals of the primary winding. It can clearly
clearly find that the square signal has distorted severely, which cause the voltage waveform on the
find that the square signal has distorted severely, which cause the voltage waveform on the sampling
sampling resistor to be no longer a standard rectangular wave. There are two peaks in the rising and
resistor to be no longer a standard rectangular wave. There are two peaks in the rising and falling
falling edges of the voltage in R2.
edges of the voltage in R2 .
Compared with the experiment results from Figures 13–15, the sinusoidal signal source has a
Compared with the experiment results from Figures 13–15, the sinusoidal signal source has
minimum distortion degree. Hence, the sinusoidal signal source is recommended as an excitation
a minimum distortion degree. Hence, the sinusoidal signal source is recommended as an excitation
source to be applied on the primary winding.
source to be applied on the primary winding.
Figure 16a–c shows the measurement results of the voltage waveform in sample resistor when
Figure 16a–c shows the measurement results of the voltage waveform in sample resistor when
the signal generator outputs sinusoidal signal assigned on two terminals of the primary winding. The
the signal generator outputs sinusoidal signal assigned on two terminals of the primary winding.
resistor R2 with 50 Ω is used. It is clear that the peak-to-peak values of the sample voltages in 1#, 2#,
The resistor R2(a) with 50 Ω is used. It is clear that the (b) peak-to-peak values of the sample (c) voltages in 1#,
and 3# transformers are almost the same. As have been analyzed in Section 4, this phenomenon is
2#, and 3# transformers are almost the same. As have been analyzed in Section 4, this phenomenon is
duo Figure
the tiny 16. Voltage waveform under
CM displacement rectangular
current excitation.
flowing through (a) 1#Rtransformer.
2, which is(b) 2# transformer.
out of the minimum(c)
duo the tiny CM displacement current flowing through R2 , which is out of the minimum measurement
3# transformer.
measurement scope of the voltage probe. Therefore, the resistor with 50 Ω is impractical to be used
scope of the voltage probe. Therefore, the resistor with 50 Ω is impractical to be used in the proposed
in the proposed evaluation method.
evaluation
From Figuremethod. 14, it can be deduced that the 1# transformer has the best ability to suppress CM
noise among the three kinds of the transformers.

5.2. CQ Verification
In Section 5.1, three kinds of transformers have been evaluated based on the proposed evaluation
method. In this section, the following will use the previous method proposed in [18] to compare the
difference between these two methods. Figure 17 shows the measurement results of the insertion loss
of 1#, 2#, and 3# transformers. During the capacitive coupling frequency ranges, the transformer can
be regarded as a(a)pure capacitance to conduct CM(b) displacement current and the slope (c)of the insertion
loss is 20 dB/Dec. For higher frequency range, the capacitive coupling and inductive coupling will
Figure 16.16.Voltage
Voltagewaveform under rectangular excitation. (a) (a)
1# transformer. (b) 2#
(b)transformer. (c)
makeFigure
a difference to thewaveform
insertionunder rectangular
loss trace, excitation.
simultaneously. For1#1#transformer.
transformer, 2# insertion
its transformer.
loss is
3# transformer.
(c) 3# transformer.
too small to be precisely measured in the capacitive coupling frequency range, so there is an
oscillation in the low-frequency range. In order to calculate its effective capacitance, CQ, it is
From Figure 14, it can be deduced that the 1# transformer has the best ability to suppress CM
noise among the three kinds of the transformers.

5.2. CQ Verification
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 17 of 21

From Figure 14, it can be deduced that the 1# transformer has the best ability to suppress CM
noise among the three kinds of the transformers.

5.2. CQ Verification
In Section 5.1, three kinds of transformers have been evaluated based on the proposed evaluation
method. In this section, the following will use the previous method proposed in [18] to compare the
difference between these two methods. Figure 17 shows the measurement results of the insertion loss
of 1#, 2#, and 3# transformers. During the capacitive coupling frequency ranges, the transformer can
be regarded as a pure capacitance to conduct CM displacement current and the slope of the insertion
loss is 20 dB/Dec. For higher frequency range, the capacitive coupling and inductive coupling will
make a difference
Energies to the
2019, 12, x FOR insertion
PEER REVIEWloss trace, simultaneously. For 1# transformer, its insertion loss is17too of 21
small to be precisely measured in the capacitive coupling frequency range, so there is an oscillation
in reasonable to regardrange.
the low-frequency it as a straight
In orderline
to in the low-frequency
calculate its effectiverange. Then, using
capacitance, CQ , itformula (11), thetoCQ
is reasonable
of 1#,it2#,
regard as and 3# transformers
a straight line in the are calculated asrange.
low-frequency 0.2 pF,Then,
1.8 pF, andformula
using 4 pF, respectively.
(11), the CQThe trend
of 1#, 2#,of
andcalculation results conforms
3# transformers well with
are calculated as 0.2the
pF,evaluation
1.8 pF, andresults shown in Section
4 pF, respectively. The 5.1.
trend In of
order to further
calculation
verifyconforms
results the effectiveness
well withofthetheevaluation
proposed results
transformer
shown evaluation
in Sectionmethod, the following
5.1. In order to furtherwill measure
verify the
the CM noise
effectiveness spectrums
of the proposed oftransformer
three kindsevaluation
of the transformers.
method, the following will measure the CM noise
spectrums of three kinds of the transformers.

0
1# Transformer
2# Transformer
-20 3# Transformer
Insertion Loss (dB)

-40

-60

-80
20dB/Dec

Capacitive and inductive

-100
Capacitive coupling frequency range coupling frequency range

5 6 7
10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 17. Insertion loss measurement results.

Figure 17. Insertion loss measurement results.
5.3. Noise Spectrum Verification
5.3.InNoise
orderSpectrum
to decoupleVerification
EMI noise into CM noise and DM noise, the traditional measurement method
is to useIna noise separator,
order to decouple which EMIis anoise
voltage measurement
into CM noise and method.
DM However,
noise, thethe current measurement
traditional measurement
method
method is also
is tofeasible. For separator,
use a noise a better and clear is
which understanding, the following
a voltage measurement will introduce
method. However, how
thetocurrent
use
radio frequency (RF) current probe to separate the CM noise from the total EMI
measurement method is also feasible. For a better and clear understanding, the following willnoise. Figure 18 shows
theintroduce
CM current how measurement
to use radio method.
frequencyThe CM
(RF) current
current flowing
probe throughthe
to separate L and
CMN linesfrom
noise are in the
the same
total EMI
direction.
noise. Figure 18 shows the CM current measurement method. The CM current flowing through CM
Therefore, using R & S EZ-17 radio frequency current probe can precisely measure the L and
current
N linesandaretheinmeasured
the samesignal can be
direction. transmitted
Therefore, intoREMI
using & Sreceiver to be frequency
EZ-17 radio transformed into CM
current noise
probe can
spectrum. The test environment is electromagnetic shielding chamber. EMI receiver
precisely measure the CM current and the measured signal can be transmitted into EMI receiver to is R & S ESCI and
LISN is R & S ESH2-Z5.
be transformed into CM noise spectrum. The test environment is electromagnetic shielding chamber.
EMI receiver is R & S ESCI and LISN is R & S ESH2-Z5.
introduce how to use radio frequency (RF) current probe to separate the CM noise from the total EMI
noise. Figure 18 shows the CM current measurement method. The CM current flowing through L and
N lines are in the same direction. Therefore, using R & S EZ-17 radio frequency current probe can
precisely measure the CM current and the measured signal can be transmitted into EMI receiver to
be transformed into CM noise spectrum. The test environment is electromagnetic shielding chamber.
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 18 of 21
EMI receiver is R & S ESCI and LISN is R & S ESH2-Z5.

Figure 18. CM current measurement method.

Figure 18. CM current measurement method.
Figure 19a–b shows the EMI noise spectrums of the CM noise spectrum and the total EMI noise
Figurerespectively.
spectrum, 19a–b showsInthe EMI19a,
Figure noise
thespectrums of the CM
flyback converter noise
with spectrum and
1# transformer canthe total EMI
achieve noise
the lowest
spectrum, respectively. In Figure 19a, the flyback converter with 1# transformer
level of CM noise compared to the 2# transformer and 3# transformer. For higher frequency rangecan achieve the
lowest
(above level of CM
17 MHz), thenoise compared
CM noise to theeffect
attenuation 2# transformer and 3#as
is not so effective transformer. For higher
in low-frequency rangefrequency
due to the
range (above 17 MHz), the CM noise attenuation effect is not so effective as in low-frequency
complex effects of the parasitic parameter. As shown in Figure 17, the transformer in capacitive range
and
inductive coupling frequency range cannot be regarded as a pure capacitance to conduct CM noise.
This is an essential reason for high-frequency CM noise that not easy to be suppressed. In Figure 19b,
the reason why the attenuation effect of the EMI noise in the lower frequency range (below 500 kHz) is
not so evident is that the EMI noise can be decoupled as CM noise and DM noise. Usually, CM noise
contributes more in the higher frequency range, and DM noise also plays a major role in lower frequency
range. Transformer winding design can only attenuate the CM noise flowing through transformer
coupling path, which has nothing to do with the DM noise attenuation. The proposed method can
effectively evaluate the CM noise behavior of the transformer, which is helpful to pass the EMI standard
limited line EN55022 Class B.
Figure 20a,b shows the CM noise flowing direction in transformer coupling path when the static
points of the primary and secondary winding are shorted together. It can find the CM noise in
transformer coupling path will not flow to the ground and be detected by LISN. Hence, this method
can verify whether the CM noise has been totally eliminated. This method is impractical to be used in
an actual product as this method will make the transformer lose isolation function.
Figure 21 shows the CM noise spectrums when the static points of 1# transformer are shorted.
For this situation, the CM current flowing through transformer coupling path will circulate internally
instead of being detected by LISN and the measured CM noise spectrums can verify whether the
transformer is well designed. It can find that the CM noise spectrum with 1# transformer is almost the
same as that with shorting the static points. For this experiment result, it can prove that 1# transformer
evaluated by the proposed method has a minimal peak to peak value of the voltage shown in Figure 14.
Besides, it also can achieve near zero CM noise flowing through transformer coupling path.
frequency range (below 500 kHz) is not so evident is that the EMI noise can be decoupled as CM noise
and DM noise. Usually, CM noise contributes more in the higher frequency range, and DM noise also
plays a major role in lower frequency range. Transformer winding design can only attenuate the CM
noise flowing through transformer coupling path, which has nothing to do with the DM noise
attenuation. The proposed method can effectively evaluate the CM noise behavior of the transformer,
Energies 2019, 12, 1984 19 of 21
which is helpful to pass the EMI standard limited line EN55022 Class B.

1MHz 10MHz
50
dBµA
PK 40

30 3# 2#
20

10

-10
1#
150kHz 30MHz

(a)
1MHz 10MHz
70
dBµV
PK 60 3#
2#
EN5502 Class B
50

40

30

20 1#
10
150kHz 30MHz
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 21
(b)
shown in Figure 14. Besides, it also can achieve near zero CM noise flowing through transformer
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Conductive
Conductive electromagnetic
electromagnetic interference
interference (EMI)
(EMI) noise
noise spectrum.
spectrum. (a)
(a) CM
CM noise
noise spectrums.
spectrums.
coupling
(b)
path.
(b) Total noise spectrums.
Total noise spectrums.
The resistor R2 with 10k Ω is recommended to sample the CM voltage in the proposed method.
Figure 20a,b shows the CM noise flowing direction in transformer coupling path when the static
points of the primary and secondary winding SG are shorted together. It can findCspthe CMSGnoise in
transformer coupling path will not flow to the ground and be detected by LISN. Hence, this method
UD
can verify whether the CM noise has been totally eliminated. This method is impractical to be used
in an actual product asips this method will make the transformer lose isolation
ips function.
Figure 21 shows the CM noise spectrums when the static points of 1# transformer are shorted.
Csp
For this situation, the CM current
Cps
flowing through transformer coupling path will circulate internally
Cps
instead of being detected by LISN and UDS2the measured CM noise spectrums can verify whether the
UDS1 UDS1
LISN

LISN

transformer25 Ω
is well designed. It can find that the CM noise 25 spectrum
Ω withC1#
pg
ipg
transformer is almost
the same as that with shorting the static points. For this experiment result, it can prove that 1#
PG PG
transformer evaluated by the proposed method has a minimal peak to peak value of the voltage
Ground Ground

(a) (b)
Figure 20.
Figure 20. Shorting
Shorting the
the static points of
static points of the
the primary
primary and
and secondary
secondary windings.
windings. (a)
(a)The
The flyback
flyback converter
converter
with synchronous
with synchronous rectification.
rectification. (b)
(b) The
The flyback
flyback converter
converter with
with diode
diode rectification.
rectification.

1MHz 10MHz
50
dBµA
PK 40

30
shorting
20

10

-10
1#
 PG PG
Ground Ground

(a) (b)
Figure
Energies 2019, 20. Shorting the static points of the primary and secondary windings. (a)The flyback converter
12, 1984 20 of 21
with synchronous rectification. (b) The flyback converter with diode rectification.

1MHz 10MHz
50
dBµA
PK 40

30
shorting
20

10

-10
1#
150kHz 30MHz

Figure 21. CM noise spectrums.

Figure 21. CM noise spectrums.
The resistor R2 with 10k Ω is recommended to sample the CM voltage in the proposed method.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
This paper proposes a general transformer CM noise behavior evaluation method. Only a signal
This paper
generator and anproposes a general
oscilloscope transformer
can come close toCM noise behavior
achieving the sameevaluation
evaluationmethod.
effects asOnly a signal
in previous
generator and an oscilloscope can come close to achieving the same evaluation effects as in
references.
previous
This references.
evaluation method has multiple benefits:
This evaluation method has multiple benefits:
1. The measurement instruments are cheaper compared with professional EMI measurement
1. instruments,
The measurement and manyinstruments
transformeraremanufactures
cheaper compared withuse
can easily professional
this evaluationEMImethod.
measurement
2. Theinstruments,
evaluation and many can
method transformer manufactures
put the voltage can
potential easily use this
distribution evaluation
of the primary method.
and secondary
2. winding into consideration,
The evaluation method can which
put thecan reflect
voltage the CM distribution
potential noise behavior of the
of the transformer.
primary and secondary
winding into consideration, which can reflect the CM noise behavior of the transformer.
There are some key parts that should be pointed out:
There are some key parts that should be pointed out:
3. The resistance of R2 should be chosen appropriately.
4.
1. TheThe voltage
resistancepotential difference
of R2 should between
be chosen the primary ground and the secondary ground can
appropriately.
2. make a difference to the lumped equivalent
The voltage potential difference between the CMprimary
noise capacitance
ground and of the
the secondary
transformer. ground can
5. Sinusoidal signal source is recommended as an excitation to be applied
make a difference to the lumped equivalent CM noise capacitance of the transformer. on the primary winding.
6.
3. The proposed
Sinusoidal evaluation
signal method
source is can effectively
recommended evaluate the
as an excitation CM
to be noise behaviors
applied of transformer
on the primary winding.
4. only in capacitive coupling frequency range.
The proposed evaluation method can effectively evaluate the CM noise behaviors of transformer
only in capacitive coupling frequency range.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: W.C., S.L.; Investigation, Validation, and Formal Analysis: K.F.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant 5177036
and the Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province (2017J01479).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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