UNIT -II

ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS AND POWER

FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
 ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

 In a commercial building, lighting is predominant user of as it is on for a major

portion of a day.

 However, electric motor driving pumps and air-handling fans may also operate
for a larger part of the time or even continuously.

 Therefore in industry, power used by electric motors and other processes

generally will be the larger user of electric power, although lighting is still a major
consumer.

 “Energy-Efficient motors cost more than motor first cost (Standard Motor)”.

 On a life cycle basis, electric motor efficiency can be far more important than
motor first cost.

 During the period from 1960 to 1975, electric motors, particularly those in the 1
to 250-hp range, were designed for minimum first cost.
 The amount of active material, i.e., lamination steel, copper or aluminum or
magnet wire, and rotor aluminum, was selected as the minimum levels required
meeting the performance requirements of the motor.

 Efficiency was maintained at levels high enough to meet the temperature rise
requirements of the particular motor.

 As a consequence, depending on the type of enclosure and ventilation system, a

wide range in efficiencies exists for standard NEMA (National Electrical
Manufacturers Association) design B poly-phase motors.

 The minimum efficiency is the lowest level of efficiency to be expected when a

motor is marked with the nominal efficiency in accordance with the NEMA
standard.

 This method of identifying the motor efficiency takes into account variations in
materials, manufacturing processes, and test results in motor-to-motor efficiency
variations for a given motor design.

 The nominal efficiency represents a value that should be used to compute the
energy consumption of a motor or group of motors. For example, a standard 10-hp
electric motor may have an efficiency range of 81–88%.
 At 81% efficiency,

At 88% efficiency,

 Therefore, for the same output the input can range from 8477 W to 9210 W,
or an increase in energy consumption and power costs of 8%, to operate the less
efficient motor.
 WHY MORE EFFICIENT MOTORS

 The escalation in the cost of electric power that began in 1972 made it
increasingly expensive to use inefficient electric motors.

From 1972 through 1979, electric power rates increased at an average annual rate
of 11.5% per year.

From 1979 to the present, the electric power rates have continued to increase at
an average annual rate of 6% per year.

The annual electric power cost to operate a 10-hp motor 4000 hr/yr increased
from $850 in 1972 to $1950 in 1980 and to over $2500 by 1989.

By 1974, electric motor manufacturers were looking for methods to improve
three-phase induction motor efficiencies to values above those for standard NEMA
design B motors.
 Unfortunately, there is no single definition of an energy effective motor.

Similarly, there are no efficiency standards for stand NEMA design B poly-
phase induction motors.

Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are
incorporated specifically to increase operating efficiency over motors of standard
design (see Figure).

Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor improvements focus on

reducing intrinsic motor losses.

Improvements include the use of lower loss silicon steel, a longer core (to
increase active material), thicker wires (to reduce resistance), thinner laminations,
smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of aluminum bars in the
rotor, superior bearings and a smaller cooling fan, etc.,
 STANDARD (vs) HIGH EFFICIENCY MOTORS
(Typical 3- Induction Motor)

100

90
Efficiency (%)

80

70
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181
Motor Rating (KW)
 Energy-efficient motors operate with efficiencies that are typically 4 to 6%
higher than the standard motors.

 In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS, energy-efficient motors are

designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75% and 100% of
rated capacity.

 This may result in major benefits in varying load applications.

 The power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard motors.

 Furthermore, energy-efficient motors have lower operating temperatures and

noise levels, greater ability to accelerated higher-inertia loads, and are less affected
by supply voltage fluctuations.

 Energy-efficient motors, also called premium or high- efficiency motors, are 2

to 8% more efficient than standard motors.

 Motors qualify as "energy-efficient" if they meet or exceed the efficiency

levels listed in the National Electric Manufacturers Association's (NEMA's).
 Energy-efficient motors owe their higher performance to key design
improvements and more accurate manufacturing tolerances.

 Lengthening the core and using lower-electrical-loss steel, thinner stator

laminations, and more copper in the windings reduce electrical losses.

 Improved bearings and a smaller, more aerodynamic cooling fan further increase
efficiency.

 Energy-efficient motors generally have longer insulation and bearing lives,

lower heat output, and less vibration.

 In addition, these motors are often more tolerant of overload conditions and
phase imbalance.

 This results in low failure rates, which has prompted most manufacturers to offer
longer warranties for their energy-efficient lines.

 Purchasing an energy-efficient motor can dramatically cut energy costs.

The advantages are,
 Saves energy and money

 Near uniform efficiency from 50% to 100% of full load

ensuring energy savings even at part load conditions also

 Short payback period

 Substantial savings after payback period

 The applications of an energy efficient motor are specially suited for industries
which are power intensive and equipments which run on constant load for long
duration.
 FACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENCY AND LOSS
DISTRIBUTION

 Motor efficiency is simply of the watts output divided by the watts input.

 This is better expressed as the watts output minus the losses, divided by the watts
input.

 The only way to improve efficiency is to reduce motor losses.

 The components of motor losses can be broadly defined as no-load and load
losses.
AC motor is shown in below as,
Percentage Motor Component’s Loss:
 Description of Motor component’s Losses:
Copper Loss:
Depends on the effective resistance of motor winding:
- Caused by the current flowing through it.
- Is equal to I²R
- Proportional to Load.
- Is equal to I²R + Rotor I²R Loss.
Iron Loss:
Depending on the magnetic structure of the core and results from a
combination of hysterisis and eddy current effect due to changing magnetic fields
in the motor’s core
- Voltage Related.
- Constant for any particular motor irrespective of load.
Friction and Windage loss:
- Occurs due to the friction in the bearing of the motor.
- The windage loss of the ventilation fan, other rotating element of the
motor.
- Depend on the bearing size, speed type of bearing, lubrication used
and fan blade profile.
- Constant for given speed irrespective of load.
Stray Loss:
It is very complex and Load related.
- Arises from harmonics and circulating current.
- Manufacturing process variations can also add to stray losses arises
from harmonics and circulating current.
- Manufacturing process variations can also add to stray losses.
 SUMMARY OF LOSS DISTRIBUTION

Energy Efficient Motors

 Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load
efficiencies are higher by 3-7%.

 The mounting dimensions are also maintained as per IS1231 to enable easy
replacement.

 As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the costs of energy-

efficient motors are higher than those of standard motors by about 30%.

 The higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved operating costs,
particularly in new applications or end-of-life motor replacements.

 In cases where existing motors have not reached the end of their useful life,
the economics will be less positive.

 Because the favorable economics of energy-efficient motors are based on

savings in operating costs, there may be certain cases which are economically ill-
suited to energy-efficient motors.
 These include highly intermittent duty or special torque applications such as
hoists and cranes, traction drives, punch presses, machine tools, and centrifuges.

 In addition, energy efficient designs of multi-speed motors are generally not

available.

 Further, energy-efficient motors are not yet available for many special
applications, e.g. for flame-proof operation in oil-field or fire pumps or for very
low speed applications (below 750 rpm).

 Also, most energy-efficient motors produced today are designed only for
continuous duty cycle operation.

 Given the tendency of over-sizing on the one hand and ground realities like:
Voltage, Frequency variations, efficacy of rewinding in case of a burnout, on the
other hand, benefits of EEMs can be achieved only by careful selection,
implementation, operation and maintenance efforts of energy managers.
 Summary of energy efficiency improvements in EEMs is given in the
following Table.

 Within a limited range, the various motor losses discussed are independent
of each other.

 However, in trying to make major improvements in efficiency, one finds

that the various losses are very dependent.

 The final motor design is a balance among several losses to obtain a high
efficiency and still meet other performance criteria, including locked-rotor
torque, locked-rotor amperes, breakdown torque, and the power factor.
Table: Energy Efficient Motors
 CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS

The efficiency of energy efficient motors is higher due to the following

constructional features are,

1) By increasing the amount of copper in the motor (>60%) which reduces the
resistance loss in the winding & temperature rise. Performance improves because
of increased thermal mass.

2) Use of more & thinner laminations of high quality motor steel reduces core
losses in the stator and rotor.

3) Narrowing of air gap between stator and rotor increases the intensity of
magnetic flux, thereby improving the motor ability to deliver the same torque at
reduced power. Increasing the length of the stator and rotor increases the net flux
linkages in the air gap to the same effect.

4) More complex rotor bar designs enable good starting torque with efficient
full speed operation.

5) Improved overall design reduces windage losses and stray load losses.
 APPLICATIONS

 Energy efficient motors hold their efficiency better at part loads enhancing their
advantage over standard motors.

 Economic benefits of installing energy efficient motors can be recognized in

three situations:
• In a new application (plant expansion)
• In lieu of rewinding of failed motors
• Proactive replacement for in-service standard motors

 Energy efficient motors are more cost effective than standard motors in the
above cases.

 Efficiency of EEMs is 4-6% higher compared to the efficiency of standard

motors.

 Energy efficient motors run cooler, and therefore have potentially longer life
than their standard efficiency counterparts.
 CHARACTERISTICS - VARIABLE SPEED, VARIABLE
DUTY CYCLE SYSTEMS
 The single most potent source of energy savings in induction motor system lies
not in the motor, but rather in the controls that govern its operation.

 Adjustable speed, intelligent controls and other ways of modifying or

controlling motor behavior hold great promise for improving performance and
efficiency in drive systems.

 Controlling motor speed to correspond to load requirements provides many

benefits, including increased energy efficiency and improved power factor.

 Adjustable speed capability can significantly improve productivity of many

manufacturing processes by reducing scrap, enabling quality manufacturing
during transition times and allowing more control over start up and shut down.
Following are the benefits of variable speed drives (VSD):

1) Matching motor and load to the output

2) Improved power factor

3) Improved process precision

4) Faster response

5) Extend operating range

6) increased production & flexibility

7) Improved tool life.

8) Electrical isolation
In addition, the basis of rating specifies the type of duty:
• Continuous duty

• Intermittent duty

• Varying duty

 It is desirable to use standard motors for as many different applications as

possible.

Consequently, general-purpose continuous rated motors should be used when

• The peak momentary overloads do not exceed 75% of the breakdown
torque
• The root-mean-square (rms) value of the motor losses over an extended
period of time does not exceed the losses at the service factor rating

 The duration of any overload does not raise the momentary peak temperature
above a value safe for the motor’s insulation system
 In many applications, the load imposed on the driving motor varies from no
load to a peak load.

 When the motor load fluctuates, the temperature rise of the motor fluctuates.

 When there is a definite repeated load cycle, the motor size selection can be
based on the rms value of motor losses for the load cycle.

 However, normally, the losses at each increment of the load cycle are not
available to the user.

 Therefore, a good approximation for the motor size selection can be based on
the rms horsepower for the load cycle.

 The rms horsepower is then defined as that equivalent steady-state

horsepower that would result in the same temperature rise as that of the defined
load cycle.

 When making the rms calculation, it is assumed that, when the motor is
running, the heat dissipation is 100% effective.
 RMS HORSEPOWER (RMS HP)

 The root-mean-square (RMS) value of the horsepower over one cycle can be
calculated to estimate the possible heating effect on the motor.

 The RMS horsepower is the square root of the sums of the horsepower squared,
multiplied by the time per horsepower; divided by the sums of all the time intervals.

 To determine the RMS load on the motor, use the following equation:
 Example…
To properly size a motor for varying, repetitive duty, you will need to know the
duration and horsepower load for each. It is helpful to develop a graph showing the
required horsepower vs. time, as shown in Fig. 1, as well as a visual that lists each
time and horsepower, using the RMS horsepower for this example gives the
following result:
 VOLTAGE VARIATION-VOLTAGE UNBALANCE

Voltage variation:-
 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standard recognizes
the effect of voltage and frequency variation on electric motor performance.

 The standard recommends that the voltage deviation from the motor rated
voltage not exceed 10% at the rated frequency.

 The rated motor voltage has been selected to match the utilization voltage
available at the motor terminals.

 This voltage allows for the voltage drop in the power distribution system and
for voltage variation as the system load changes.
The basis of the NEMA standard rated motor voltages for three phase 60 Hz
induction motors is as follows:
 Voltage unbalance:-
 Voltage unbalance can be more detrimental than voltage variation to motor
performance and motor life.

 When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not equal
in magnitude and phase angle, unbalanced currents in the stator windings will
result.

 A small percentage voltage unbalance will produce a much larger percentage

current unbalance.

 Some of the causes of voltage unbalance are the following:

1) An open circuit in the primary distribution system.

2) A combination of single phase and three phase loads on the same

distribution system, with the single phase loads unequally distributed.
 Percentage Voltage Unbalance is defined by NEMA as 100 times the deviation of
the line Voltage from the average voltage divided by the average voltage.

If the measured voltages are 420, 430 and 440V, the average is 430V and the
deviation is 10V.

The Percentage Unbalance is given by,

 Voltage unbalance is defined as the NEMA as 100 times the absolute value of the
maximum deviation of the line voltage from the average voltage on a three phase
system divided by the average voltage.
OVER MOTORING:-

 “Rating of motor is higher than the required rating of the motor is called over
motoring”.

 In many instances, the practice has been to over motor an application, i.e., to
select a higher horsepower motor than necessary.

 The disadvantages of this practice are,

• Lower efficiency

• Lower power factor

• Higher motor cost

• Higher controller cost

• Higher installation costs.

 MOTOR ENERGY AUDIT
 The Electrical Motor Energy Audit is the collection of actual electrical motor
load data including: voltage, current, active power, total power, reactive power, and
power factor under normal operating conditions.

 Average Energy Conservation ranges from 3 -35% depending on motor load

conditions and will always be dependent upon the load.

 Motor applications that are under loaded or oversized have more electrical
losses and therefore more potential for Energy Conservation and dollar savings.

 If necessary an additional Electrical Motor Energy Audit can be conducted

following Implementation to verify the actual Energy Conservation and dollar
savings.

 The verification process simply entails the collection of an average baseline

motor load sample (before process) followed by another comparable average motor
load sample with the ECI method (after process), and the evaluation of the
difference.

 Energy Conservation is realized immediately upon Implementation.

The process of electric motor management as,
• Save energy

• Reduce operating costs

• Minimize downtime

• Increase productivity.
 POWER FACTOR

The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of

the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit.

(or)

Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power (kw) to the apparent power
(kvA) and cosine of the angle by which the current lags (or leads) the voltage.
 It is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the
circuit for performing work in a particular time.

 Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit.

 Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-
linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power will be greater than the real power.

 In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current
than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power
transferred.

 The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and
require larger wires and other equipment.

 Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities
will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there
is a low power factor.
 Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be
corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors.

 Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system.
In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract
the distortion and raise the power factor.

 The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation,
spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment.

 AC power flow has the three components: real power (also known as active
power) (P), measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in volt-
amperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes (var).

 The power factor is defined as: active power/apparent power

 In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed
as vectors that form a vector triangle such that:

If φ is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power
factor is equal to the cosine of the angle, |cosφ|, and:

 Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless
number between 0 and 1.

 When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored
energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle.

 When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by
the load.

 Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the
phase angle.
 METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT

 The most practical and economical power factor improvement device is the
capacitor.

 As stated previously, all inductive loads produce inductive reactive power

(lagging by a phase angle of 90°).

 Capacitors on the other hand produce capacitive reactive power, which is the
exact opposite of inductive reactive power.

 In this instance, the current peak occurs before the voltage peak, leading by a
phase angle of 90°.

 By careful selection of capacitance required, it is possible totally cancel out the

inductive reactive power when placed in circuit together.

 To prevent the continual flow of reactive current back and forth between the
load and power station, a capacitor, which is in effect a reactive current storage
device, is connected in parallel with the load.
 The reactive current supplied by the power station and used for the magnetic
force when the load is switched on does not now return to the power station but
instead flows into the capacitor and merely circulates between the latter and the
load.

 Consequently the distribution lines from the power station are relieved of the
reactive current.

 Capacitors can therefore be utilized to reduce kVA and electrical costs.

 Improved power factor results in:

1. Reduced kVA charges
2. Improved plant efficiency
3. Additional loads can be added to the system
4. Reduced overloading of cables, transformers, switchgear, etc.
5. Improved starting torque of motors
6. Reduce fuel requirements to generate power due to lower
losses.
 Cosϕ1 is the kVA used before Power Factor Improvement equipment was added
to the network.

 Cosϕ2 is the kVA used after Power Factor improvement equipment was added to
the network.
 LOCATION OF CAPACITORS

 In general, capacitor banks are installed in power systems for voltage

support, power factor correction, reactive power control, loss reduction, system
capacity increase, and billing charge reduction.

 This process involves determining capacitor size, location, control method,

and connection type (star or Delta).

 The main effort usually is to determine capacitor size and location for
voltage support and power factor correction.

 Secondary considerations are harmonics and switching transients.

 Any installation including the following types of machinery or equipment
is likely to have low power factor which can be corrected, with a consequent saving
in charges, by way of reduced demand charges, lesser low power factor penalties:
1. Induction motors of all types (which from by far the greatest industrial
load on a. c. mains).

2. Power thyristor installation (for d.c. motor control and electro-chemical

processes).

3. Power transformers and voltage regulators.

4. Welding machines

5. Electric-arc and induction furnaces.

6. Choke coils and magnetic system.

7. Neon sins and fluorescent lighting.

There are different methods for determining capacitor size and location.
1. The most common method (intuitive) is based on rules of thumb followed by
running multiple load flow studies for fine-tuning the size and location. This method
may not yield the optimal solution and can be very time consuming and impractical
for large systems.

2. The second method is to use the ETAP Optimal Power Flow (OPF) program to
optimize the capacitor sizes based on the candidate locations selected by the
engineer. This method requires per-selected locations, since OPF can optimize the
capacitor sizes but not the locations.

3. The most effective method is to use the Optimal Capacitor Placement (OCP)
program to optimize capacitor sizes and locations with cost considerations. OCP
employs a genetic algorithm, which is an optimization technique based on the
theory of nature selection. OCP uses the “Present worth Method” to do alternative
comparisons. It considers initial installation and operating costs, which includes
maintenance, depreciation, and interest rate.
Two methods of improving power factor using capacitors are:
a) Individual motor compensation (static capacitors)
b) Centralized compensation (automatic capacitor banks)

a) Individual Motor Compensation:-

 Most effective correction is obtained by connecting individual capacitors
directly to the terminals of each motor.

 The motor and capacitor can be controlled jointly by the motor switchgear.

 The capacitor rating should be matched as closely as possible so that the power
factor of the entire plant can be corrected to the optimum value, irrespective of the
number of motors switched on.

 If the magnetizing current is not known, 95% of the motor no-load current can
be used as an approximate value.

 Care should be taken not to exceed the value calculated to avoid dangerous
overvoltages and possible self excitation of motors at switch-off.
 Over compensation can cause higher supply voltages which can cause
consequent break down of motor insulation and flashover at motor terminals.

 To be safe, rather use standard capacitor sizes (as indicated below).

 For this reason, individual motor compensation is not recommended for

motors which are rapidly reversed e.g. cranes, hoists, etc.

b) Centralized Compensation (Automatic Power Factor Correction):-

 In large industrial plants where many motors are generally in use or, when the
main reason for power factor is to obtain lower electricity bills, then centralized
compensation is far more practical and economical than individual motor
compensation.

 In this instance, large banks or racks of capacitors are installed at the main
incoming distribution boards of the plant and are sub-divided into steps which
are automatically switched in or out depending on specific load requirements by
means of an automatic control system, improving the overall power factor of the
network.
 Generally an automatic power factor system consists of:
a) A main load-break isolator (or circuit breaker)

b) An automatic reactive control relay

c) Power factor capacitors backed by suitable fuse protection

d) Suitably rated contactors for capacitor switching

 The automatic reactive control relay monitors the total network and will
switch-in the required capacitor banks at pre-determined intervals compensating
for capacitor discharge times and load dependant requirements.

 As capacitor switching subject’s components to exceptionally high stresses it

is imperative to correctly size and rate all components utilized in a system.
 PF WITH NON LINEAR LOADS

 Applies to those ac loads where the current is not proportional to the voltage.

 Foremost among loads meeting their definition is gas discharge lighting having
saturated ballast coils and thyristor (SCR) controlled loads.

 The nature of non-linear loads is to generate harmonics in the current waveform.

 This distortion of the current waveform leads to distortion of the voltage

waveform.

 Under these conditions, the voltage waveform is no longer proportional to the

current.

 Non Linear Loads are: COMPUTER, LASER PRINTERS, SMPS,

REACTIFIER, PLC, ELECTRONIC BALLAST, REFRIGERATOR, TV ETC.
 EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON P.F

 But for many applications, the classic triangle is oversimplified.

 That’s because it does not take into account the effects of harmonic voltages
and currents found in today’s power-distribution systems.

 Harmonics add a third dimension to the classic power-factor triangle, thereby

increasing the apparent power required to do a particular amount of work.

 The presence of harmonics requires that you change the way you think about–
and the way you measure–power factor.

 When active power is divided by apparent power in the presence of harmonics,

the result is known as total power factor (PF).

 The component of power factor not contributed by harmonics is known as

displacement power factor (DPF).

 Note that PF and DPF are equal in completely linear circuits–such as a 208-V,
3-phase induction motor operating a blower–but are different in non- linear circuits,
for example a variable-frequency drive controlling cooling-tower fans.
 O&M personnel should understand three practical effects of the PF/DPF
definitions:
(1) The difference between PF and DPF readings is proportional to the
degree of harmonics in the power distribution system;
(2) a power meter must provide both PF and DPF readings in order to
effectively troubleshoot systems with harmonics; and
(3) manufacturers of nonlinear equipment often provide only a single
power-factor specification for their equipment, and it may be unclear whether the
specification refers to PF or DPF.

 If PF and DPF differ by a factor of 10% or more, the difference is probably

caused by harmonics.

 The degree of difference may also suggest a course of action, depending on the
types of loads in the system.
Case 1: Predominantly linear systems:-

 When PF and DPF are essentially the same value, motors or other linear loads
dominate the circuit.

 In this case, low power factor can be compensated for with kVAr correction
capacitance.

 Use caution in diagnosing problems involving both low power factor and
harmonics, because kVAr capacitors may be only part of the solution.

 Even in systems with low levels of harmonics, kVAr capacitors applied

improperly can cause resonant conditions that can lead to overvoltages.
Case 2: Predominantly nonlinear systems:-

 When PF is significantly lower than DPF correct low power factor by applying
line reactors directly to the sources of harmonic current or by using kVAr capacitor
networks with series inductors to limit harmonic current in the capacitors.

 Always exercise caution in the use of kVAr correction capacitors and

compensating filters to avoid resonance problems at harmonic frequencies and
consult the capacitor manufacturer or an expert in filter design.
Case 3: Systems with kVAr capacitors already installed:-

 When variable-frequency drives are added to existing motors, and kVAr

correction capacitors are already installed, DPF can actually be overcorrected,
causing current to lead voltage.

 Without system modifications, these new components might cause instability

and overvoltage problems.

 Under these conditions take readings in the circuit to determine whether it is

necessary to remove the kVAr correction capacitors.
 P.F MOTOR CONTROLLERS
 Electric motor savings are achieved in several ways.

 The first is in the motor design itself, through the use of better materials,
design, and construction.

 Another is by optimizing the mechanical angle between the various rotating

magnetic fields inside the motor.

 This is done using the newer family of motor control algorithms, generally
referred to together as space vector control, flux vector control, or field-
oriented control.

 By keeping the magnetic fields of the rotor and stator oriented with the
optimal angles between them under various speed and torque conditions
(typically near 90 degrees), the motor can always be operated at peak
efficiency.
 As a side benefit, other characteristics can also be optimized, such as fast and
stable dynamic response to load changes, precise control of speed or torque, soft
starting and braking, prevention of stalling at low speeds, high starting torques, and
fault detection; often without sacrificing much in the way of overall energy
efficiency.

 Some of these features were once obtainable only from a more expensive motor
type, but can be achieved with the now ubiquitous, low-cost, and reliable AC
induction motor, which comprises 90 percent of U.S. motor sales.

 One of the most significant advantages of the newer control algorithms is

efficient variable speed operation.