PHD510, Sridhar Sahu, IIT(ISM) Dhanbad

Mathematical prerequisites:
✓ Mechanism of state vectors in Hilber space
✓ Dirac notations and manipulations
✓ Matrix representation and transformation of state vector and operators
✓ Inner product, outer product and direct or tensor product
✓ Pauli’s spin matrices
QUBITS:
A qubit is a quantum relative of a classical randomly fluctuating one-bit register. Or simply,
the quantum analog of classical bit. It is the simplest nontrivial quantum system. The basic
difference between bit and qubit is that in the former either 0 or 1 of binary set can be
processed at a time whereas in the later 0 and 1 can be both processed simultaneously.
As is the case with randomly fluctuating 1-bit registers, there are also many possible physical
embodiments of a qubit. Qubits can be “natural”; for example, a neutron placed in a very
strong uniform magnetic field of about 12 T is a natural qubit—
Qubits can be engineered, too; for example, the quantronium circuit that is designed using
Cooper pair box based on the principle of superconductivity, makes an excellent qubit.

Mathematically a qubit is defined as a two-state computational basis vector defined in Hilbert

space. i.e

|0⟩ ≡ (1) and |1⟩ ≡ (0)

0 1
From the superposition principle, any state of the qubit or, in general, an arbitrary state vector
in the computational basis may be written as
|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩
Where 𝛼, 𝛽 are complex number, whose squire represents the probability of finding |𝜓⟩ in
one of the computational bases if measured.
The normalization condition demands that
|𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1
Of course, the above definition of the arbitrary state can be mathematically generalized in n-
dimensional Hilbert space

|𝜓⟩ = ∑ 𝛼𝑖 |𝜑1 𝜑2 … … .⟩

The value of a qubit is an observable which has the Hamilton operator 𝕄 on the Hilbert
space. So if we define
 0 0
𝕄=( ) then the observable in the computational basis will be
0 1
𝛼
〈𝕄〉 = ⟨𝜓|𝕄|𝜓⟩ = (𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 ∗ ) (0 0) (𝛽 ) = 𝛽 2
0 1
This is the probability of the measurement of 𝕄
Geometrical Representation of qubit: Bloch Sphere
Since state vectors are defined only up to a global phase of no physical significance,
one may choose α and 𝛽 real and positive, and the complex part of the state vector is assigned
to its phase. Remember that the concept of phase is only valid if a system demonstrates wave
or quantum behaviour, there is no phase for a deterministic particle behaviour. Therefore, we
can write, in general as
𝜃
𝜃 𝜃 𝑖𝜙 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( )
|𝜓⟩ = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 ( ) |0⟩ + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑒 |1⟩ = ( 2 )
2 2 𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑒 𝑖𝜙
2
with (0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ φ < 2π). The introduction of 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 indicates that even if the amplitude of
𝜋
|0⟩ and |0⟩ are same (𝜃 = ), there should be an inherent phase difference between them.
4

The above equation can also be written in another way as

|𝜓⟩ = 𝑟𝛼 𝑒 𝑖𝜃𝛼 |0⟩ + 𝑟𝛽 𝑒 𝑖𝜃𝛽 |0⟩ so that 𝜃𝛼 − 𝜃𝛽 = 𝜙

Therefore, unlike the classical bit, which can only be set equal to 0 or 1, the qubit resides in a
vector space, parametrized by the continuous variables α and β (or θ and φ). Thus, a
continuum of states is allowed. This contradicts our “classical” way of thinking: according to
our intuition, a system with two states can only be in one state or in the other. So, quantum
mechanics is much more interesting and allows infinitely many other possibilities. At this
stage, one might be tempted to say that a single qubit could be used to store an infinite
amount of information. Actually, we must in general provide infinitely many bits to specify
the complex numbers α and β i.e. infinitely many measurements on identically prepared
single-qubit states are required to obtain α and β
Now the closure relation demands that
2
|𝑟𝛼 |2 + |𝑟𝛽 | = 1

Hence the state |𝜓⟩ as a function of 𝜃 and 𝜙 can be represented on the surface of a sphere of
constant radius defined either by 𝑟𝛼 or 𝑟𝛽 . Mathematically, if we represent

𝑟𝛼 = 𝑟𝛼𝑥 + 𝑖𝑟𝛼𝑦

And 𝑟𝛽 = 𝑟𝛽𝑥 + 𝑖𝑟𝛽𝑦

Then, by closure relation 𝑟𝛼𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝛼𝑦 2 + 𝑟𝛽𝑥 2 + 𝑟𝛽𝑦 2 = 1

 Courtesy: Internet/ResearchGate

Which is a parametric equation of a sphere. This geometrical sphere each point on which
surface defines a state |𝜓⟩ is called Bloch sphere.
𝜃 𝜃 𝜋
So for (in our representation) 2 = 0, 𝜙 = 0; |𝜓⟩ ↔ |0⟩ and 2 = 2 , 𝜙 = 0; |𝜓⟩ ↔ |1⟩ and

𝜃 𝜋 1
= 8 , 𝜙 = 0; |𝜓⟩ ↔ |+⟩ = [|0⟩ + |1⟩] so on represents the superposition state, or, in
2 √2
particular case, called Bell state.
Sometimes, the above mathematics is more elegantly written in terms of what is called Block
vector given by
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑆⃗ = ( 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙 )
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
So that for |𝑆⃗| = 1 : Pure state

And |𝑆⃗| < 1: Mixed state (Represented by points inside the Bloch sphere, and all
such points constitute a Bloch ball.)