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Irrigation Water Quality

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Chapter 5
Irrigation Water Quality

Mohammad Zaman, Shabbir A. Shahid, and Lee Heng

Abstract The quality of irrigation waters differs in various regions, countries and
locations based on how the groundwater has been extracted and used, the rainfall
intensity and subsequent aquifer recharge. The use of groundwater for agriculture in
hot arid countries where rainfall is scarce leads to increase groundwater salinity and
limits the selection of crops for cultivation. It is therefore important to determine the
irrigation water quality. The concentration and composition of soluble salts in water
determines its quality for irrigation. Four basic criteria for evaluating water quality
for irrigation purposes are described, including water salinity (EC), sodium hazard
(sodium adsorption ratio-SAR), residual sodium carbonates (RSC) and ion toxicity.
Toxicities of boron and chlorides to plants are described. More specifically the
relative tolerance levels of plants to boron is tabulated for easy understanding. The
most important part of this chapter is the modification of water quality diagram of US
Salinity Laboratory Staff published in the year 1954, this diagram does not present
EC over 2250 μS cm-1, however, most of the irrigation waters present salinity levels
higher than 2250 μS cm
1. Therefore, to accommodate higher water salinity levels
the water classification diagram is extended to water salinity of 30,000 μS cm
1
allowing the users of the diagram to place EC values above 2250 μS cm
1. The
salinity and sodicity classes are included in this chapter to provide information for
crop selection and develop salinity and sodicity management options. The proce-
dures for water salinity reduction through blending of different waters and manage-
ment of water sodicity using gypsum are described by giving examples.

Keywords Irrigation · Quality · Salinity · Sodicity · Boron · Chlorides · Toxicities ·

Blending · Gypsum requirement

1 Introduction

Water scarcity is seen as a major constraint to intensify agriculture in a sustainable

manner as an attempt to meet the food requirements of a rapidly growing human
population. The ever increasing human population, climate change due to increased
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and intensification of agriculture, are putting

© International Atomic Energy Agency 2018 113

M. Zaman et al., Guideline for Salinity Assessment, Mitigation and Adaptation Using
Nuclear and Related Techniques, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96190-3_5
114 5 Irrigation Water Quality

severe pressure on the world’s two major non-renewable resources of soil and water,
and thus pose a big challenge to produce sufficient food to meet the current food
demand. The present world population of 7.3 billion people is predicted to grow to
over 9 billion by 2050, with the majority of this population increase occurring in
developing countries, most of which already face food shortages. A 70% increase in
current agricultural productivity will be required to produce sufficient food if these
human population growth predictions prove to be correct. In this context, concerted
efforts are being made globally to improve the effectiveness of water which will be
used for enhancing the production of irrigated crops. Additionally, efforts are also
being made to improve water harvesting and water conservation in rain-fed
agriculture.
The injudicious use of saline/brackish water is all too often associated with the
development of soil salinity, sodicity, ion toxicity, and groundwater pollution.
Because of these negative effects, it is important to have a better understanding of
exactly how the quality of water influences the management of irrigated agriculture,
especially in arid and semi-arid regions.
Salinity, sodicity and ion toxicity are major problems in irrigation waters. In arid
areas, where rainfall does not adequately leach salts from the soil, an accumulation
of salts will occur in the crop’s root-zone. Thus, periodic testing of soils and waters is
required to monitor any change in salt content. Sodicity, the presence of excess
sodium, will result in a deterioration of the soil structure, thereby reducing water
penetration into and through the soil. Toxicity refers to the critical concentration of
some salts such as chloride, boron, sodium and some trace elements, above which
plant growth is adversely affected by those salts.
This chapter addresses several aspects of irrigation water quality and criteria to
determine water quality. It will also cover management issues and soil responses to
the use of irrigation water of varying quality. The information presented in this
chapter is an updated and improved version of an excerpt from an earlier irrigation
water quality manual (Shahid 2004).

2 Quality of Irrigation Water

The concentration and composition of soluble salts in water will determine its quality
for various purposes (human and livestock drinking, irrigation of crops, etc.). The
quality of water is, thus, an important component with regard to sustainable use of
water for irrigated agriculture, especially when salinity development is expected to
be a problem in an irrigated agricultural area.
There are four basic criteria for evaluating water quality for irrigation purposes:
• Total content of soluble salts (salinity hazard)
• Relative proportion of sodium (Na+) to calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+)
ions – sodium adsorption ratio (sodium hazard)
2 Quality of Irrigation Water 115

• Residual sodium carbonates (RSC) – bicarbonate (HCO3
) and carbonate (CO3

2

) anions concentration, as it relates to Ca 2+ plus Mg2+ ions.
• Excessive concentrations of elements that cause an ionic imbalance in plants or
plant toxicity.
In order to achieve the first three important criteria, the following characteristics
need to be determined in the irrigation waters: electrical conductivity (EC), soluble
anions (CO32
, HCO3
, Cl
and SO42
) where Cl
and SO42
are optional and
soluble cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) where K is optional. Finally, boron level must
also be measured. The pH of the irrigation water is not an acceptable criterion of
water quality because the water pH tends to be buffered by the soil, and most crops
can tolerate a wide pH range. A detailed description of the techniques commonly
employed for the analysis of irrigation water is available (USSL Staff 1954; Bresler
et al. 1982).

2.1 Salinity Hazard

Excess salt increases the osmotic pressure of the soil solution, a situation that can
result in a physiological drought condition. Thus, even though the soil in the field
appears to have plenty of moisture, the plants will wilt. This occurs because the plant
roots are unable to take up soil-water due to its high osmotic potential. Thus, water
lost from the plant shoot via transpiration cannot be replenished, and wilting occurs.
The total soluble salts (TSS) content of irrigation water is measured either by
determining its electrical conductivity (EC), reported as micro Siemens per centi-
meter (μS cm
1), or by determining the actual salt content in parts per million (ppm).
Table 5.1 prescribes the guidelines for water use relative to its salt content.

Table 5.1 Salinity hazard of irrigation water (Follett and Soltanpour 2002; Bauder et al. 2011)
Dissolved salt content
Hazard ppm EC (μS cm
1)
None – Water for which no detrimental effects will usually be 500 750
noticed.
Some – Water that may have detrimental effects on sensitive 500–1000 750–1500
crops.
Moderate – Water that may have adverse effects on many crops, 1000–2000 1500–3000
thus requiring careful management practices.
Severe – Water that can be used for salt tolerant plants on 2000–5000 3000–7500
permeable soils with careful management practices.
116 5 Irrigation Water Quality

2.1.1 Modified USSL Staff (1954) Water Salinity Classification

The USSL Staff (1954) water classification diagram does not present an EC over
2250 μS cm
1. However, most of the water used for irrigation purposes possesses
salinity levels which are higher than 2250 μS cm
1. Therefore, in order to accom-
modate higher water salinity levels, Shahid and Mahmoudi (2014) have modified the
USSL Staff (1954) water classification diagram by extending water salinity up to
30,000 μS cm
1 (Fig. 5.1).

100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10000 2 30000

High
Very

30
4

28 C1-S4

C2-S4
26
High
3

24
C3-S4
22
C1-S3 C4-S4
20
-1 0.5
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (millimoles L )
Sodium Hazard

18
C2-S3
Medium

16
2

14
C3-S3
C1-S2
12

10 C2-S2

8 C3-S2
C4-S3
Low

6
1

C1-S1
4
C2-S1 C4-S2

2 C3-S1
C4-S1
0
100 250 750 2250 10000 30000
Cl
as Electrical Conductivity - micro Siemens per cm
s
1 2 3 4
Low Medium High Very High

Salinity Hazard

Fig. 5.1 Diagram for the classification of irrigation waters (USSL Staff 1954; modified by Shahid
and Mahmoudi 2014)
2 Quality of Irrigation Water 117

2.2 Sodium Hazard

The sodium hazard of irrigation water is expressed as the ‘sodium adsorption ratio
(SAR)’. Although sodium contributes directly to the total salinity and may also be
toxic to sensitive crops, such as fruit trees, the main problem with a high sodium
concentration is its effect on the physical properties of soil (soil structure degrada-
tion). It is, thus, recommended to avoid using water with an SAR value greater than
10 (mmoles l
1)0.5, if the water will be the only source of irrigation for long periods.
This recommendation holds even if the total salt content is relatively low. For
example, if the soil contains an appreciable amount of gypsum, SAR value of
10 (mmoles l
1)0.5 can be exceeded. The gypsum content of the soil should, thus,
be determined.
Continued use of water with a high SAR value leads to a breakdown in the
physical structure of the soil – a situation caused by excessive amounts of adsorbed
sodium on soil colloids. This breakdown in the soil physical structure, results in the
dispersion of soil clay and that causes the soil to become hard and compact when
dry, and increasingly impervious to water penetration (due to dispersion and swell-
ing) when wet. Fine textured soils, those high in clay, are especially subject to this
action. When the concentration of sodium becomes excessive (in proportion to
calcium plus magnesium), the soil is said to be sodic. If calcium and magnesium
are the predominant cations adsorbed onto the soil exchange complex, the soil can be
easily tilled and will have a readily permeable granular structure.
The permissible value of the SAR is a function of salinity. High salinity levels
reduce swelling and aggregate breakdown (dispersion), thus promoting water pen-
etration. A high proportion of sodium, however, produces the opposite effect.
Regardless of the sodium content, water with an electrical conductivity (EC) less
than about 200 μS cm
1 causes degradation of the soil structure, promotes soil
crusting and reduces water penetration. Rainfall is the prime example of low salinity
water and rain water will reduce the penetration of water applied subsequently into
soils. It is, thus, important that both the salinity and the sodium adsorption ratio of
the applied water be considered when assessing the potential effects of water quality
on water penetration into soils.

2.3 Carbonates and Bicarbonates Concentration

Waters high in carbonates (CO32
) and bicarbonates (HCO3
) will tend to precip-
itate calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), when the soil
solution becomes concentrated through evapotranspiration. This means that the SAR
118 5 Irrigation Water Quality

value will increase, and the relative proportion of sodium ions will become greater.
This situation, in turn, will increase the sodium hazard of the soil-water to a level
greater than indicated by the SAR value.

2.4 Specific Ion Effects (Toxic Elements)

In addition to salinity and sodium hazards, certain crops may be sensitive to the
presence of moderate to high concentrations of specific ions in the irrigation waters
or soil solution. Many trace elements are toxic to plants at very low concentrations.
Both soil and water testing can help to discover any constituents that might be toxic.
Direct toxicity to crops may result from some specific chemical elements in irriga-
tion water, e.g. boron, chloride, and sodium are potentially toxic to plants. The actual
concentration of an element in water that will cause toxic symptoms varies,
depending on the crop.
When an element is added to the soil through irrigation, it may be inactivated by
chemical reactions. Alternatively, it may buildup in the soil until it reaches a toxic
level. An element at a given concentration in water may be immediately toxic to a
crop. Or, it may require a number of years to accumulate in the soil before it
becoming toxic.

2.4.1 Sodium Toxicity

Sodium toxicity can occur in the form of leaf burn, leaf scorch and dead tissues
running along the outside edges of leaves. In contrast, Cl
toxicity is often seen at
the extreme leaf tip. In tree crops, a sodium concentration (in excess of 0.25–0.5%)
in the leaf tissue is often considered to be a toxic level of sodium. Correct diagnoses
can be made from soil, water and plant tissue analysis.
Three levels of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) (FAO-UNESCO 1973;
Pearson 1960; Abrol 1982), which correspond to three tolerance levels, are defined
as: sensitive (ESP < 15), semi-tolerant (ESP 15–40) and tolerant (ESP > 40). The
crops/plants listed as sensitive include, among others, beans, maize, peas, orange,
peach, mung bean, mash, lentil, gram and cowpea. Semi-tolerant plants include
carrot, clover, lettuce, berseem, oat, onion, radish, rye, sorghum, spinach, tomato,
and tolerant plants include alfalfa, barley, beet, Rhoades grass and Karnal (Kallar)
grass.

2.4.2 Boron Toxicity

Boron is essential to the normal growth of all plants, but the amount required is low.
If it exceeds a certain level of tolerance depending on the crop, then boron may cause
injury. The range between deficiency and toxicity of boron for many crops is narrow.
2 Quality of Irrigation Water 119

Table 5.2 Effects of boron Boron concentration

(B) concentration in irrigation (ppm) Effect on crops
water on crops (Follett and
< 0.5 Satisfactory for all crops
Soltanpour 2002; Bauder et al.
2011) 0.5–1.0 Satisfactory for most crops
1.0–2.0 Satisfactory for semi-tolerant
crops
2.0–4.0 Satisfactory for tolerant crops only

In order to sustain an adequate supply of boron to the plant at least 0.02 ppm of boron
in the irrigation water may be required. However, to avoid toxicity, boron levels in
irrigation water should, ideally, be lower than 0.3 ppm. Higher concentrations of
boron will likely require that the intended crop type must first be evaluated with
respect to its boron tolerance. Although boron toxicity is not a problem in most areas,
it can be an important irrigation water quality parameter. Interestingly, plants grown
in soils high in lime may tolerate higher levels of boron than those grown in
non-calcareous soils.
Boron is weakly adsorbed by soils. Thus, its actual root-zone concentration may
not vary in direct proportion to the degree that boron sourced from the irrigation
water has been concentrated in the plant during growth. Symptoms of boron injury
may include characteristic leaf ‘burning’, chlorosis and necrosis, although some
boron sensitive species do not develop obvious symptoms. Boron toxicity symptoms
first appear on older leaves as yellowing, spotting, or drying of leaf tissues at the tips
and edges. The drying and chlorosis often progresses toward the center of the leaf,
between the veins as boron accumulates over time (Ayers and Westcot 1985).
Irrigation water with boron >1.0 ppm may cause toxicity in boron sensitive crops.
Table 5.2 describes the effects of a range of boron concentrations in irrigation water
on crops (Bauder et al. 2011). The relative tolerance of plants to boron is shown in
Table 5.3.
Boron levels that have developed in the soil water (saturation extract of soils)
through irrigation can have a range of effects on crop yields. Wilcox (1960)
presented three classes of crops with regard to boron toxicity: tolerant (2–4 ppm),
semi-tolerant (1–2 ppm), and sensitive (0.3–1 ppm). Fruit crops are among the most
boron sensitive, and yields of citrus and some stone fruit species are decreased by
boron even at soil solution concentrations less than 0.5 ppm.

2.4.3 Chloride Toxicity

The most common crop toxicity is caused by chlorides in irrigation water. The
chloride (Cl
) anion occurs in all waters; chlorides are soluble and leach readily to
drainage water. Chlorides are necessary for plant growth, though in high
120 5 Irrigation Water Quality

Table 5.3 Relative tolerancea of plants to Boron concentration (ppm) in irrigation water
(cf. Ludwick et al. 1990; Ayers and Westcot 1985)
Less
Very Sensitive sensitive Moderately Moderately Tolerant Very
sensitive < 0.5–0.75 0.75–1.0 sensitive tolerant 4.0–6.0 tolerant >
0.5 ppm ppm ppm 1.0–2.0 ppm 2.0–4.0 ppm ppm 6.0 ppm
Lemon Avocado Garlic Pepper, red Lettuce Tomato Cotton
Blackberry Grapefruit Sweet Pea Cabbage Parsley Asparagus
potato
Orange Sunflower Carrot Celery Beet, red
Apricot Bean Radish Turnip
Peach Sesame Potato Oats
Cherry Strawberry Cucumber Corn
Plum Bean, Clover
kidney
Grape Peanut Squash
Walnut Muskmelon
Onion
Adapted from ‘Salt Tolerance of Plants’ (Maas 1987), In: CRC Handbook of Plant Science in
Agriculture
a
Maximum concentrations tolerated in soil-water or saturation extract without yield or vegetative
growth reduction. Boron tolerance varies depending upon climate, soil conditions and crop varie-
ties. Maximum concentrations in the irrigation water are approximately equal to these values or
slightly less

Table 5.4 Chloride (Cl
) levels of irrigation waters and their effects on crops (cf. Ludwick et al.
1990; Bauder et al. 2011)
Cl
concentration
meq 1
1 ppm Effect on crops
<2 < 70 Generally safe for all plants
2–4 70–140 Sensitive plants usually show slight to moderate injury
4–10 141–350 Moderately tolerant plants usually show slight to substantial injury
> 10 > 350 Can cause severe problems

concentrations they can inhibit plant growth, and can be highly toxic to some plant
species. Water must, thus, be analyzed for Cl
concentration when assessing water
quality. Table 5.4 shows Cl
levels in irrigation water and the effects of Cl
on
crops. In sensitive crops, symptoms occur when Cl
levels accumulate in leaves
(0.3–1.0% on a dry weight basis). Ayers and Westcot (1985) reported that Cl

toxicity on plants appears first at the leaf tips (which is a very common symptom for
chloride toxicity), and progresses from the leaf tip back along the edges as severity of
the toxic effect increases. Excessive necrosis is often accompanied by early leaf drop
or even total plant defoliation.
4 Analysis of Irrigation Water 121

3 Classification of Irrigation Water

Shahid and Mahmoudi (2014) have modified the widely used USSL Staff (1954)
salinity and sodium classification diagram for irrigation water (Fig. 5.1). This
modified diagram is based on the EC (expressed in micro Siemens per cm – μS cm

1
) and the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR).
How to Use the Diagram?
The SAR as shown on y-axis (Fig. 5.1) can be calculated by using the following
formula:

Naþ
SAR ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2þ 
1
2 Ca þ Mg2þ

Where, the concentrations of Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are expressed as milli equiv-
alents per liter (meq l
1). The values of the electrical conductivity given on the
x-axis are expressed in micro Siemens per cm (μS cm
1). The position of the SAR
and EC points determines the quality class assigned to the water.

4 Analysis of Irrigation Water

4.1 Chemical Analyses

The ultimate in water quality data for appraisal of salinity and sodicity includes
complete analyses for all major cations and anions for both irrigation and drainage
waters. Major cations normally include Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. Major anions
normally include CO32
, HCO3
, Cl
and also SO42
(though see discussion below
with regard to sulfate anion measurement).
When complete analyses are provided, it is possible to apply some simple tests for
data consistency. For high quality water analysis, the sum of the cations in meq l
1
should be approximately equal to the sum of anions in meq l
1. If the values are
exactly equal, however, for several water samples, this suggests that some constit-
uents have been estimated by ‘difference’. For example, recent analyses of sulfate
have commonly been determined by difference because of the general unavailability
of a rapid and convenient analytical procedure for measuring sulfate (Bresler et al.
1982). The SO42
estimation is based on the difference between total soluble cations
and the sum of CO32
, HCO3
, and Cl
. In fact, sulfate is not a water constituent
used to measure or determine either of SAR or Residual Sodium Carbonates (RSC).
Thus, sulfate measurement currently has no assigned role in water quality
assessment.
122 5 Irrigation Water Quality

The data from above measurements are, thus, used to calculate the SAR in order
to assess the sodicity hazard of the irrigation water, e.g. by use of Fig. 5.1 to obtain
the water’s sodicity (S) class. The EC, expressed in μS cm
1, will then be used to
obtain the conductivity (C) class of salinity. In addition, Residual Sodium Carbonate
(RSC) can also be measured. These measurements are briefly described below.

4.1.1 EC and Total Salt Concentration

The most important water quality parameter from the standpoint of salinity is the
total concentration of dissolved salts. It is different from ‘total dissolved solids
(TDS)’, a term which carries some ambiguity. The measurement of TDS is much
more tedious than measuring the EC – which is the preferred measure of salinity
(Bresler et al. 1982). A simple meter is used to measure the electrical conductivity
(EC) of both irrigation and drainage waters. Total salt concentration can then be
obtained by using the following relationship for water having EC values between 0.1
and 10 milli Siemens per cm (mS m
1) or dS m
1 (Bresler et al. 1982):
   
Total cations or anions meq l
1 ¼ 10  EC mS cm
1 or dS m
1

Thus, once the concentrations of total cations or anions are known, the sum of
cations or anions represents concentration of total salts contained within any
solution.

4.1.2 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

The tendency of salt solution to produce excessive exchangeable sodium in a soil

must also be considered. A useful index for predicting this tendency is the Sodium
Adsorption Ratio (SAR).
An SAR less than 8 (mmoles l
1)0.5 is considered to be a ‘low sodium’ water
class, i.e. the use of the irrigation water with SAR less than 8 is rated as being safe
with regard to causing sodicity. That said, the prolonged use of class 8 SAR water for
irrigation, when water drainage and leaching is restricted, may cause soils to develop
sodicity. The detrimental effect of SAR also depends on the EC value, and in
Pakistan an SAR of 10 is considered safe level (Kinje 1993).
Adjusted SAR
The significance of SARadj is that under field conditions, and in normal conditions of
irrigation management, the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) value in top soil
is very nearly equal to the adjusted SAR, where pHc is calculated as the pH used in
the Langelier Index of the irrigation water. Ayers and Westcot (1985) presented the
term adjusted SAR (SARadj) as:
5 Conductivity Classes 123

SARadj ¼ SARIW ½1 þ ð8:4
pHcÞ

The Langelier index is based on calculation of the pH which given water would
achieve when in equilibrium with solid-phase calcium carbonates at average CO2
values. This pH, when compared to the initial pH of the water, can be used to predict
whether CaCO3 should precipitate from or be dissolved by the waters as it passes
through calcareous soil (Balba 1995). The pHc is the theoretical pH that water could
have in equilibrium with CaCO3.

4.1.3 Residual Sodium Carbonates (RSC)

There is another approach which is empirical in nature (Eaton 1950). It has been
widely used to predict the additional sodium hazard which is associated with CaCO3
and MgCO3 precipitation, and involves a calculation of the residual sodium carbon-
ates (RSC). This approach is based on the equation:
     2þ 
RSC meq l
1 ¼ CO2


3 þ HCO3
Ca þ Mg2þ

Where, all the concentrations are in meq l
1. The ranges of RSC in meq l
1 with
respect to water suitability for irrigation are shown in Table 5.5.

5 Conductivity Classes (USSL Staff 1954)

There are four salinity classes, low, medium, high and very high, as presented in
Table 5.6.

5.1 Low Salinity Water (Salinity Class C1)

It can be used for irrigation of most crops on most soils with little likelihood that soil
salinity will develop. Some leaching will be required for salinity Class C1 water, but

Table 5.5 Residual sodium carbonates (RSC) and suitability of water for irrigation (Eaton 1950;
Wilcox et al. 1954)
RSC (meq l
1) Suitability of water for irrigation
< 1.25 Safe
1.25–2.50 Marginal
> 2.5 Unsuitable
124 5 Irrigation Water Quality

Table 5.6 Salinity classes of irrigation waters (USSL Staff 1954)

Salinity of irrigation water – EC (μS cm
1) Salinity class Salinity hazard
100–250 C1 Low
250–750 C2 Medium
750–2250 C3 High
> 2250 C4 Very high

this occurs under normal irrigation practices, except for soils with extremely low
permeability.

5.2 Medium Salinity Water (Salinity Class C2)

It can be used if a moderate amount of leaching can occur. Plants with moderate salt
tolerance can be grown in most cases without special practices for salinity control.

5.3 High Salinity Water (Salinity Class C3)

It cannot be used on soils which possess restricted drainage and, thus, poor leaching
abilities. Even with adequate drainage, special management for salinity control may
be required and plants with good salt tolerance should always be selected.

5.4 Very High Salinity Water (Salinity Class C4)

It is not suitable for irrigation under ordinary conditions, but may be used occasion-
ally under very special circumstances. Here, the soils must be permeable, drainage
must be adequate to good and irrigation water must be applied in excess in order to
provide considerable leaching. Only very salt tolerant crops should be selected.

6 Sodicity Classes (USSL Staff 1954)

The classification of irrigation waters with respect to sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
is based primarily on the effects which exchangeable sodium accumulation has on
the physical conditions of the soil. However, it should be kept in mind that sodium
6 Sodicity Classes 125

sensitive plants may still suffer injury (as a result of sodium accumulation in plant
tissues) even when exchangeable sodium values in soil-water are too low to bring
about a deterioration of the physical condition of the soil.

6.1 Low Sodium Water (Sodicity Class S1)

It can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of the soil
developing harmful levels of exchangeable sodium. However, sodium sensitive
crops such as stone fruit trees and avocados may accumulate injurious concentra-
tions of sodium.

6.2 Medium Sodium Water (Sodicity Class S2)

It will present an appreciable sodium hazard in fine textured soils which have high
cation exchange capacity, especially under low leaching conditions, unless gypsum
is present in the soil. Sodicity class S2 water may be used in coarse textured or
organic soils with good permeability.

6.3 High Sodium Water (Sodicity Class S3)

It may produce harmful levels of exchangeable sodium in most soils. Its use will
require special soil management methods, good drainage, a high leaching ability and
high organic matter conditions. Gypsiferous soils, however, may not develop harm-
ful levels of exchangeable sodium from such waters. Management methods may
require use of chemical amendments which encourage the replacement of exchange-
able sodium. That said, use of those amendments may not be feasible with waters of
very high salinity.

6.4 Very High Sodium Water (Sodicity Class S4)

It is generally unsatisfactory for irrigation purposes except at low and perhaps

medium salinity. Specifically, where the soil water solution is rich in calcium or
the use of gypsum or other soil amendments may make the use of sodicity class S4
irrigation water feasible. Irrigation water sodicity classes and their hazards are given
in Table 5.7.
126 5 Irrigation Water Quality

Table 5.7 Sodicity classes of irrigation water (USSL Staff 1954)

SAR of irrigation water (mmoles l
1)0.5 Sodicity class Sodicity hazard
< 10 S1 Low
10–18 S2 Medium
18–26 S3 High
> 26 S4 Very high

Sometimes the irrigation water may dissolve sufficient calcium from calcareous
soils to decrease the sodium hazard appreciably, and this should be taken into
account using salinity class C1 – sodicity class S3 and salinity class C1 – sodicity
class S4 irrigation waters. For calcareous soils with high pH values, or for
non-calcareous soils, the sodium status of irrigation water in salinity class C1 –
sodicity class S3, salinity class C1 – sodicity class S4, and salinity class C2 –
sodicity class S4 may be improved by the addition of gypsum through lining of
irrigation channels with gypsum stones or the sodium hazard may be countered by
applying gypsum to the soil periodically. This is especially applicable when salinity
class C2 – sodicity class S3 and salinity class C3 – sodicity class S2 irrigation water
is used.

7 Improvement of Irrigation Water Quality

There are a number of ways to improve water quality, with regard to salinity and
sodicity hazards, prior to using for irrigation purposes. Most commonly used
practices are described below.

7.1 Blending Water

The saline/brackish water quality can be improved if an alternate source of good

quality water is available. The desired water salinity level, depending upon the crop
to be irrigated, can be derived by a standard calculation procedure.
Example
A blend is made with 50% fresh water (EC 0.25 dS m
1) with 50% brackish water
(EC 3.9 dS m
1). The resulting EC of the blended water would be:
ECðblended waterÞ ¼ ðEC of fresh water  mixing ratioÞþ
ðEC of brackish water  mixing ratioÞ ¼ ð0:25  0:50Þ þ ð3:90  0:50Þ
¼ 0:125 þ 1:95 ¼ 2:075dS m
1
8 Water Sodicity Mitigation 127

7.2 Blending Water to Achieve a Desired Salinity

The desired water salinity can be achieved (by mixing two waters of known salinity)
to irrigate a specific crop based on the threshold salinity. In this case, it is necessary
to know what ratio of the two waters will be used to achieve the desired salinity.
Example
A blend is to be made of two waters, fresh (0.25 dS m
1) with brackish (20 dS m
1).
Thus, we need to know ‘in what ratio these two waters are to be mixed’ to achieve a
desired resultant water salinity of 8 dS m
1.
Let us assume that we need to develop a final volume of 2 liters of the resultant
water with a salinity of 8 dS m
1.
A standard formula can be used : C1V1 ¼ C2V2

Where,
C1 ¼ 20 dS m
1
V1 ¼ unknown volume of the brackish water
C2 ¼ 7.75 dS m
1 or desired water salinity (8–0.25 ¼ 7.75)
V2 ¼ 2 liters or 2000 ml of desired final volume
Using the formula,

C1V1 ¼ C2V2
20  V1 ¼ 7:75  2000 ml
V1 ¼ ð7:75  2000 mlÞ=20¼775 ml

Thus, 775 ml of the brackish water will be required to raise EC of the fresh water
from 0.25 to 8 dS m
1. The resulting blending ratio will be (1:2.58, i.e. the ratio of
brackish water added to fresh water).

8 Water Sodicity Mitigation

Water sodicity can be mitigated through the judicious use of calcium-containing

amendments such as gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). Relative to other amendments, gyp-
sum is cheap and easy to handle, and by far the most suitable amendment to bring
down irrigation water sodicity (the ratio of sodium to calcium + magnesium). The
quantity of gypsum needed for adding to irrigation water depends upon the quality of
water (RSC and SAR levels) and the quantity of water required for irrigation during
the growing season of the crop.
128 5 Irrigation Water Quality

8.1 Gypsum Requirement Using the Residual Sodium

Carbonates (RSC) Concept

Example 1
Irrigation water has an RSC 8.5 meq l
1 and it needs to be reduced to 2.5 meq l
1.
The water required for irrigation is 800 mm per hectare for the complete growing
period of the sorghum crop. How much gypsum will be required for adding to the
water that is needed to irrigate one hectare, that water having the desired RSC of
2.5 meq l
1?

• 1equivalent per liter of Na+ will require 1 equivalent per liter of Ca2+ which is
equal to 86.06 grams of gypsum per liter of solution
• Therefore, 1 meq l
1 of Na+ will require 1 meq l
1 of Ca2+ which is equal to
0.08606 grams of gypsum per liter of solution
• Thus, 6 meq l
1 of Na+ will require 6 meq l
1 of Ca2+ which is equal to 0.51636
grams of gypsum per liter of solution
• Total water required to irrigate one hectare of sorghum
crop ¼ 800 mm  10 ¼ 8000 M3 (Where, 1 mm of water in 1 hectare is equal
to 10 M3)
• 8000 M3 of water is equal to 8000  1000 ¼ 8,000,000 liters of irrigation water
across the entire growing season
• Total gypsum requirement ¼ 8,000,000  0.51636 ¼ 4.13 metric tons of 100%
pure gypsum
• If the gypsum purity is 70%, then 5.90 tons of gypsum will be required to
neutralize 6 meq l
1 of Na+ in 8 million liters of irrigation water
To amend the water RSC, it is best to place the gypsum in the water channels.
Then, the flowing irrigation water will dissolve the gypsum, reducing the Na+:(Ca2+
+ Mg2+) ratio prior to entering the agricultural field.
Example 2
A farmer is using saline water with an EC of 3 dS m
1 for irrigating a sorghum crop.
He is facing problems with irrigation water infiltrating into his field soil and has
decided to use gypsum. A laboratory analysis has shown that he needs an increase of
5 meq l
1 of calcium in the irrigation water. How much gypsum would be required
to irrigate one-hectare area with a crop water requirement for the entire growing
period as 800 mm?

• EC of water ¼ 3 dS m
1
• Cropped area ¼ 1 ha
• Gypsum purity ¼ 70%
Total water requirement ¼ 800 mm  10 ¼ 8000 M3 ¼ 8,000,000 liters.
• 1 meq l
1 of Na+ will require 1 meq l
1 of Ca2+ which is equal to 0.08606 grams
of gypsum per liter of solution.
8 Water Sodicity Mitigation 129

Table 5.8 The chemical analyses of well water

Ion concentrations (meq l
1) SAR
EC (mmoles
Water dS m
1 Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ CO3
HCO32
Cl
SO42
l
1)0.5
Well 4 25 2 7 6 0 0 20 20 9.805
water
Resultant 1 6.25 0.5 1.75 1.5 0 0 5 5 4.903
water

• 5 meq l
1 of Na+ will require 5 meq l
1 of Ca2+ which is equal to 0.4303 grams of
gypsum per liter of solution.
• Total water required to irrigate one hectare of sorghum crop ¼ 800 mm or 8000 M3
• 8000 M3 of water is equal to 8000  1000 ¼ 8,000,000 liters.
• Total gypsum requirement ¼ 8,000,000  0.4303 ¼ 3.44 metric tons of 100%
pure gypsum
• If gypsum purity is 70%, then 4.92 metric tons of gypsum will be required to
neutralize 5 meq l
1 of Na+ in 8 million liters of water.
Thus, 4.91 tons of gypsum of about 10 mesh size (2 mm) will be required for the
irrigation water application across the entire growing season.

8.2 Determining the SAR of Blended Water to Be Used

for Irrigation

Example 1
Water from a well has the composition (Table 5.8) and this well water will be diluted
in a1:3 ratio with desalinated water. What will be the resultant SAR of the blended
water? Assume that the desalinated water has negligible EC and Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+
contents.
After blending with a ratio of 1:3 (well water:desalinated water), the SAR of the
resultant blended water is reduced to half. However, it should be noted that the EC is
reduced to one-quarter of the well water. Therefore, care should be taken to
understand such conversions.
Example 2
A canal water (EC ¼ 1.0 dS m
1) source is available to irrigate a crop. However, the
volume of water is insufficient. The farmer has decided to blend well water with a
ratio of 20% well water (5 dS m
1) with 80% of canal water (1 dS m
1). What will
be the SAR of the resultant water? Following are the water analyses of canal, well
and blend waters (Table 5.9).
130 5 Irrigation Water Quality

Table 5.9 The chemical analyses of the canal, well and the resultant (blended) waters
Ion concentrations (meq l
1) SAR
EC (mmoles
Water (dS m
1) Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ CO32
HCO3
Cl
SO42
l
1)0.5
Canal 1.0 6.25 0.5 1.75 1.5 0 0 5.0 5.0 4.903
water
Well 5.0 32.0 2.5 9.0 8.0 0 0 25.0 25.0 10.98
water
Blended 1.8 11.4 0.9 3.2 2.8 0 0 9.0 9.0 6.58
water

Composition of blended water:

EC ¼ (1.0  0.8) + (5.0  0.20) ¼ 0.8 + 1.0 ¼ 1.8 dS m
1

Ca2+ ¼ (1.75  0.8) + (9.0  0.2) ¼ 1.4 + 1.8 ¼ 3.2 meq l
1
Mg2+ ¼ (1.5  0.8) + (8  0.2) ¼ 1.2 + 1.6 ¼ 2.8 meq l
1
Na+ ¼ (6.25  0.8) + (32.0  0.2) ¼ 5.0 + 6.4 ¼ 11.4 meq l
1
K+ ¼ (0.5  0.80) + (2.5  0.20) ¼ 0.4 + 0.5 ¼ 0.9 meq l
1
Cl
¼ (5.0  0.80) + (25.0  0.2) ¼ 4.0 + 5.0 ¼ 9 meq l
1
SO42
¼ (5.0  0.80) + (25.0  0.2) ¼ 4.0 + 5.0 ¼ 9 meq l
1
SAR ¼ Na+/[(Ca2+ + Mg2+)/2]0.5 ¼ 11.4/[(3.2 + 2.8)/2]0.5 ¼ 6.58 (mmoles l
1)0.5

Blending should, thus, be done with an objective. If the objective is to reduce SAR,
but with the condition that adequate canal/fresh water is not available to irrigate the
crop, then blending is desirable. If, however, a sufficient volume of canal water is
available, then simply replacing well water with the canal’s fresh water for irrigation is
a good option. Other farm conditions must also be considered, e.g. infiltration problems
due to high SAR. Addition of gypsum as described above should also be considered.

9 Cyclic Use of Water

Where fresh water is also available, but not sufficient to offset the full water require-
ment of the crop, there is always a need to find alternate source of water, which is
usually the groundwater and is often saline or saline-sodic. Under such conditions, it is
recommended to use fresh water at early stage of crop when the young seedlings are
not able to tolerate high salinity level. Once the seedlings are well established, at this
stage there are two options to use these waters: (i) to use saline water for some time and
then leach the salts with fresh water, and (ii) use saline water first and then use fresh
water (cyclic use) to irrigate the crop. This way both fresh and saline waters are used.

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