Computer Memory: computer memory is used to store data and instructions.

In computer, we are
not using single memory but using units of memory. We are using high cost memory as well as low
cost memory for economic system. Computer memory can be divided in memory units.

 Primary memory or Main memory

 Secondary Memory or Storage

Primary memory: Primary Memory is a high speed memory, located close to the CPU or processor
on the computer motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary memory directly when it
is needed. That’s why it is also called online memory or main memory. Primary Memory is used to
store data that the CPU needs imminently so that CPU or processor does not have to wait for it to be
delivered.

Primary Memory: Primary memory is divided into two memory units.

a. RAM (Random Access Memory)

b. ROM (Read Only Memory)

RAM or random-access memory:

 RAM or Random Access Memory as its name suggests that data stored in this memory is
accessed in random order.
 RAM memory is very fast, it can be used to write as well as read. it is volatile (so all data stored
in RAM memory is lost when it loses power).
 It is very expensive compared to all types of secondary memory in terms of cost per gigabyte. It
is because of the relative high cost of RAM compared to secondary memory types that most
computer systems use both primary and secondary memory.
 The programs and data that the CPU requires during execution of a program are stored in RAM,
so that the CPU is not kept waiting for processing. It is also called as working memory. When the
data is no longer required it is shunted out to slower but cheaper secondary memory, and the
RAM space that has been freed up is filled with the next chunk of data that is about to be used.

Types of RAM:

a. DRAM
b. SRAM

Dynamic RAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM

 DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers. DRAM consists of a transistor and a
capacitor in each cell. Data and programs are stored in DRAM in form of charge or lack of charge.
 This data must be constantly refreshed with an electronic charge every few milliseconds to
compensate for leaks from the capacitor.

Static RAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM

 SRAM is a RAM which is faster than DRAM, but more expensive and bulker, having six transistors
in each cell. For those reasons SRAM is generally used as a data cache within a CPU itself or as
RAM in very high-end server systems.
 A small SRAM is used as cache memory to store the most imminently-needed data and balance
the speed mismatch between CPU and RAM. It provides the significant speed improvements in a
system.
Difference between SRAM and DRAM:

 SRAM is faster than DRAM and is expensive and bulkier. SRAM is usually available in megabytes,
while DRAM is purchased in gigabytes.
 DRAM uses more energy than SRAM because it constantly needs to be refreshed to maintain
data integrity, while SRAM does not need constant refreshing.

ROM or read - only memory:

 ROM stands for read-only memory, as name suggests that data can be read from this type of
computer memory, data cannot normally be written to it.
 It is a very fast type of computer memory that is usually installed close to the CPU on the
motherboard. The ROM portion of primary memory is needed for storing an initial program
called bootstrap loader, which is to start the computer software operating when power is turned
on.
 ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in the
memory even when it receives no power. In that sense it is similar to secondary memory, which
is used for long term storage.
 ROM is used in simpler electronic devices to store firmware which runs as soon as the device is
switched on.

Types of ROM: ROM is available in several different types, including PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

 MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs,
which are inexpensive.
 PROM: PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and is programmed or has data
written to it during the manufacturing process, a PROM is manufactured in an empty state and
then programmed later using a PROM programmer or burner.
 EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and as the name
suggests, data stored in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM reprogrammed. Erasing an
EPROM involves removing it from the computer and exposing it to ultraviolet light before re-
burning it.
 EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and the
distinction between EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can be erased and written to by the
computer system it is installed in. In that sense EEPROM is not strictly read-only. However, in
many cases the write process is slow, so it is normally only done to update program code such as
firmware or BIOS code on an occasional basis.

Differences between RAM and ROM

Sno. ROM RAM

1 It is non-volatile memory that is used to It is volatile memory that is used to read and
read only. write.

2 Cannot be written to quickly and used Used as system memory to store data that the
to store boot instructions or firmware CPU needs to process imminently

3 Usually used in small quantities and Relatively cheap per megabyte stored
Relatively expensive per megabyte compared to ROM, but relatively expensive
 stored compared to RAM compared to secondary memory

CACHE MEMORY: Cache memory is a chip-based computer component that makes retrieving data
from the computer's memory more efficient. Cache is very fast and small memory that is placed in
between the CPU and the main memory to balance the speed mismatch for improvement of system
performance. Mostly small SRAM is used as Cache Memory that is fast than DRAM used as RAM,
main memory.

 Cache memory can be accessed faster than RAM.

 It is used to hold common and frequently used data or instructions.
 It is closer to CPU than RAM and located between RAM and CPU on same board

Memory Hierarchy:

Interaction o computer memories:

Data and instructions are stored in secondary memory on the basic of long term. The content or
portion of content that is required for processing, are copied from of secondary memory to main
memory. After that most frequent and needed data copied from main memory to cache memory.
After that only data that is required for execution of current instruction copied from cache memory
to registers. All computer memories have bi-directional interaction as mention above figure.

SECONDARY MEMORY

 Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a long-term basis. Common
secondary storage devices are the hard disk and optical disks.
 It allows a user to store data that may be instantly and easily retrieved, transported and used by
applications and services.
 Secondary memory is also known as secondary storage.
 Secondary memory consists of all permanent or persistent storage devices, such as, flash drives,
hard disk drives (HDD), magnetic tapes and other types of internal/external storage media.
 In computing operations, secondary memory is accessed only by the primary or main memory
and later transported to the processor.
 Secondary memory is slower than primary memory but can store and retain data, even if the
computer is not connected to electrical power. It means secondary memory is non-volatile
memory.

Secondary memory is used in two different ways either as fixed secondary memory or removable
memory.

a. Fixed Storage: A Fixed storage is an internal media device that is used by a computer system to
store data, and usually these are referred to as the Fixed Disks drives or the Hard Drives.
b. Removable Storage: A Removable storage is an external media device that is used by a
computer system to store data, and usually these are referred to as the Removable Disks drives
or the External Drives.

Types of Secondary Memory:

Magnetic Storage Media Magnetic memory uses the property of magnet for storing data. It is in
use since first generations of computer. It contains data storing surface coated by magnetic
oxide.
Hard Drives: Some of the most common secondary storage devices are magnetic hard drives –
long used in laptop and desktop computers. They use magnetic heads to store and read data on
spinning metal disks known as platters.
Components of Hard Disk:
 Platters: Platter is a circular, metal disk that is mounted inside a hard disk drive. Several
platters are mounted on a fixed spindle motor to create more data storage surfaces in a
smaller area.
 The Spindle: The spindle keeps the platters in position and rotates them as required. The
revolutions per-minute rating determines how fast data can be written to and read from the
hard drive. A typical internal desktop drive runs at 7,200 RPM, though faster and slower
speeds are available.
  Tracks: Each platter is broken into thousands of tightly packed concentric circles, known as
tracks. These tracks resemble the structure of annual rings of a tree. All the information
stored on the hard disk is recorded in tracks.
 Sectors: Each track is further broken down into smaller units called sectors. As sector is the
basic unit of data storage on a hard disk. A single track typically can have thousands of
sectors and each sector can hold more than 512 bytes of data.
 Read/write heads: The heads are an interface between the magnetic media where the data
is stored and electronic components in the hard disk. The heads convert the information,
which is in the form of bits to magnetic pulses when it is to be stored on the platter and
reverses the process while reading.

Floppy Disk: It contains single plastic disk. Initially it was used as a main storage device but
nowadays it is used for carrying data from one computer to another. It requires floppy drive for its
operation. It is not reliable as hard disk because the data storing surface is exposed. So, it may be
affected by dust particles and magnetic field. For example, 5 ¼ -Inch Drive, 3 ½ -Inch Drive

Optical Storage Media: Optical memory uses light beam for its operation. It is developed in fourth
generation of computer. It is mainly used for storing audio/video, backup as well as for carrying data.

For example, CD, DVD drive, Blu Ray Disk