MODULE 2

FM CIRCUITS
FREQUENCY MODULATORS:
 A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier frequency in
accordance with the modulating signal.
 The carrier is generated by either an LC or a crystal oscillator circuit, and
so a way must be found to change the frequency of oscillation.
 In an LC oscillator, the carrier frequency is fixed by the values of the
inductance and capacitance in a tuned circuit, and the carrier frequency
can therefore be changed by varying either inductance or capacitance.
 The idea is to find a circuit or component that converts a modulating
voltage to a corresponding change in capacitance or inductance.

Voltage-Controlled Oscillators:
 Oscillators whose frequencies are controlled by an external input
voltage are generally referred to as voltage-controlled oscillators
(VCOs).
 Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators are generally referred to as VXOs.
Although some VCOs are used primarily in FM, they are also used in
other applications where voltage-to-frequency conversion is required.
 Although VCOs for VHF, UHF, and microwaves are still implemented with
discrete components, more and more they are being integrated on a
single chip of silicon along with other transmitter or receiver circuits.
 An example of such a VCO is shown in Fig. 6-7. This circuit uses silicon-
germanium (SiGe) bipolar transistor to achieve an operating frequency
centered near 10 GHz.
 The oscillator uses cross- coupled transistors Q1 and Q2 in a
multivibrator or flip-flop type of design.
 The signal is a sine wave whose frequency is set by the collector
inductances and varactor capacitances. The modulating voltage, usually a
binary signal to produce FSK, is applied to the junction of D1 and D2.
 Two complementary outputs are available from the emitter followers Q3
and Q4. In this circuit, the inductors are actually tiny spirals of aluminum
(or copper) inside the chip, with inductance in the 500- to 900-pH range.
 The varactors are reverse-biased diodes that function as variable
capacitors. The tuning range is from 9.953 to 10.66 GHz.
 A CMOS version of the VCO is shown in Fig. 6-8. This circuit also uses a
crossCoupled LC resonant circuit design and operates in the 2.4- to 2.5-
GHz range.
 The output is either a square or a triangular wave rather than a sine
wave.
Fig. 6-9(a) is a block diagram of one widely used IC VCO, the popular
NE566.
 External resistor R1 at pin 6 sets the value of current produced by the
internal current sources.
 The current sources linearly charge and discharge external capacitor C1
at pin 7. An external voltage VC applied at pin 5 is used to vary the
amount of current produced by the current sources.
 The Schmitt trigger circuit is a level detector that controls the current
source by switching between charging and discharging when the
capacitor charges or discharges to a specific voltage level.
 A linear sawtooth of voltage is developed across the capacitor by the
current source. This is buffered by an amplifier and made available at pin
4.
 The Schmitt trigger output is a square wave at the same frequency
available at pin 3.
 If a sine wave output is desired, the triangular wave is usually filtered
with a tuned circuit resonant to the desired carrier frequency.
A complete frequency modulator circuit using the NE566 is shown in
Fig. 6-9(b).
 The current sources are biased with a voltage divider made up of R2 and
R3. The modulating signal is applied through C2 to the voltage divider at
pin 5.
 The 0.001-μF capacitor between pins 5 and 6 is used to prevent
unwanted oscillations.
 The center carrier frequency of the circuit is set by the values of R1 and
C1. Carrier frequencies up to 1 MHz may be used with this IC.
 If higher frequencies and deviations are necessary, the outputs can be
filtered or used to drive other circuits, such as a frequency multiplier.
 The modulating signal can vary the carrier frequency over nearly a 10 :1
range, making very large deviations possible.
 The deviation is linear with respect to the input amplitude over the
entire range.
  FREQUENCY DEMODULATORS
 Any circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the carrier back to
a proportional voltage variation can be used to demodulate or detect
FM signals.
 Circuits used to recover the original modulating signal from an FM
transmission are called demodulators, detectors, or discriminators.

Slope Detectors
o The simplest frequency demodulator, the slope detector, makes
use of a tuned circuit and a diode detector to convert frequency
variations to voltage variations.
The basic circuit is shown in Fig. 6-12(a)
 The FM signal is applied to transformer T1 made up of L1 and L2.
Together L2 and C1 form a series resonant circuit.
 Remember that the signal voltage induced into L2 appears in
series with L2 and C1 and the output voltage is taken from across
C1.
The response curve of this tuned circuit is shown in Fig. 6-12(b).
 Note that at the resonant frequency fr the voltage across C1
peaks. At lower or higher frequencies, the voltage falls off.
 To use the circuit to detect or recover FM, the circuit is tuned so
that the center or carrier frequency of the FM signals is
approximately centered on the leading edge of the response
curve, as shown in Fig. 6-12(b).
 As the carrier frequency varies above and below its center
frequency, the tuned circuit responds as shown in the figure.
 If the frequency goes lower than the carrier frequency, the
output voltage across C1 decreases.
  If the frequency goes higher, the output across C1 goes higher.
 Thus, the ac voltage across C1 is proportional to the frequency of
the FM signal.
 The voltage across C1 is rectified into dc pulses that appear across
the load R1.
 These are filtered into a varying dc signal that is an exact
reproduction of the original modulating signal.
 The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning them so that
the FM signal is correctly centered on the leading edge of the
tuned circuit. In addition, the tuned circuit does not have a
perfectly linear response.

It is approximately linear over a narrow range, as Fig. 6-12(b) shows, but

for wide deviations, amplitude distortion occurs because of the
nonlinearity .
Phase-Locked Loops:
A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a frequency- or phase-sensitive feedback
control circuit used in frequency demodulation, frequency synthesizers,
and various filtering and signal detection applications. All phase-locked
loops have the three basic elements, shown in Fig. 6-17

1. A phase detector is used to compare the FM input, sometimes

referred to as the reference signal, to the output of a VCO.
2. The VCO frequency is varied by the dc output voltage from a low-pass
filter.
3. The low-pass filter smoothes the output of the phase detector into a
control voltage that varies the frequency of the VCO.
 The primary job of the phase detector is to compare the two input
signals and generate an output signal that, when filtered, will
control the VCO.
 If there is a phase or frequency difference between the FM input
and VCO signals, the phase detector output varies in proportion to
the difference. The filtered output adjusts the VCO frequency in an
attempt to correct for the original frequency or phase difference.
 This dc control voltage, called the error signal, is also the feedback
in this circuit.
 When no input signal is applied, the phase detector and low-pass filter
outputs are zero.
 The VCO then operates at what is called the free-running frequency, its
normal operating frequency as determined by internal frequency-
determining components.
 When an input signal close to the frequency of the VCO is applied, the
phase detector compares the VCO free-running frequency to the input
frequency and produces an output voltage proportional to the frequency
difference.
 The phase detector output is a series of pulses that vary in width in
accordance with the amount of phase shift or frequency difference that
exists between the two inputs.
 The output pulses are then filtered into a dc voltage that is applied to the
VCO. This dc voltage is such that it forces the VCO frequency to move in a
direction that reduces the dc error voltage.
 The error voltage forces the VCO frequency to change in the direction
that reduces the amount of phase or frequency difference between the
VCO and the input.
 At some point, the error voltage causes the VCO frequency to equal the
input frequency; when this happens, the PLL is said to be in a locked
condition. Although the input and VCO frequencies are equal, there is a
phase difference between them, usually exactly 90°, which produces the
dc output voltage that will cause the VCO to produce the frequency that
keeps the circuit locked.
 If the input frequency changes, the phase detector and low-pass filter
produce a new value of dc control voltage that forces the VCO output
frequency to change until it is equal to the new input frequency.
 Any variation in input frequency is matched by a VCO frequency change,
so the circuit remains locked. The VCO in a PLL is, therefore, capable of
tracking the input frequency over a wide range.
 The range of frequencies over which a PLL can track an input signal and
remain locked is known as the lock range.
 The lock range is usually a band of frequencies above and below the
free-running frequency of the VCO.
 If the input signal frequency is out of the lock range, the PLL will not
lock. When this occurs, the VCO output frequency jumps to its free-
running frequency.
 If an input frequency within the lock range is applied to the PLL, the
circuit immediately adjusts itself into a locked condition.
 The phase detector determines the phase difference between the free-
running and input frequencies of the VCO and generates the error
signal that forces the VCO to equal the input frequency. This action is
referred to as capturing an input signal.
 The range of frequencies over which a PLL will capture an input signal,
known as the capture range.
 Phase-locked loops are often used in signal conditioning applications,
where it is desirable to pass signals only in a certain range and to reject
signals outside of that range.
 The PLL is highly effective in eliminating the noise and interference on a
signal.. The VCO output follows the FM input signal because the error
voltage produced by the phase detector and low-pass filter forces the
VCO to track it.
 Thus, the VCO output must be identical to the input signal if the PLL is to
remain locked. The error signal must be identical to the original
modulating signal of the FM input.
 The low-pass filter cutoff frequency is designed in such a way that it is
capable of passing the original modulating signal.
 The ability of a PLL to provide frequency selectivity and filtering gives it a
signal-to-noise ratio superior to that of any other type of FM detector.
The linearity of the VCO ensures low distortion and a highly accurate
reproduction of the original modulating signal.
Fig. 6-19 is a block diagram of an IC PLL, the 565.

 The 565 is connected as an FM demodulator.

 The 565 circuitry is shown inside the dashed lines; all components
outside the dashed lines are discrete components.
 The numbers on the connections are the pin numbers on the 565 IC,
which is housed in a standard 14-pin dual-in-line package (DIP).
 The circuit is powered by 612-V power supplies.
 The low-pass filter is made up of a 3.6-kV resistor inside the 565 that
terminates at pin 7.
 A 0.1-μF external capacitor C2 completes the filter.
 Note that the recovered original modulating signal is taken from the fi
lter output.
 The upper frequency limitation for the 565 IC is 500 kHz.
 Superheterodyne Receivers :
 A sensitive and selective receiver can be made using only amplifiers,
selective filters, and a demodulator. This is called a tuned radio
frequency or TRF receiver.
 Early radios used this design.
 However, such a receiver does not usually deliver the kind of
performance expected in modern communications applications.
 One type of receiver that can provide that performance is the
superheterodyne receiver.
 Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower
frequency, known as the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single
set of amplifiers and filters is used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity
and selectivity.
  The key circuit is the mixer, which acts as a simple amplitude modulator
to produce sum and difference frequencies.
 The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal to produce this
conversion.

Fig. 9-5 shows a general block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.

RF Amplifiers
 The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the RF
amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier (LNA).
 Because RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and selectivity, they are
sometimes referred to as preselectors.
 Tuned circuits help select the desired signal or at least the frequency
range in which the signal resides.
 The tuned circuits in fixed tuned receivers can be given a very high Q, so
that excellent selectivity can be obtained.
 The tuned circuits must resonate over a wide frequency range.
Therefore, the Q, bandwidth, and selectivity of the amplifier change with
frequency.
 In communication receivers that do not use an RF amplifier, the antenna
is connected directly to a tuned circuit, at the input to the mixer, which
provides the desired initial selectivity.
 This configuration is practical in low-frequency applications where extra
gain is simply not needed.
 Further, omitting the RF amplifier may reduce the noise contributed by
such a circuit. In general, however, it is preferable to use an RF amplifier.
  RF amplifiers improve sensitivity, because of the extra gain; improve
selectivity, because of the added tuned circuits; and improve the S/N
ratio. Further, spurious signals are more effectively rejected, minimizing
unwanted signal generation in the mixer.
 RF amplifiers also minimize oscillator radiation.
 The local oscillator signal is relatively strong, and some of it can leak
through and appear at the input to the mixer.
 If the mixer input is connected directly to the antenna, some of the local
oscillator signal radiates, possibly causing interference to other nearby
receivers. The RF amplifier between the mixer and the antenna isolates
the two, significantly reducing any local oscillator radiation. Both bipolar
and fi eld-effect transistors, made with silicon, GaAs, or SiGe, can be
used as RF amplifiers.
 The selection is made based upon frequency, cost, integrated versus
discrete, and desired noise performance.
Mixers and Local Oscillators : The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the
input of the mixer.
 The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator or frequency
synthesizer. The mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator
signal, and the sum and difference frequencies of these signals.
 Usually a tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference
frequency, or intermediate frequency (IF). The sum frequency may also
be selected as the IF in some applications.
 The mixer may be a diode, a balanced modulator, or a transistor.
MOSFETs and hot carrier diodes are preferred as mixers because of their
low-noise characteristics.
 The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can be adjusted
over a relatively wide range. As the local-oscillator frequency is changed,
the mixer translates a wide range of input frequencies to the fixed IF.
 IF Amplifiers The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same
modulation that appeared on the input RF signal.
  This signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages, and most of
the receiver gain is obtained in these stages.
 Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity. Since the intermediate
frequency is usually much lower than the input.
 signal frequency, IF amplifiers are easier to design and good selectivity is
easier to obtain. Crystal, ceramic, or SAW filters are used in most IF
sections to obtain good selectivity. Some forms or receivers use DSP
filters for selectivity.

Demodulators :
 The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the demodulator, or
detector, which recovers the original modulating information.
 The demodulator may be a diode detector (for AM), a quadrature
detector (for FM), or a product detector (for SSB).
 The recovered signal in digital form is then converted back to analog by a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
 The output of the demodulator or DAC is then usually fed to an audio
amplifier with sufficient voltage and power gain to operate a speaker.
 For nonvoice signals, the detector output may be sent elsewhere, to a
TV, tablet, cell phone screen, computer, or some other device.
Automatic Gain Control:
 The output of a demodulator is usually the original modulating signal,
the amplitude of which is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
received signal.
 The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectifi ed and fi ltered into a
dc voltage by a circuit known as the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit.
 This dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifi ers, and sometimes the RF
amplifi er, to control receiver gain.
 AGC circuits help maintain a constant output voltage level over a wide
range of RF input signal levels; they also help the receiver to function
over a wide range so that strong signals do not produce performance-
degrading distortion.
 Typically, receivers are designed with very high gain so that weak signals
can be reliably received. However, applying a very high-amplitude signal
to a receiver causes the circuits to be overdriven, producing distortion
and reducing intelligibility.
 With AGC, the overall gain of the receiver is automatically adjusted
depending on the input signal level.
 The signal amplitude at the output of the detector is proportional to
the amplitude of the input signal; if it is very high, the AGC circuit
produces a high dc output voltage, thereby reducing the gain of the IF
amplifiers.
 This reduction in gain eliminates the distortion normally produced by a
high-voltage input signal.
 When the incoming signal is weak, the detector output is low. The
output of the AGC is then a smaller dc voltage. This causes the gain of
the IF amplifiers to remain high, providing maximum amplification.

 Frequency Conversion:

 Frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal

to a higher or lower frequency while retaining all the originally
transmitted information.
 In radio receivers, high-frequency radio signals are regularly converted
to a lower, intermediate frequency, where improved gain and
selectivity can be obtained. This is called down conversion.
 In satellite communications, the original signal is generated at a lower
frequency and then converted to a higher frequency for transmission.
This is called up conversion.

MIXING PRINCIPLES:
Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation or analog
multiplication carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function
performed by the mixer is called heterodyning.
Fig. 9-6 is a schematic diagram of a mixer circuit.
 Mixers accept two inputs.
 The signal fs, which is to be translated to another frequency, is
applied to one input, and the sine wave from a local oscillator fo is
applied to the other input.
 The signal to be translated can be a simple sine wave or any
complex modulated signal containing sidebands.
 Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer essentially performs a
mathematical multiplication of its two input signals.
 The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be translated is the
modulating signal.
 The output contains not only the carrier signal but also sidebands
formed when the local oscillator and input signal are mixed.
 The output of the mixer, therefore, consists of signals fs, fo, fo + fs,
and fo - fs or fs - fo.
 The local oscillator signal fo usually appears in the mixer output, as
does the original input signal fs in some types of mixer circuits.
 These are not needed in the output and are therefore filtered out.
 Either the sum or difference frequency in the output is the desired
signal. For example, to translate the input signal to a lower
frequency, the lower sideband or difference signal fo - fs is chosen.
  The local oscillator frequency will be chosen such that when the
information signal is subtracted from it, a signal with the desired
lower frequency is obtained. When translating to a higher
frequency, the upper sideband or sum signal fo + fs is chosen.
 Again, the local oscillator frequency determines what the new
higher frequency will be. A tuned circuit or filter is used at the
output of the mixer to select the desired signal and reject all the
others.
 However, at lower frequencies, say, those less than about 100
MHz, the local oscillator frequency is traditionally higher than the
incoming signal’s frequency, and at higher frequencies,
 those above 100 MHz, the local oscillator frequency is lower than
the input signal frequency.
 mixing process takes place on the whole spectrum of the input
signal, whether it contains only a single-frequency carrier or
multiple carriers and many complex sidebands.

JFET Mixers:

 FETs make good mixers because they provide gain, have low noise, and
offer a nearly perfect square-law response.
 The FET mixer is biased so that it operates in the nonlinear portion of its
range.
 The input signal is applied to the gate, and the local oscillator signal is
coupled to the source.
 Again, the tuned circuit in the drain selects the difference frequency.
Another popular FET mixer, one with a dual-gate MOSFET, is shoW in Fig. 9-
10.

 Here the input signal is applied to one gate, and the local oscillator is
coupled to the other gate.
 Dual-gate MOSFETs provide superior performance in mixing applications
because their drain current ID is directly proportional to the product of
the two gate voltages.
 In receivers built for VHF, UHF, and microwave applications, junction FETs
and dual-gate MOSFETs are widely used as mixers because of their high
gain and low noise.
 Gallium arsenide FETs are preferred over silicon FETs at the higher
frequencies because of their lower noise contribution and higher gain. IC
mixers use MOSFETs.
One of the best reasons for using a FET mixer is that its characteristic drain
current versus gate voltage curve is a perfect square-law function
 With a perfect square-law mixer response, only second-order harmonics
are generated in addition to the sum and difference frequencies.
 Other mixers, such as diodes and bipolar transistors, approximate a
square-law function; however, they are nonlinear, so that AM or
heterodyning does occur. The nonlinearity is such that higher-order
products such as the third, fourth, fifth, and higher harmonics are
generated.
 Most of these can be eliminated by a bandpass filter that selects out the
difference or sum frequency for the IF amplifier.
 However, the presence of higher-order products can cause unwanted
low-level signals to appear in the receiver.
 These signals produce birdlike chirping sounds known as birdies, which,
despite their low amplitude, can interfere with low-level input signals
from the antenna or RF amplifier.
 FETs do not have this problem, and so FETs are the preferred mixer in
most receivers.