Table of Contents

British Administration in India – II (1858-1947) ................................................................................ 2

Administrative Changes After 1858 ........................................................................................................... 2
Queen's Proclamation (1858) .................................................................................................................................... 2
Government of India Act 1858 ................................................................................................................................... 3
Central Administration .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Provincial Administration .......................................................................................................................................... 9
Local Bodies............................................................................................................................................................. 14

Administrative Organisation ................................................................................................................... 16

The Civil Service ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
The Army ................................................................................................................................................................. 20
The Police ................................................................................................................................................................ 21

Administrative Policies ........................................................................................................................... 22

Divide and Rule ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
Hostility to Educated Indians ................................................................................................................................... 23
Attitude Towards the Zamindars .............................................................................................................................. 23
Attitude towards Social Reforms.............................................................................................................................. 23
Extreme Backwardness of Social Services ................................................................................................................ 24
Labour Legislation ................................................................................................................................................... 24
Restrictions on the Press .......................................................................................................................................... 25
Racial Antagonism (White Racism) .......................................................................................................................... 25
British Policy Towards Princely States ...................................................................................................................... 26

Author: Vishwajeet Kawar

Protégé of PMF IAS

Suggestions / Feedback: [email protected] | t.me/vishwjeetkawar | t.me/pmfiashistory

 British Administration in India – II (1858-1947)

Administrative Changes After 1858

• The company's economic and administrative policies caused widespread dissatisfaction, which, along
with various other factors, led to the 1857 revolt.
• Although the revolt of 1857 was completely suppressed, it shook the foundations of British rule in
India. It forced the British to reorganise their administration and change their policies regarding Indian
society, government, and economy.
• As a result, significant changes were made to the structure and policies of the Indian government in the
following decades.
• Other reasons for the administrative changes were:
1. Intensification of the Industrial Revolution: During the latter half of the 19th century,
industrialisation occurred in European nations, the USA and Japan. This led to intense global
competition for markets, sources of raw materials and outlets for capital investment.
❖ As newcomers emerged, Britain faced a challenge to its dominant position in world capitalism.
In response, it made a vigorous effort to consolidate its control over its existing empire and to
expand it further.
2. British Capital: After 1850, a significant amount of British capital was invested in railways, loans
to the Government of India, tea plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping, trade, and banking.
British rule in India needed to be strengthened and enforced more strictly to ensure this British
capital was safe from economic and political risks.

Queen's Proclamation (1858)

• On August 2, 1858, the British Parliament passed the bill for the Better Government of India,
introduced by Lord Stanley, the President of the Board of Control, and it became the Government
of India Act, 1858.
• The Act transferred the power to govern India from the East India Company to the British Crown
and declared Queen Victoria as the sovereign of British India.
 In actual practice, the power of the crown was exercisable by the Secretary of State for India, a
Minister of Cabinet rank, who was to be assisted by an undersecretary and a council of fifteen
members.
• The various changes introduced by the Act of 1858 were formally announced by a proclamation of
Queen Victoria on November 1, 1858. Lord Canning, at Allahabad, announced Queen Victoria’s
proclamation to "the Princes, Chiefs and Peoples of India."
• The Queen's proclamation, known as the Magna Carta of the Indian people, disclaimed territorial
extensions, promised religious toleration, guaranteed the rights of Indian princes, and pledged
equal treatment to Indians and Europeans. The proclamation declared that:
❖ Those who laid down arms by 2 January 1859 would be pardoned except those directly involved
in the murder of British subjects
❖ Official service would be open to all
❖ Due regard would be given to the ancient usages and customs of India
 The Revolt of 1857 ended an era of annexations and expansion and guaranteed the support for
“native princes”. It declared that princes could adopt any heirs they desired as long as they pledged
their undying allegiance to the British crown.
 The year 1857 marks a significant shift in Indian history, with British paramountcy in the first half
and the growth of Indian nationalism in the second half of the 19th century.

Government of India Act 1858

• As the Charter Act of 1853 did not give the EIC the right to govern India for another 20 years, it
gave the British Government an opportunity to step in and take the place of the EIC in India.

Changes brought by the Act of 1858

• Transfer of Power: The Government of India passed from the hands of the English EIC to the crown,
and the company's armed forces were also transferred to the crown.
❖ The Crown was empowered to appoint a Governor-General and the governors of the presidencies.
• Secretary of State: The Board of Control and Court of Directors were abolished and replaced by the
Secretary of State of India and his India Council. The dual control of the President of the Board of
Control and the Directors of the Company was abolished, and all the authority was centred on the
Secretary of State.
• The Secretary of State was a member of the British Cabinet and, as such, responsible to British
Parliament. Thus, the ultimate power over India remained with Parliament.
• The Secretary of State was to be assisted by a Council of fifteen members, of whom at least nine
would have served in India for not less than ten years and left India not more than ten years before
their appointment to the Council.

Secretary of State: De facto Ruler

• The Secretary of State had the authority to override the decisions made by the India Council.
However, the Council's approval was essential in financial matters.
• The Secretary of State was given the power to send and receive secret messages and dispatches from
the Governor General without communicating them to the India Council.
• After 1870, the Secretary of State controlled the minute details of administration and effectively
became the de facto government of India. This was possible because of the following developments:
❖ The Suez Canal was opened in 1869.
❖ A direct cable line was laid between England and India in 1870.
❖ The voyages between the two countries were shortened by the introduction of steam vessels.

Central Administration
Government of India Act 1858
• Viceroy: The central administration in India remained in the Governor-General’s hands, who was also
given the title of Viceroy or Crown's representative. The viceroy was also responsible for diplomatic
relations with the princely states.
 Lord Canning, the Governor-General, became the first Viceroy. He had the unique opportunity to
become both the Governor-General and the first Viceroy.
• Executive Council: An executive council of five members was formed to help the Governor-General.
The executive council members were to act as the heads of the departments and advisors to the
Governor General.
❖ The Council discussed all important matters and decided them by a majority vote, but the
Governor-General had the power to override any important decision of the Council.
• In matters of policy and execution, the viceroy was increasingly reduced to a subordinate position in
relation to the British Government. The Government of India was directly controlled by the Secretary
of State from London. The viceroy was directly responsible to the secretary of state for India.

Control from London

Before 1858
• Through the various acts, the Government of India was effectively controlled from London. But, the
power to make important policy decisions rested with the Governor-General, as instructions from
London could take weeks to arrive.
• Therefore, control by the authorities in London was more of a post-facto evaluation and criticism
than actual direction. They supervised the administration of India but did not run it.

After 1858

• By 1870, a submarine cable was established through the Red Sea, connecting England and India.
With this new means of communication, orders from London could be transmitted to India in hours.
• This allowed the Secretary of State to have constant and detailed control over the administration
of India.
 [UPSC 2014] What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria's Proclamation (1858)?
To disclaim any intention to annex Indian states
1. To disclaim any intention to annex Indian states
2. To place the Indian Administration under the British Crown
3. To regulate East India Company's trade with India
Select the correct answer from the following options.
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1 2 and 3
Answer: A

The Indian Councils Act of 1861

• For legislative purposes, the Governor-General was authorised to add six to twelve members to his
Executive Council for two years. This expanded Council was called the Imperial Legislative Council.
• In the expansion of the council:
❖ At least half had to be non-officials, both European and Indian, not in the service of the Crown.
❖ The viceroy should nominate some Indians as non-official members.

Expansion of the Governor-General’s legislative power

• The approval of the Governor-General was required for the bill passed by the legislature to become
an act.
• Governor-General’s Ordinances had the validity of an Act.

Limitations of the Imperial Legislative Council

1. Toothless Body: The Imperial Legislative Council was merely an advisory body with no real powers.
➢ It had no control over the executive and the Budget.
➢ It could not discuss the administrative decisions; the members could not even ask questions about
them.
➢ The Secretary of State had the power to invalidate any Act passed by the Legislative Council.
2. Unrepresentative: The Indian members of the legislative council were few and were not elected by
the Indian people but were nominated by the Governor-General.
❖ The earlier non-official members were mostly ruling princes, their diwans, or big landlords. They
were unrepresentative of the Indian people or the growing nationalist opinion.
 In 1862, Lord Canning nominated three Indians to the council, namely, Maharaja Sir Narendra
Singh of Patiala, Raja Sir Deo Narayan Singh of Benaras and Sir Dinkar Rao of Gwalior.
Indian Councils Act of 1892
• In its first session, the Indian National Congress demanded several changes in the administration,
which resulted in the passage of the Act of 1892.
• By the Act of 1892, the number of members in the legislative council was increased from 10 to 16,
but the official majority was maintained. It empowered the Council:
❖ To ask questions to the executive.
❖ To indulge in a free and fair criticism of the government's policy.
❖ To discuss the annual financial statement (budget).
• Under this Act, the council had no right to vote on the budget.
• Thus, the act gave rights to the council, which were Parliamentary in nature.

Indian Councils Act of 1909 (Morley–Minto Reforms)

• The Indian Councils Act of 1909 was passed due to the increasing pressure from early Congress
(moderates) to introduce reforms. It was named after Secretary of State John Morley and Viceroy
Lord Minto.
• It increased the strength of the imperial legislative council from 16 to 60, but the official majority
was maintained. The additional members were both nominated and elected.
• It made the provision for separate representation for Muslims, which was the beginning of
communal representation, which logically led to the partition of the country on a communal basis.

Lord Minto
• Lord Minto was the Viceroy and Governor-General of India from 1905-10. He is known as the father
of the communal electorate.
• It empowered the Governor-General to nominate one Indian Member to his Executive Council.

Satyendra Prasanna Sinha

• Satyendra Prasanna Sinha was the first Indian to become the Advocate-General of Bengal in 1905
and also the first Indian to enter the Governor General's Executive Council in 1909.
• Sinha was an active member of the Indian National Congress from 1896 to 1919, when he left the
organisation with other moderates. In 1915, he was elected to preside over the Bombay session of
the Congress.
• It empowered the Council:
❖ To ask supplementary questions (though restricted).
❖ To vote on some part of the budget (the votable part).
❖ To move the resolution on the matters of public interest.
• It introduced the elections (though indirect elections).
  In 1907, two Indians, Sir Krishna Govinda Gupta and Nawab Syed Hussain Bilgrami, were
appointed by Lord Morley as members of the Secretary of States' Council.

Government of India Act of 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)

• The following factors were responsible for the further constitutional reforms:
❖ The association of the Government of India with the Allies in the First World War.
❖ The Congress-League Lucknow Pact of 1916
❖ The Extremists re-joining the Indian National Congress
❖ The Home Rule Movement
• Montague, the Secretary of State for India, declared in August 1917 the policy of increasing the
association of Indians in every branch of administration.
• Montagu Declaration (1917) promised the 'gradual development of the self-governing institution,
with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India.’ The same phrase was
used in the preamble to the Government of India Act 1919.
• Montague toured India with Lord Chelmsford, and the Montague-Chelmsford report proposed the
reforms of 1919.
• The objective of the Act was the gradual introduction of a responsible government in India.

The main features of the Act

• Bi-cameral Legislature: The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged and reformed. It became a
bicameral legislature consisting of the Legislative Assembly (lower house) and the Council of State
(upper house).
• Extension of Communal Electorates: Other than Muslims, the minorities, including Sikhs, Anglo-
Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans, were given the right of a separate electorate.
• Relaxation of Control: The British parliament's control over the Indian government was relaxed, and
that of the Central government over the provincial government was reduced.
• Extension of Power of Governor-General: The consent of the Governor-General was required for
every bill passed by the Central or Provincial Legislature. This was in addition to veto power.
❖ The Governor General could overrule the decisions of his Executive Council.
❖ He had full control over foreign and political departments (departments dealing with princely
States in India).
• Governor-General's Executive Council: To involve more Indians in the government, it was provided
that three out of the six members of the Governor-General's Executive Council would be Indians.
❖ However, these Indian members were assigned less important portfolios, like Law, Education,
Labour, Health, or Industry. They reported to the Governor-General, who, in turn, reported to the
Secretary of State, not the Legislature.
  The Council of the Secretary of State was to have eight to twelve members, with three Indian
Members.
 The Secretary of the state was to follow the advice rendered by the Council.

No Responsible Government

• The chief executive authority remained vested in the Governor-General, who remained responsible
to the British Parliament through the Secretary of State and not to the Indian Legislature. Thus, the
Governor General had too many powers and was not responsible to the Legislature.

Limitations

• The Central Government was more representative and responsive but not responsible.
• The Government of India was still to be responsible to the British Parliament.
• The central legislature had no control over the Governor-General and his Executive Council.

Government of India Act of 1935

• The Act proposed an All India Federation of British provinces and princely states.
• It provided a bicameral legislature at the Centre:
1. The lower house (the Federal Assembly): It consists of 375 members: 250 (67%) were elected by
the legislative assemblies of the British Indian provinces; 125 (33%) were nominated by the rulers
of the princely states.
2. The upper house (the Council of State): It consists of 260 members: 156 (60%) were elected from
British India, and 104 (40%) were nominated by the rulers of the princely states.
• It divided the power between the centre and units in three lists:
1. Federal list (59 subjects): For Centres
2. Provincial list (54 subjects): For provinces
3. Concurrent list (36 subjects): Residuary powers were given to the Governor-General.
• It provided a Federal Court to interpret the provisions and to decide over inter-province disputes.
• The principle of Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre.

Limitations

• The proposed All India Federation did not materialise as the princely states did not join it.
• It retained the supremacy of the British Parliament. All rights to amend, alter, or repeal the provisions
were kept with the British Parliament.
• There was no mention of Dominion status and the inclusion of provisions to attain it.
• The Government of India Act of 1935 proposed a Federal form of government for India and
carried the essential features of the Federation:
❖ A written constitution.
 ❖ Division of subjects between federal and provincial governments.
❖ A Federal Court to interpret the provisions of the Constitution.
• This Act greatly influenced our constitution-making in independent India.

[UPSC 2018] In the federation established by the Government of India Act of 1935,
residuary powers given to the
a) Federal Legislature
b) Governor General
c) Provincial Legislature
d) Provincial Governors
Answer: B

Provincial Administration
• The British divided India into provinces for administrative convenience. Three were known as
Presidencies: Bengal, Madras, and Bombay.
• The Presidencies were administered by a Governor and his Executive Council, appointed by the
Crown. Other provinces were administered by Lieutenant Governors and Chief Commissioners
appointed by the Governor-General.
• The Presidency Governments possessed more rights and powers than other provinces.

The Indian Councils Act of 1861

• The provincial governments had significant autonomy until 1833, when their power to enact laws
was revoked. The Act of 1861 returned the legislative power of the Madras and Bombay presidencies,
but they had to obtain permission from the Governor-General to pass an act.
• It laid down that legislative councils like that of the centre should be established first in Bombay,
Madras and Bengal and then in other provinces. Thus, it marked the turning of the tide of
centralisation.
• The Governor General was given the power to create new provinces for legislative purposes and
could appoint Lieutenant Governors.
 New legislative councils for Bengal, the Northwestern Provinces, and Punjab were established in
1862, 1886, and 1897, respectively.
• In 1859, Lord Canning introduced the portfolio system in Calcutta's government. The Indian Councils
Act of 1861 recognised this system and transformed the viceroy’s Executive Council into a miniature
cabinet run on the portfolio system. Under this system, each of the five members was placed in charge
of a distinct department - home, revenue, military, finance, and law.

Provincial Administration and Finance

Centralisation of Finance

• The revenues from all over the country and different sources were gathered at the centre and
distributed to the provincial governments. The Central Government exercised strict control over
the smallest details of provincial expenditure.
• But this system proved quite wasteful in practice. This was because:
❖ It was impossible for the Central Government to supervise a provincial government's efficient
collection of revenues or to keep an adequate check on its expenditure.
❖ A provincial government had no motive to be economical.
• Therefore, the authorities decided to decentralise public finance.

De-centralisation of Finance

Lord Mayo
• The first step in the direction of separating central and provincial finances was taken in 1870 by Lord
Mayo.
• The provincial governments were granted fixed sums from central revenues to administer services
like Police, Jails, Education, Medical Services, and Roads. They were asked to administer them as they
wished.

Lord Lytton
• Lord Mayo’s scheme was enlarged in 1877 by Lord Lytton, who transferred to the provinces certain
other heads of expenditure like Land Revenue, Excise, General Administration, and Law and Justice.
• To meet the additional expenditure, a provincial government was to get a fixed share of the income
realised from that province from certain sources like Stamps, Excise Taxes, and Income Tax.

Lord Ripon
• Further changes in these arrangements were made in 1882 during the Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon.
• The system of giving fixed grants to the provinces was ended, and instead, a province was to get the
entire income within it from certain sources of revenue and a fixed share of the income from other
sources.
• Thus, all sources of revenue were now divided into three—general, provincial, and those to be divided
between the centre and the provinces. This arrangement continued till 1902.

An Appraisal

• The different measures of financial decentralisation taken by the government did not really mean the
beginning of genuine provincial autonomy or Indian participation in provincial administration. They
were much more in the nature of administrative reorganisation aimed at increasing the revenue and
reducing the expenditure.
Indian Councils Act of 1892
• The number of members in the provincial legislative councils increased, but the official majority
was maintained.

Indian Councils Act of 1909

• The number of members in the provincial legislative councils increased, and they were allowed a
non-official majority.

Government of India Act of 1919

• The Act introduced the dyarchy at the provincial level, i.e. dual government in the provinces. Under
this, the provincial administration was divided between reserved and transferred subjects.
❖ Reserved List: The councillors nominated by the Governor controlled reserved subjects and were
not responsible to the provincial legislature. It included key subjects such as defence (the military),
foreign affairs, and communications.
❖ Transferred List: Transferred subjects were controlled by the ministers responsible to the
provincial legislature. It included agriculture, supervision of local government, health, and education.
• Under the Act, the partially responsible government was introduced in the provinces. The minister
was responsible to the legislature, whereas the governor was exempt from such responsibility.
• More elected members in the Legislative Council: It consisted of the Governor's Executive Council,
elected and nominated members. It was stipulated that a minimum of 70% of Council members must
be elected officials, with official members not exceeding 20%.
• The Act provided the complete separation of the sources of revenue between the central and
provincial governments.
• The Secretary of State was not allowed to interfere in the administrative matters of the provinces
concerning transferred subjects.
• Government of India Act of 1919 divided the Central and provincial subjects.
1. Central List: Foreign and political relations, the public debt, tariff and customs, patents, currency,
communications etc.
2. Provincial List: Local self-government, health, sanitation, education, public works. agriculture,
forests, law and order, etc.
❖ Transferred Subjects: Local self-government, health, education and some departments
relating to agriculture.
❖ Reserved Subjects: Police, justice, control over printing presses, irrigation, land revenue,
factories etc.
• The residual powers were vested in the Governor-General in Council.

Limitations
➢ The experiment of diarchy failed. The excessive control of the finance department (reserved subject)
over the administration of transferred subjects affected their smooth functioning. Transferred subjects
starved financially as they needed more money for development.
➢ The reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor and his Executive Council. They were
appointed by the British Government and were jointly responsible to the Governor-General and the
Secretary of State for India.
➢ The Governor exercised effective powers over the whole administration through the Instrument of
Instruction and Executive Business Rules.
➢ The powers of the legislature were limited or restricted.
➢ The Governor could overrule the Ministers on any grounds which he considered special.
➢ The central government had unrestricted control over the provincial governments.

Positive Developments

✓ Dyarchy failed, but it showed the way for further reform—a federal government that should be more
representative and responsive.
✓ It created a parliamentary atmosphere in the legislature and gave people an opportunity to have a
look at the administration.
✓ During this period, some major reforms pertaining to local government (Bombay, Bengal) and
education and social welfare (Madras) were carried out.
✓ Almost in every province, the right to vote was extended to women.

INC’s Stand

• The Indian National Congress was unsatisfied with the reforms and rejected the Act. It boycotted
the first elections (1920) but decided to participate in the second election in 1924.
• However, some INC leaders, such as Annie Besant, Bipin Chandra Pal, Surendranath Banerjee, and Tej
Bahadur Sapru, accepted the Act and were ready to cooperate with the government. They left the
Congress.
• Surendranath Banerjee and Tej Bahadur Sapru formed the Indian Liberal Federation and were
normally called "Liberals". Madan Mohan Malaviya supported the reforms, and Muhammad Ali Jinnah
resigned from the Indian National Congress.

[UPSC 2015] The Government of India Act of 1919 clearly defined

a) the separation of power between the judiciary and the legislature
b) the jurisdiction of the central and provincial governments
c) the powers of the Secretary of State for India and the Viceroy
d) None of the above
Answer: B
[UPSC 2022] In the Government of India Act 1919, the functions of Provincial Government
were divided into “Reserved” and “Transferred” subjects. Which of the following were
treated as “Reserved” subjects?
1. Administration of Justice
2. Local Self-Government
3. Land Revenue
4. Police
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 2, 3 and 4
c) 1, 3 and 4
d) 1, 2 and 4
Answer: C

[UPSC 2017] In the context of Indian history, the principle of `Dyarchy (diarchy)’ refers to
a) Division of the central legislature into two houses.
b) Introduction of double government, i.e., Central and State governments.
c) Having two sets of rulers, one in London and another in Delhi.
d) Division of the subjects delegated to the provinces into two categories.
Answer: D

[UPSC 2012] Which of the following is/are the principal feature(s) of the Government of
India Act, 1919?
1. Introduction of diarchy in the executive government of the provinces
2. Introduction of separate communal electorates for Muslims
3. Devolution of legislative authority by the center to the provinces
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C

Indian General Election (1920)

• General elections were held in British India in 1920 to elect members to the Imperial Legislative
Council and the Provincial Councils. They were the first elections in the country's modern history.
Government of India Act of 1935
• The Act abolished the dyarchy at provinces and introduced provincial autonomy. The distinction
between transferred and reserved subjects was removed, and the administration was entrusted with
the ministers responsible to the legislature.
• It introduced bicameralism in six out of eleven provinces.

Limitations

• The governor's power restricted the power of ministers and legislature in the provinces.

Local Bodies
• In the late 19th century, the government found it necessary to introduce European advancements in
civic facilities in India due to the following factors:
❖ Rising Indian nationalist movement: It demanded modern improvements in civic life.
❖ India’s increasing contact with Europe: As India increased its contact with Europe, it became
necessary to transplant some European advancements into India.
• Thus, the need for the education of the masses, sanitation, water supply, better roads, and other civic
amenities was increasingly felt.
• However, the government's heavy expenditures on the army and railways left no finances for civic
facilities. It could not increase its income through new taxes as the burden of the existing taxation
was already very heavy on the poor, and a further addition to it was likely to create discontent against
the Government.
• The authorities believed that the people would be willing to pay new taxes if they knew that the funds
would be spent on their own welfare. As a result, they decided to delegate responsibility for local
services such as education, health, sanitation, and water supply to local bodies who would finance them
through locally imposed taxes.
• Thus, the financial difficulties led the Government to further decentralise administration by
promoting local government through municipalities and district boards.
• Many Englishmen had also pressed for the formation of local bodies on other grounds. They believed
associating Indians with the administration would prevent them from becoming politically
disaffected. This association could take place at the level of local bodies without endangering the British
monopoly of power in India.
 In 1688, the British established the oldest Municipal Corporation in India at Madras. They
established similar bodies in Bombay and Calcutta in 1726.

The Beginning
• Local bodies were established between 1864 and 1868. However, in almost every case, they consisted
of nominated members and were presided over by District Magistrates. Therefore, they did not
represent local self-government. Indians viewed them as tools for extracting additional taxes.

Lord Mayo’s Resolution (1870)

• It stressed the need to introduce self-government in local areas to raise local resources to administer
important local services and provide local interest and care in managing their funds.
• The various provincial governments, such as in Bengal, Madras, North-Western Province, and Punjab,
passed municipal acts to implement the policy outlined.

Lord Ripon’s Resolution (1882)

• In 1882, the government resolution laid down the policy of administering local affairs largely through
rural and urban local bodies. The important provisions were:
❖ A majority of the members would be non-officials.
❖ The non-official members would be elected by the people wherever possible to hold elections.
❖ The non-official members could be elected as Chairman of a local body.
• Lord Ripon is often called the father of local self-government in India. His resolution marked a significant
milestone in the history of local governance.

Limitations

• The elected members were in a minority in all the district boards and most municipalities.
• The right to vote was severely restricted.
• The Government retained the right to exercise strict control over the activities of the local bodies and
to suspend and supersede them at its discretion.
• Except in the Presidency cities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, the local bodies functioned just like
departments of the Government. They were in no way good examples of local self-government.

Views of Indians

• The politically conscious Indians welcomed Ripon's resolution. They worked actively in these local
bodies with the hope that, in time, they could be transformed into effective organs of local self-
government.

Government of India Act of 1919

• Local self-government was made a ‘transferred’ subject under Dyarchy. However, finance was a
reserved subject, which prevented Indian ministers from working due to lack of funds.

The Government of India Act of 1935

• The Government of India Act of 1935 brought the finance portfolio under popular ministries, which
made funds available for the development of local bodies. This played a crucial role in fostering the
establishment of self-governing institutions at the local level in India.
• Additionally, new Acts were introduced in the provinces, granting more power and authority to local
bodies.

Local Governments in Independent India

• During India’s freedom movement, Mahatma Gandhi strongly pleaded for decentralising economic
and political power. He believed that strengthening village panchayats was a means of effective
decentralisation.
• When the Constitution was prepared, the subject of local government was assigned to the States and
included in the Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV, Article 40).
• Article 40 directed the state to establish village panchayats and give them the authority to function
as self-governing units.
• It is believed that the Constitution did not give sufficient importance to local government,
specifically panchayats. This was because:
1. The turmoil due to the Partition resulted in a strong unitary inclination in the Constitution.
Nehru himself viewed extreme localism as a threat to the unity and integration of the nation.
2. There was a powerful voice in the Constituent Assembly led by Dr B.R. Ambedkar, who felt that
the faction and caste-ridden nature of rural society would defeat the noble purpose of local
government at the rural level.
• In accordance with the provisions of Directive Principles of State Policy regarding the establishment of
village panchayats as autonomous units of self-governance:
❖ The Community Development Program was launched in 1952. Its primary goal was to achieve the
socio-economic development of village life through democratic and cooperative organizations
created by the people themselves.
❖ In 1953, the National Extension Service was launched, which was an expanded version of the
Community Development Program.
• Local governments got a fillip after the 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Acts, which provided
the constitutional status to Panchayats and Municipalities.

Administrative Organisation

• After 1858, the organs of administrative control in India, the Indian army, the Police, and the Civil
Service were reorganised to exclude Indians from an effective share in administration.
• In the past, it was acknowledged that the British were taking steps to prepare Indians for self-
governance. However, now, it was openly declared that Indians were not capable of ruling themselves,
and thus, Britain had to continue to rule them for an indefinite period.

The Civil Service

• In 1858, the Indian administration came directly under the Crown. The Government of India Act of
1858 vested the power of superior appointments of a political nature with Her Majesty.
• The responsibility for conducting competitive examinations to appoint Her Majesty's civil service was
transferred to the Civil Service Commission in London.

Indian Civil Service Act of 1861

• The Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 reserved certain principal posts for the members of the
covenanted service. All these posts were put in a schedule. It also stated that any person, Indian or
European, could be appointed to any of the offices specified in the schedule annexed to the Act,
provided:
❖ He had resided for at least seven years in India.
❖ He had to pass an examination in the vernacular language of the district in which he was
employed
❖ such appointment would be subjected to departmental tests and other qualifications as the
authorities might impose
• The Act virtually remained a 'dead letter' due to authorities' reluctance to enforce it and the difficulties
in implementing recruitment requirements.

Act of 1870
• There was growing demand by educated Indians to secure employment in the Covenanted Civil
Service.
• The British Parliament passed an Act in 1870 authorising the appointment of any Indian (of proven
merit and ability) to any office or the civil service without reference to the Act of 1861, which reserved
specific appointments to the covenanted service.
• However, this Act did not make the desired headway, as opinion was divided on throwing open all
civil appointments or establishing a proportion between Indians and Europeans in the tenure of higher
offices.

Statutory Civil Service (1879)

• In 1879, Lord Lytton established the Statutory Civil Service. It consisted of one-sixth of covenanted
civil service posts filled by Indians nominated by the local government, subject to the approval of
the Government of India and the Secretary of State.
• Unfortunately, the statutory system also failed to achieve the purpose for which it was created, and
finally, the Statutory Civil Service was abolished.

Indian National Congress Demand (1885)

• In its first session in December 1885, the Indian National Congress passed a resolution for holding
simultaneous civil service examinations in England and India.
• This increased the pressure on the government to implement the Indianisation of civil service, and the
Aitchison Commission was appointed in 1886.

Aitchison Commission (1886)

• A Commission headed by Sir Charles Aitchison was appointed in 1886 to prepare a scheme for
admitting Indians to every branch of public service.
• It recommended:
❖ To drop covenanted and uncovenanted terms.
❖ To abolish the Statutory Civil Service
❖ Three-fold classification of civil services into - Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate.
❖ To raise the age limit to 23

After Aitchison Commission's Recommendation

• As recommended by the Commission, the Statutory Civil Service was abolished. The designation
covenanted civil service was also abolished, and the civil services of the country were divided into
three grades -
1. Imperial civil service: The recruiting and controlling authority was the ‘Secretary of State’.
2. Provincial civil service: The appointing and controlling authority was the respective provincial
government.
3. Subordinate civil service
• The practice of holding examinations for entry to the civil service in England continued as the
Commission strongly advocated it. The Commission considered that since the Indian Civil Service
represented the only permanent English official element in India, examinations in England became
essential to maintaining the English principles and methods of the government.

Islington Commission (1912)

• The demand for Indianisation became persistent, and there was mounting pressure to hold
simultaneous examinations in England and India.
• Once again, the question of Indianisation was examined by a Public Service Commission in 1912 under
the chairmanship of Lord Islington, the then Governor of New Zealand. It took nearly four years to
submit the report.
• The Commission observed that at that time, Indians constituted only 5% of the civil service. The
Commission supported "two separate channels of access to the Indian Civil Service itself, one in
England (open to all alike) and one in India (open to statutory natives of India only)".
• It sought to apply a method for inducting Indians to higher offices by reserving twenty-five per
cent of posts for them, i.e. 189 out of 755 posts were to be filled by them.
• It proposed categorising the services under the Government of India into Class I and II.

Montford Reforms (1919)

• Montague, the Secretary of State for India, declared in August 1917 the policy of increasing the
association of Indians in every branch of administration.
• The Montford Reforms recommended:
❖ Holding a separate competitive examination in India
❖ Thirty-three per cent for superior posts to be recruited from India, with an annual increase of
one-and-a-half per cent

Government of India Act of 1919

• The Government of India Act of 1919 recommended:
❖ Holding a separate (not simultaneous) competitive examination in India
❖ Establishment of a Public Service Commission in India

After the Act Government of India Act of 1919:

• In February 1922, the first competitive examination in India was held in Allahabad under the
supervision of the Civil Service Commission. The Indian candidates selected based on their results were
put on probation for two years at an English University.
• No decision was taken on setting up the Public Service Commission in India, and the subject was
then referred to the Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in India (Lee Commission).

The Lee Commission

• In 1923, a Royal Commission on Superior Civil Services in India under the chairmanship of Lord Lee
was appointed.

Recommendations of the Commission

Division of Services
• The division of main services into three classes : (a) All India, (b) central, and (c) provincial.
• The Commission recommended that the Secretary of State should retain the powers of appointment
and control of the All India Services (mainly Indian Civil Service, Indian Police Service, Indian Medical
Service, Indian Forest Service and Indian Service of Engineers) operating in the reserved fields of
administration.
• The recruitment and appointment of personnel for transferred fields, such as the Indian Educational
Service, Indian Agricultural Service, Indian Veterinary Services, etc., were to be made by the local
governments concerned, which meant that these services would be provincialised.

Indianisation
• Direct recruitment to ICS based on 50:50 parity between the Europeans and the Indians was to be
established in 15 years.
• Out of every hundred posts of Indian Civil Service, forty should be filled by direct recruitment of
Europeans, forty by the direct recruitment of Indians and twenty by promotion from the provincial
service so that in fifteen years, i.e. by 1939, Indians would hold half and half by Europeans.

Public Service Commission

• Statutory Public Service Commission contemplated by the Government of India Act, 1919, should be
established immediately.

Public Service Commission

• The Public Service Commission was established on October 1, 1926. It consisted of four members
in addition to the Chairman.
• Sir Ross Barker, a member of the Home Civil Service of the United Kingdom, was the first Chairman
of the Commission.
• The Commission supervised the examination for recruitment to civil service in 1927 on behalf of the
Civil Service Commission in England.

The Government of India Act, 1935

• The Act provided for the establishment of the Federal Public Service Commission, Provincial Public
Service Commission and Joint Public Service Commission for two or more states.
• As a result of the introduction of provincial autonomy under the Act, only three services, i.e., the Indian
Civil Service, the Indian Police Service and the Indian Medical Service, were to continue as All India
Services.
• Recruitment to other All India Services (Indian Agricultural Service, Veterinary Service, Educational
Service, Service of Engineers, Forest) was provincialised.

The Army
• The army was an important pillar of the British regime to maintain its paramountcy in India.
• The bulk of the Company’s army consisted of Indian soldiers. In 1857, the Indian constituted about
86% of the total strength of the Company's army.

Changes After 1858

• After the transfer of power from EIC to the Crown, the Company’s European forces were merged with
the Crown troops.
• The revolt of 1857 necessitated certain reforms in the organisation of colonial armed forces. After
1857, the Indian army was carefully reorganised to prevent the recurrence of another revolt.
• Every effort was made to keep it separated from the lives and thoughts of the rest of the population.
It was isolated from nationalist ideas by every possible means. Newspapers, journals, and nationalist
publications were prevented from reaching the soldiers.
• Several steps were taken to minimise the capacity of Indian soldiers to revolt. It includes:
1. The domination of the army by its European branch:
❖ The proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was raised and fixed at one to two in the
Bengal Army and two to five in the Madras and Bombay armies.
 The Royal Peel Commission (1859) recommended a ratio of one British soldier to every 2.5 Indian
sepoys in India.
❖ The European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial branches
of the army, like artillery, were put exclusively in European hands.
❖ The older policy of excluding Indians from the officer corps was strictly maintained.
2. Divide and Rule Policy:
❖ The Indian section of the army was organised based on the policy of “balance and counterpoise”
or "divide and rule, to prevent its chances of uniting again in an anti-British uprising.
❖ Discrimination based on caste, region, and religion was practised in recruitment to the army.
❖ Communal, caste, tribal and regional loyalties were encouraged among the soldiers so that the
sentiment of nationalism would not grow among them.
❖ Indian regiments comprised soldiers from different castes and groups, were placed to balance each
other.
❖ A fiction was created that Indians consisted of “martial" and “non-martial" classes.
➢ Soldiers from Avadh, Bihar, Central India, and South India who had taken part in the Revolt
of 1857 were declared non-martial and were no longer taken in the army on a large scale.
➢ Sikhs, Gurkhas, and Pathans, who had assisted in suppressing the Revolt, were declared
martial and recruited in large numbers.

The Police
• In 1860, the Government of India appointed a Police Commission under the M. H. Court. The
Commission adopted the principles of Napier's police system and recommended the establishment of
a single homogenous force of civil constabulary.
• On the recommendations of the commission, the British parliament passed the Indian Police Act of
1861. The Act did not create All India Police. Under the new system, the following changes were made:
 ❖ Inspector General of Police: Head of police in the province
❖ Deputy Inspector General of Police: Head of police in Range
❖ District Superintendent: Head of police in the District
• In 1902, the Government appointed the Frazer Commission to review Policing in British India and
recommend suggestions for improving the Police Department. The Commission submitted its report to
the Government in 1903.
• The Commission recommended the establishment of:
❖ The Central Intelligence Bureau at the centre
❖ The separate Crime Branch (Criminal Investigation Department - CID) for each Presidency under
the direction and control of the Inspector General of Police.

After Independence
• Following India's independence, the police system was criticised for being inefficient in serving
underprivileged people and displaying a lack of empathy towards them. Additionally, accusations of
politicisation and criminalisation were levelled against it.
• This was because although minor reforms were introduced, India continued to rely on the same policing
framework established in 1861.

Administrative Policies

• The British attitude towards India and their policies in India changed for the worse after the Revolt of
1857. Before 1857, they had tried to modernise India, though half-heartedly and hesitatingly. Now,
they began to follow reactionary policies.

Divide and Rule

• The British conquered India by taking advantage of the disunity among the Indian powers and by
playing them against one another. They continued to use this strategy of divide and rule after 1858, by
setting princes against states' people, region against region, province against province, caste against
caste and Hindus against Muslims.
• The unity displayed by Hindus and Muslims during the Revolt of 1857 disturbed the foreign rulers.
They were determined to break this unity to weaken the rising nationalist movement.
❖ Immediately after the Revolt, they repressed Muslims, confiscated their lands and property on a
large scale, and declared Hindus to be their favourites.
❖ After 1870, this policy was reversed, and an attempt was made to turn upper-class and middle-
class Muslims against the nationalist movement.
• Due to the lack of industrial and commercial development, educated Indians largely depended on
government employment. The government, in turn, exploited this dependency by creating a divide
 along religious lines among the educated population. In exchange for loyalty, the government promised
official favours on a communal basis and thus pitted educated Muslims against educated Hindus.

Hostility to Educated Indians

• The Government of India had actively encouraged modern education after 1833. The Universities
of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were started in 1857, and higher education spread rapidly thereafter.
Many British officials commended the refusal of educated Indians to participate in the revolt of 1857.
• However, this favourable official attitude towards the educated Indians changed when some began
to use their modern knowledge to analyse the imperialistic nature of British rule and to put forward
demands for Indian participation in administration.
• The officials became actively hostile to higher education and the educated Indians when the latter
began to organise a nationalist movement among the people and founded the Indian National
Congress in 1885. The officials now took active steps to curtail higher education.
• Thus, the British turned against Indians who embraced Western knowledge and stood for progress along
modern lines.
• The official opposition to educated Indians and higher education shows that British rule in India had
already exhausted its potential for progress.

Attitude Towards the Zamindars

• While being hostile to the forward-looking educated Indians, the British now turned for friendship
to the most reactionary group of Indians, the princes, the zamindars, and the landlords. The British
intended to use them as counterweights against the nationalist-minded intelligentsia.
• The zamindars and landlords were now hailed as the traditional and 'natural' leaders of the Indian
people. Their interests and privileges were protected. For example, the lands of most of the talukdars
of Avadh were restored to them.
• The zamindars and landlords, in turn, saw the British as guarantors of their very existence and became
their firm supporters.

Attitude towards Social Reforms

• The British believed that their social reform measures, such as the abolition of the custom of Sati and
permission for widows to remarry, had been a major cause of the Revolt of 1857.
• The British abandoned their previous policy of helping the social reformers. They gradually began to
side with orthodox opinion and stopped their support to the reformers.
 Jawaharlal Nehru has put it in The Discovery of India, “Because of this natural alliance of the
British power with the reactionaries in India, it became the guardian and upholder of many an evil
custom and practice, which it otherwise condemned."
Extreme Backwardness of Social Services
• While social services like education, sanitation and public health, water supply, and rural roads made
rapid progress in Europe during the 19th century, they remained extremely backwards in India.
• The Government of India spent most of its income on the army, wars, and administrative services,
neglecting social services. Whatever facilities were established, they were restricted to the elite sections
and urban areas.

Labour Legislation
• The condition of workers in modern factories and plantations in the 19th century was miserable.
❖ They had to work for 12 to 16 hours a day.
❖ There was no weekly day of rest.
❖ Women and children worked the same long hours as men.
❖ The wages were extremely low.
❖ The factories were overcrowded, badly lighted and aired, and completely unhygienic.
❖ Work on machines was hazardous, and accidents were common.
• The demand for regulation of the condition of workers in factories in India came from London.
Manufacturers of Britain were afraid that cheap labour in India would allow Indian manufacturers to
surpass them in the Indian market. To avoid this, they pressured the Indian government to pass factory
laws. However, the government's attempts to address the poor state of affairs in modern factories were
half-hearted and completely inadequate
• In India, the first Indian Factory Act was passed in 1881, which was later amended in 1891.

Indian Factories Act of 1881

• The Act dealt primarily with the problem of child labour. It also provided a few measures for the
health and safety of the workers. It laid down that:
❖ Children below seven would not work in factories.
❖ Children between 7 and 12 would not work for more than nine hours a day.
❖ Children would get four holidays in a month.
• The Act also provided for the proper fencing off of dangerous machinery.
• This law applied only to those factories that employed 100 or more workers.

Indian Factories Act of 1891

• Under this act:
❖ Working hours for women were fixed at eleven per day.
❖ The employment of children below nine years of age was prohibited.
❖ Daily work hours for children between the ages of 9 to 14 years were reduced to seven.
 ❖ A weekly holiday was given to all workers.
• This law applied to only factories employing 50 or more workers. Hours of work for men were still
unregulated.

Official Favour for Europeans

• Neither of the two Acts applied to British-owned tea and coffee plantations. There, labour was
exploited ruthlessly and treated like slaves. On the contrary, the Government helped the foreign
planters exploit their workers ruthlessly.
• The Government of India gave planters full help and passed penal laws in 1863, 1865, 1870, 1873 and
1882 to enable them to do so. Once a labourer had signed a contract to go and work on a plantation,
he could not refuse to do so. Any breach of contract by a labourer was a criminal offence, and the
planter also had the power to arrest him.
• However, better labour laws were passed in the 20th century under the pressure of the rising trade
union movement. Still, the condition of the Indian working class remained extremely depressed and
deplorable.

Restrictions on the Press

• The British introduced the printing press in India and initiated the development of the modern press.
The educated Indians immediately recognised that the press could educate public opinion and
influence government policies through criticism and censure. Many Indian leaders started the
newspapers, which made them a powerful political force.
 The Indian press was freed of restrictions by Charles Metcalfe in 1835.
• The nationalists gradually began to use the press to arouse national consciousness among the people
and to criticise the reactionary policies of the government. This turned the officials against the Indian
press, and they decided to curb its freedom.
• This was attempted by passing the Vernacular Press Act in 1878. This Act put serious restrictions on
the freedom of the Indian language newspapers. Indian people protested loudly against the passage
of this Act. Act was repealed in 1882.
• For nearly 25 years thereafter, the Indian press enjoyed considerable freedom. However, the rise of the
militant Swadeshi and Boycott movement after 1905 once again led to the enactment of repressive press
laws in 1908 and 1910.

Racial Antagonism (White Racism)

• The British in India considered themselves to be racially superior. Railway compartments, waiting
rooms at railway stations, parks, hotels, swimming pools, clubs, etc, reserved for “Europeans only"
were visible manifestations of this racialism.
• The British followed a discrimination policy against the Indians and excluded them from all higher
administrative posts.

British Policy Towards Princely States

• During British rule, British India was divided into two types of territory:
1. British Indian Provinces: Indian provinces directly under the control of the British government.
2. Princely States: Indian states ruled by princes.

Policy Before 1857

• The Princely States were considered subsidiary but sovereign powers. The British used every
opportunity to annex princely states.
• From 1757 to 1857, the Company rarely launched a direct military attack on an unknown territory.
Instead, it used various political, economic, and diplomatic methods to annex the Indian Kingdom.
These include:
1. Subsidiary Alliance: If the Indian rulers failed to pay for subsidiary forces, then part of their
territory was taken away as a penalty.
2. The policy of Paramountcy: The company claimed its authority was supreme and justified
annexing Indian kingdoms.
3. Doctrine of Lapse: If an Indian ruler died without a male heir, his kingdom would "lapse", that is,
become part of Company territory.
4. Obliged by Duty: The Company argued that it was "obliged by duty" to take Awadh to free the
people from the "misgovernment" of the Nawab.

Policy After 1857

• During the 1857 revolt, most Indian princes remained loyal to the British and helped them suppress
the revolt. It led the British to reverse their policy towards the Indian States. After 1857, the British:
❖ Abandoned the policy of annexation of Princely States.
❖ Respected the right of Princely States to adopt heirs.
• In 1876, Queen Victoria assumed the title of the Empress of India to emphasise British sovereignty
over the entire Indian subcontinent.
• However, as the price of their continued existence, the princes were made to acknowledge British
supremacy (paramountcy or suzerainty of the British crown). The princes accepted this subordinate
position and willingly became junior partners in the Empire because they were assured of their
continued existence as rulers of their states.
 Lord Curzon clarified that the princes were mere agents of the British Crown.

British Interference in the Princely States

• As the paramount power, the British claimed the right to supervise the internal government of the
princely states. They not only interfered in the day-to-day administration through the Residents but
insisted on appointing and dismissing ministers and other high officials.

Reasons for the Interference

• To give these states a modern administration so that their integration with British India would be
complete.
• To check the growth of popular democratic and nationalist movements in these states.

Examples of Changed British Policy

State of Mysore

Before 1857 (Annexation)

• In 1799, after Tipu Sultan's death, a special treaty of the Subsidiary Alliance was imposed on the new
Raja.
• In 1831, Lord Bentinck deposed the ruler of Mysore and took over the administration of the state.

After 1858 (Restoration)

• After 1868, the Government recognised the adopted heir of the old ruler, and in 1881, Lord Ripon
fully restored the state to the young Maharajah.

Ruler of Baroda

• In 1874, Malhar Rao Gaekwad was accused of misrule and attempting to poison the British Resident.
Following a brief trial, he was deposed from his position. However, Baroda was not annexed. Instead, a
young member of the Gaekwad family was appointed as the new ruler.