DEFINITION OF COMPUTER

➢ A computer is an electronic data processing machine that can follow instructions to accept input, process the
input and then produce information.

➢ A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and automatically manipulates data, and
provides output in a useful format.

➢ A computer is an electronic machine that accepts information and instructions from a user, manipulates the
information according to the instructions, displays the information in some way, and stores the information for
retrieval later.

EARLY HISTORY OF COMPUTING

Categories of data processing equipment are of three types:-
Mechanical devices: Which are hand-operated such as the "ABACUS" and the "Slide rule".
Electro-mechanical devices: Which are powered by an electric motor and use switches and relays, e.g. "Card reader"
and "Card stored".
Electronic devices: Which have such components as "Transistors, Circuits, Chips", e.g. "Modern Computer".
The stages of evolution/development of the computer

1- The Dark (Earliest) Ages: (3000 B.C – 1890 A.D)

2- The Middle Ages: (1890 – 1944)
3- The Modern Ages: (1944 till now)

THE DARK AGES: (3000 B.C – 1890 A.D)

This stage refers to the period in which only manual "Mechanical devices" were used:

The Abacus
Date of development: 3000 B.C (5000 years ago)
Place: China
Function: Arithmetic calculation
Abacus: An early device to record numeric values
Use today: Soroban Abacus training enhances the essential element of learning Mental Math
better and faster calculation skills and improves problem-solving abilities.

The Napier’s Bones

Date: 1617
Place: Scotland
Inventor: John Napier
Function: Multiplication and Division

Slide Rule
Date: 1632
Place: England
Inventor: William Oughtred
Components: Two movable rules
Function: Multiplication and Division

Pascal Arithmetic Machine

Date: 1642
Place: France
Inventor: Blasé Pascal
Function: All the arithmetic operations but it required considerable manual effort for
Multiplication and Division

Jacquard Loom

Date: 1801
Place: France
Inventor: Joseph Marie Jacquard
Components: Loom, threads and control cards (punched cards)
Punched Card: Jacquard’s Loom, the punched card

Babbage’s Analytical Engine

Date: 1833
Place: England / Cambridge University
Inventor: English inventor Charles Babbage/Professor of mathematics invented a viable
mechanical computer equivalent to modern digital computers. Created a mechanical,
steam-powered computing machine First machine was the Difference Engine, a
mechanical calculator. This was partially realized Second machine was the
Analytical Engine, a programmable calculation device
Major innovation:

▪ Arithmetic unit
▪ Punched-card input
▪ Printing unit and control system
▪ Storage unit (1000 numbers of 50 decimal digits each)
▪ special purpose calculator
▪ naval navigation charts

Ada Lovelace

Birth: 10/Dec./1815 in London, England

Death: 27/Nov./1852 in London, England
Nationality: British
Noun: Computer program in punched cards
Invention: Computer programming in 1843
Inventor: Augusta Ada Lovelace
First Programmer, the loop
Boolean Logic

In 1854, George BOOLE, a British mathematician performed a mathematical system named "Boolean Logic", that is
the mathematics of variables with values that can be only "True" or "False".

THE MIDDLE AGES: (1890 – 1944)

The major feature of this stage was the use of "Electro-Mechanical Device" to process data recorded on punched
cards.
Major innovation: a punched device for recording information by punching holes on cards.
The Simultaneous Punched Machine
Date: 1910
Place: USA Bureau Census
Inventor: James Power
Major innovation: An earlier card-punched equipment to cheek and correct data before it was actually
punched onto cards.

ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer)

Date: 1938
Place: Iowa State College
Inventor: Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry
Major innovation: A special purpose computer

THE MODERN AGES: (1944 TILL NOW)

The major feature of this stage was the use of "Computers" to process data and storage. Examples are Harvard
Mark I, ENIAC, UNIVAC I. Early computers launch new era in mathematics, physics, engineering and economics

HARVARD MARK 1
Date: 1944
Type: The first electro-mechanical computer "automatically performing of arithmetical and
logical operations"
Inventor: IBM Company/ Howard G. Aiken, Professor of Math's at Harvard University
Size: 50 foot long, 8 foot high
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
Date: 1946
Type: The first electronics digital computer "automatically performing of arithmetical and
logical operations"
Inventor: Dr. John Mauchly in USA
Weight: 30 Ton
Details
➢ Decimal (not binary)
➢ 20 accumulators of 10 digits
➢ Programmed manually by switches
➢ 18,000 vacuum tubes
➢ 30 tons
➢ 15,000 square feet
➢ 140 kW power consumption
➢ 5,000 additions per second

Characteristics of Computers
➢ Speed
➢ Accuracy
➢ Diligence
➢ Versatility
➢ Storage Capacity

GENERATIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Introduction
➢ Generation of Computer is the development of computers from one period (i.e. time) to another

Generations of Computers
✓ First generation of computers (1946-1959) (Vacuum Tubes)
✓ Second generation (1959-1971) (Transistors)
✓ Third Generation Computer (1964-1971) (Integrated Circuit)
✓ Fourth Generation (1974-1984) (Very Large Integrated Circuit)
✓ Fifth\future Generation (Present and beyond) (Artificial Intelligence)

Classification of Computers
✓ Classification according to purpose
▪ General-purpose Computers
▪ Specific-purpose Computers
✓ Classification according to type of data-handling techniques
▪ Analog Computers
▪ Digital Computers
▪ Hybrid Computers
✓ Classification according to functionality
▪ Microcomputers
▪ Minicomputers
▪ Mainframe computers
▪ Supercomputers

The growth of computer development has been divided into five distinct generations.
➢ Each generation reflects the progress made so far in improving the performance of the machine.

First Generation of Computer (1946-1959)

➢ The period of first generation was from 1946-1959.
➢ It used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit).

Characteristics\Features of First Generation Computers include:

➢ Use of vacuum tubes to make circuits.
➢ Use of magnetic drums.
➢ Use of machine language.
➢ Very small amount of storage space.
➢ Use of punch cards as I/O devices.
➢ Huge in size
 ➢ Very slow and less reliable output.
➢ Very expensive
➢ Used much Energy and generated much heat
The UNIVAC, ENIAC and EDVAC computers were examples of first generation computing devices.
The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Main Features

▪ Major Innovation: Vacuum Tubes

▪ Main Memory: Punched Cards
▪ Input Output Devices: Punched cards and papers
▪ Languages: Low level machine language
▪ Operating System: No operating system, human operators to set switches
▪ Size: Main frame for example ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC

Advantages of First Generation

1. Vacuum tubes were used as electronic component.

2. Electronic digital computers were developed for the first time.
3. These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
4. Computations were performed in millisecond.

Disadvantages of First Generation

1. Too large in size.

2. They were unreliable.
3. Induce a large amount of heat due to the vacuum tubes.
4. Not portable.
5. Limited commercial use.

Second Generation of Computers (1959-1971) (Transistors)

➢ Transistor was invented by William Shockley in 1947.

Characteristics of Second Generation Computers

➢ The wires and thermionic values of the first generation were replaced with diodes and transistors.
➢ Processors operated in micro seconds (i.e. one millionth of a second)
➢ Invention and use of high level language such as FORTRAN and COBOL.
➢ Programs could be written in High Level languages and assembler e.g. BASIC
➢ Communication by using telephone line.
Example: Honeywell 200, IBM 1620, IBM 1400 etc.

Main Features
❑ Major Innovation: Transistors as main component.
❑ Main Memory: RAM and ROM.
❑ External Storage: Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
❑ Input Output Devices: Magnetic tapes and Magnetic Disk.
❑ Languages: Assembly language, some high level languages for Example BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN.
❑ Operating System: Human handles punched card.
❑ Size: Mainframe for example IBM-1400, NCR-300, IBM-1600, UNIVAC-III, etc…

Advantages of Second Generation

1. Smaller in size as compares to 1st generation
2. Much more reliable
3. Less heat generated
4. Computation was performing in micro second
5. Less hardware and maintenance problem
6. Could be used for commercial use

Disadvantages of Second Generation

1. Very costly for commercial use
2. It still required frequent maintenance
3. Frequent cooling also required

Third Generation of Computers (1964-1971) – (Integrated Circuit (IC))

➢ The integrated circuit was invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.
➢ The technology is based on the use of semi-conductor device called silicon, chips or micro processors.
➢ The introduction of integrated circuit drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computer.
➢ The era of punched cards and printouts was phased out; it is now possible for user to interact with the
computer through keyboards and monitors with the aid of operating system.
➢ For the first time computer becomes accessible to a large audience.

Characteristics of Third Generation Computers

➢ Processors operated in nano seconds (i.e. one billionth of a second).
➢ Remote communication facilities.
➢ Multi programming facilities.
➢ Used Integrated circuit (IC) to replace Transistors.
➢ Generated less heat.
➢ Use of operating system: This generation saw the introduction of the use of operating system. An operating
system may be designed as a set of control programs that supervise the work of a computer system.

Characteristics of Third Generation Computers cont.....

➢ Use of Communication Cable: They were able to use communication cable for Local Connections and Lines
for Local Area Network (LAN).
➢ Reduction in the cost of storage: The cost of storage was drastically reduced.
➢ Introduction of mini Computers. Use of monitors and line printers
Examples: IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11 etc

Main Features
❑ Major Innovation: Integrated circuit (ICs) as basic electronic component (SSIC and MSIC)
❑ Main Memory: PROM and DRAM
❑ External Storage: Improve disk (Floppy Disk)
❑ Input and Output Devices: Keyboard for input, monitor for output
❑ Languages: More high level languages
❑ Operating System: Complete operating systems were introduced
❑ Size: Mainframe and Mini Computer, for example: IBM SYSTEM /360, ICH-360, HONEY WELL-316,
etc…

Advantages of Third Generation

1. Smaller in size as compared to second generation
2. More reliable
3. Portable
4. Less electricity consumption
5. Heat generation was rare
6. General purpose computer

Disadvantages of Third Generation

1. Air conditioning was required in many cases due to ICs
2. Very advance technology was required to make the ICs

Fourth Generation of Computers (1974-1984) (Very Large Integrated Circuit)

➢ Their technology is based on the use of semiconductor device called silicon chips or micro processors.
➢ One of the most important results of large scale integration was the introduction of the micro processors.
➢ A micro processor is a central processing unit fabricated on a chips.
➢ The introduction of micro processor led to the production of micro computer

Fourth Generation of Computers (1974-1984)

➢ Over time, larger units were introduced to generate an improved performance.

➢ These were LSI, VLSI, and ULSI. This modification further reduced the size of computer components leading
to the manufacturing of small gadgets, such as digital wristwatches, pocket size calculators and hand held
electronic devices.
➢ External storage devices such as CD-ROM drive optical disk, floppy disk etc. were all part of this new system.

Characteristics of fourth generation of computers

 ➢ Network Facilities and introduction of micro computer
➢ Micro-Computers.
➢ Introduction of Non-Procedural Language.
➢ Wide variety of software tools like database management systems, word processing packages, spreadsheet
packages, graphics packages, and computer games packages
➢ Flexible internal and external storage.
➢ Use of Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI).
➢ They have large storage capacity
➢ Introduction of electronic mail, and office automation system
Examples: CRAY 1/2 Pentium 1,2,3etc

Main Features
▪ Major Innovation: LSIC and VLSIC (Micro Processor)
▪ Main Memory: EPROM and SRAM.
▪ External Storage: Floppy Disk and Hard Disk.
▪ Input and Output Devices: Monitor for output.
▪ Languages: Languages and application software.
▪ Operating System: MS-DOS and PC-DOS
▪ Size: Microcomputer e.g. IBM-PC, Apple Macintosh etc..

Advantages of Fourth Generation

1. Smaller in size and much reliable
2. No cooling system required in many cases
3. Much faster computation
4. Portable and cheap
5. The heat generated was negligible
6. Totally general purpose computer

Disadvantages of Fourth Generation

1. Very advanced technology was required to fabricate to the ICs

Fifth\Future Generation (Present - Beyond) (Artificial Intelligence) (AI)

➢ From 1990s upward, the fifth generation computers entered into the computer world by the application of
fibre optics technology.
➢ This generation of computers evolved a result of the need for computers to take decision in various
circumstances.
➢ This generation is witnessing the influx of super micro computers through AI whose main attraction over
previous computer is speed and power.
➢ Expert systems have capacity of making decisions and judgment.

Fifth\Future Generation (Present - Beyond)

➢ These generations of computers will concentrate on advance in the way computers are used not on electronic
refinement that featured in the previous generation.
➢ They are data driven and not control-driven and artificial intelligence play a leading role in the full
development of these new set of computers especially in the areas of software.
➢ They are capable of performing functions of human experts, solving problems that require human
intelligent, judgment, insight and experience.

Characteristics of Fifth Generation of Computer

➢ Artificial Intelligence: The ability of the computer to exhibit behavior just like an intelligent person e.g.
Robot.
➢ Expert System: A system feature that is capable of making judgment and decision like an expert.
➢ That is an interactive feature that asks user quest and the answers supplied is used to determine what next
actions are to be taken
➢ Speech Synthesis: production of sounds that resemble human speech by electronic methods.
➢ The fifth generation of computer systems is characterized mainly by acceptance of parallel processing
backed up by hardware in the industry
➢ This generation witnessed the introduction of machines with hundreds of processors that could all be working
on different parts of a single program

Main Features
Major Innovations: ULSIC (Ultra large scale integrated circuit)
Main Memory: EEPROM, SIMM and DIMM.
External Storage: Modified magnetic and Optical disks.
Input/output Devices: Keyboard, Pointing Device, Scanner as input and Monitor as main output.
Languages: AI (Artificial Intelligence) Expert systems.
Operating System: GUI based e.g. Windows (95, 98, 2000, NT, XP, Vista, Seven and Eight)
Size: Very small in size example: Laptop, Note book, Digital Diary, Palmtop and Pocket PC.

Advantages of Fifth Generation

➢ Very large storage capacity
➢ Long bit processor builds
➢ Artificial Intelligence Language developed

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

Classification of computer by size

Super Computer (monster)
▪ The most powerful of the four categories
▪ Used by very large organizations, particularly for very math-intensive types of tasks
 ▪ These are the largest, fastest, and most expensive computers.
▪ They have more than 1 CPU which contains instructions so that it can interpret instructions and execute
arithmetic and logical operations.
▪ The cost ranges from $100 million to $250 million for design and assembly, apart from the maintenance cost.
▪ The speed of super computer is generally measured in “FLOP” (Floating Point Operation Per Second),
instead of million instructions per second (MIPS)
▪ Thousands of users can be connected
▪ As per 19 April 2018, it has a total of 40PB of internal memory and requires 15,371,00KW of power to
operate.
▪ Have storage capacities of millions of bits per chip.
Examples of Super Computer: Crayl, Cray2, Cray 3, Titan, Roadrunner
Uses: Super computer plays a crucial role in the following fields:
• Quantum mechanics,
• Weather forecasting,
• Climate research,
• Oil and gas exploration,
• Molecular modeling etc.

Mainframe computer

▪ Larger machines with special wiring and environmental controls

▪ Faster processing and greater storage than minicomputers
▪ Typical machine in large organizations
▪ A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
▪ A mainframe computer is next to super computer in terms of prize, size of internal memory and speed.
▪ A main frame cost from $200,000 to several millions of dollars. It has a variety of peripheral devices such as
printers, plotters, terminals etc. and large amount of external storage.
▪ A mainframe computer is used to process the large and huge amount of data in petabytes.
▪ They are used mostly in large establishment (e.g. Universities, banks, commercial houses, Organization,
factories etc.).
▪ They operate at a speed measured in nano second.
▪ Thousands of users can be connected to it.

Uses of mainframe:
▪ They are mainly used by government institutions and large companies for tasks such as large data processing,
census, financial transaction processing etc.
▪ Airline system (in this case, a mainframe is installed at the head office where all the information about flight
are recorded, small computers are installed in their various booking office, these computers are attached to
central data bank so that up to date information are readily available
Examples: Uivac 1100/10. Univac 1100/60, Honey well DSP88/ 86 IBM

Mini computer

▪ Desk-sized
▪ More processing speed and storage capacity than microcomputers
▪ General data processing needs at small companies
▪ Larger companies use them for specific purposes
▪ A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously.
▪ It is a medium sized computer that is more powerful than micro computer?
▪ It is between mainframe and micro computer.
▪ The speeds are rated between one and fifty million instructions per second (MIPS).
▪ They have primary storage in hundred to three hundred megabytes range with access storage device.
▪ It is designed to serve many users simultaneously.
Uses
▪ They are generally used as mid-range servers.
▪ Also for scientific and engineering computations, business transaction handling and data base management
etc.
Example: TDC 316, P1W 11/70
Micro computer

Microcomputer =>Personal Computer => PC: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
There are 3 types of the Microcomputers :
1. Laptop
2. Desktop
3. Workstation

Personal Computer: Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but
it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.
➢ It is defined as a computer that has microprocessor as its CPU. The first microprocessor computer was built of
8-bit chip.
➢ This implies that 8-bit of data can be sent for process into CPU, later 16 bits system was introduced (8088,
80486).
➢ The latest computers are of 32-bits and are known as Pentium.
➢ These types of computer are the smallest, least expensive and the commonest.
➢ It has a small memory and less processing power.

Types of microcomputer (personal computers)

There are many different types of microcomputers, such as personal computers, tablet computers, Smartphone, many
types of handheld devices including mobile phones, pocket, calculator, personal digital assistant and servers.
However they are grouped under the following:
Portable and Desktop:
Portable: Laptop, notebook and palmtop, handheld device
Desktop: This is a type of microcomputer placed on desk. The system unit can either be flatbed or slim line. Desktop
consists of all the features of a complete system (input, processing, output and storage).
Mobile Computer: Laptop, Notebook, Palmtop

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Functional units of a Computer
▪ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
▪ Main Memory
▪ Peripheral Units
✓ Input Devices
✓ Output Devices
✓ Auxiliary Storage Devices
➢ The hardware is divided into three areas or separate units for its operation:
▪ Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor
▪ Main Memory
▪ Peripheral Units or Electrical Gadgets

Computer Hardware
The hardware refers to the physical components or functional units of a computer which make up the computer
configuration
The design and construction of the hardware of a particular computer is referred to as its architecture or
configuration
The hardware components provide the physical interface to a computer system
What is hardware?
• A program to process words
• A physical component of a computer
• A database of facts
• A computer programming book

Functional Units of a Computer

The physical parts that make up a computer consists mainly of four basic units, these parts are known as hardware,
namely:
▪ Input unit,
▪ Storage unit,
▪ Central Processing Unit (CPU) or Processor
▪ Output unit.
Any hardware device connected to the computer or any part of the computer outside the CPU and the working
memory is known as a Peripherals
Central Processing unit further includes Arithmetic logic unit and control unit, as shown in the Figure

Functional Units of a Computer

A computer performs five major operations or functions irrespective of its size and make. These are
▪ It accepts data or instructions as input,
▪ It stores data and instruction
▪ It processes data as per the instructions,
▪ It controls all operations inside a computer, and
▪ It gives results in the form of output.

Input and Output

The data or instructions you type into the computer are called input
The result of the computer processing your input is referred to as output

Peripheral devices accomplish input and output functions

Input
Input unit – Input unit is a unit that accepts any input device. The input device is used to input data into the computer
system
This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the user for processing.
Most common are keyboard and mouse

Function of input unit:

▪ It converts inputted data into binary codes
▪ It sends data to main memory of computer

INPUT DEVICES
You use an input device, such as a keyboard or a mouse, to input data and issue commands
▪ Keyboard
▪ Ergonomic
▪ Pointing device
▪ Controls the pointer
▪ Mouse
▪ Scroll wheel
▪ Trackball
▪ Touch pad
▪ Pointing stick
▪ Scanner
Output
Output Unit –Output unit is a unit that constituents a number of output device. An output device is used to show the
result of processing.
The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the computer after processing.

Function of Output unit:

▪ it accepts data or information sends from main memory of computer
▪ It converts binary coded information into HLL or inputted languages.

Output devices show you the results of processing data

Monitor
▪ Flat panel
▪ LCD
▪ CRT
Printer
▪ Laser
▪ Inkjet
▪ Dot matrix
Storage Unit
Storage Unit – The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after processing
A computer file is a named collection of stored data
An executable file contains the instructions that tell a computer how to perform a specific task
A data file is created by a user
Magnetic media
▪ Hard disk
▪ Tape
 ▪ Floppy disk
Optical storage device
▪ CD
▪ DVD
▪ CD-R
▪ CD-RW
▪ CD-ROM
Flash memory
▪ Flash memory cards
▪ USB flash storage device
▪ USB drive (flash drive)

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing.
It takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given
and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) – CPU is called the brain of a computer.

An electronic circuitry that carries out the instruction given by a computer program.
CPU can be sub classified into three parts.
▪ Control unit (CU)
▪ Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU)

Control Unit (CU)

Coordinates all activities of the computer by:
➢ Determining which operations to perform and in what order to carry them out.
➢ The CU transmits coordinating control signals to other computer components.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control unit. It takes care of step by
step processing of all operations inside the computer
➢ The control unit manages the various components of the computer. It reads instructions from memory and
interpretation and changes in a series of signals to activate other parts of the computer.
➢ It controls and co-ordinate is input output memory and all other units.

Arithmetic & Logic Unit (ALU)

Consists of electronic circuitry to perform:
➢ Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
➢ Logical operations (and, or, not, …) and to make some comparisons (less-than, equal, … etc.)
All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions provided, are carried out within the ALU.
It performs arithmetic functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and also logical operations like
greater than, less than and equal to etc
➢ The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs simple arithmetic operation such as +,-, *, / and logical
operation such as >, <, =<, <= etc.

Function of CPU
➢ It controls all the parts and software and data flow of computer.
➢ It performs all operations.
➢ It accepts data from input device.
➢ It sends information to output device.
➢ Executing programs stored in memory
➢ It stores data either temporarily or permanent basis.
➢ It performs arithmetical and logical operations.

Memory Unit (MU)

➢ Memory is used to store data and instructions before and after processing.
➢ Memory is also called Primary memory or internal memory. It is used to store data temporary or permanently.

Computer’s memory can be classified into two types;

• Primary memory and
• Secondary memory
• Random access memory (RAM)
▪ Volatile memory
▪ Sdram
 • Cache memory (ram cache or cpu cache)
• Virtual memory
• Read-only memory (rom)
▪ Bios
▪ Nonvolatile memory
• Complementary metal oxide semiconductor memory (CMOS)
• Semi permanent memory

Primary Memory
Also known as main memory.
Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus.
The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
Example: RAM and ROM

Primary Memory
Primary Memory can be further classified as RAM and ROM.
RAM or Random Access Memory
It is the place in a computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are kept
temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor.
It is said to be ‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on.
The contents of RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.
This is the part of the computer that stores operating system software, software applications and other information for
the central processing unit (CPU) to have fast and direct access when needed to perform tasks.

ROM or Read Only Memory :

Programmed at manufacturing time and contains manufacturer’s instructions.
Its contents cannot be changed by users
It is a permanent store
ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and contents of which are not lost
even when the computer is switched off.
ROM also stores an initial program called the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the operation of computer
system once the power is turned on.

Secondary Memory
Secondary/auxiliary memory is storage. It is not directly accessible by the CPU.
Computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using
intermediate area in primary storage.
Secondary storage devices are of two types;
▪ Magnetic devices include hard disks and
▪ Optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.

Secondary Storage
Stores data and programs permanently: its retained after the power is turned off
Examples
• Hard Drive (Hard Disk) Located outside the CPU, but most often contained in the system cabinet
• Floppy Disk
• Optical Laser Discs
❖ CD-ROM, CD-RW, and DVD
Common Secondary Media

• Diskettes
– Data represented as magnetic spots on removable flexible plastic disks
– Most common size is 3 1/2 inches, in a rigid plastic case
– Disk drive holds the diskette, reads or retrieves the data and writes or stores data
• Hard drive
– Data is represented magnetically as with diskettes
– Normally more than one rigid platter in a sealed unit
– These disks are not removable
– Significantly more capacity and faster operating than diskettes
• Optical Laser Discs
❖ CD ROM & DVD’s
▪ Data is represented as pits and lands
 ▪ Some kinds are read only (CD-ROM) and some Kinds are rewritable (CD-RW)
▪ Significantly more capacity and faster operating than diskettes

Peripheral Units
According to the most technical definition, the only pieces of a computer not considered to be peripherals are the
central processing unit, power supply, motherboard, and computer case.

A Peripheral is a “device that is used to put information into or get information out of the computer. There are three
different types of peripherals:
i) Input
ii) Output
iii) Storage

A Peripheral Device is generally defined as any auxiliary device such as a computer mouse or keyboard, that
connects to and works with the computer in some way.
Other examples of peripherals are expansion cards, graphics cards, image scanners, tape drives, microphones,
loudspeakers, webcams, and digital cameras.
RAM—random access memory—straddles the line between peripheral and primary component; it is technically a
storage peripheral, but is required for every major function of a modern computer and removing the RAM will
effectively disable any modern machine.
Many new devices such as digital watches, smartphones and tablet computers have interfaces which allow them to be
used as a peripheral by a full computer, though they are not host-dependent as other peripheral devices are.

Input Devices
In computing, an input device is a peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control
signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information appliance. Examples of input
devices include keyboards, mice, scanners, digital cameras and joysticks.

Output Devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing
carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which converts the electronically generated
information into human-readable form.

Auxiliary Storage Devices

They are cheaper forms of storage that can store a lot of information until they are needed. They can also be called off-
line storage media.
There are many types, but the most common types are magnetic disks and tapes. These are now available in many
different varieties to facilities the needs of various types and size of computers, the volume of records to be held in
backing storage, and data transfer speed requirement.

Common Peripherals
Input: Keyboard, Computer mouse, Graphic tablet, Touchscreen, Barcode reader, Image scanner, Microphone,
Webcam, Game controller, Light pen, Scanner, Digital camera.
Output: Computer display, Printer, Projector, Speaker, Storage devices, Floppy disk drive, Flash drive, Disk drive,
Smartphone or Tablet computer
Storage interface: CD/DVD drive, Input/Output, Modem, Network interface controller (NIC)
Processing Hardware
❖ The motherboard is the main electronic component of the computer
 Circuit board
❖ The microprocessor is one of the most important pieces of processing hardware on the motherboard
❖ Cards are removable circuit boards

INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE AND PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

System Software
▪ Operating Systems
▪ Types of Operating Systems
▪ Language Translators
▪ Utility Software

Application Software
▪ Word Processing Packages
▪ Spread sheet Packages
 ▪ Graphic Packages
▪ Database Packages
▪ Desktop Publishing Packages
▪ Games Packages
▪ Communication Packages
▪ User Programs
▪ Integrated Packages

Computer Languages
▪ Machine Languages
▪ Low-Level Languages
▪ High-Level Languages

Computer Software
Computer software is the set of programs that makes the hardware perform a set of tasks in particular order.
Hardware and software are complimentary to each other. Both have to work together to produce meaningful results.
Computer software is classified into two broad categories;
▪ System Software and
▪ Application Software.

A Layered View of the Computer

▪ Hardware/Software interface

Application Programs
Word-Processors, Spreadsheets, Database Software, IDEs,etc…

System Software
Compilers, Interpreters,Preprocessors, etc.
Operating System, Device Drivers

Systems Software
Set of programs that coordinates activities and functions of the hardware and various other programs.
The software that controls everything that happens in a computer.
Background software, manages the computer’s internal resources
Programs written for computer systems, Compilers, operating systems, …
System software consists of a group of programs that control the operations of a computer equipment including
functions
▪ managing memory,
▪ managing peripherals,
▪ loading, storing,
▪ an interface between the application programs and the computer.
MS DOS (Microsoft’s Disk Operating System), UNIX are examples of system software
System Software manages the fundamental operations of your computer
▪ Operating system
• System resource
• Multitasking
▪ Utilities
▪ Programming Languages
Operating Systems or OS
The operating system (OS) controls all other software and allows the hardware devices to work properly.
Without an operating system, a user cannot run an application program on their computer, unless the application
program is self booting.
Some popular operating systems are:
▪ Microsoft Windows - for PCs
▪ Mac OS - for Apple computers
▪ Linux - for very large network computers
▪ Handheld operating systems - for PDAs, MP3 players, and cell phones

Software consists of programs and data, that runs on computers, manages computer hardware resources, and provides
common services for execution of various application software.
The OS is the most important type of system software in a computer system.
Provides several essential services:
 ▪ Loading & running application programs
▪ Allocating memory & processor time
▪ Providing input & output facilities
▪ Managing files of information

Operating System Functions

An operating system is primarily a resource manager
Design is tied to the hardware and software resources the operating system must manage
➢ Perform common computer hardware functions
▪ Ex: Get input from keyboard
➢ Provide a user interface
▪ Command-based user interface (ms-dos)
▪ Graphical-user interface (windows)
➢ Provide a degree of hardware independence
▪ Application program interface
➢ Manage system memory
▪ Convert logical view to physical view
➢ Manage processing tasks
▪ Allocate computer resources
▪ Multitasking (run more than once application at a time)
▪ Time-sharing (allow multiple access to a system)
➢ Provide networking capability
▪ Enable connection to the Internet
➢ Control access to system resources
▪ Authentication
➢ Manage files
▪ Access to files
▪ Perform common computer hardware functions: Processors, secondary storage (such as hard disks),
other I/O devices, processes, threads, databases
▪ Provide a user interface
▪ Provide a degree of hardware independence
▪ Manage system memory
▪ Manage processing tasks
▪ Provide networking capability
▪ Control access to system resources
▪ Manage files

Types of Operating Systems

Today’s computers are:
1. Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the same
time and different times.
2. Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than one computer
processor.
3. Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes to run at the
same time.
4. Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program to run concurrently.
Programs
❖ Programs are written in programming languages
 PL = programming language
 Pieces of the same program can be written in different PLs
▪ Languages closer to the machine can be more efficient
▪ As long as they agree on how to communicate
❖ A PL is
 A special purpose and limited language
 A set of rules and symbols used to construct a computer program
 A language used to interact with the computer

LANGUAGE TRANSLATORS
A programming language (PL) is a vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer or computing
device to perform specific tasks.
PL refers to high-level languages, such as BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, Java, FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal.
Each PL has a unique set of keywords (words that it understands) and a special syntax for organizing program
instructions.
A programmers uses PL to develop software programs, scripts, or other sets of instructions for computers to execute.
PL share similarities, each has its own syntax.
Language Translators
▪ A programmer learns the languages rules, syntax, and structure, they write the source code in a text editor or
IDE.
▪ The programmer often compiles the code into machine language that can be understood by the computer.
▪ Scripting languages, which do not require a compiler, use an interpreter to execute the script.
Assemblers
➢ An assembler is a program that converts assembly language into machine code.
➢ It takes the basic commands and operations from assembly code and converts them into binary code that can
be recognized by a specific type of processor.
➢ Assemblers are similar to compilers in that they produce executable code.
➢ However, assemblers are more simplistic since they only convert low-level code (assembly language) to
machine code.

Compilers
A compiler is a software program that transforms high-level source code that is written by a developer in a high-level
programming language into a low level object code (binary code) in machine language, which can be understood by
the processor.
The process of converting high-level programming into machine language is known as compilation.
The processor executes object code, which indicates when binary high and low signals are required in the arithmetic
logic unit of the processor.
The stages in compilation include:
▪ Lexical Analysis
▪ Syntax Analysis
▪ Semantic Analysis
▪ Intermediate code generation
▪ Code optimization
▪ Code generation
Compiler
A program that converts another program from some source language (or high-level programming language / HLL) to
machine language (object code).
Some compilers output assembly language which is then converted to machine language by a separate assembler.
It is distinguished from an assembler by the fact that each input statement, in general, correspond to more than one
machine instruction.

Interpreters

An interpreter is a computer program that is used to directly execute program instructions written using one of the
many high-level programming languages.
The interpreter transforms the high-level program into an intermediate language that it then executes, or it could parse
the high-level source code and then performs the commands directly, which is done line by line or statement by
statement.
Programming languages are implemented in two ways:
• Interpretation
• Compilation.

An interpreter transforms or interprets a high-level programming code into code that can be understood by the
machine (machine code) or into an intermediate language that can be easily executed as well.
The interpreter reads each statement of code and then converts or executes it directly.
In contrast, an assembler or a compiler converts a high-level source code into native (compiled) code that can be
executed directly by the operating system.
The interpreter stays around during execution
It reads and executes statements one at a time

Compilation vs. Interpretation

❖ Compilation:
 Syntax errors caught before running the program
 Better performance
  Decisions made once, at compile time
❖ Interpretation:
 Better diagnostics (error messages)
 More flexibility
 Supports late binding (delaying decisions about program implementation until runtime)
▪ Can better cope with PLs where type and size of variables depend on input
 Supports creation/modification of program code on the fly (e.g. Lisp, Prolog)
Mixture of C & I

• Many programming languages implement this

• Interpreter implements a Virtual Machine (VM).

JAVA
For flexibility: Just In Time (JIT) compiler translates bytecode into ML just before execution

Utility Software
It helps you maintain your computer and keep it in good running condition
Utility software is software designed to help to analyse, configure, optimize or maintain a computer.
It is used to support the computer infrastructure - in contrast to application software, which is aimed at directly
performing tasks that benefit ordinary users.
Utilities often form part of application systems.
For example a batch job may run user-written code to update a database and may then include a step that runs a utility
to back up the database, or a job may run a utility to compress a disk before copying files.

File Conversion
File conversion is the process of converting a file into another type.
For example:
▪ Transferring a file used in Microsoft Word to Corel Word Perfect.
▪ It overs data transfer from any medium to another medium, making an exact copy or simultaneously editing
and Validating data.
▪ A copy from a hard disk to a diskette.
File Copy
File copying is the creation of a new file which has the same content as an existing file.
For example:
▪ Housekeeping Operations
These include programs to clear areas of storage, writing file labels, updating common data e.g. data.

Application Software
➢ Programs that help users solve particular computing problems
➢ Programs written for computer users and it enables you to perform specific computer tasks, such as
document production, spreadsheet calculations, and database management
▪ Word-processors, spreadsheets, & other application packages
➢ Software that can perform a specific task for the user, such as
▪ Word processors– example: Microsoft word
▪ Spreadsheets-- example: Microsoft Excel
▪ Database managers-- example: Microsoft Access
▪ Graphics-- example: Photoshop
Application Software – Basic Tools:
Examples are word processing, accounting, budgeting or payroll, fall under the category of application software.
Word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems are all examples of general purpose application
software
Word processing software:
▪ The main purpose of this software is to produce documents.
▪ MS-Word, Word Pad, Notepad and some other text editors are some of the examples of word processing
software
Spread sheet software:
▪ The spread sheet software is used to maintain budget, financial statements, grade sheets, and sales records.
▪ The purpose of this software is organizing numbers.
▪ It also allows the users to perform simple or complex calculations on the numbers entered in rows and
columns.
▪ MS-Excel is one of the example of spreadsheet software.
Presentation software:
▪ This software is used to display the information in the form of slide show.
▪ The three main functions of presentation software is editing that allows insertion and formatting of text,
including graphics in the text and executing the slide shows.
▪ The best example for this type of application software is Microsoft PowerPoint.
Multimedia software:
▪ Media players and real players are the examples of multimedia software.
▪ This software will allow the user to create audio and videos.
▪ The different forms of multimedia software are audio converters, players, burners, video encoders and
decoders.
Computer Languages
Computer language or programming language is a coded syntax used by computer programmers to communicate with
a computer.
Computer language establishes a flow of communication between software programs.
The language enables a computer user to dictate what commands the computer must perform to process data.
These languages can be classified into following categories
Level 6: The User Level
 Program execution and user interface level.
 The level with which we are most familiar.
Level 5: High-Level Language Level
 The level with which we interact when we write programs in languages such as C, Pascal, Lisp, and
Java.
Level 4: Assembly Language Level
 Acts upon assembly language produced from Level 5, as well as instructions programmed directly at
this level.
Level 3: System Software Level
 Controls executing processes on the system.
 Protects system resources.
 Assembly language instructions often pass through Level 3 without modification.
Level 2: Machine Level
 Also known as the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) Level.
 Consists of instructions that are particular to the architecture of the machine.
 Programs written in machine language need no compilers, interpreters, or assemblers.
Level 1: Control Level
 A control unit decodes and executes instructions and moves data through the system.
 Control units can be microprogrammed or hardwired.
 A microprogram is a program written in a low-level language that is implemented by the hardware.
 Hardwired control units consist of hardware that directly executes machine instructions.
Level 0: Digital Logic Level
 This level is where we find digital circuits (the chips).
 Digital circuits consist of gates and wires.
 These components implement the mathematical logic of all other levels.
Computer Languages
➢ Machine Language
▪ Uses binary code
▪ Machine-dependent
▪ Not portable
➢ Assembly Language
▪ Uses mnemonics
▪ Machine-dependent
▪ Not usually portable
➢ High-Level Language (HLL)
▪ Uses English-like language
▪ Machine independent
▪ Portable (but must be compiled for different platforms)
▪ Examples: Pascal, C, C++, Java, Fortran, . . .
Machine Language
➢ The representation of a computer program which is actually read and understood by the computer.
▪ A program in machine code consists of a sequence of machine instructions.
➢ Instructions:
▪ Machine instructions are in binary code
 ▪ Instructions specify operations and memory cells involved in the operation
Example:

Operation Address

0010 0000 0000 0100

0100 0000 0000 0101

0011 0000 0000 0110

Assembly Language
➢ A symbolic representation of the machine language of a specific processor.
➢ Is converted to machine code by an assembler.
➢ Usually, each line of assembly code produces one machine instruction (One-to-one correspondence).
➢ Programming in assembly language is slow and error-prone but is more efficient in terms of hardware
performance.
➢ Mnemonic representation of the instructions and data

High-level language
➢ A programming language which use statements consisting of English-like keywords such as "FOR", "PRINT"
or “IF“, ... etc.
➢ Each statement corresponds to several machine language instructions (one-to-many correspondence).
➢ Much easier to program than in assembly language.
➢ Data are referenced using descriptive names
➢ Operations can be described using familiar symbols
Syntax & Semantics
Syntax:
The structure of strings in some language. A language's syntax is described by a grammar.
▪ Examples:
▪ Binary number
<binary_number> = <bit> | <bit> <binary_number>
<bit> =0|1
▪ Identifier
<identifier> = <letter> {<letter> | <digit> }
<letter> =a|b|...|z
<digit =0|1|...|9
Semantics:
The meaning of the language

Syntax and Grammars

Syntax descriptions for a PL are themselves written in a formal language.
▪ E.g. Backus-Naur Form (BNF)
The formal language is not a PL but it can be implemented by a compiler to enforce grammar restrictions.
Some PLs look more like grammar descriptions than like instructions.

Compilers and Programs

Compiler
▪ A program that converts another program from some source language (or high-level programming
language / HLL) to machine language (object code).
▪ Some compilers output assembly language which is then converted to machine language by a separate
assembler.
▪ Is distinguished from an assembler by the fact that each input statement, in general, correspond to
more than one machine instruction.

Source program
▪ The form in which a computer program, written in some formal programming language, is written by
the programmer.
▪ Can be compiled automatically into object code or machine code or executed by an interpreter.
 ▪ Pascal source programs have extension ‘.pas’
Object program
▪ Output from the compiler
▪ Equivalent machine language translation of the source program
▪ Files usually have extension ‘.obj’
Executable program
▪ Output from linker/loader
▪ Machine language program linked with necessary libraries & other files
▪ Files usually have extension ‘.exe’
What is a Linker?
▪ A program that pulls other programs together so that they can run.
▪ Most programs are very large and consist of several modules.
▪ Even small programs use existing code provided by the programming environment called libraries.
▪ The linker pulls everything together, makes sure that references to other parts of the program (code) are
resolved.
Program Execution
Steps taken by the CPU to run a program (instructions are in machine language):
1. Fetch an instruction
2. Decode (interpret) the instruction
3. Retrieve data, if needed
4. Execute (perform) actual processing
5. Store the results, if needed
Summary of Programming Languages
Fourth
▪ Even easy for non-programmers
▪ Tell what to do, not how to do it
▪ Focus, Powerhouse
Visual Programming Languages
▪ Point-and-click
▪ Drag-and-drop
▪ Useful for user interfaces
▪ Visual Basic, Visual C++
Object-oriented Languages
▪ Objects contain data, methods to operate data
▪ C++, Java

Computer Processing Models and Networking

Processing Models
▪ Batch Processing
▪ Real-Time Processing
▪ On-Line Processing
▪ Time-Sharing Processing
▪ Distributed Data Processing
Networks
▪ Hierarchical Networks
▪ Peer to Pear Networks
▪ Local Area Networks (LAN)
▪ Wide Area Networks (WAN)
▪ Internet
▪ Security on Networks

BATCH PROCESSING
Batch processing is the processing of transactions in a group or batch.
No user interaction is required once batch processing is underway.
This differentiates batch processing from transaction processing, which involves processing transactions one at a
time and requires user interaction.
Batch processing can be carried out at any time, it is particularly suitable to end-of-cycle processing, such as for
processing a bank's reports at the end of a day or generating monthly or biweekly payrolls.
NOTE:
▪ Batch processing is a technique for automating and processing multiple transactions as a single group.
 ▪ Batch processing helps in handling tasks like payroll, end-of-month reconciliation, or settling trades
overnight.
▪ Batch processing systems can save money and labor over time, but they may be costly to design and
implement up-front.

Understanding Batch Processing

▪ Batch processing jobs are run on regularly scheduled times (e.g., overnight) or on an as-needed basis.
Example, bills for utilities and other services received by consumers are typically generated by batch
processing each month.
▪ Batch processing is beneficial because it is a cost-effective means of handling large amounts of data at once.
▪ One requirement is that the inputs for the processing must be correct or else the results of the whole batch will
be faulty, which would cost time and money.
Real-Time Processing
Real Time = immediately, now

Real-time data processing is the execution of data in a short time period, providing near speedy output.
The processing is done as the data is inputted, so it needs a continuous stream of input data in order to provide a
continuous output.
In contrast, a batch data processing system collects data and then processes all the data in bulk in a later time, which
also means output is received at a later time.

Real-time data processing is also known as stream processing.

Examples of real-time data processing systems are:
▪ Bank ATMs,
▪ traffic control systems
▪ modern computer systems such as the PC
▪ mobile devices.
Requirements
Real-Time Processing requires dual-purpose input and output devices, such as terminal and VDUs.
Uses
It is useful in specialized or transaction applications, and in situations where time is a critical factor, e.g. in airline
reservations, banks, e.t.c

On-line Processing
It concern the equipment which is connected or re-engaged and functioning with the CPU and main Programs, e.g.
teletype units, consoles card-readers, OCR, VDU etc.
It is at least a one-way communication between operators at terminals and the CPU.
Note:
An On-line system is not always a real time (Immediately inquiry response) System, but real-time systems must have
an On-line Capability and equipment.

Time-sharing Processing
Time-sharing, in data processing, method of operation in which multiple users with different programs interact nearly
concurrently with the central processing unit of a large-scale digital computer.
▪ the central processor operates significantly faster
▪ it has sufficient time to solve several discrete problems during the input/output process.
▪ Time-sharing was developed during the late 1950s and early ’60s to make more efficient use of expensive
processor time.
▪ Commonly used time-sharing techniques include multiprocessing, parallel operation, and multiprogramming.
▪ Computer networks organized for the purpose of exchanging data and resources are centred on time-sharing
systems.
Distributed Data Processing
▪ Distributed data processing is a computer-networking method in which multiple computers across different
locations share computer-processing capability.
▪ This is in contrast to a single, centralized server managing and providing processing capability to all
connected systems.
▪ Computers that comprise the distributed data-processing network are located at different locations but
interconnected by means of wireless or satellite links.
Networking
A network consists of 2 or more computers connected together, and they can communicate and share resources
(e.g. information)
A network connects one computer to other computers and peripheral devices, enabling you to share data and
resources with others
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs),
exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
Networking
Network: A collection of computing devices that are connected in various ways in order to communicate and share
resources
Usually, the connections between computers in a network are made using physical wires or cables
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.
However, some connections are wireless, using radio waves or infrared signals
The generic (basic) term node or host refers to any device on a network
Data transfer rate The speed with which data is moved from one place on a network to another
Data transfer rate is a key issue in computer networks
Server:
Any device on a network providing a special engine service.
▪ File server A computer that stores and manages files for multiple users on a network
▪ Web server A computer dedicated to responding to requests (from the browser client) for web pages
File Transfer:
This is core of LAN. It is a microcomputer that runs the network operating system and controls the activities of the
network.
Host:
A computer within a network designed for running application, time-sharing operations, services like database access,
and special programs or languages a workstation.
Node: Any device PC or terminal on a LAN
Protocol:
A set of rules governing data transmission. All devices involved with sending or Receiving of data on the network
must accept the procedure in order to communicate.
Bridge:
Any device (i.e combination of hardware and software) that can form an interface between two similar LANs.
Routers:
While bridges can link similar LANs that do not necessarily have the same protocols, a router can only send data
through compatible protocols path.
Repeater:
A device set of interval along a circuit to regenerate or boost the signal preventing its decay over distance. Repeaters
regenerate digital signals without change; they simply boost analog signals.
Topology:
This refers to the configuration among nodes, including the wiring scheme (ring, bus or star)
Hierarchical Networks
A hierarchical network is the type of network topology in which a central "root" node (the top level of the hierarchy)
is connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-
to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level central "root" node,
while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level central "root" node will also have one or more
other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point
link, the top level central "root" node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy.
Peer-to-Peer Networks (P2P)
➢ In a P2P network, the "peers" are computer systems which are connected to each other via the Internet.
➢ Files can be shared directly between systems on the network without the need of a central server, that is, each
computer on a P2P network becomes a file server as well as a client.
➢ The only requirements for a computer to join a peer-to-peer network are Internet connection and P2P
software.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
➢ Peer-to-peer network is also called workgroup
➢ No hierarchy among computers  all are equal
➢ No administrator responsible for the network
Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:
• Low cost
• Simple to configure
• User has full accessibility of the computer
Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:
• May have duplication in resources
 • Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading
Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:
• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future
Clients and Servers
Network Clients (Workstation)
▪ Computers that request network resources or services
Network Servers
▪ Computers that manage and provide network resources and services to clients
▪ Usually have more processing power, memory and hard disk space than clients
▪ Run Network Operating System that can manage not only data, but also users, groups, security, and
applications on the network
▪ Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its performance and reliability
Advantages of client/server networks
• Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and control
• Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
• Enhance security – only administrator can have access to Server
• Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-peer networks
Disadvantages of client/server networks
• High cost for Servers
• Need expert to configure the network
• Introduce a single point of failure to the system
Types of Networks
➢ Local Area Networks (LAN)
➢ Wire Area Networks (WAN)
➢ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Local Area Networks (LAN)
Local Area Network (LAN) A network that connects a relatively small number of machines in a relatively close
geographical area
➢ Small network, short distance
▪ A room, a floor, a building
▪ Limited by no. of computers and distance covered
▪ Usually one kind of technology throughout the LAN
▪ Serve a department within an organization
Examples:
▪ Network inside the Student Computer Room
▪ Network inside CF502
▪ Network inside your home
Various configurations, called topologies, have been used to administer LANs
Ring topology A configuration that connects all nodes in a closed loop on which messages travel in one direction
Star topology A configuration that centers around one node to which all others are connected and through which all
messages are sent
Bus topology All nodes are connected to a single communication line that carries messages in both directions. A bus
technology called Ethernet has become the industry standard for local-area networks

Topology ― 3 basic types

Bus Topology
▪ Simple and low-cost
▪ A single cable called a trunk (backbone, segment)
▪ Only one computer can send messages at a time
▪ Passive topology - computer only listen for, not regenerate data
Star Topology
▪ Each computer has a cable connected to a single point
▪ More cabling, hence higher cost
▪ All signals transmission through the hub; if down, entire network down
▪ Depending on the intelligence of hub, two or more computers may send message at the same
time
Ring Topology
 ▪ Every computer serves as a repeater to boost signals
▪ Typical way to send data:
▪ Token passing
▪ only the computer who gets the token can send data
▪ Disadvantages
▪ Difficult to add computers
▪ More expensive
▪ If one computer fails, whole network fails
Wide Area Networks (LAN)
Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that connects two or more local area networks over a large geographic
distance or area
One particular node on a LAN is set up to serve as a gateway to handle all communication going between that LAN
and other networks Communication between networks is called internetworking
The Internet, as we know it today, is essentially the ultimate wide area network, spanning the entire globe

Local Area Networks connected across a distance to create a Wide Area Network
Gateways: Gateways are used to connect dissimilar networks.
Gateways handle messages, addresses, and protocol conversions necessary to deliver a message from one network or
another.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A network that uses long-range telecommunication links to connect 2 or more LANs/computers housed in different
places far apart. Towns, states, countries
Examples:
▪ Network of our Campus
▪ Internet
▪ Banks and Oil companies with different offices all over the country
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): The communication infrastructures that have been developed in and around
large cities.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) : LAN limited to one city or metropolis

Internet
The internet is a globally connected network system that uses TCP/IP to transmit data via various types of media.
The internet is a network of global exchanges – including private, public, business, academic and government
networks – connected by guided, wireless and fiber-optic technologies.
The Internet is the largest network in the world, connecting millions of people
Electronic mail
World Wide Web
▪ Web page
▪ Web site
The terms internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably, but they are not exactly the same thing
The internet refers to the global communication system, including hardware and infrastructure, while the web is one of
the services communicated over the internet.
So, who owns the Internet?
Well, nobody does. No single person or company owns the Internet or even controls it entirely.
As a wide-area network, it is made up of many smaller networks. These smaller networks are often owned and
managed by a person or organization.
The Internet, then, is really defined by how connections can be made between these networks.
Internet Connections
Internet backbone A set of high-speed networks that carry Internet traffic
These networks are provided by companies such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM
Internet service provider (ISP) A company that provides other companies or individuals with access to the Internet
Internet Connections
There are various technologies available that you can use to connect a home computer to the Internet
▪ A phone modem converts computer data into an analog audio signal for transfer over a telephone line, and
then a modem at the destination converts it back again into data
▪ A digital subscriber line (DSL) uses regular copper phone lines to transfer digital data to and from the phone
company’s central office
▪ A cable modem uses the same line that your cable TV signals come in on to transfer the data back and forth
Internet Connections
Broadband: A connection in which transfer speeds are faster than 128 bits per second
▪ DSL connections and cable modems are broadband connections
▪ The speed for downloads (getting data from the Internet to your home computer) may not be the same as
uploads (sending data from your home computer to the Internet)
Security on Networks
Security refers to the steps a computer owner takes to prevent unauthorized use of or damage to the computer
❑ Malware
▪ Viruses & Antivirus software
▪ Spyware
▪ Adware
Firewall
Phishing
Pharming
Password
▪ can prevent people accessing computer systems, accounts, files or parts of files by requiring a user to enter a
password.
▪ This prevents people damaging files or getting into e-mail accounts or network accounts and disrupting them.
▪ It is a standard security precaution on many computer systems.
▪ Password security is at no cost to the network and is potential a useful security measures. Password that are
chosen should be those that could be easily remembered.

PROGRAMS
A program is a set of step-by-step instructions that directs the computer to do the tasks you want it to do and produce
the results you want.
A programming language is a set of rules that provides a way of telling a computer what operations to perform.
A program can only instruct a computer to:
• Read Input
• Sequence
• Calculate
• Store data
• Compare and branch
• Iterate or Loop
• Write Output
• A program can instruct a computer to perform mathematical operations.
• A program will often instruct a computer to store intermediate results.
• A program can instruct a computer to compare two items and do something based on a match or mismatch
which, in turn, redirect the sequence of programming instructions.
There are two forms:
▪ IF-THEN
▪ IF-THEN-ELSE
IF-THEN
 IF – THEN – ELSE

• A program loop is a form of iteration. A computer can be instructed to repeat instructions under certain
conditions.
• Programmers arrive at these solutions by using one or more of these devices:
Logic flowcharts
Structure charts
Pseudocode
Structured Programming

Logic Flowcharts
These represent the flow of logic in a program and help programmers “see” program design.
Common Flowchart Symbols
PSUEDOCODE
This device is not visual but is considered a “first draft” of the actual program.
Pseudocode is written in the programmer’s native language and concentrates on the logic in a program—not the
syntax of a programming language.

INTRODUCTION TO THE INTERNET AND WEB

The Internet: Development History
Grew out of a research network originally funded by U.S. Department of Defense.
Development of this network, known as the ARPAnet after the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), began
in 1969.
As the network grew, it was used for applications beyond research, such as electronic mail.
In the early 1980s, the current versions of the core Internet protocols, TCP and IP, were introduced across the network.
In 1992, the Center for European Nuclear Research (CERN) released the first versions of World Wide Web software.
The term Internet comes from the word inter-network - an interconnected set of networks.
It is the largest network in the world that connects hundreds of thousands of individual networks all over the world.
The popular term for the Internet is the “information highway”.
Rather than moving through geographical space, it moves your ideas and information through cyberspace – the space
of electronic movement of ideas and information.
No one owns it
It has no formal management organization.
As it was originally developed by the Department of defense, this lack of centralization made it less vulnerable to
wartime or terrorist attacks.
To access the Internet, an existing network need to pay a small registration fee and agree to certain standards based on
the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) .

INTERNET PROTOCOL
Email (Simple Mail Transport Protocol)
Telnet (Login to remote host computer)
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) - transfers files between server and client
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

THE USES OF THE INTERNET

• Send e-mail messages.
• Send (upload) or receive (down load) files between computers.
• Participate in discussion groups, such as mailing lists and newsgroups.
• Surfing the web.

HOW TO ACCESS THE INTERNET?

Many schools and businesses have direct access to the Internet using special high-speed communication lines and
equipment.
Students and employees can access through the organization’s local area networks (LAN) or through their own
personal computers.
Another way to access the Internet is through Internet Service Provider (ISP).
To access the Internet, an existing network need to pay a small registration fee and agree to certain standards based on
the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) reference model.
Each organization pays for its own networks and its own telephone bills, but those costs usually exist independent of
the internet.
The regional Internet companies route and forward all traffic, and the cost is still only that of a local telephone call.

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

A commercial organization with permanent connection to the Internet that sells temporary connections to subscribers.
Examples: Spectranet, Cobranet, Smile, Swift, Glo, MTN, Airtel, Etisalat, Visafone,IPNX, etc….

THE WORLD WIDE WEB: HISTORY

• March, 1989, Tim Berners-Lee of Geneva's European Particle Physics Laboratory
• (CERN) circulated a proposal to develop a hypertext system for global information
• sharing in High Energy Physics community.
• (http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html)
• The World Wide Web project began to take shape at the beginning of 1991.
• Before the end of 1991, CERN announced the Web to the High Energy Physics
• community in general.
• Essentially, 1992 was a developmental year. In March of 1993, WWW traffic clocked in at 0.1 percent of total
Internet backbone traffic.
• In July of 1994, CERN began to turn over the Web project to a new group
• called the W3 organization, a joint venture between CERN and MIT to develop the Web further

WHAT IS WEB?
The Web (World Wide Web) consists of information organized into Web pages containing text and graphic images.
It contains hypertext links, or highlighted keywords and images that lead to related information.
A collection of linked Web pages that has a common theme or focus is called a Web site.
The main page that all of the pages on a particular Web site are organized around and link back to is called the site’s
home page.

HOW TO ACCESS THE WEB?

Once you have your Internet connection, then you need special software called a browser to access the Web.
Web browsers are used to connect you to remote computers, open and transfer files, display text and images.
Web browsers are specialized programs.
Examples of Web browser: Internet Explorer, Firefox Mozilla, Chrome, Opera, Safari, UC, etc.

CLIENT/SERVER STRUCTURE OF THE WEB

Web is a collection of files that reside on computers, called Web servers, that are located all over the world and are
connected to each other through the Internet.
When you use your Internet connection to become part of the Web, your computer becomes a Web client in a
worldwide client/server network.
A Web browser is the software that you run on your computer to make it work as a web client.

HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE (HTML)

The public files on the web servers are ordinary text files, much like the files used by word-processing software.
To allow Web browser software to read them, the text must be formatted according to a generally accepted standard.
The standard used on the web is Hypertext markup language (HTML).
HTML uses codes, or tags, to tell the Web browser software how to display the text contained in the document.
For example, a Web browser reading the following line of text:
<B> Introduction to Computers<I>Visual Basic Fundamentals</I></B>
recognizes the <B> and </B> tags as instructions to display the entire line of text in bold and the <I> and </I> tags as
instructions to display the text enclosed by those tags in italics.

ADDRESSES ON THE WEB:IP ADDRESSING

Each computer on the internet does have a unique identification number, called an IP (Internet Protocol) address.
The IP addressing system currently in use on the Internet uses a four-part number.
Each part of the address is a number ranging from 0 to 255, and each part is separated from the previous part by
period,
For example, 106.29.242.17
IP ADDRESSING
The combination of the four IP address parts provides 4.2 billion possible addresses (256 x 256 x 256 x 256).
This number seemed adequate until 1998.
Members of various Internet task forces are working to develop an alternate addressing system that will accommodate
the projected growth.
However, all of their working solutions require extensive hardware and software changes throughout the Internet.

DOMAIN NAME ADDRESSING

Most web browsers do not use the IP address to locate Web sites and individual pages.
They use domain name addressing.
A domain name is a unique name associated with a specific IP address by a program that runs on an Internet host
computer.
This program, which coordinates the IP addresses and domain names for all computers attached to it, is called DNS
(Domain Name System ) software.
The host computer that runs this software is called a domain name server.
Domain names can include any number of parts separated by periods, however most domain names currently in use
have only three or four parts.
Domain names follow hierarchical model that you can follow from top to bottom if you read the name from the right
to the left.
For example, the domain name spgs.unilag.edu.ng is the computer connected to the Internet at the School of post
graduate studies (spgs), which is an academic unit of the University of Lagos (unilag), which is an educational
institution (edu) in Nigeria.
No other computer on the Internet has the same domain name.

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATORS

The IP address and the domain name each identify a particular computer on the Internet.
However, they do not indicate where a Web page’s HTML document resides on that computer.
To identify a Web pages exact location, Web browsers rely on Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
URL is a four-part addressing scheme that tells the Web browser:
➢ What transfer protocol to use for transporting the file
➢ The domain name of the computer on which the file resides
➢ The pathname of the folder or directory on the computer on which the file resides
➢ The name of the file

STRUCTURE OF A UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATORS

HTTP
The transfer protocol is the set of rules that the computers use to move files from one computer to another on the
Internet.
The most common transfer protocol used on the Internet is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Two other protocols that you can use on the Internet are the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and the Telnet Protocol

HOW TO FIND INFORMATION ON THE WEB?

Search engines are programs that search documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the documents where
the keywords were found.
They users to search for documents on the World Wide Web.
A number of search tools have been developed and available to you. Examples:
➢ Yahoo → www.yahoo.com
➢ Bing → www.bing.com
➢ Google → www.google.com
You can find information by two basic means.
Search by Topic and Search by keywords.
Some search services offer both methods, others only one.
Yahoo offers both.
➢ Search by Topic
You can navigate through topic lists
➢ Search by keywords
You can navigate by entering a keyword or phase into a search text box.

INTERNET TERMINOLOGY
Internet a network that links networks worldwide by satellite and telephone
Web a collection of electronic files linked together; anatomy similar to a spider’s web
Search engine a computer program that searches for specific words or phrases on the web
Website a collection of one or more web pages
Intranet an internal network of data and information that is used in many companies; typically
password protected, accessible only from within the company’s confines, and housed on a
separate server. Contains the same features as the internet
Home page the first page of a website; usually contains an index of the entire website
Server systems that store information shown on the web; stores web pages and other information
used both on the internet and intranet
Address field the place on the screen in which you type the URL or web address
Online being connected to the Internet
Status bar a symbol at the bottom of a web page that indicates the percentage of the page that has loaded
URL Uniform Resource Locator; a unique address that sends a request to the server which houses
the information you are looking for
Window a screen that displays a web page
Domain an identification string located at the end of a web address; examples - .net, .org, .com
www world wide web; the extension which begins many URLs
Hyperlinks text and images within a website that reference other web pages or sites; usually appear in a
different color and are underlined. Cursor will change to a hand icon when touched
Tab a feature that allows you to open multiple web pages or windows at once

WEB APPLICATIONS
• Distributing and Sharing Scientific Data:
• Share scientific information ( data, papers, databases)
• among scientists around the world
• E-Commerce:
• Electronic marketing and advertising, online shopping
• (order/purchase, payment), online trading, online customer services.
• Online Education and Training:
• On-line courses, training program and information, distance learning
• Organization and Public Service:
• Distributing public service information for organizations and
• government offices.
• Online Publishing:
• Online books, magazines and journals, newspapers, Video, CD .
• Online Banking and Trading:
• Support online bank transactions for banks and stockbrokerages