NETWORK MODELS

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 Layered Architecture

• In layered architecture, the task of data

communication is divided into layers.

• The designers of the network identified the

network functions which had related uses and
collected them into discrete groups. Each of the
group became a layer.

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 Sender LAYERED TASK Receiver

The letter is written put

Higher layers The letter is picked
in an envelop, and
up
dropped in a mailbox

The letter is carried

The letter is carried
Middle layers from the post office to
from the mailbox to a
the mailbox
post office

The letter is delivered The letter is delivered

Lower layers from the carrier to
to a carrier by the post
office the post office.

The parcel is carried from the source to

destination
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 Protocol
• A protocol is a set of rules of communication.

• The protocol defines the format of the data

being exchanged, and the control and timing for
the handshake between layers.

• There is at least one protocol on each of the

layer. If required, we can use more than one
protocol at a layer.

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Benefits of Layered Architecture
• Layer architecture simplifies the network design.
Protocol of a layer can be developed
independently. The process of breaking up the
functions or tasks of networking into layers
reduces complexity.
• It is easy to debug network applications in a
layered architecture network.
• The network management is easier due to the
layered architecture.
• Change of the protocol on one layer is easy
because it will not effect the other layer.

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 Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) Model
• International standard organization (ISO)
established a committee in 1977 to develop an
architecture for computer communication.
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model is the result of this effort.
• In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications
architecture.
• Term “open” denotes the ability to connect
any two systems which confirm to the reference
model and associated standards.

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 OSI Reference Model
• The OSI model is now considered the primary
Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
• The OSI model describes how information or
data makes its way from application programmes
(such as spreadsheets) through a network
medium (such as wire) to another application
programme located on another network.
• The OSI reference model divides the problem of
moving information between computers over a
network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problems .
• This separation into smaller more manageable
functions is known as layering.

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OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers

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 Organization Of the Layer

The seven layers can be belonging to three

subgroups.

•Layer1,2,3 i.e. Physical ,data link and network layers

are the network support layers.
•Network Support Layers deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device to
another(such as electrical specification, physical
connections, addressing)
•Lower layers are a combination of hardware and
software, except for the physical layer(hardware)

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 Organization Of the Layer
•Layers 5,6,7-session,presentation, and application can be
considered as User support layers.

• User support layers allow interoperability among

unrelated software systems.

•Upper layers always implemented in software.

•Layer 4 , the transport layer, links the two subgroup

and ensures that what the lower layers transmitted in a
form that the upper layer can use.

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An Exchange Using the OSI Model

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 Physical Layer
• Physical characteristics of the interface and medium :- It
defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices and
the transmission medium.

• Representation of bits:- The physical layer data consists of a

stream of bits(sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be
transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals-electrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding(how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals).

• Data rate :- The transmission rate is also defined by the physical

layer. It defines the duration of a bit , which is how long it lasts.

• Synchronization of bits :- The sender and receiver must use

the same bit rate.

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 Physical Layer

•Line Configuration :-It is concerned with the connection of

devices media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a
link is shared among several devices.

•Physical Topology:- Physical topology defines how the devices

are connected to make a network.

•Transmission mode :- The physical layer also defines the

direction of transmission between two devices.

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 Physical Layer

Sender Receiver
System System
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Data Link Layer

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 Data Link Layer
• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable
communication over the physical layer interface.

• Breaks the outgoing data into frames and

reassemble the received frames.
• Create and detect frame boundaries.
• Handle errors by implementing an
acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.
• Implement flow control.
• Access Control.

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Data Link Layer Example

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Hop-to-hop
delivery

•Communication at the data link layer occurs between two adjacent nodes.
•For A to F, 3 partial deliveries are made. A to B, B to E, and E to F. Different headers.

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Network Layer

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 Functionalities of Network

1. Logical Addressing – Logical addresses are necessary for universal

communications that are independent of the physical networks. A universal
addressing scheme is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely.

2. Routing – Routing means to determine how packets are routed from source to
destination. Routes can be static or dynamic. In case of static routing, the routes
are stored in the routing table of the router/machine. In case of dynamic
routing, the routes are determined dynamically on the basis of some
parameters.

3. Congestion Control – If too many packets are present in the subnet at the
same time, they will get in one another’s way, thus forming bottlenecks. The
control of such congestion also belongs to the network layer.

4. QoS - Quality of Services ( transit time, jitter) is also the network layer issue

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 Source-to-destination delivery

When packet gets B, B makes a decision based on the final F. B is a router,

it uses its routing table to find that the next hop is router E, so send to E.

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 Transport Layer

• Port Addressing
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection Management – Transport layer can
be either connectionless or connection oriented
• Flow Control
• Error Control

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Transport Layer

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 Session Layer
• Session layer provides mechanism for controlling
the dialogue between the two end systems. It
defines how to start, control and end conversations
(called sessions) between applications.

• This layer requests for a logical connection to be

established on an end-user’s request.
• Any necessary log-on or password validation is also
handled by this layer.
• Session layer is also responsible for terminating the
session.

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Session Layer

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 Presentation Layer

• Presentation layer defines the format in which

the data is to be exchanged between the two
communicating entities.

• Also handles data compression and data

encryption (cryptography).

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Presentation Layer

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 Application Layer
• Application layer interacts with application
programs and is the highest level of OSI model.
• Application layer contains management functions
to support distributed applications.
• FTAM- File transfer access and management
• MHS- Message handling system
• CMIP- Common management information
protocol

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Application Layer

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 OSI in Action
• A message begins at the top
application layer and moves
down the OSI layers to the
bottom physical layer.
• As the message descends, each
successive OSI model layer
adds a header to it.
• A header is layer-specific
information that basically
explains what functions the
layer carried out.
• Conversely, at the receiving
end, headers are striped from
the message as it travels up
the corresponding layers.

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 OSI Advantages
⚫ It is standard legalized by International
Standards Organization (ISO).
⚫ All OSI layers providing error checking and
handling.
⚫ Provides connection-oriented and
connectionless model.
⚫ OSI protocols are well hidden and can be
replaced easily as the technology changes.
⚫ Emphasis on providing reliable data transfer
service.

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 OSI Disadvantages
⚫ OSI is complex and costly
⚫ Not so widespread as TCP/ IP

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TCP/IP MODEL

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TCP/IP Model

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Application Layer

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 TCP/IP Advantages
⚫ Widespread use in networking.
⚫ Simpler than and not as costly as OSI.
⚫ Available on virtually every hardware and
operating system platform (often free).
⚫ The protocol suite on which Internet depends.
⚫ Provides error checking and handling.
⚫ Provides both connection-oriented and
connectionless model.
⚫ Enable both reliable and unreliable data transfer
service.

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 TCP/IP Disadvantages
⚫ The protocols are hardly possible to be
used to describe other models.
⚫ Not all TCP/ IP layers provide error
checking; only Transport layer does.
⚫ It hasn’t been standardized by ISO

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Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP
⚫ Both are used for network data
transmission.
⚫ Both employ all connection and
connectionless models at transport layer.
⚫ The routing principals of both models are
the same

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 Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI
OSI TCP / IP

Application (Layer7)

Presentation (Layer6)
Application

Session (Layer 5)

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 The Session Layer
The Session layer permits two parties to
hold ongoing communications called a
session across a network.
⚫ Not found in TCP/IP model.
⚫ In TCP/IP, its characteristics are
provided by the TCP protocol.
(Transport Layer)

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 The Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer handles data format
information for networked
communications. This is done by
converting data into a generic format that
could be understood by both sides.
⚫ Not found in TCP/IP model
⚫ In TCP/IP, this function is provided by the
Application Layer.

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 The Application Layer
The Application Layer is the top layer of
the reference model. It provides a set of
interfaces for applications to obtain
access to networked services as well as
access to the kinds of network services
that support applications directly.

⚫ OSI - FTAM,MHS, CMIP

TCP/IP - FTP,SMTP,TELNET,DNS,SNMP

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 Other differences
⚫ OSI is standard legislated by official recognized body (ISO), while
TCP/ IP are standard adopted due to widespread use.

⚫ TCP/ IP are simpler than OSI.

⚫ OSI is more commonly used as teaching aids, while TCP/ IP is

more commonly used for internetworking because TCP/ IP
protocols suite on which the Internet depends.

⚫ Each layer of the OSI model detects and handles errors, while
TCP/ IP concentrate errors handling and detection on its
Transport Layer.

⚫ OSI use checksums, while TCP/ IP use acknowledgements and

timeouts besides using checksums.

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OSI in Action

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TCP/IP in action

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