Unit 4: Load Frequency Control

Introduction:

Fig: Block diagram of Load frequency control

The frequency of a power system is dependent entirely upon the speed at which the generators
are rotated by their prime- movers. Therefore, frequency control is basically a matter of speed control of the
machines in the generating stations. All prime- movers, whether they are steam or hydraulic turbines are
equipped with speed governors which, almost without exception, are purely mechanical speed-sensitive
devices to adjust the gate or control value opening for constant speed. For example, a load is suddenly
applied to the system; the individual generators will meet this demand by the action of the prime-mover
governors. The immediate effect of a sudden load demand is a reduction in speed of the synchronous
generators. However, the kinetic energy is normally sufficient to maintain the energy balance until the
reduction in speed is detected by the drooping characteristic of the governor, which operates the gate or
control valve opening to restore the output and input balance by increasing (more steam input in case of
steam turbines) the prime-mover torque. Thus the function of load-frequency control on a power system
becomes one of changing the control-valve or gate openings of the generator prime-movers as a function of
load variations in order to hold system frequency constant.

 Power system operation at a lower frequency than that specified maximum permissible change in
frequency is ( + 0.5 Hz){ As per the Indian Electricity Rules 1956 (amended up to 25th Nov
2000), the permissible range for grid frequency is ± 3% of nominal i.e. 48.5 Hz to 51.5 Hz. The
nominal frequency of operation in the Indian arid is 50.0 Hz and the permissible frequency band
specified by Indian Electricity Grid Code (IEGC) is 49.5 Hz to 50.2 Hz with reference to 3rd
May 2010.[ As per IE rules the permissible variation of voltage at the consumer end is ±6%. In the
case of low or medium voltage, it is more than 6 percent. In the case of high voltage, it is more than
6 per cent on the higher side or by more than 9 per cent on the lower side.]} affects the quality of
power supply and is not allowed because of the following:
(a) When operating at frequencies below 49.5 Hz, some types of steam turbines undergo excessive vibration
in certain turbine rotor states with resultant metal fatigue and blade failures.

(b) When the frequency falls below 49 Hz, the turbine regulating devices fully open and the generating
units become completely loaded. A further decrease in frequency reduces the efficiency of the auxiliary
mechanisms at thermal power stations, especially feed pumps. The result in the case of prolonged operation
at a lowered frequency is a drop in the generated output and further loss of power. The decrease in power
system frequency may assume an avalanche nature which can stop the power stations for a prolonged
outage.

(c) As the frequency decreases, the generator exciters lose their speed and the generator e.m.f. falls, the
voltage in the power system units drop. This brings the danger of a "voltage avalanche" and disconnection
of the consumers.

(d) For synchronous operation of various units in the power system network it is necessary to maintain
frequency constant.

(e) Further the quality of the products of the manufacturers is also affected due to the change in the power
system frequency, because the speed of some types of motors depends upon the frequency.

(f) Electrical clocks will lose or gain time if they are driven by synchronous motors and the accuracy of the
clock depends on frequency and also the integral of this frequency error is loss or gain of time by electric
clocks.

Load frequency control represents the first realization of a higher level control in power systems. It
has made the operation of inter-connected systems possible and to-day it is still the basis of any advanced
concept for the guidance of large systems. In the historical development L.F.C. systems were installed
because of stability problems and the need for better control of the MWh exchange, etc. The relative case of
controlling hydro-power stations has contributed very much to the success of L.F.C. Now a days L.F.C. has
gained in importance with the growth of interconnected systems mainly supplied by thermal power plants.

In all systems the percentage of thermal power plants is at present increasing and the control
requirements are becoming more demanding. In opposition to these demands, thermal units have the
disadvantage that they respond much more slowly to the control signal than hydraulic units. This inferior
response is due to a number of things, such as boiler control, limitations derived from mechanical and
thermal stresses, limitations in the boiler pressure variations, steam storage in the reheater, etc.
By combining all i.e. governor model, turbine model and generator model we get LFC of isolated power system (can
say Single area)

Control Area Concept:

So far we have considered the simplified case of a single turbo-generator supplying an

isolated load. Consider now a practical system with a number of generating stations and
loads. It is possible to divide an extended power system (say, national grid) into subareas
(may be, State Electricity Boards) in which the generators are tightly coupled together so as
to form a coherent group, i.e. all the generators respond in unison to changes in load or
speed changer settings. Such a coherent area is called a control area in which the frequency
is assumed to be the same throughout in static as well as dynamic conditions. For purposes
of developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be reduced to a single speed
governor, turbo-generator and load system. All the control strategies discussed so far are,
therefore, applicable to an independent control area.
LFC control of single-area system:

A single area is a coherent area in which all the generators swing in union to the
changes in load or speed changer settings & in which the frequency is assumed to be
constant throughout both static & dynamic conditions. This single control area can be
represented by an isolated power system consisting of a turbine it's speed governor
generator and load.

Block diagram representation of a single control area:

The block diagram of an isolated power system, which is a single -area system is the same
as the complete block diagram of an isolated power system consisting speed governor,
turbine generator and load model shown in Below Fig 1.
* Two- Area Load Frequeny control32
The extende powes gystem Cam be divide
into a numbes of load fequncy control (Lfc)
Qregsuohich qe ms (onected by
bu tie- \meg. Sach
)9

an op&aion fs called a e pool oatíon.

A powes pool is mn ntesconnecion of the
oes Systms cf avidual cti ities

tos amaysig the ymmics of the LEC of qn

m-aeq pooe SystenPmai censide, too
aseg Sy stem.
(onsides t o Contol qeaS 1&2 ge Connected
singje tie-ine as shoon in fiq-0
singe
Jtent TËe-ine
qq

fig-0 Tuoo conto) afeg fascOne cfed thouh

Sfnqje tfe-)me.
the contol cbject've is to gesulate the fequeny of
each goreg ond to simuteneousy requate the powg
Ho touah he he-inê as per ints- qrea poLOer
Contsact.
for he gare ot conyenienre each comho) goeq
Can be epesentated) by an cquiyaeat hobine,
qeofratot and qoveeres System. Smbol_ used with
Arta 2
Tn the cace of sngle contol aea the neamenta)
P0e (APG-APo)qs Corside,e oy theate of
moease of stoyed Kineic eneçy md inCoease ib
aea Qoad causecl oy the incase n fequency.
n a o- qrta Case he
ie-\ne power must
be acCOmted foo tthe
fnegmetal pOwg balamce
eaahon ofF each qea,since thee s pow fo
n os gat of he aea
tq though the tie- line.
Pocor fo Out of (onho) atea-l Cam be expessed
as

XTL
hee i,2 ae votaqe masnitudes,, ae the
pas emales of Areq-) &Ahta-2 TeSpectiely qmd
TL S the tie- hne eactance

(If these is chanae n \oad denamd of too areas,

tbee in be ineameotal chánges in powt anales
sd ad) then, the chamge Rn the ie - Iine ouR S

sinfrodtaleaj
=U1|v2l sin C- :) cosCDi- 4d)
(0d-Ao)
(osCo-o)
SinCBi-c)t ca base
sinco-y)
ade)NO
(oo-
since
pow%
-\ine
oy
divide
APT
(acua
Pease
+ie-Ime
(oy)
Ceffcieot
tie
the
inGeameta) yalue
of as
oeiten
PFiet
al
actu nzn
meanS
in (oe
be
s SymchOcan
hemae
as
expressed
be
value
eValu
()
ut =Te=
eqution
fot
hee
Thee pes |n
ee
whee Prnax= (v|ve] statie AreSission.
of the tfe-1fne.
apaciny
XL
(onste, the change n Sequeny
dt
-(Ad)
(Do) He.
dt
-(hd) QT dt
In theç loosde
dt
dtrad

Heore the chamges in poue, anales fos ages- 1

and dt

Since, te fnoeameatal powg Qnqies qne aelated in

tems of fmteals oF neemental fequercies aoe.
Cam be mod fed as

Af and Af2 gae the încoeqmeta) feoq chemqcS

of Asca-) & 2 Tespechvely
S)y,he inemgta he-ine powr out of
Sly
Orta 2

ylhese Ta|= v||va)

 S) DF
DPpCS)= DPcs)-
tfolloas
oe equath¡n
as above e
above Recrsanging
thhe
get eq(0)
oe ofsides both onLT
Taking
AfitA
PTLI
as p.u: exprrsSed
n
be
Cmpouer StspluS the ase,oo-gotq a
dt
pa.is npoues splus the hom
P4R Tal=Pa
efwe
get by piriding
ej
 DPG,CS) - DPp,() - 0 PTL CS) Ve

BF

vdhee Kps= and TPS= HI

ony addiional ten is the appeaTanie of símal

OPncS).
e o Cn be Teprestoted în a bjock diasram
hndel as shon i n - )
DeTLyCS

| t STS

Fiq- Block diaosqm repoesetation of erO

for contol gECA.

Taking LoT. on bth ides e

of eqet

DfS)

DfresAs)
S
Smilaly fos conto) aeea- 0 e hay
APTLCs) = TTey (0facs)- 4fc)
Afcs) -Afacs)
S

The block allagsom epresestecthos of equahion

Afat

fig block diasramn sepoesatcthon efc4(3)

compasite block diagram of q too- Qgeg case:

the combjnton of block diarom of contol

keg-1 &contol aeey- amd th the use of
fia- amdOthe ompesite bleck diasrqm of q
No0-aeq System cam be modited as ahoon in fiq@
 b4 b
ACE1 AÇE1
8
u=-KHlACE;dt
-Ka APc1(s) =

R
(1+Tps1s Fig. |(1+Tsg1$)(1+THs)+
3 8.16
1 1
X3
1+71s provided
Composite APei(s)
12 1 2
APo1(s)
APie,1(8)
Wi with
block
integral 1+lps1|
1+Tps1s Kpst Kps1 AFi(s)
diagram

X
of
|27tT12 respective 2rT12
of S
two-area
f -a12
AFls)
-a12
1+7ps25 Kps2 1+Tps2s Kps2
4 area
load
-a12X7 control
W2 frequency APp2(s) APie,2(8)
+|+T2s| errors)
1 (5)
+(1+Tsg2s)\(1+Tas) APczs)
1_X 1 control
1 Uz=-
1+Tsg25
(feedback
KplACE,dt
R2 1
loops R2 1
2
APcals) =
9ACE AÇEz
b b2
 8.6 AUTOMATICVOLTAGE CONTROL
Figure 8.20 gives the schematic diagram of an Main exciter
Gen field
SCR
automatic voltage regulator of a generator. It Exciter Generator
basically consists of a main exciter which excites Error implifier
power field.
amplifier t
the alternator field to control the output voltage.
The exciter field is automatically controlled Vs V2t VE

through error e VRef- V suitably amplified VRef VT

through voltage and power amplifiers. It is a Stabilizing ist
type-0 system which requires a constant error |transformer
Potential V
e for a specified voltage at generator terminals. transformer
The block diagram of the system is given in Fig.
8.21. The function of important components and Fig. 8.20 Schematic diagram ofalternator voltage regulator
their transfer function is given below: scheme

1. Potential transformer It gives a sample of terminal voltage V.

2. Differencing device It gives the actuating error
e= VRef-V
The error initiates the corrective action of adjusting the alternator excitation. Error waveform is suppressed
carrier modulated, the carrier frequency being the system frequency of 50 Hz.
 book.using
current.
transformer
transformer
Now negatively response.
derivative 6.Scopeeffect where proportional where transfer
small provides
Assuming SCR 4.
to amplifies 3 340
Accurate Taking 5.
Since Stabilising load
The Alternator the
which of is Error Modern
Ifis enough signal
function
the the It this only
at
is feedback the thpower
e the
optimal state Laplace secondary
derived excited
is book. causes to the amplifer Power
schematically
the transformer well s
field Itexciter necessaryfor error
variable amplifier
of to amplifier
input a field controlling signal. System
voltage by
loop.known 1gfgenerator current. these be
transform, below. voltage
is isfield neglected, It
models connectedterminals the The that Tefr 1+IS excited 1+1ef8 two time power
and Its Analysis
regulation exciter represented drop K
The time K¹ is demodulates
derivative the and the gain
of we no
constant. constant exciter
of dynamic Tf which field amplification
the exciter is
loaded get at output load by Kg
schemes Ve=Ris, Lt the the are the feld
SCRfeedback
by istime transfer overall to field.
input voltageresponselarge block a main and
alternator VES)R V,(s)
da complex
function constant.
of be It
can terminals power exciter
enough G,. function Fig. VRef(s)
be dtdi, V. in
devised.around 1+T,,s skst The 8.21
sM amplifier. The this ofa voltage
+ of control time exact is
sL system schemeBlock
V{s)
an an output
This amplifier, constants load
operating 1+T,ssM/R The VE. diagram
system direct
is, of is model Ünder
of transferprovided
the
can to and of Va(s)
course,point it
can stabilising impair of no alternator 1+7stS |1+TefS Change
voltage in
be quadrature th e skgt caused
lo¡dby
function by load KoVes)Kg
beyond are be improved
assumed
draw to means alternator
available the it voltage
transformer of systems axis produces
the |1+Tgrs
the of by regulator
scope in a the currents. isThe change
Load
literatue stabilising stabilising beyond
dynamic
internal a GL
of is voltage
tns zero fed the
 8.8 SPEED GOVERNORDEAD-BAND AND ITSEFFECT ON AGC
governor control valves, an
The effect of the speed governor dead-band is that for a given position of the dead-band can
increase/decrease in speed can occur before the position of the valve changes. The governor
can be significant, since
materially affect the system response. In AGCstudies, the dead-band effect indeed
relatively small signals are under considerations.
characteristics in
The speed governor characteristic, though nonlinear, has been approximated by linear
earlier analysis. Further, there is another nonlinearity introduced by the dead-band in the governor operation.
Mechanical friction and backlash and also valve overlaps in hydraulic relays cause the governor dead-band.
Due to this, though the input signal increases, the speed governor may not immediately react until the input
reaches a particular value. Similar action takes place when the input signal decreases. Thus, the governor
dead-band is defined as the total magnitude of sustained speed change within which there is no change in
valve position. The limiting value of dead-bandis specified as 0.06%. It was shown by Concordia et al. [19]
that one of the effects of governor dead-band is to increase the apparent steady-state speed regulation R.
342 Modern Power System Analysis

The effect of the dead-band may be included in the speed

governor control loop block diagram as shown in Fig. 8.23. 1/R
Considering the worst case for the dead-band, (i.e., the system
starts responding after the whole dead-band is traversed) and G(s)
kamining the dead-band block in Fig. 8.23, the following set of Y(s)
equationscompletely define the behaviour of the dead-band [19]. Speed governor
r ) = ) ifrt) xs dead-band Dead-band
=xr+) - dead-band: ifxr+1)->0 (8.66)
Fig. 8.23 Dead-band in speedgovernor
=xrt); ifxr+l-<0 control loop
(r is the step in the computation)
Reference [20] considers the effect of governor dead-band nonlinearity by using the describing function
approach [11] and including the linearised equations in the state space model.
that
The presence of governor dead-band makes the dynamic response oscillatory. It has been seen [19]
the governor dead-band does not influence the selection of integral controller gain settings in the presence
of GRCs. In the presence of GRCand dead band even for small load perturbation, the system becomes
highly nonlinear and hence the optimisation problem becomes rather complex.