Roof Inspection INTERNACHI

InterNACHI
“How to Perform Roof Inspections” course

http://www.nachi.org/roofingcoursereleased2005.htm
Goals and Objectives
How to Perform Roof Inspections Course
Welcome to InterNACHI's free, online

How to Perform Roof Inspections
Course.
Take the free, online course now.
Goal:
The goal of this course is to teach

inspectors how to inspect the roof-
covering system of a home.
Objectives:
Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to:
• inspect all different types of residential roofs;

• identify the systems and components of roof systems;
• understand how the components of a roof system function and perform;
• describe to clients defects observed at the roof system.
Course includes:
• 30,573 words;
• 2 hours of instructional video;
• inspection and writing assignment;
• research and writing assignment;
• 100 quiz questions in 8 quizzes;
• a 75-question final exam (drawn from a larger pool);
• instant grading; and
• a downloadable, printable Certificate of Completion.
You will learn the following:
• Common Roof Terms

• General Roof Terms
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Goals and Objectives
• Roof Styles and Details

• Common Roof Issues
• Gutters and Drainage
• Roof Drainage and Gutters
• Downspout Terminations
• Framing and Trim
• Roof Framing From Outside
• Roofing Trim
• Roof Coverings
• Asphalt Shingles I
• Asphalt Shingles II
• Slate Tile Roofing
• Clay and Concrete Tile
• Asbestos Cement Tiles
• Wood Shingle and Shake I
• Wood Shingle and Shake II
• Flat Roofs: Roll Roofing
• Flat Roofs: Built-up
• Flat Roofs: Membranes
• Metal Roofing
• Roofing Oddities
• Roof Flashings
• Edge and Ridge Flashings
• Valley Flashings
• Roof-to-Roof Flashings
• Roof-to-Wall Flashings
• Chimney Flashings
• Vents and Other Penetrations
• Roof Ventilation
• Basic Ventilation
• Inspecting Chimneys
• Masonry Chimneys
• Manufactured Chimneys
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Timed Outline
4 hours
We employ a standard for determining Continuing Education credit hours. It was devised by us
in concert with the AICPA, NASBA, and the IRS, which uses the following word-count and
course-content formula for arriving at Continuing Education hours:
[ ( # of words / 140 ) + ( Video time in min. ) + ( # of questions x 1.85 ) ] / 50 = CEUs.
The word count for the text of the required reading of the program is divided by 140, the average
reading speed of adults reading technical content. The total number of review questions, exercises
and final examination questions is multiplied by 1.85, which is the estimated average completion
time per question. These two numbers, plus actual audio/video duration time, if any, are then
added together, and the result divided by 50 to calculate the CEUs for the self-study program. If
the total minutes are not equally divisible by 50, the CEUs granted may be rounded down to the
nearest one-half credit.
For this particular course, there are 21,873 words, 100 quiz questions in 8 quizzes, and 75 final
exam questions, which calculates into 9.5 CE credit hours. InterNACHI is providing a lower four
(4) total credit hours for this course.
0.25 hours
Section 1: Introduction to Roofs
• Common Roof Terms
• General Roof Terms
• Roof Styles and Details
• Common Roof Issues
0.25 hours
Section 2: Gutters and Drainage
• Roof Drainage and Gutters
• Downspout Terminations
0.25 hours
Section 3: Framing
• Framing and Trim
• Roof Framing From Outside
• Roofing Trim
1.25 hours
Section 4: Roof Coverings
• Asphalt Shingles I
• Asphalt Shingles II
• Slate Tile Roofing
• Clay and Concrete Tile
• Asbestos Cement Tiles
• Wood Shingle and Shake I
• Wood Shingle and Shake II
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Timed Outline
4 hours
• Flat Roofs: Roll Roofing

• Flat Roofs: Built-up
• Flat Roofs: Membranes
• Metal Roofing
0.25 hours
Section 5: Roofing Oddities
1.0 hours
Section 6: Roof Flashings
• Edge and Ridge Flashings
• Valley Flashings
• Roof-to-Roof Flashings
• Roof-to-Wall Flashings
• Chimney Flashings
• Vents and Other Penetrations
0.25 hours
Section 7: Roof Ventilation
• Basic Ventilation
0.5 hours
Section 8: Inspecting Chimneys
• Masonry Chimneys
• Manufactured Chimneys
4.0 Total Hours
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InterNACHI
“How to Perform Roof Inspections” Course
Course Materials
Beginning and Progressing Through the Course

Watch this short video on how to begin and progress through InterNACHI's online courses. The video describes how to
proceed through the course to learn effectively.
How to Proceed
Use the "Next Page" or "Previous Page" buttons at the bottom of each course
slide. You may also use the left-side navigation menu to freely move to any
portion of the course. We recommend progressing through the online course
sections sequentially, starting from the beginning.
Check Your Internet Browser
We recommend you use Chrome or Firefox as your internet browser. Not sure what browser you are using? Use this
link to find out: https://whatbrowser.org/.
Unlimited Access
As a member of InterNACHI, you have unlimited access to all of InterNACHI's

online courses at www.nachi.org/education. You may repeat any course at any
time.
Leaving the Course
Feel free to leave the online course at any time. When you return, the course
system will start for you where you left off (if you're resuming the course using
the same device). The course system will track your progress through the
course.
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Various Learning Opportunities
The course system provides you with various opportunities to learn as you
proceed through the course, including:
• clear instructions and objectives;

• intermediate quizzes and a final exam;
• study guides and other online resources;
• required reading and writing assignments;
• text, images, tables, video, and illustrations;
• repeated information and summaries of main points;
• unlimited amount of study time; and
• help when you need it.
Education Log & Transcript
Check your InterNACHI Education Log and Transcript within

your InterNACHI Members-Only Account.
Checklist
Feel free to review our step-by-step checklist for running a successful home
inspection business.
Course PDF, Library & Resources

Course PDF
You may download a free PDF related to this course. You may want to download this PDF to help
you study the course materials and prepare for the final exam. It's optional. You'll need Adobe Reader.
You could download it, save it, and print it out in order to take notes while progressing through the
online course. This document does not include all of the instructional material contained in the online
course. For example, videos are not contained within it. This PDF is strictly supplementary.
Download the course PDF.
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Library
Please visit InterNACHI's Library of Inspection Articles for additional resources.
Update Your Browser
If you're concerned about how fast your computer is working, visit www.browsehappy.com and
update your browser now. BrowseHappy.com has information about the latest versions of the most
popular Internet browsers in use. You can also learn about alternative browsers that may work better
for your particular computer than the one you're currently using. An outdated browser can make your
computer vulnerable to viruses and will slow its ability to display and download content. (We do not
recommend using Internet Explorer because of the negative feedback from users.)
Forum
Please visit the InterNACHI online message board (or forum) to chat and interact with other students,
discuss the course topics, and ask questions.
Videos
Please visit InterNACHI's free, online Library of Inspection Training Videos.
Graphics
Please visit InterNACHI's free, online Gallery of Inspection Illustrations.
Glossary
Please visit InterNACHI’s free, online Glossary, which is an alphabetical list of terms and words
related to home inspections.
Webinars
Please visit InterNACHI's archive of webinars.
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Optional Materials
Please visit our e-commerce partner, Inspector Outlet, to purchase extra learning materials. Such
materials are not required to complete this course -- they are optional, but they make handy reference
guides to use on the job.
Student Verification and Interactivity
Student Verification & Interactivity

Student Verification
By enrolling in this course, the student hereby attests that s/he is the person
completing all coursework. S/he understands that having another person
complete the coursework for him or her is fraudulent and will result in being
denied course
completion and
corresponding
credit hours.
The course
provider reserves
the right to make
contact as
necessary to verify
the integrity of any
information
submitted or
communicated by
the student. The
student agrees not
to duplicate or
distribute any part
of this copyrighted
work or provide
other parties with
the answers or
copies of the
assessments that
are part of this course. If plagiarism or copyright infringement is proven, the
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student will be notified of such and barred from the course and/or have his/her
credit hours and/or certification revoked.
Communication on the message board or forum shall be of the person

completing all coursework.
Interactivity
Interactivity between the student and the course provider is made by the
opportunity to correspond via email. Students will receive a timely response
within 24 hours during the work week and by close of business on Monday for
questions received over the weekend.
The student can join in the conversation with other students by visiting the
online message forum for students. Students are free to post questions and
comments there. The thread will be monitored by the course instructor.
Contact
Email the Director of Education, Ben Gromicko at [email protected].
Introduction to Course
Introduction to Roof Inspections

An inspection of the roof system is both one of the most crucial areas of home
inspection and one of the biggest concerns on the prospective home buyer's
mind. Spending a large portion of the inspection time dealing with the roof and
following some basic rules will pay dividends to the inspector, both in terms of
customer satisfaction and also in reduced liability.
Safety First
Before approaching a roof inspection, it's important to keep safety at the

forefront. Too many home inspectors and other tradesmen have been seriously
injured by being lax with ladder and roof safety.
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Standards of Practice
According to the Standards of Practice, the inspector will inspect from ground
level or the eaves: the roof-covering materials; the gutters and downspouts; the
vents, flashing, skylights, chimney, and other roof penetrations; and the general
structure of the roof from the readily accessible panels, doors or stairs.
The inspector shall describe the type of roof-covering materials. The inspector
shall report as in need of correction observed indications of active roof leaks.
The inspector is not required to: walk on any roof surface; predict the service
life expectancy; inspect underground downspout diverter drainage pipes;
remove snow, ice, debris or other conditions that prohibit the observation of the
roof surfaces; move insulation; inspect antennae, satellite dishes, lightning
arresters, de-icing equipment, or similar attachments; walk on any roof areas
that appear, in the opinion of the inspector, to be unsafe; walk on any roof areas
if it might, in the opinion of the inspector, cause damage; perform a water test;
warrant or certify the roof; and confirm proper fastening or installation of any
roof-covering material.
Some Roofs Should Not Be Walked On
One of the first safety issues to consider is that some roof systems simply
should not be walked on. In particular, most types of solid tile roofs and all
wooden shingle and shake roofs can be accidentally damaged by the inspector.
In addition, all types of roofs should not be walked on if conditions are wet or
icy, or if the roof is mossy (covered in algae), or just too steep.
Even when considering walking a dry roof or a roof of low pitch that's just one
floor up, it's important to keep safety in mind. When all other conditions appear
favorable and safe, it's still possible to put your foot right through the asphalt
shingle roof covering of a house due to rotten roof sheathing.
Remember that most of the time, a roof covering can be inspected from a
ladder at the eaves, from the ground with binoculars, or from overlooking
windows.
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When planning to walk the roof covering, remember to wear soft-soled

sneakers or similar footwear, as they offer a far superior grip compared to work
boots, unless those boots are specially designed for walking roofs.
Play this 1-minute video, "Walking on Concrete Tile Roofs":
Using a Ladder Video
Play this video about using a ladder:
Types of Ladders & Safety Guidelines
This section may seem very basic, but some inspectors may be confused as to
terminology and what a particular ladder is in its technical aspects, as defined
by OSHA.
A ladder is an appliance designed for climbing which consists of two side-rails

joined at uniform intervals by cross-pieces, called rungs or steps, on which a
person may step to ascend or descend.
Common Types of Household Ladders
• A step ladder is a self-supporting portable ladder, non-adjustable in

length, having flat steps and a hinged back.
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• A single ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder, non-adjustable

in length, consisting of but one section; its size is designed by the overall
length of the side-rails.
• An extension ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder, which is
adjustable in length.
Ladders Defined
According to the American Ladder Institute, there are officially nine different
types of ladders. Not all of them are used by inspectors, however.
The following ladders are commonly used by inspectors:
• step ladder. The step ladder is a self-supporting ladder that is not

adjustable in length, with a hinged design for ease of storage;
• single ladder. The single ladder is a non-self-supporting ladder that is not
adjustable in length, consisting of one section. This type of ladder is
rarely used anymore because extension ladders are used instead;
• extension ladder. The extension ladder is a non-self-supporting ladder
that is adjustable in length. It consists of two or more sections that travel
in guides or brackets arranged so as to permit length adjustment;
• articulated ladder. An articulated ladder has one or more pairs of locking
articulated joints, which allow the ladder to be set up in several
Telescoping ladder different configurations. It may be used as a step
ladder or a single ladder; and
• telescoping ladder. This ladder uses a pin system to "telescope" into
variable lengths. As it is more portable than the extension ladder, it is
often preferred over that design for indoor applications. Inspectors
should be aware that accidents have happened due to failure of the pins,
which can be difficult to detect in advance. Some inspectors refuse to
use telescoping ladders for this reason.
Here are some basic rules regarding ladder placement:
• Make sure the ladder is dry before using it.

• Place the ladder on level ground and open it completely, making sure all
locks are engaged.
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• Remember to use the 4-to-1 Rule for extension ladders. That is, for each
4 feet of distance between the ground and the upper point of contact
(such as the wall or roof), move the base of the ladder out 1 foot.
• Always wear slip-resistant shoes, such as those with rubber soles.
• Face the ladder while you are climbing up and down, and keep your
body centered. You can gauge your position by your belt buckle, if you
wear one. If your buckle passes beyond either ladder rail, you are over-
reaching and at risk for falling.
• Stand at or below the highest safe rung. For a step ladder, the safest rung
to stand on is the second from the top. For an extension ladder, it's the
fourth rung from the top.
Remember these guidelines for safe ladder set-up and use:
Whenever possible, it’s best to use two people to carry and set up a ladder.
Since many inspectors are one-person operations, this may not be practical.
Then it becomes especially important to ensure that the ladder chosen for use is
not too heavy or difficult to move, that it's properly rated, in good condition,
and is easy to set up.
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UNSAFE!
• Keep all types of ladders (and tools) at least 10 feet away from live
power lines, connections, cables and equipment.
• Set the ladder on firm, level ground. Use ladder levelers on uneven
ground.
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UNSAFE!
• When setting it up, be sure to secure the ladder by tying it down, using
slip-resistant feet, and/or by having someone hold it in place for you.
• Keep the area around the top and bottom of a ladder clear. In
passageways, doorways, and where there is traffic or other activities, try
to secure the ladder, or limit access to the immediate area while you're
working.
• Do not set a ladder on a scaffold, box, or any other object.
• When using a step ladder, remember that all four of its legs must be on
solid, level ground. The spreaders must be fully open and locked. Step
ladders should not be climbed when closed and leaning against a wall.
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• When using an extension ladder, always remember that the ladder base
should be 1 foot from the building (or top support, such as an eave) for
every 4 feet of ladder length up to the resting position. Counting rungs
will give you a good estimate of the ladder's length; rungs are
approximately 1 foot apart.
• Some ladders used by inspectors are a hybrid of step and extension
ladders. Whatever mode the ladder is in, the proper setup and safety
guidelines should be followed.
• When using an extension ladder, be sure to lock the top section in place.
Extension ladder sections must actually overlap by approximately 3 feet
for ladders up to 32 feet.
• Both rails should rest evenly where set, on both the top and bottom.
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• When a ladder is used to get on and off a roof, be sure to secure the
ladder by tying it off. The side-rails should extend at least 3 feet above
the roof to be safe.
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If you have to step around a ladder because of rungs, there should be a grab-rail
attached to the building to help you. (OSHA requires both a grab-rail and a tie-
off if a ladder doesn’t extend at least 3 feet above the roof.)
When working on flat roofs, if there is a high parapet wall, use a stairway or
some other way to gain safe ladder and roof access and egress.
While on the ladder, always:
• face the ladder;

• consider anchoring the top of the ladder with a bungee cord. Perhaps the
most feared move an inspector must make is stepping back onto the
ladder from the roof. He must step around the section of the ladder that
extends above the roofline, placing lateral pressure on the rung as he
makes contact with the ladder. A bungee cord is a convenient tool that
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can be used to reduce any movement that could otherwise result in a

serious accident. Also, a bungee cord may prevent the ladder from being
blown over in the wind while the inspector is on the roof;
• be conscious of the ladder's location, especially while walking on the
roof. In an emergency, the inspector may need to leave the roof quickly.
A ladder becomes much more dangerous when an inspector gets covered
in a swarm of stinging bees and must get down in a hurry, for instance;
• keep your body centered between the rails at all times. Do not lean too
far to the side while working; and
• utilize three points of control because this minimizes the chances of
slipping and falling. At all times during ascent and descent, the climber
must face the ladder and have two hands and one foot, or two feet and
one hand, in contact with the ladder. In this way, the climber is unlikely
to become unstable if one limb slips during the climb. It is important to
note that the climber must not carry any objects in either hand that can
interfere with his firm grip on the ladder.
Three-Point Control for Climbing Ladders
When it comes to ladder safety, there’s a difference between three-point control

and the traditional three-point contact rule. Three-point control is a climbing
method that involves always using three or four limbs distributed over three or
four locations for reliable support. Three-point contact involves simply coming
into contact with the ladder at three points without necessarily requiring a
reliable hand grip for support. Three-point contact is sometimes referred to as
the three-point stance, an American football term used to describe the stance of
a lineman with two feet planted in and one hand in contact with the ground.
Critical to three-point control is grasping the ladder so that one hand can bear
the full weight of the body, if needed, and distributing the climber’s weight
among three or four rungs. The three-point control method distributes the
climber’s weight among three or four rungs, which is safest. If one foot slips
during a foot transition, two hands should be grasping the ladder rungs to
support the body weight. If either foot slips during a hand transition, the
climber’s weight can be supported with a hand and a foot. If both feet slip
during a hand transition, the climber’s weight is transferred to one or both
hands.
Demonstration
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The images below show the safe climbing method: \grasping the rungs, rather
than the side rails; having only one limb on one rung at a time; and moving
only one limb at a time. The image at the left shows the climber using both
hands to grasp, with both feet in contact with the ladder rungs. The image in the
center shows him using both hands to grasp and one foot to transition. The
image on the right shows him making contact with one hand to transition while
both feet are in contact with the ladder rungs.
Whenever there's a risk of a serious fall, three-point control should be used

because it helps decrease the likelihood that a person will lose control when an
unexpected slip or loss of balance occurs.
Traditional Method
The traditional method of climbing a ladder consists of:
• keeping the belly button between the two side rails;

• two hands holding a ladder rung or side rail; and
• one foot on a ladder rung.
The main problem with the traditional method for climbing a ladder is that the
hand grip strength is inadequate to hold onto a side rail to support the entire
body weight in order to prevent a fall (Young, Wooley, Armstrong, et al.,
2009). It is safer for an inspector to grab a horizontal rung rather than a vertical
side rail.
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Horizontal Power Grip
Holding a ladder rung or horizontal bar is referred to as a horizontal power grip

(Barnett & Poczynok, 2000). To help prevent an uncontrolled fall, one hand
must grasp a horizontal support using a horizontal power grip at all times. Grip
control in contrast with contact is critical. Side rails or vertical holds provide a
contact hand grip based mostly on friction. The horizontal power grip has a
75% to 94% larger breakaway force than when gripping a vertical rail (Young,
Wooley, Ashton-Miller, et al., 2012).
Vertical Side Rail
Based on a recent study at the University of Michigan funded by the Center for
Construction Research and Training/NIOSH, neither men nor women can
support their full body weight through the use of only one hand gripping a
vertical side rail (Young, Wooley, Ashton-Miller, et al., 2012).
The hand that is gripping the ladder side rail will, in a fall, slide down and hit
the next ladder rung 12 inches below in a quarter of a second. It takes about a
third of a second for a human hand to respond and fully grasp an object.
Therefore, the climber’s hand will hit and pass the ladder rung before the
climber has the muscle response to fully grasp and attempt to stop the fall
(Robinovitch, Normandin, Stotz, et al., 2005; Thelen, Schultz, Ashton-Miller,
et al., 1996).
Conclusion
Three-point control is not three-point contact. Ladder users may increase their
personal safety by using the three-point control method in addition to following
the other accepted ladders safety standards.
Consider the following when climbing a ladder:
• Properly stage the ladder according to standards.

• Grasp the horizontal ladder rungs and not the vertical rails.
• Use the horizontal power hand grip.
• Grasp, rather than simply make contact.
• Distribute your weight among three or four locations.
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From a Ladder
When inspecting the roof using a ladder, keep the following in mind:
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Purchase ladders that are rated

for your weight.
• Ensure that the ladder is

properly leveled on solid
ground.
• Make sure that the ladder

is at the correct angle to
the wall.
• Pay attention to what the

ladder is leaning against,
as it is easy to mark siding or

damage guttering if you're not
careful.
• Consider buying electricians' ladders and steps, as these are made of

non-conductive fiberglass and will protect you from shocks, should you
hit any uninsulated electrical components, such as service conductors.
Think safety; clients are not too impressed with inspectors landing in the
shrubbery, writhing in agony!
Ladder Set-Up Tips
To determine whether your ladder is placed safely and properly, follow these
tips, courtesy of InterNACHI member David Lane of Texas:
• Lean the ladder against the building.

• Look at the ladder's feet and draw an imaginary line between them. Put
your toes up to that line.
• Stand up straight and hold your arms straight out in front of you.
• The ladder rung should be just beyond your reach.
• If you can touch the rung, the ladder is too steep. Move it back and
repeat these steps.
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• If the rung is several inches beyond your fingertips, the ladder pitch is
too shallow. This is also hazardous because the feet can slip backwards
when you are on it, causing you to fall. Move the ladder closer and
repeat the procedure.
This is a simple process that takes five seconds and ensures that you are about
to climb a ladder that is properly pitched.
Overview & Requirements
Here are the goals when

inspecting the roofing system:
• to report on the type of

roof covering material;
• to report on the visible

condition of the roof
covering;
• to inspect and report on

the visible flashings;
• to evaluate the roof

drainage and gutter
system;
• to report any
overhanging tree
branches that may have
an adverse effect
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on the roof covering;
• to report on the chimney system;
• to identify any obvious deficiencies of roof penetrations and through-

the-roof
components and their flashings;
• to report on any visible deficiencies in the underlying structure (for

example, swayback ridge beams);
• to report the methods used to inspect the roof (for example, from the
eaves with a ladder, or from ground with binoculars);
• to inspect and report on roofing trim, such as rake boards, soffits and
fascia
boards; and
• to report on any visible roofing problems that can be inspected from

accessible areas of the attic, such as signs of sheathing problems,
evidence of moisture intrusion, or damaged structural components, such
as split rafters and damaged trusses.
It is also important to understand what you are NOT required to do, such as:
• walk on every roof surface;
• report on the future life expectancy of roof coverings and systems;
• warranty the roof;
• inspect most connected components, such as antennae, solar panels, etc.;
• report on underground gutter terminations; or
• inspect the roof framing system, if not readily accessible.
International Standards of Practice
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Be sure to refer to InterNACHI's Standards of Practice for Performing a

General Home Inspection to read the requirements and exclusions for
conducting the roof portion of a residential property inspection.
The Basics
Measuring Roof Slope vs. Pitch Video

Play video below:
Roof Slope and Pitch

Both pitch and slope indicate the incline of a roof, expressed as a proportion of
the vertical to the horizontal. This section describes both roof slope and roof
pitch, and the differences between them, as they are not the same. Slope affects
how roof systems are installed, including dictating which type of roof-covering
material can be applied.
Please note that, according to the International Standards of Practice for

Performing
a General
Home
Inspection,
the
inspector is
not required
to measure
the slope of
the roof.
Geometry
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The illustration at right shows a simple gable roof and the general relationship
between rise, run and span. Roof framing is a practical application of geometry,
and roof slope is based largely on the properties of a right triangle.
In roof framing, the base of the right triangle is called the run. The run is the
distance from the outside of the wall's top plate to a point directly below the
center of the ridge. The vertical leg of the triangle is called the rise, which is the
distance the roof rafter board extends upward above wall's top plate.
Slope
Slope is the incline of the roof expressed as a ratio of the vertical rise to the
horizontal run, where the run is some portion of the span. This ratio is always
expressed as inches per foot.
Slope Ratio
A roof that rises 4 inches for every 1 foot or 12 inches of run is said to have a
“4 in 12” slope. If the rise is 6 inches for every 12 inches of run, then the roof
slope is “6 in 12.”
The slope can be expressed numerically as a ratio. The slope ratio represents a
certain amount of vertical rise for every 12 inches of horizontal run. For
example, a “4 in 12” slope can be expressed as the ratio of 4:12. A “6 in 12”
slope is expressed as 6:12.
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The triangular symbol above the roof line in this architectural plan provides
information on the roof's slope.
Slope is expressed:
• as a ratio; and
• in inches per foot.
Pitch
Pitch is the incline of the roof expressed as a fraction derived by dividing the
rise by the span, where the roof span is the distance between the outside of one
wall's top plate to another.
Pitch Fraction
Historically, the word "pitch" meant the ratio between the ridge height to the
entire span/width of the building, or the ratio between the rafter length to the
building width. The ridge was typically in the middle of the span. This is no
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longer the case in modern building practices. The ridge can be placed anywhere
in the span, from directly in the middle to either span endpoint.
A roof that rises 8 feet over a 24-foot span was said to have a “1 to 3” pitch. If
the rise is 4 feet over a 24-foot span, then the roof pitch was said to be “1 to 6.”
The pitch can be expressed numerically as a fraction. The pitch fraction

represents a certain amount of vertical rise over the entire span. For example,
given a roof with a rise of 4 feet and a span of 24 feet, the pitch is “1 to 6”
pitch, which can be expressed as the fraction of 1/6. A “12 to 24” pitch is
expressed as 1/2.
The term “pitch” and “slope” are often used interchangeably, which is
incorrect. They do not mean the same thing. And slope provides more valuable
information than pitch, as defined here.
Using the illustration above and information we just learned about slope and
pitch, we can see that a 2:12 slope can be expressed as 1/12 pitch, assuming the
span is twice the length of the run. If the slope is 4:12, the pitch for the 24-foot
span is 1/6. If the pitch is 1/3, the slope is 8:12. Remember, slope is expressed
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as a ratio and in inches per foot. And pitch is a fraction derived by dividing the
rise by the entire span.
Asphalt Shingles
The slope of a roof affects the surface drainage of water and can determine the
type of roof-covering materials that should be installed. Asphalt shingles
should be used only on roof slopes 2:12 or greater. Asphalt-shingle roofs are
designed to shed water, and not meant to serve as a waterproof barrier. The
slope of a roof affects its ability to shed water and determines the limits for
using asphalt shingles.
Most asphalt shingles may be used on roof slopes from 4:12 to 21:12, using
standard application methods. Asphalt shingles may be used on slopes from
2:12 to 3.9:12, if special low-slope application procedures are followed. An
inspector will usually find roll roofing materials installed on slopes of less than
4:12.
Roof Slopes
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Enlarge the illustration showing common terminology and general roof slopes,
including flat, low and conventional terms. Enlarge the roof slope illustration.
Summary
Pitch and slope do not mean the same thing. Slope is the ratio measured in
inches per foot. The pitch fraction represents a certain amount of vertical rise
over the entire span.
Roof Styles & Features

Gable
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Gable roofs are one of the most common styles. They’re easily identified. They
have two slopes and the ridge extends the length of the home. The lower, level
edges of the roof are called the “eaves,” and the sloped edges are called the
“gables” or "rakes.” (We use both terms.)
Hip
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There are two types of hip roofs, and both have four slopes. The basic hip roof
has a level ridge, but the ridge doesn’t extend all the way to the exterior walls.
Instead, hip rafters slope diagonally down to each corner.
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The illustration above shows a "full hip" roof. Full hip roofs have no real ridge.
The hip rafters all meet to form a point at the peak of the roof.
Mansard
Mansard roofs were invented by the French when owners were taxed by the
height of the building as measured to the roof eave. They’re short, steep roofs
installed around the perimeter of what’s usually (but not always) a flat-roofed
building.
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Some of these roofs are nearly vertical, and this can cause installation problems
which will vary with the different types of roof-covering materials.
Flat
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Flat roofs have very little slope. A typical slope would be 1:12.
Flat roofs may drain over the roof edges or through scuppers installed in a
parapet wall built around the perimeter.
Flat roofs are low-slope roofs. Low-slope and steep-slope roofs have different
requirements.
Shed
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Shed roofs have one slope. Because shed roofs are often used for additions, one
potential problem area is along the upper edge of the shed roof where it ties
into the wall of the original home.
Gambrel
Gambrel roofs are usually associated with barns but are not uncommon on
homes. They have two slopes, each of which changes pitch in a convex manner.
The point at which the roof changes pitch should have metal flashing.
Bonnet
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Bonnet roofs have a change of pitch but are concave -- the opposite of a
gambrel.
Butterfly Roof
This is a style seen less often, but you will see them occasionally. When you
inspect a home with a butterfly roof, look closely at the ceiling and floor
beneath the low point.
The house in this photograph had recently sold and the sellers had hired a
contractor to install a new roof. The buyers moved in… it rained… and the roof
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leaked. The buyers had to hire both a (different) roofing contractor and a floor
contractor.
The roof wasn’t likely to leak due to the design alone, so this well-known
architect designed not one, but two penetrations into the low point. The only
things lacking are an anchor and a bilge pump!
ROOF FEATURES
Clerestory
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These photos show roofs with clerestory windows. Although the term
“clerestory” refers to the position of the windows, it also generally describes
their position as incorporated into a shed roof. In other words, “clerestory” is
commonly used to refer to the combination of roof and windows.
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Clerestory windows should have adequate clearance between the sills and the
roof below in areas with heavy snowfall. This home doesn’t and is more likely
to leak. They should also have proper sidewall flashing.
Cupola
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Cupolas are small structures built into the peak of a roof, often to provide light
to the area below. The inspection concern is the roof framing supporting the
cupola. Although the framing will typically be hidden behind interior wall-
covering materials, look for signs of movement, such as cracking. Other
vulnerable areas are headwall and sidewall flashing.
Conical Roofs
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Conical roofs are often used to cover towers, as you see here, and are often
steep. This first photograph shows a conical roof that is actually a series of
tapered flat roofs, creating a series of hips.
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Installing round conical roofs requires special roofing techniques to get

shingles to lie flat, especially near the peak.
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In this photograph, you can see that four tiny dormers have been installed near
the peak.
Inspecting these steep roofs closely is difficult (or impossible) without special
equipment, so you should get as close as you can using binoculars to look for
signs of leakage beneath these roofs.
Inspection concerns include flashing at the round sidewalls and areas at which
conical roofs intersect with roofs of other shapes. Specially-shaped crickets or
flashing may be needed to provide long-term protection against leakage. One of
the crickets is circled in red.
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These areas of intersection (which are difficult to see because they’re on the
backside of the roof) often collect debris, such as leaves and sediment. This
debris holds moisture against the roof and flashing, which often corrodes more
quickly than on the rest of the roof. So, the areas of intersection are difficult to
see, and they’re weak point,.
If you can’t confirm the condition of the roofing on the backside of a conical
roof, you need to disclaim it and recommend inspection by a qualified roofing
contractor. A contractor may need to hook a ladder over the ridge in order to
get high enough on the roof to see the backside of a conical roof clearly. This is
especially true when the roof is covered with fragile materials, such as slate or
tile.
Dormers
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Dormers are projections built into the slope of a roof. Here, you see dormers
with gable, hip and shed roofs. Inspection concerns are valleys, headwall and
sidewall flashing.
Other Roof Combinations and Styles
You’ll often see several roof styles combined on one home... and sometimes…
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…you’ll see roof styles for which there really is no name.
The structure above is a dormer because it’s a projection built into the slope of
a roof. The structure below is a second story, since the exterior wall is
continuous from foundation to roof.
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The only limitations to the number of styles possible are the human
imagination, the laws of physics, and the depth of the homeowner’s pockets.
Each different style of roof and roof feature has its weak points. Once you learn
what these are, you’ll know where to expect problems. With all roofs, weak
points are:
• places where roof-covering materials change;

• places where the roof changes direction;
• places where materials are used that have a relatively short lifespan;
• roof penetrations; and
• portions of the roof that lie in the drainage path.
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Life Expectancy
There are many factors that can influence the life expectancy of the roof
sheathing and covering. You may be interested in InterNACHI's Standard
Estimated Life Expectancy Chart for Homes.
The life of a roof depends on local weather conditions, building and design,
material quality, and adequate maintenance. Hot climates drastically reduce
asphalt shingle life. Roofs in areas that experience severe weather, such as hail,
tornadoes and/or hurricanes may also experience a shorter-than-normal lifespan
overall or may incur isolated damage that requires repair in order to ensure the
service life of the surrounding roofing materials.
ROOFING YEARS
Aluminum Coating 3 to 7
Asphalt Shingles (3-tab) 20
Asphalt (architectural) 30
BUR (built-up roofing) 30
Clay/Concrete 100+
Coal and Tar 30
Copper 70+
EPDM (ethylene propylene diene monomer) Rubber 15 to 25
Fiber Cement 25
Green (vegetation-covered) 5 to 40
Metal 40 to 80
Modified Bitumen 20
Simulated Slate 10 to 35
Slate 60 to 150
TPO 7 to 20
Wood 25
All roof coverings, regardless of materials, are susceptible

to additional variables, such as:
• weather;
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• impact damage;
• environmental conditions;
• orientation;
• ventilation;
• insulation;
• structural issues; and
• installation defects.
Let's discuss briefly how each one of these variable effect a roof.
Weather
We have all seen pictures on the news of homes in "Tornado Alley" -- the
geographic region that lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian
Mountains -- with their roofs blown off, but it is not unusual to see weather
damage in all areas of the United States, as well as in various regions around
the world. Sometimes, severe weather damage will leave behind ripped
shingles and dislodged tiles affecting just one or two areas of a home's roof but,
occasionally, there can be more widespread damage that is easier to spot.
Impact Damage
This is very common and most often caused by overhanging tree branches. It
can also be inflicted by falling masonry, and cracked tiles and shingles from
people being on the roof.
Environmental Conditions
This category of rapid deterioration of the roof covering can be attributed

to airborne pollutants that are prevalent in industrial areas, as well as from the
acidity of pine needles breaking down on the roof's surface.
Orientation
The direction that the roof faces can have a significant influence on the long-
term condition of the roof. For example, south-facing roof planes tend to show
signs of overheating, particularly those with asphalt shingles. North-facing
roofs and those in the shade tend to have more algae- and moss-induced
problems, both of which will shorten the life of the roof covering.
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Ventilation
Poorly vented roofs, especially those over cathedral ceilings which are hard to
ventilate, will show signs of over-heating, and may also show signs of moisture
damage.
Insulation
Inadequately insulated attics will also promote rapid failure of the roof
covering due to issues such as ice damming in colder climates.
Structural Issues
Both the roof sheathing and framing can sometimes indicate structural issues
revealed on the roof's surface. Such problems may be as apparent as cracked
shingles or tiles above a structural defect. More commonly, there will be a
wavy look to the roof caused by thin roof sheathing that is over-spanned.
Installation Defects
All roofing systems are only as good as the installer, and it is not uncommon to
see all types failing due to poor fastenings or other installation problems.
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Quiz #1
In roof framing, the base of the triangle is called the _____.
• run
• rise
• span
• pitch
• slope
_____ is the incline of the roof expressed as a ratio of the vertical rise to the
horizontal run, where the run is some portion of the span.
• Slope
• Pitch
• Run
• Span
A 4-in-12 _________ can be expressed as the ratio of 4:12.
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• slope
• pitch
• rise
• span
_______ can be expressed either by a ratio or by inches per foot.
• Slope
• Span
• Pitch
• Rise
A roof that rises _____ inches for every 1 foot or 12 inches of run is said to
have a “4 in 12” slope.
• 4
• 10
• 6
• 2
The pitch __________ expressed numerically as a fraction.
• can be
• cannot be
T/F: A certain amount of vertical rise over the entire span, or pitch, is
represented by a fraction.
• True
• False
T/F: Asphalt shingles should be used only on roof slopes of 2:12 or greater.
• True
• False
T/F: Most asphalt shingles may be used on roof slopes from 4:12 to 21:12,
using standard application methods.
• True
• False
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Gable roofs have _______ slope(s).
• two
• three
• one
The lower, level edges of a gable roof are called the _____, and the sloped
edges are called the _____.
• eaves, rakes
• ridges, rakes
• rakes, eaves
T/F: Flat roofs have very little slope.
• True
• False
Gutters and Drainage
Roof Drainage and Gutters
Roof Drainage
Unless the roof is sloped to drain over the roof edge, there should be drainage
installed for the roof system. Roof drains could be installed at the low points of
the roof. Roofs should have some type of controlled method of disposing of
water from roofs that collect and discharge the roof drainage to the ground
surface at least 5 feet from the foundation walls or to a drainage
system. Gutters are sometimes not installed in areas with heavy snow or very
little rain.
While roof overhangs and porch roofs protect building walls from impinging
rain, gutters serve to protect building walls and foundations from roof water
runoff. Roof gutters, downspouts and leaders or diverters form the initial
components of a drainage system for the building and site. A proper design of
gutters and downspouts for water-shedding sloped roof systems should be
looked for during a roof inspection.
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Common problems with guttering are associated with installation and

maintenance. Home inspectors can check if properly sized materials are being
used, if guttering is appropriately sloped toward adequately sized downspouts,
and if discharge is directed away from the building's foundation and perimeter.
Discharging water at inside building corners should be avoided. Some local
storm water codes may require special infiltration or filtration treatments of
roof runoff.
Effective Roof Drainage
Effective roof drainage is a must for two reasons. First, the roofing system
needs to drain quickly so that large volumes of water are not trapped on the
surface. Second, water runoff from the roof needs to be managed so that it is
not being directed toward the foundation.
Guttering systems, like everything else, have evolved greatly over the last
couple of hundred years, starting out as crude wooden troughs and ending up
with the vinyl and metal systems that we use today. It is fair to say that
most guttering systems are high-maintenance. Homeowners with conventional
uncovered gutters are required to regularly clean out vegetation and debris that
get blown into them. Gutters often need to be re-fitted when severe weather
detaches them from the fascia.
Roofing gutters should slope down toward the downspout at the rate of 1/16-
inch per foot, or 1/4-inch per 5 to 10 feet. An angle less than this won't allow
water to move effectively, and much more of an angle will cause the water to
move at too great a speed, potentially resulting in overflow over end caps and
corners.
In terms of standards, home inspectors are not required to measure the amount
of gutter slope. To do it accurately would be time-consuming, would require a
transit or water level, and would exceed InterNACHI's Standards of Practice.
A more practical approach is to make sure that all gutters slope toward the
downspout. In judging adequate slope, look for signs of standing water in
portions of the gutter away from the downspout, and eyeball the margin against
the fascia. It is not uncommon to see gutters installed too low on the fascia, or
to see roof coverings projecting too far over the gutter. In both cases, this may
lead to the water over-shooting the gutters completely.
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Typical gutter systems hold up better when the brackets are spiked or screwed
through the fascia and into the ends of the rafters, and not just into the 3/4-inch
fascia board.
Let's look at the various types of gutters and their common weaknesses, as well
as their materials, installation and maintenance.
Guttering Types and Materials
No Gutters
Not all homes were designed to have gutters. In some areas of the United
States, they are deemed unnecessary due to very low rainfall or heavy snow
accumulation. Even in areas with higher rainfall, some homes were designed
with a long eave overhang (as much as 4 or 5 feet) to direct water away from
the foundation. However, it does not always have the desired effect.
Yankee Gutters
These are little more than diverters directing water away from specific areas of
the structure, particularly over doorways and entrances. Sometimes, they are
also installed to protect other areas, such as the eaves. Yankee guttering was the
earliest form of water management. On some very old homes, there are still
planks held in place by wooden blocks. Normally, they were lined with tar to
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both protect the gutter and to seal it to the roof. The modern version of Yankee
guttering is a metal type that is still seen on new construction directly over
entryways.
Wooden Guttering
Wooden guttering is still fairly common. It was still being installed as recently
as the 1930s. Originally, it consisted of little more than wooden troughs, but
these were later milled out of close-grain timber and are very similar in profile
to modern metal and vinyl systems. In many cases, they were lined either with
tar or with metal, such as lead, copper or aluminum.
Generally speaking, most older systems still in operation have not been well-
maintained. When they start to rot, any moisture is transferred straight into the
fascia, soffit and rafter tails.
Cornice or Gully Guttering
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Cornice or gully guttering is an integral part of the roof system. Typically, the
guttering was laid down with the roof framing and sheathing, and then covered
with metal or roll roofing running up under the roof covering. The downspouts
are often hidden inside posts and pillars to mask their presence. When these fail
or when the downspouts become blocked, they can wreak havoc on the roof
structure. Most of these systems have now been built over, and normal fascia-
applied guttering has been installed.
Metal and Vinyl Guttering:
• The two biggest problems with steel guttering are rust, if not properly
maintained, and the potential for leaks in any joints and
downspout connections. Steel guttering comes in shorter lengths, so
there tend to be many joints in the system -- not just at the corners.
• Aluminum guttering is quite often formed on-site from a roll of sheet

aluminum. This leads to fewer joints, but those at corners and downspout
connections should still be fully evaluated.
The most common method of connecting the components is using

aluminum pop-rivets. These very frequently fail, either from impact
damage or building movement.
• Copper guttering was becoming a lost art until recently, but it is

reappearing on both high-end new construction and on quality
restorations of older properties. What makes copper systems desirable is
that all of the joints are soldered, including those of the downspouts.
This tends to make for a system with a long lifespan.
• Vinyl guttering is not only very common on new construction, but is also
the do-it-yourselfer's material of choice, as it is available off-the-shelf at
most home improvement stores. Prefabricated angles, corners and
connections are readily available, and installation requires no special
tools, or even technical aptitude.
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Common Gutter Inspection Issues
Regardless of material or style, all gutters tend to exhibit common problems

and should be inspected primarily the same way. Here is the "what-to-look-for"
list when checking the gutter system:
• Does the gutter slope downward at a minimum of 1/16-inch per foot?

• Are there downspouts present?
• Does it seem to have an adequate number of downspouts?
• Is the guttering securely fastened to the building?
• Are brackets missing?
• Are gutter spikes backing out?
• Can you see signs of leaking from the joints?
• Are there missing gutters?
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• Did you see any damaged gutters?

• Are the gutters blocked by debris, or even rooted vegetation?
Take a good look in the bottom of the gutters. The contents will typically point
to roof covering problems. For example, if there is a large amount of asphalt
shingle aggregate in the gutter, that could be a sign that the roof covering is
likely nearing the end of its lifespan. But be careful, brand new installation also
will result in some aggregate in the gutter.
Downspouts and Terminations

Downspouts
Every square inch of downspout is capable of discharging drainage for 100

square feet of roof surface. Therefore, a 2x3-inch downspout can handle 600
square feet of roof, and a 3x4-inch downspout can manage 1,200 square feet.
Most downspouts are made of the same material as the gutter system, so they
tend to suffer from similar problems, but with a few twists -- especially in the
area of mechanical damage from proximity to high-traffic areas.
Inspect the downspouts for:
• the connection between the downspout and the gutter;
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• proper attachment of the downspout to the structure;
• leakage in joints (because, sometimes, they will have been installed

upside-down);
• impact damage from car doors, etc.;
• downspouts that terminate onto another roof surface, as this will quickly
erode the covering at the termination; and
• whether the termination is directing water away from the foundation.
Another checklist item is very important, as it is pointless to have a gutter

system that is directing roof water run-off straight down into the foundation.
Unless the grade slopes steeply away from the foundation, if the downspout
empties too near the foundation, recommend that downspout diverter
extensions be installed.
In some areas of the U.S., local conditions dictate that the termination of the
downspout system be a minimum of 5 feet from the foundation due to soil
conditions.
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Internal Drainage
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Many flat roofs have internal drainage

systems. Although they are not common
in modern residential construction, they
will be found on older homes and many
commercial roofs. The drainage system
relies on the roof having one or more low
points to which run-off water is directed,
where it will then run down internal
piping connected to the drainage system.
The common problems with this system include:
• inadequate slope on the roof (which should be a minimum of 1/4-inch
per foot);
• poor flashing between the roof covering and the drain;
• drain blockage due to leaves and other debris;
• failure of the internal pipe system due to pipe corrosion; and
• failure of the building's main foundation drainage system.
Significant structural problems can be caused both by water getting under the
roof covering and from systems that have not been draining properly. Snow can
also overload the roof structure and contribute to such problems. These systems
should have leaf guards installed at the drains to prevent blockage, and they
should always be monitored.
Underground Systems
While the inspector cannot be expected to

evaluate underground systems,
it is worthwhile to have some basic
knowledge of the systems and to
understand the potential problems.
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Underground terminations usually connect to one of three system types.
• On-site drainage: The gutters connect to subterranean piping that simply

takes the run-off to a low area on the property and discharges it to the
ground, well away from the foundation.
• Connection to foundation drains: The downspouts in these systems are

connected via vertical drains to the home's foundation or drain tile
system. This may ultimately be connected to the municipal storm drain
system.
• French drains and drywells: A pit or channel is dug and lined with a
membrane, and normally filled with crushed stone. This leaves a lot of
airspace in the drywell. When heavy rain is directed into the drain
system, it is able to hold a large volume of water until it is able to
percolate into the surrounding soil. These systems are most common as a
retrofit to alleviate known rainwater problems, and can be very effective.
All underground drain piping can suffer from failures, and while the inspector
should disclaim these in his report, it is good to know the potential problems.
The most common issues are:
• piping silting up due to poor separation from soils;
• blockages from leaves and other debris getting into the system;
• root systems from trees and shrubs infiltrating and choking off the pipes;
and
• pipes collapsed from vehicles driving over the ground above them.
Quiz #2
The proper slope for guttering is ____ per 5 to 10 feet.
• 1/4-inch
• 1/16-inch
• 1/2-inch
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Gutters should be installed by screwing or spiking them _________.
• through the fascia and into the rafter tails

• into the fascia
• into the soffit
T/F: All homes are required to have gutters installed.
• False
• True
T/F: Rusting steel gutters are a cosmetic issue and need not be reported.
• False
• True
Which of the following is not a guttering material?
• brass
• steel
• copper
• plastic
• aluminum
T/F: The inspector should report on any debris buildup in the gutters.
• True
• False
T/F: The inspector should inspect all visible downspout terminations.
• True
• False
Roofing gutters should slope down toward the downspout at the rate of _____
per foot, or 1/4-inch per 5 to 10 feet.
• 1/16-inch
• 3/10-inch
• 1/12-inch
Measuring the amount of gutter slope is _______________.
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• not required
• required
Framing and Trim
Roof Framing from the Exterior
Many roof problems are caused by issues with the framing and sheathing. In
this section, we will focus on the defects that may be viewed from the exterior
of the property. This is one of those cases where standing back and taking a
good, hard look is better than getting "up close and personal" with the roof.
Remember, according to the Standards of Practice, a home inspector is not

required to walk upon any roof surface.
Ridge Issues
One of the more common things to see, especially on older homes, is what is
generally called "saddle" or "swayback." This happens when the ridge beam
has settled down toward the center of the roof.
There are several potential causes for this, among them:
• a rotten or broken ridge beam;
• an overloaded roof surface;
• undersized framing members; and/or
• a lack of collar ties.
A noticeable step in the ridge can also indicate more serious problems affecting
the whole home structure, such as a footing or foundation problem.
Rafter Issues
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Similar to ridge sag, rafters may also be pushed down in the center. Wherever
possible, try to get a view along the plane of the roof. There can be many
reasons for the rafters bowing. Here is a list of possibilities:
• undersized rafters;
• roof loads too high;
• a lack of purlins or knee walls;
• poorly modified ceiling joists; and/or
• improperly modified roof trusses.
Sheathing Issues
Originally, roof sheathing was made from 3/4-inch to 1-inch planking, but in
the 1950s and '60s, it became common to use plywood or particle board in 8x4-
foot sheets laid perpendicular to the roof rafters. It is not uncommon for the
roof to have a wavy appearance. This is most often caused by:
• rafters or trusses set too far apart;
• roof sheathing that's too thin;
• moisture-damaged sheathing;
• sheathing that's fitted too closely together; and/or
• sheathing that's missing H-clips.
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General Structural Inspection
When inspecting the roof structure from the exterior, the inspector should also
pay close attention to the wall structures. If the roof system shows signs of any
of the problems listed above, then you may also possibly observe signs of the
walls bowing out, or the soffits pulling away from the tops of the walls. This is
a condition called rafter spread, where the weight of the roof has pushed the
roof rafters outward, resulting in a separation of the roof structure from the
walls, and pushing the top of the walls outward.
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Conventional Roof Framing

A home inspector should have an understanding of the two main, basic roof
structure systems: conventional roof framing and roof trusses.
You’ll be inspecting the roof framing from inside the attic space, but we have
an advantage in technology. Let’s strip away the roof and wall coverings of a
home and identify some of the more common roof framing members. We’ll
start with a conventionally framed roof in which individual roof-framing
members are cut and assembled on-site.
CONVENTIONAL ROOFS
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Conventional Roof Framing
Common Rafters
Rafters which rest on the outside walls at the bottom and connect to the ridge at
the top are called “common rafters” (highlighted here in yellow).
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Rafters on opposite sides of the ridge should be installed directly opposite each
other in pairs -- although, if you see a few that don’t align, it’s really not a
defect. Rafters sometimes have to be moved a little to accommodate
components of other home systems. The illustration above shows a rafter
moved to accommodate a combustion vent.
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If you see many rafters that don’t align, you may comment on this, but in
existing homes, refrain from calling it a defect unless you see failure. In newer
homes, many rafters which don’t oppose usually indicate poor-quality framing.
It’s an indication that you should look carefully for other problems in the roof
framing.
Rafters are typically installed on 24-inch centers. If you see rafters installed on
centers greater than 24 inches, look for signs of failure, such as sagging of the
rafters. If you see sagging rafters, recommend stabilization by a qualified
contractor. Stabilization typically involves installation of a purlin system.
Hips
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Hip roofs have “hip rafters” which are oriented diagonally to the ridge and
outside walls. Hip rafters are simply called “hips,” and are shown here as
brown. Hips rest on an outside corner at the bottom and connect to the ridge at
the peak.
Rafters which rest on the exterior walls at the bottom and connect to a hip at the
top are called “hip jacks,” shown here as purple.
Valleys
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Where ridges change direction, an inside corner is created, which is spanned by

a “valley rafter” or simply “valley,” shown here as green. Valleys are also
oriented diagonally to the ridge and exterior walls. Valleys rest on top of the
walls at the inside corner at the bottom, and connect to the ridge at the top.
Rafters which connect to the valley at their bottoms and connect to the ridge at
the top are called “valley jacks,” shown here as light blue.
Conventional Ridge
The illustration shows a conventional ridge (colored orange). In homes with

conventional ridges, the rafters support the weight of the roof and transmit the
roof load down through the walls to the foundation and, finally, to the soil. The
route taken by the weight of the roof through the framing members to the soil is
called the “load path.”
The purpose of the ridge is to provide an easy method for connecting rafters at
the peak of the roof, and to provide better nailing at the peak.
Older homes may have no ridge at all. That was a common building practice at
one point in various parts of North America, and it’s not a defect as long as the
rafters oppose each other.
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Engineered lumber used for roof framing has very specific requirements for
connections, and discussing them here exceeds the scope of this series. The
manufacturers of metal connectors for engineered lumber publish connection
specifications in their catalogues and on their websites.
Rafter Ties
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In homes with flat ceilings and an attic space, the bottoms of opposing rafters
should be fastened together with ceiling joists, which form “rafter ties.” When
rafters have been installed perpendicular to the ceiling joists, rafter ties
typically rest on top of the ceiling joists.
Rafter ties prevent the weight of the roof from spreading the tops of the walls
and causing the ridge to sag.
Collar Ties
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Collar ties connect the upper ends of opposing rafters. They should be installed
on every other rafter in the upper third of the roof. Their purpose is to prevent
uplift. Whether or not they should be installed is an engineering call. They
aren’t always required so the lack of them is not a defect, but when you see
them, they should be installed correctly.
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Here, you can see collar ties installed in the upper third of the roof, and rafter
ties installed down low and spliced over a wall.
Purlin Systems
You can also see the purlin system.
Purlin systems are designed to reduce the distance that rafters have to span.
They consist of strongbacks nailed to the undersides of the rafters and
supported by diagonal braces.
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The bottoms of purlin braces should rest on top of a bearing wall. Braces that
rest on ceiling joists or which somehow pass the roof load to the ceiling below
are defective installations. If you see braces which rest on ceiling joists, look
for a sag in the ceiling.
Braces are typically installed every other rafter and should be at an angle no
steeper than 45°.
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Here’s a purlin system installed in the garage of an older home. With no central
wall to carry the braces, they bear on a strongback that rests on the ceiling
joists. There was no sagging, so there was no comment in the inspection report.
Purlin systems have been built in many ways -- some better than others.
Modern building codes call for strongbacks to be of equal or greater dimension
than the rafter dimension, but most purlin strongbacks you’ll see will not meet
this requirement. If you know that the home was required to meet this code
when it was built, call it a defect; otherwise, limit your inspection to looking for
signs of failure, such as sagging or broken rafters and broken
components. Also, look for improper installations, such as braces resting on
ceiling joists, braces but no strongback, and too few braces.
In older homes in some areas, it’s common to find no strongbacks. It’s a quality
issue unless the roof is sagging; then, it’s a structural issue and you should
recommend stabilization by a qualified contractor.
The term “purlin” has several different meanings depending on what part of
North America you’re in, what part of the roof you’re talking about, and the
background of the person you’re discussing it with, so don’t be surprised if
someone tries to correct you.
Structural Ridge
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Homes with vaulted ceilings usually don’t have rafter ties to keep the walls
from spreading and the ridge from sagging, so they use a structural ridge. In a
home with a structural ridge, the ridge consists of a beam strong enough to
support the roof load without sagging.
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Overframe
When you’re inside an attic, you may see a condition in which the ridge and a
few jack rafters from one roof section are framed on top of an existing roof.
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This is called an “overframe” and it’s quite common in certain areas. Built
correctly, it’s structurally sound.
You’ll often see a section of roof sheathing removed to provide a passageway

between attic spaces. If you can’t enter a portion of the attic, recommend that it
be inspected by a qualified inspector after access is provided. This is especially
important if it contains plumbing or electrical components.
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Trusses
ROOF TRUSSES
Roof trusses are engineered roof framing systems in which the main
components -- roof trusses -- are designed by structural engineers, then
assembled in a manufacturing facility before being delivered to the job site by
truck.
Let’s take a look at how trusses are built.
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Trusses are manufactured in a wide variety of configurations and have been

around since the early 1950s. Trusses have to be engineered correctly, so if you
see trusses fastened together with plywood gussets instead of rings or
gangnails...
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… you’re looking at a non-professional design, and you should recommend

evaluation by a structural engineer.
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In this photo of the same home, you can see that roof leakage has caused wood
decay of the plywood gusset. By the time decay becomes visible, wood may
have lost up to 50% of its strength, so decay is one more reason to recommend
evaluation by a structural engineer.
Most roof trusses are designed to bear on the exterior walls only. Trusses
touching interior walls can transfer roof loads to walls not designed to carry a
structural load.
Trusses touching interior walls can also create point loads on trusses at points
not designed to support point loads. In rare cases, this has resulted in
“exploding trusses.”
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As you can see in the image above, the bottom chords of trusses should be
fastened to the tops of interior, non-bearing walls with slotted clips which allow
for some vertical movement of the trusses. Movement is usually related to
changes in the moisture content of the wood trusses. This can be a response to
changes in relative humidity or other conditions which cause moisture level
fluctuations in attic spaces.
Truss movement can also result when roof loads exceed the structural design
loads of the trusses, as might happen with the accumulation of lots of wet,
heavy snow in an area that seldom gets snow.
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Trusses are usually braced with a system of 2x4s and 1x6s when they’re
installed. The locations of bracing can be different for different truss designs,
and you’ll have no way of knowing what the requirements are. Trusses are
often installed with blocks at the roof peak and above the outside walls, but
these are not always required. So, in your report, don’t call missing blocks or
bracing a defective condition.
Look for signs of failure.
Trusses out of plumb are poor-quality construction but may be stable. If they’re
badly out of plumb, mention that in your inspection report. Look for broken or
damaged truss components, and comment on them in your report.
Trusses should never, ever be structurally altered in any way without approval
from a structural engineer. If you see trusses which have been cut or reinforced,
recommend evaluation by a structural engineer.
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Trusses sometimes rest in hangers instead of bearing on a wall. When this is the
case, check the fasteners carefully. These hangers were fastened with roofing
nails, and that’s a defective installation.
Here’s the garage of the house. The neighbor told the inspector that the roof of
the garage next door had collapsed during a big snowstorm the previous year.
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It's easy to see that the trusses have been altered. Plywood gussets were added
at a connection that would typically have had metal gangnails installed.
In the rare instances in which alterations involving plywood gussets have been
approved by a structural engineer, gussets usually have backing for perimeter
nailing installed, are glued with a special construction adhesive (such as PL
Premium), and are heavily nailed, with nails every two or three inches or
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so. You should see lots of nails and glue squeezing out of joints. As you can
see in the photo above, that wasn’t the case here.
Looking over to the wall, notice that the hangers seem to be small for the load
they're carrying.
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The hangers turned out to be sized for a 2x4, which is far too small for the roof
load they are carrying. They were fastened with a total of four gold deck
screws each! The deck screws are a serious defect, rated far below acceptable
hanger nail strength.
In addition to that, they were installed through drywall, which does not support
the shaft of a fastener the way wood does.
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The problems don’t end there. If you look closely at the gangnail, you can see
that it has been damaged and the spikes are no longer embedded in the wood.
Instead, the gangnail is attached by a couple of nails which have been bent
over.
This roof is structurally inadequate and dangerous. It needs to have corrections

designed by a structural engineer, and bids from qualified contractors for
making the corrections. Corrections needed to be completed as soon as
possible.
Roof Panel Sheathing

This section goes over some tips and details for home inspectors to keep in
mind when inspecting the lumber roof sheathing and the general structure of
the roof. Be sure to check with your local building code requirements and
manufacturer recommendations related to roof sheathing.
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Lumber roof sheathing and lumber roof panels are terms used in the
International Residential Code that refer to panels manufactured with fully
waterproof adhesive and include plywood, oriented stand board (OSB) and
composite panels made up of a combination of wood veneers and reconstructed
wood layers. Plywood panels are manufactured by gluing together three or
more cross-laminated wood layers. OSB panels are made from multiple layers
of wood flakes oriented 90 degrees to each other. Sheathing provides the base
for attaching the roof covering and adds strength to the framed structure.
Thickness
The minimum thickness of lumber roof sheathing should conform to Table 1

below.
Table 1.
Minimum lumber roof sheathing thickness
Minimum net thickness Rafter or beam spacing
5/8 inch 24 inches
48 inches
1 and 1/2 inch tongue-and-groove
60 inches
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72 inches
You may be able to measure the thickness of the roof decking material with a
simple measurement ruler as seen in the inspection image below.
Allowable Spans for Wood Structural Panels for Roof Sheathing
The maximum span for roof sheathing is limited by the stresses and deflections
caused by the design loads. The inspection agencies include a span rating label
on the panels, which indicate the maximum spans for that panel.
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The labels above are common APA rating labels for roof sheathing.
The rating will appear as two numbers. The first number is the maximum span
for roof sheathing, assuming that the panels are installed with the long
dimension across three or more supports and the edges are supported. The
second number is the maximum span with the panel is used for floor sheathing.
The label on the far left is a common rating label for sheathing installed on roof
trusses spaced 24 inches on center, which are widely recognized as an
economical construction method for residential roofs.
Rafters
Rafters should be straight and in alignment during the installation of sheathing.

This will help keep everything square and aligned while the sheathing panels
are laid down and fastened. It is common for framing supports, such as roof
trusses, to be spaced 24 inches on center.
Blocking can help correct areas with twisted framing and provide surface for
the panels.
Panels
Plywood panels should be laid with the face grain perpendicular to the rafter
boards. The panels should be installed over two or more spans with the long
dimension or strength axis oriented across the rafter boards or truss cords.
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In the above image, the contractor is laying down the plywood panel with the
face grain perpendicular to the trusses. Staggering panels by at least two
supports is recommended.
During installation of OSB, the rough surface side should be facing up. This
rough side is a screened or skid-resistant coated side.
Panel Ends
The panels should be spaced 1/8 inch apart at the ends and edges.
The panel ends must be joined over a support. The panel joints should rest
along the center line of the support framing with at least 1/2 inch of bearing.
Tongue-and-groove edges or solid blocking my provide support at the edges.
Panel edge clips may be installed to provide additional support along the edges.
Clips may be required. One clip is usually installed in each span. Blocking,
tongue-and-groove edges, and or supports such as panel clips may provide
adequate support for unsupported edges.
Fastening
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Wood structural panels should be attached to the framing in accordance with

the following table.
Fastening Wood Structural Panels to Framing

Panel Fastener Type Fastener Fastener Spacing at
Thickness Spacing on Intermediate Supports
Edges
3/8 inch to 1/2 8 d common nail (2 6 inches apart 12 inches apart
inch and 1/2 inch)
19/32 inch to 8 d common nail (2 6 inches apart 12 inches apart
1 inch and 1/2 inch)
For common installations, the panels are fastened with 8 d common or

deformed shank nails. Fastening schedules have certain requirements for high
wind zone locations and where the roof is specially engineered.
For common installations, fasteners are spaced on the edges 6 inches apart and
12 inches apart along the supports. There should be at least 3/8 inch of space
between the fastener and the panel edge.
In areas where the wind speed is greater than 130 mph, nails for attaching the
roof sheathing to intermediate supports should be spaced 6 inches on center for
at least the first 48 inches from the ridges, eaves and gable end walls. The
fasteners should be spaced only 4 inches apart on the panel edge at the gable
end wall framing.
Fasteners should be driven flush with the panel surface.
Trim
Any wooden trim associated with the roof system is susceptible to rot and, in
some cases, insect damage. It is an area that should be fully inspected either
from the ground or from a ladder, if possible.
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Remember that ladder safety is a priority. Be careful when inspecting roofing

trim. Also, be careful if you are allergic to insect bites and stings. Soffits,
gables and fascia boards can literally be a "hive of activity."
Fascia
The horizontal board enclosing the ends of the rafter projections (or tails) is
normally referred to as the fascia board, and if gutters are attached, they are
fitted here. Because the fasciae are at the lowest point of the roof plane, they
often act as sponges for any misdirected moisture. Rotting fasciae can also be
masking a lot of rot in the rafter tails, which can be very expensive to replace.
Rake or Barge Boards
These are the boards that cover the ends of the roof structure from the fascia to
the ridge. Like the fascia boards themselves, they are known to rot, especially
at the lower ends.
Soffits
The soffit is the area underneath the eaves or rafter tails that is normally
enclosed at the front by the fascia boards. There are three main types of soffit:
• open soffits, with no bottom enclosure;
• closed soffits, where the soffit board is fastened directly to the underside
of the rafter tails; and
• box soffits, where the soffit board extends at a right angle from the wall
to the end of the rafter tail.
As with the fascia boards, the soffit, placed at the low point of the roof
structure, is a typical area for rot. Common causes include water penetrating the
roof covering and migrating down the sheathing, ventilation problems, and ice
damming. Carefully inspect these items, and report any damp or rotten-looking
areas.
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Drip Edges
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Many of the problems with wooden roofing trim systems can be avoided when
a proper drip edge is fitted between the roof decking and the roof covering.
This edge protects both the sheathing and the trim by directing water either into
the guttering (if fitted), or at least far enough away from the trim that it cannot
wick into the wood.
Drip edge flashing should be installed over the underlayment (roofing paper or
felt) at the rake, but under it along the eave.
The image above is a drip edge flashing properly installed onto the roof deck
(at the eave or gutter edge) before the underlayment is installed on top of it.
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The image above is of drip edge flashing installed at the rake board area. it is
installed on top of the underlayment (roof felt material) at the rake board
area. The rows of asphalt shingles are then installed on top of the drip edge
flashing.
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The image above shows the drip edge flashing installed at the rake. And it is
installed on top of the underlayment (roof felt material).
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The illustration above shows common drip edge shapes.
Other Trim Areas and Issues
Any additional decorative trim installed either onto the fascia or at the soffit
wall interface is normally referred to as a cornice. These can be as simple as a
1/4-inch round molding, or a larger profile, sometimes including dentil
molding. All such trims should be thoroughly inspected for rot and insect
damage.
All other wooden trim adjacent to the roof surface should have at least an inch
of clearance from the roof covering (and more in snowfall areas). This is
particularly important with areas such as the sides of dormers, where water
running down the roof can damage the trim and siding.
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Structural Issues Disguised as Cosmetic Ones

Although diagnosing the causes behind structural and cosmetic defects lies beyond the scope of a home inspector’s
duties, according to the InterNACHI Residential Standards of Practice, understanding some of those causes can help
inspectors recognize certain defects more quickly so that he can report them and make appropriate recommendations to
his clients.
One of those defects related to roofs is rafter sag or a bowed interior ceiling
that is mistakenly attributed to a lack of collar ties.
Collar ties are designed to resist expansive or an outward movement of force

that is usually accompanied by wall spread and ridge sagging. However, they
do not prevent rafters from sagging or bowing downward in the middle. That's
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caused by factors such as over-spanned, under-sized or over-spaced rafters.

Such conditions are also sometimes caused by excessive roof load, such as too
many layers of shingles or other roofing-covering material, or a change-out
from composition shingles to tile, where the weight is greater than 6 pounds per
square foot. Collar ties help prevent roof settlement but not a rafter from
sagging in the middle.
(It is possible that when the slope of the roof descends to a lower slope/pitch,
the load on the rafters' span shifts somewhat from the seat cut toward the
middle of the rafter.)
In the case of rafter sagging, the collar ties themselves become bowed or bent
inward, since they are not designed to resist a compressive load. Collar ties
resist the outward or expansive motion of the rafters, not compression.
It is the framing members that are designed to withstand both compressive and
expansive loads. A lack of collar ties (typically 1x wood) would cause the ridge
-- not the rafters -- to sag, as well as cause the walls to spread. They react by
simply bowing as they resist the force of expansive or outward movement.
One of the most common mistakes that homeowners and contractors make in
remodeling is that they remove the ceiling plaster and joists (to raise the ceiling
and gain room volume, etc.), and thereby also remove the ceiling diaphragm,
which is a supportive element and can be an integral seismic element of a
building. This not only affects the roof framing and wall spread, but it removes
a seismic resistive plane of the structure (the ceiling), regardless that lath and
plaster or drywall doesn't have much shear value.
What generally happens is that, after removing the ceiling, homeowners and
contractors sometimes fail to do one of two things:
1. install the appropriate number and size of collar ties that are typically no
more than one-third up toward the ridge plate from the wall plates, so as
to prevent ridge sag and wall spread; or
2. remove the ridge plate and install a ridge beam in its place, with the load
effectively transferred to the foundation. A ridge plate allows rafters to
rest against it but does not carry a vertical load. The triangle formed by
the rafters and ceiling transfers the load to the walls of the house.
(Contrariwise, the ridge beam transfers the vertical load of the rafters
and roof system directly to the foundation, where it is concentrated.
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Sometimes, an additional footing is required under that portion of the

foundation to support the additional load presented.)
Another issue is that a homeowner or contractor may add drywall to the

underside of the rafters, thereby increasing the load on them and causing
ventilation problems, which can, in turn, cause condensation and moisture
problems, resulting in mold growth, rafter rot, etc.
An inspector who observes a sagging rafter in an unfinished attic, a sagging or

bowed ceiling, or, through infrared imaging, detects heat signatures that may
indicate moisture above the ceiling, should note such details in his report and
recommend further investigation by a qualified professional who can make any
necessary repairs and/or structural corrections.
Collar Ties vs. Rafter Ties
Collar ties and rafter ties are both horizontal roof-framing members, each with
different purposes and requirements. Home inspectors should be familiar with
these structural members and the differences between them, as they are not the
same.
Please note that, according to the International Standards of Practice for

Performing a General Home Inspection, the inspector is required to inspect the
visible and accessible structural components and the general structure of the
roof system.
In physics, tension is the pulling force

exerted by a solid object on another
object. Tension members are solid
objects (or structural members) that are
subjected to axial tensile forces, or
tension. Collar ties and rafter ties are
examples of tension members.
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Tension Tie
A tension tie is a structural member that is subject to net tension.
Collar Ties
"Collar tie" is a colloquial phrase that is used among contractors, builders and
inspectors, but not usually used in construction or engineering documentation.
The correct phrase is actually “collar beam.” In this article, we’ll use "collar
tie."
A collar tie is a tension tie in the upper third of opposing gable rafters that is
intended to resist rafter separation from the ridge beam during periods of
unbalanced loads, such as that caused by wind uplift, or unbalanced roof loads
from snow. The 2015 International Residential Code does not require collar ties
(or collar beams). However, in those situations when they are specified, collar
ties or ridge straps are usually installed in the upper third of the roof between
opposing rafters. In high-wind areas, uplift can tear a roof off of a house if it's
not properly attached.
Collar ties must be at least 1 x 4 inches (nominal), spaced not more than 4 feet
on center.
Other facts about collar ties:
• They may or may not be required, depending on jurisdiction.

InterNACHI inspectors should not call out a lack of collar ties as a
defect unless they know that collar ties were required in the jurisdiction
where the home is located at the time the home was built.
• Collar ties are probably not needed if approved metal connectors were
used to fasten the rafters to the ridge.
• Where they are required, they should be installed on every other rafter
where rafters are on 24-inch centers.
• Collar ties, contrary to popular belief, do not prevent walls from
spreading.
Rafter Ties
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A rafter tie is a tension tie in the lower third of opposing gable rafters that is
intended to resist the outward thrust of the rafter under a load. In
many situations, you'll find that ceiling joists installed parallel to the rafters are
intended to function as rafter ties. The roof framing mock-up below shows a
standard rafter tie.
Rafter ties are installed between opposing rafters, and they should be installed
as close as possible to the top plate.
Rafter ties resist the outward thrust that rafters exert on the exterior walls. They
help keep walls from spreading due to the weight of the roof. When the walls
spread, the ridge board might sag. A sagging ridge is one indication that the
roof structure may lack adequate rafter ties. A rafter tie forms the bottom chord
of a simple triangular roof truss.
When ceiling joists run perpendicular to the rafters, inspectors may find rafter
ties installed above ceiling joists as framing members every 4 feet running
above the ceiling joists connecting opposing rafters.
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Rafter ties should be at least 2 x 4 inches (nominal).
Other facts about rafter ties:
• Rafter ties are always required unless the roof has a structural (self-
supporting) ridge, or is built using engineered trusses. A lack of rafter
ties is a serious structural issue in a conventionally framed roof.
• In most homes, the ceiling joists also serve as the rafter ties.
• Where rafters are oriented perpendicular to the ceiling joists, rafter ties
should be installed just above the ceiling joists. The ties usually rest on
the joists.
• When rafters are installed on 24-inch centers, rafter ties are typically
installed at every other rafter.
• It’s not unusual to see rafter ties of either 2 x 4-inch or 2 x 6-inch.
Tension Forces
Rafter and collar ties are subject to enormous tension forces. These forces make
securing the ties to the rafter boards a critical issue. The force in each tie
increases with the inverse of the slope. So, the greater the roof slope, the
weaker the outward thrust.
Outward Thrust
The load on a structure can be calculated from combining the dead load or
weight of the structure itself, the live load that varies for different structures,
the snow load, and the wind load.
In a simple gable roof, the rafter boards carry the live and dead loads that push
both downward and outward against the top of the load-bearing walls. This
horizontal outward thrust can be considerable. To resist this horizontal outward
thrust, the International Residential Code calls for each pair of rafters to be
securely connected to each other by a continuous ceiling joist, and for a
structural ridge beam to be installed for roofs with a slope of less than 3:12 (see
illustration below).
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Ceiling Joists
Where ceiling joists are not connected to the rafters at the top wall plate, joists
connected higher in the attic shall be installed as rafter ties, or a continuous tie
should be provided. Where ceiling joists are not parallel to rafters, rafter ties
shall be installed. Where ceiling joists or rafter ties are not provided, the ridge
formed by these rafters must be supported by a wall or girder.
The ends of ceiling joists should be lapped a minimum of 3 inches, or butted

over bearing partitions or beams and toenailed to the bearing member. Where
ceiling joists are used to provide resistance to rafter thrust, lapped joists shall be
nailed together in accordance with Table R802.5.1(9) in the IRC. For example,
if a house has a 4:12 slope, the rafters are on 16-inch centers, the snow load is
30 psf, and the roof span is 28 feet, you need eight 16d common nails (or 40d
box nails) at each rafter-heel joint connection. That's a lot of nails a home
inspector can look for.
Cathedral Ceilings
Cathedral ceilings are popular in many homes, but they have special issues with
the downward load on the rafters that push outward on the exterior walls. Open
collar ties and ridge beams address many of these issues. The higher the tie is
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located, the less leverage is available to counteract the outward-thrust forces.

Many cathedral ceilings often display indications of movement, such as
cracked drywall. The most effective way to reduce outward thrust is to use a
structural ridge beam.
Bottom Chord of a Truss
In a conventional roof truss, the bottom chord acts as a tension tie between the
exterior walls. Alterations to installed trusses are not permitted. Cutting any
truss, particularly at the bottom chord, destroys the structural integrity of the
truss. If the inspector finds that the chord of a truss has been cut, he/she should
recommend that a structural engineer be consulted.
The bottom chord of a truss should not be attached to an interior wall partition.
Attaching the bottom chord of a truss to an inside wall can cause the web
members designed for tension to become compression members. When the
bottom chord is nailed to a top plate of an interior wall, a home inspector might
observe cracking interior finishes at the corner of the finished wall and ceiling.
Lower One-Third
Older building codes permitted rafter ties to be installed very high above the
top wall plate, as much as two-thirds the distance between the top plate and the
ridge. The 2012 IRC now limits this to one-third the distance between the plate
and the ridge. For example, if an unfinished garage has a roof with a 4:12 slope
and the roof span is 24 feet, the rafter ties should be located no more than 16
inches up from the plate, according to modern building standards.
Tension
The roof framing mock-up below shows a standard collar tie. As the load is
applied downward, tension in the collar tie is increased.
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Compression
The illustration below shows a king post truss on posts. As the load is applied
downward, compression is increased at the posts.
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Bending Moment
A bending moment occurs when a force changes from a straight form into a
curved or angular one. The illustration below shows a collar tie with rafters on
top of conventionally framed walls. As the load is applied downward, the
rafters go into a bending moment below the collar tie. This bending moment
exerts outward thrust on the walls, making them out of plumb.
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Summary
In summary, collar ties and rafter ties perform different functions, but both are
essential roof-framing members, and it's useful for inspectors to be aware of
their differences in order to properly call out defects.
Quiz #3
Which of the following would not cause rafter spread?
• adequate knee walls

• lack of collar ties
• too many layers of roof coverings
• over-spanned rafters
_______________ is the deflection of the ridge beam.
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• Saddleback or swayback
• Hogback or horseback
• Rafter spread
If a gap exists between the wall and soffit, it may indicate __________.
• rafter sag or spread

• blocked gutters
• moisture in the soffit
A soffit that is attached directly to the underside of the rafter tails is called a(n)
_______ soffit.
• enclosed
• open
• box
The clips that are required between many sheathing panels are called ___-clips.
• H
• T
• L
T/F: A _____ tie is a tension tie in the upper third of opposing gable rafters that
is intended to resist rafter separation from the ridge beam.
• collar
• rafter
• roof
• slope
Roof sheathing should be installed ___________ to the rafters.
• perpendicular
• vertical
• parallel
De-lamination of the roof sheathing may cause _________.
• depression between rafters

• ridge swayback
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• rafter sag
The horizontal board enclosing the ends of the rafter projections (or tails) is
normally referred to as the _____ board.
• fascia
• cornice
• soffit
___________ is a decorative molding applied to the fascia.
• Cornice
• Dentil molding
• Barge board
The distance that should separate the siding from the roof's surface is
__________.
• 1 to 2 inches
• less than 1 inch
• 2 to 4 inches
Drip edge flashing should be installed ____________.
• over the roofing paper/felt along the rake edge

• under the roofing paper/felt along the rake edge
• over the roofing paper/felt along the eave edge
Roof Coverings
Introduction to Roof Coverings

One of the big problems with inspecting roofs is that there are so many
different roofing systems out there, and the inspector is required to know a lot
about all of them. While they may appear to have little in common, the basic
rules for the inspector remain the same:
• Identify the roof covering material.
• Report on any visible deficiencies.
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• Recommend repairs and/or maintenance as needed.
• Don't report on the future life expectancy of the covering.
The different types of roof covering materials reviewed in this section include:
• asphalt shingle;
• tile roofing, including:
o slate roofs;
o clay tile roofs;
o concrete tile roofs; and
o asbestos cement tile.
• wooden shingle and shake (and their differences);
• roll roofing;
• built-up roofing;
• membrane roofing;
• metal roofing systems, including:
o standing seam systems; and
o metal oddities (shingle, sheet, corrugated).
As with all other modules in the following sections, study the photos and try to
determine what the reportable problem is, then mouse over the picture to see
the comments.
Asphalt Shingles, Part I
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Asphalt shingles are the most common roof covering that the inspector will see,
as they are relatively inexpensive, easy to install, and last between 15 to 40
years, depending on type.
Despite the fact that there are many different styles of asphalt shingles, they are
all manufactured and installed in the same way, so they tend to exhibit similar
problems over their service life.
ASPHALT SHINGLE COMPONENTS
The terms "asphalt" shingle and "composition" shingle are general terms for the
same thing. The term “composition” is used because the shingles are a
composite product made from either a fiberglass or a cellulose mat, and asphalt
and minerals, as opposed to a single material, such as wood shingles or clay
tiles.
All modern shingles manufactured in North America have mats made of

interwoven fiberglass strands, so you may also hear them called "fiberglass"
shingles. A modern shingle consists of a fiberglass mat embedded in asphalt,
and covered with granules on the surface that faces the weather. The mat,
asphalt and granules act together to form a durable, flexible and waterproof
assembly.
In the past, shingles were also manufactured using mats made of cellulose-
based materials, and these are called "organic" shingles.
Mat
The mat provides the reinforcement that gives shingles the strength to help
resist splitting, tearing and pulling over the heads of fasteners.
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Although the mat is less than 2% of the shingle's weight, a small difference in
mat thickness can make a big difference in shingle tear strength.
This unsaturated fiberglass mat will give you a better idea of what one looks
like before it’s been saturated with asphalt.
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More Resistant to Heat and Humidity
Fiberglass shingles are more resistant than organic shingles to heat and
humidity. Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air. Because they absorb
less moisture, fiberglass shingles deform less as they age, making them more
stable in warm or damp climates.
Also, because the fiberglass mat does not absorb moisture, as fiberglass
shingles age and lose volatiles, they deform less than cellulose shingles.
“Volatiles” are compounds in asphalt that help keep shingles waterproof,
flexible and durable, but which dissipate over time. Most volatile dissipation is
due to evaporation from overheating.
Variations in Performance
The downside of fiberglass shingles is that there are wide variations in

performance between similar shingles made by different manufacturers.
TYPES of ASPHALT SHINGLES
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During inspections of roofs with asphalt shingles, you may see one of four
basic types: three-tab, laminated, interlocking, or single-piece shingles.
There are variations of these basic types that affect their appearance, weight,
performance and durability.
Three-Tab Shingles
This is a three-tab (or 3-tab) shingle. It’s a type of strip shingle.
Its main identifying feature is two notches, called cutouts, which separate the
lower part of the shingle into three tabs, as you can see here. A three-tab
shingle is a single layer thick, usually 12 inches wide and 36 inches long.
Metric shingles are a little larger but are less common in the U.S.
Three-tab shingles typically have warranties in the 20- to 30-year range, weigh
200 to 250 pounds per square, and are designed to survive winds of up to 60
miles per hour.
Laminated or Architectural/Dimensional Shingles
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This is an example of a laminated shingle, also called an “architectural” or

“dimensional” shingle. Both laminated and 3-tab shingles are considered to be
strip shingles.
Laminated shingles consist of two or more shingle layers bonded together. The
uppermost layers are smaller and cut into shapes.
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This gives shingles a more three-dimensional appearance and makes them more
interesting to look at. They’re sometimes designed to mimic wood shakes.
Laminated shingles typically come in metric sizes, measuring about 39x13

inches.
Laminated shingles with 30- to 50-year warranties typically weigh 250 to 300
pounds per square, and are designed with a maximum wind resistance of 70 to
110 miles per hour.
High-Quality Laminated Shingles
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Here’s an example of a high-quality laminated shingle. Some of the more

expensive laminated shingles may have up to five layers and weigh close to
500 pounds per square. These shingles may be designed to withstand winds of
up to 130 miles per hour.
Asphalt Shingle Installation
The underlayment for asphalt shingle is usually roofing felt with a course of ice
and water shield covering the lowest 3 feet. This prevents moisture from
backing up under the shingle over the eaves.
The application starts at the bottom of the roof with a single starter course
(often, a shingle with the tabs cut off) fixed so that the first proper course is
glued at the lowest edge.
This is followed by the regular courses applied so that the joints or gaps
between the tabs do not line up with each other, and over three courses to stop
water from penetrating the covering. Each shingle has a tar line above the
exposed surface which glues the upper shingle to the previous course.
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Ridges are capped with either a special tile manufactured for the purpose (as in
the case of architectural styles) or, more commonly, trimmed-down shingles
prepared on-site by the installer from standard 3-tab shingles.
Asphalt shingles are designed to be installed on roofs with a slope equal to and
greater than 4:12, but some shingles can be installed on roofs as low as 2:12
where proper precautions, such as double underlayment, have been installed,
and the shingles themselves have been additionally glued down in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions.
Most asphalt shingles may be used on roof slopes from 4:12 to 21:12, using
standard application methods. Asphalt shingles may be used on slopes from
2:12 to 3.9:12, if special low-slope application procedures are followed. An
inspector will usually find roll roofing materials installed on slopes of less than
4:12.
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Asphalt Shingle Designs
There are many designs and colors of asphalt shingle available.
The basic designs are:
• 3-tab shingles; and
• architectural shingles that have added layers of material to give a

dimensional appearance.
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Asphalt Shingle Problems
All asphalt shingle roofs, regardless of design, will fail due to the following
reasons:
• weather issues;
• impact damage;
• debris on the roof;
• poor installation techniques;
• material failures; and
• ventilation problems.
Asphalt Shingles, Part II
Weather Issues
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• Sunlight is a big enemy of asphalt roofs. When subjected to the sun's

heat, the shingles will dry out due to off-gassing of hydrocarbons in the
asphalt, since asphalt is a petrochemical product. This will promote the
loss of granules and make the shingle more brittle. As the shingle dries
out, it will also shrink, opening up the areas between shingles or between
tabs. This may also cause cupping, bowing and small surface fractures or
fissures in the shingle.
• Rainfall will wash away the granules over time, causing the tile to
degrade. Traces of aggregate in the gutter signify potential problems.
• Wind can get under the exposed tabs on the shingle and cause them to be
ripped from the roof.
• Hailstones can easily damage the roof covering, causing small

depressions in the shingles, and potentially breaking off weak shingles.
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Impact Damage
• Trees cause the most impact damage by their branches being too close to
the roof covering and tree limbs falling onto the roof structure.
• Walking on the roof can, in some cases, cause damage to the covering,
especially if it is already in brittle condition.
• Masonry falling on the roof will often damage tiles. It is not uncommon
to see damaged shingles directly below the chimney.
• Moss can be a problem on poorly drained and shady roofs because it

retains moisture and its root system may affect roof shingles. It's fair to
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say that you will not generally see moss on a good roof, as the roots need
to be constantly moist.
• Leaves and pine needles on the roof will also promote fast decay of the
covering because they retain moisture on the roof. Also, many species
produce acids during the decay process, and these can eat into the
asphalt.
• Airborne pollutants are often found in industrial areas. Acid rain will
quickly erode a roof covering.
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Poor Shingle Installation
Here are some of the issues that often occur due to poor installation:
• repairs that were improperly carried out;
• shingles on a low-slope roof where the use of shingles was not intended;
• joints that were not overlapped, allowing water to drain right onto the
sheathing; and
• improper nailing that was not done to the manufacturer's specifications,

where either the nails are too short, causing nail pops, or not enough
nails were used. Every 3-tab shingle should have four fasteners (or six in
high-wind areas).
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Material Failures
Inspectors will occasionally see failure due to manufacturing defects, such as

blistering from within the shingle, or premature cracking of the shingles,
particularly with fiberglass-based shingles. One particular brand of shingle was
the subject of a class-action lawsuit against Bird Fiberglass Shingles of New
Hampshire, which was settled in 2001.
Ventilation Problems
Many problems with asphalt shingle roofs are caused by poor ventilation of the
roof space, which leads to overheating of the roof coverings. This is more
apparent when the roof has multiple coverings which can trap additional heat. It
is very common to see shingles that are less than 10 years old but are in very
bad shape due to overheating caused by poor ventilation, or overheating caused
by the presence of too many layers of shingles.
Reporting Requirements
The inspector can report on the following when inspecting asphalt shingle roof
coverings:
• shingle type;
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• missing shingles;
• damaged shingles;
• number of layers of covering;
• signs of previous repairs;
• shingles that are cupping or buckling;
• moss or vegetation growth on the shingles;
• granular erosion;
• shrinkage of shingles;
• lack of a drip edge;
• nail pops; and
• shingles that have been incorrectly installed.
Slate Tile Roofing

The different varieties of solid tile roofs are
basically all inspected in the same way and tend
to exhibit similar problems that the inspector
needs to report on.
In this section, we will look at most of the solid tile types: slate, clay, concrete, and asbestos-cement. We
will also look at their installation, common problems and reportable issues.
Remember: Solid tile roofs should NOT be walked on. They should be
inspected either from the eaves using a ladder, or from the ground using
binoculars.
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Slate Roofs
Slate is a sedimentary rock (which means that it has settled into layers) that is easy to split into tiles. Most
slate tiles used in residential construction are 3/16-inch to 1/2-inch thick, but some older tiles are much
thicker.
Slate roofs are roughly five times the weight of standard shingle roofs;
therefore, the roof framing has to be designed to carry a much greater
load than normal. Roofs that have been retrofitted with slate should
have been re-engineered to carry this additional load.
Slate has been around as a roof covering in Europe for more than a
thousand years. Many churches, castles and manor houses were
originally built with this type of roof covering. In many cases, the same
tiles are still in situ (in the original position), although they have probably
been refitted many times over the centuries due to leaks or failure of
their connectors.
American slate differs in quality, depending on where it was mined. For

example:
• Pennsylvania slate is somewhat soft and lasts less than 100

years.
• Vermont slate is denser and lasts well over 100 years.
• Virginia slate is very hard and can last more than 200 years.
The poorest-quality slate can be recognized by ribboning in the color,

where a band of a lighter stone can be seen running through the slate.
These slates tend to break along this band due to differential
weaknesses. Where such slate has been used, the ribboning should not
be visible on the exposed face of the tile.
Other rules-of-thumb for slate roof installation:
• Slate roofs should not be installed where the roof pitch is less
than a 4/12.
• Slate can be applied over battens, plank or sheet sheathing.
• Slate tiles are generally fastened with two copper nails each.
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• Joints between tiles should be staggered by 3 inches per course

or row.
In every second row, the joints can line up vertically. There should be a
minimum of 2 inches of headlap clearance. That is the point where there
are three layers of tile, and there can be as much as 4 inches,
depending on the pitch of the roof.
SLATE SHINGLE HEADLAP

Roof Slope (Pitch) Minimum Headlap
between 4:12 and 8:12 4 inches
between 8:12 and 20:12 3 inches
over 20:12 2 inches
The most common problem with slate roofs occurs with the fasteners
rather than with the tiles themselves. Slate nails should be of copper
rather than ferrous metal (iron), as copper will not rust over time and
cause the tiles to start slipping.
When inspecting a slate roof, inspectors should report on the

following:
• missing tiles;
• broken tiles (though some corner chipping is expected and
acceptable);
• tiles that are slipping out of place; and
• signs of previous repairs.
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Clay and Concrete Tiles
Concrete and clay tile roofs are very similar from an inspection perspective, as
they are all installed in the same way and tend to exhibit the same problems in
service.
They are both made in similar sizes and shapes, such as flat, curved or corrugated, and may or may not be
of an interlocking design. In most cases, tile designs are produced to be installed as ridge caps and used in
other specialized locations.
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Both clay and concrete tiles have a long lifespan. Problems other than
those from mechanical damage tend to be from failure of the
underlayment and flashings, rather than failure of the tiles themselves.
In many cases, when the roof needs repair, the original tiles are taken
up and stored while the substrate is replaced. The tiles are then re-
installed, with the addition of new tiles to replace the damaged ones.
Remember that tiles can be up to five times heavier than asphalt

shingles; therefore, the roof system needs to be much heavier to
support the additional load.
Clay Tiles
Regardless of style differences, all clay tiles are made from terracotta,
the same material that common houseplant pots are made of, and they
are damaged just as easily.
Terracotta tiles are produced in molds or extruded from clay with high
silicon content which, when fired, changes composition and becomes
impervious to water. Clay tiles may also be glazed to add color and a
high-gloss finish.
When discussing clay tiles, we tend to think of the Spanish or barrel

style of tile, but there are many variations in style, from the corrugated
look, to flat and fully interlocking designs.
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Concrete Tiles
Concrete tiles are also available in a wide range of designs and finishes.
Many of them are designed to look like other materials, such as slate,
clay, and even cedar shakes and shingles.
The process of manufacturing concrete tiles is similar to that of

manufacturing clay tiles, except concrete tiles don't need to be fired in a
kiln. A chemical process converts the concrete from a liquid slurry into a
rigid tile.
Some concrete roofing tiles are required to be painted to extend their

lifespan. This maintenance is required roughly every five years,
depending on the local climate.
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Installation
Both clay and concrete roof tiles are installed in the same manner. They
are installed over traditional planking, sheathing, or on some older
installations.
Most concrete and clay tile systems rely on their underlayment for
complete weather protection, and the lower the pitch of the roof, the
more robust that underlayment needs to be. As a general rule:
• a roof pitch lower than 4:12 should have a double underlayment

or be applied over a built-up roofing system; and
• a roof pitch lower than 2½:12 should not have tile installed at all.
Some fully interlocking designs of tiles do not require an underlayment,

as they are considered to be totally impervious when installed and
flashed correctly.
Many designs of both concrete and clay tile roofs require the installation
of blocks to correctly position the individual tiles. In the case of
traditional Spanish or barrel tiles, these are installed vertically up the
roof surface. In other cases, they are required to run horizontally across
the roof plane.
All tile roofs should be installed with a minimum of one corrosion-

resistant fastener per tile, if the tile weighs less than 9 pounds per
square foot. Heavier tiles and those installed in snow-load areas require
a minimum of two fasteners.
All open ends of shaped tiles at both the eaves and at any valleys
should be sealed to prevent birds and other wildlife from entering the
area between the tiles and the underlayment.
Inspection
As previously stated, tile roofs should not be walked on, as they can be
very easily damaged by foot traffic. From a ladder at the eaves or from
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the ground, the inspector should pay particular attention to the following
potential issues:
• broken or missing tiles;

• tiles that have moved out of position;
• signs of moisture evacuating the roof from under the tiles;
• missing, damaged or rusting flashings; and
• missing or deficient bird and pest barriers.
The inspector should always report on the following:
• the method used to inspect the roof;

• the material and style of the roof covering;
• missing, damaged or slipped tiles;
• missing or damaged flashings and bird stops;
• any signs of moisture penetrating the roof covering; and
• any required re-painting, where applicable.
Click here for more on the history of tile roofs.
Asbestos Cement Tiles

Asbestos-fiber cement tiles were a very common roof covering from the 1930s
up to the early 1960s. In fact, many homes of that period had both asbestos
cement roofs and wall coverings.
The main problem with asbestos tiles is that they are relatively thin and become very brittle over time. This makes them
susceptible to mechanical damage, such as tree limbs falling onto the roof and fracturing or breaking the tiles.
These roofs can be particularly costly to repair since it is extremely difficult to

find replacement tiles. If the roof covering needs to be removed and replaced,
the debris has to be disposed of under U.S. EPA guidelines.
Again, the inspector should never attempt to walk on an asbestos cement tile
roof. The inspector should evaluate the roof system just like any other roof
covering material, paying particular attention to:
• missing or broken tiles;

• tiles that have been moved out of position;
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• signs of previous repairs; and

• missing or damaged flashings.
The inspector should always report on the following:
• the method used to inspect the roof;

• the material and style of the roof covering;
• missing, damaged and slipped tiles;
• signs of previous repairs (tiles siliconed back in place is common);
and
• missing and damaged flashings.
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Wood Shingles & Shakes, Part I
Wood shingles and shakes are a popular choice for roof and wall coverings in
many parts of the U.S. because of their rustic appeal. However, these aesthetic
considerations come at a price, as shake and shingle roofs are far from being
maintenance-free or long-lasting.
Generally, wooden shake or shingle roofs should not be walked on. They are
easily damaged and can be very slippery when wet or covered with moss.
There are different wood species, grain patterns, and lengths of wood shingles
and shakes, and such details can be extensive. This course covers
the fundamental points that the inspector must know in order to be able to
evaluate most wooden roof coverings.
The Basics
• A shingle is machine-cut on both faces and on all sides.
• A shake is hand- or machine-split and, therefore, has a less finished look

and is less uniform.
• Both shakes and shingles are usually made from cedar, as its natural oils
are both a preservative and an insect repellent. Inspectors may also find
shingles made of redwood and some types of pine.
• The steeper the roof's pitch, the longer-lasting the roof covering.
• Shingles and shakes are graded with numbers, with 1's being of far
higher quality and longevity than 4's.
• The tighter the grain is, the longer it will last, with slow-growth trees
providing the best-quality shingles, since the wood is denser.
• When inspecting at the bottom edge of the shake, look carefully at the
grain. The direction of the grain through the shingle factors into its
ability to resist cupping, bowing and splitting.
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o Also:
§ Vertical-end grain is the best quality and is known as edge
grain.
§ Angled-end grain is of lesser quality and is known as sash
grain.
§ Horizontal-end grain, known as flat grain, is of poor quality
and will generally fail quickly.
Wood Shingles
As explained, a wood shingle is a machine-sawn wooden tile. Its installation

requirements are different from those of a shake. These include the following::
• Shingles are a 3-ply roofing material, meaning that, at any point on the
roof's surface, there should be three overlapping shingles.
• A gap of 1/8-inch to 3/8-inch is required between shingles to allow for

swelling when they're damp.
• Shingles should be applied over planks or skip sheathing in humid

climates, as they need adequate ventilation to prolong their life. They
can also be installed over sheet decking in more arid climates, or when
installed with a nylon mesh underlayment to promote ventilation.
• Tar paper, or a similar non-permeable grade exposure membrane, should

extend up from the eaves a minimum of 3 feet.
• Wood shingles should be installed over tar paper or a similar

underlayment, although this is not always required if installed over skip
sheathing.
• Joints between shingles should be offset over three courses, with a

minimum overlap of 1-1/2 from one course to the next.
• They should have only two corrosion-resistant fasteners per shingle, not
less than 3/4-inch from the edge, and not more than 1 inch above the
edge of the next course.
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WOOD SHINGLE WEATHER EXPOSURE AND ROOF SLOPE
Shingle Exposure (in inches)

Roofing
Length Grade 3:12 up to 4:12
Material above 4:12 pitch
(in inches) pitch
#1 3¾ 5
16 #2 3½ 4
#3 3 3½
#1 4¼ 5½
18 #2 4 4½
shingles of naturally
durable wood
#3 3½ 4
#1 5¾ 7½
24 #2 5½ 6½
#3 5 5½
Wood Shakes
Shakes are the more rustic-looking wood roof covering and are generally split,
not sawn. Their installation is somewhat different from wood shingles.
• Shakes are generally a 2-ply covering, so, at any point on the surface,
there are only two layers overlapping.
• Shake roofs rely on an underlayment for weather protection. The shake

covering itself is not designed to be impervious.
• Every course requires an interlayment of roofing felt above its exposed

area and under the next course.
• They require a gap between shingles of 3/8-inch to 5/8-inch to allow for

expansion when damp.
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• Wood sakes should be applied over planks or skip sheathing in humid

climates, as they need adequate ventilation to prolong their life. They
can also be installed over sheet decking in more arid climates.
• Joints between shakes should be offset over three courses, with a

minimum overlap of 1-1/2 from one course to the next.
• They should have two corrosion-resistant fasteners per shake, not less
than 3/4-inch in from the edge, and not more than 1 inch above the edge
of the next course.
• Shakes should not be installed on a roof that has a pitch of less than 4:12.
WOOD SHAKE WEATHER EXPOSURE AND ROOF SLOPE
Grade Exposure
Shake (per (in inches)
Length
Wood Material (in
Wood
Shingle Minimum 4:12
inches)
Council) Pitch
18 #1 7½
shakes of naturally durable wood
24 #1 10
24 #1 10
preservative-treated taper shakes of
18 #2 5½
southern yellow pine
24 #2 7½
18 #1 7½
taper-sawn shakes of 24 #2 10
naturally durable wood 18 #1 5½
24 #2 7½
Visit this site for more information on wood shakes and shingles.
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Wood Shingles & Shakes, Part II
Inspecting Wood Roofs
Although wooden shake and shingle roofs look similar, they have different
installation requirements. Still, inspecting both types is basically the same. It's
worth repeating that neither shake nor shingle roofs should be walked on.
Inspecting wooden roofs can be problematic, especially since they should not
be walked. As with all other roofing systems, shake and shingle roofs fail for
similar reasons, such as:
• weathering issues;
• ventilation and rot problems;
• mechanical damage;
• poor installation;
• lack of maintenance; and
• wood-destroying insects and other organisms.
Weathering
Weathering and orientation are the biggest factors affecting the longevity of any wooden roof covering. A badly
weathered roof will have a bleached-out appearance, show splitting of the shingles, and cupping, bowing and erosion of
the softer parts of the grain on the exposed areas of the shingle.
Additionally:
• Rainwater and melting snow will erode the roof covering at a rate of a
minimum 1/64-inch per year.
• Sunlight, through ultraviolet radiation, breaks down the cell structure of
the timber. It also dries out the oils and resins in the wood. This, coupled
with the expansion and contraction of the shingles through heating and
cooling, shortens the life expectancy of this type of roof covering.
• Orientation is also a factor. Typically, south-facing roof planes will
weather more quickly than north-facing ones.
• Wind will also damage shake and shingle roofs, especially if they are
already somewhat dried out and brittle.
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Ventilation
Many wooden roof systems fail prematurely due to inadequate

ventilation, forcing them to store moisture, which promotes rot. The inspector
should always check for dark-looking patches on the roof surface that
may indicate permanently damp areas of the roof covering. If possible, the
inspector should probe these areas if s/he can reach them to see if the roof
covering is soft in these areas.
Mechanical Damage
Like all other roof systems, shakes and shingles are easily damaged by:
• overhanging branches;
• hailstorms;
• foot traffic; and
• attacks by golf balls.
Poor Installation and Repairs
Installation problems are common and include:
• under- or over-driven nails;

• nails too close to the edges;
• buckling of shingles due to being nailed too closely to each other;
• too much shingle exposure (and not enough overlap);
• gaps between subsequent courses lining up;
• lack of proper underlayment or interlayment; and
• improper or missing flashings.
Maintenance Issues
More than any other roofing type, wooden roofs require regular maintenance, as wood itself is an organic
material. Any defects can lead to rapid deterioration of the roofing structure. Inspectors should be particularly aware
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of any vegetation that is trapping moisture on the roof. The inspector may also ask the homeowner/seller how old the
roof covering is, and also whether it has received any treatments to seal the surface or repel moss and mildew.
Wood-Destroying Insects and Organisms
Like any other wooden component used in construction, shingles and shakes
are susceptible to both wood-boring insects and wood rot. This can be very
difficult to spot from a ladder, so it's important to inspect as much of the roof as
possible.
Pay particular attention to any roofs that are covered in moss or mildew, as this
is a sure sign of dampness in the covering, which will lead to rot very quickly.
Chemical treatments are available that will kill moss and mildew.
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The MUST-report list includes:
• type of covering;
• method used to inspect the covering;
• location and number of missing or damaged shingles or shakes;
• evidence of mechanical damage;
• buckling or cupping of shingles or shakes;
• any signs of damp or moisture on the roof;
• moss or mildew buildup;
• any rotten shingles that can be viewed or probed; and
• rotten or missing flashings.
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Again, the inspector should never comment on the future lifespan of a wood
roof. There are just too many variables that need to be taken into account, so it
is impossible to be accurate, and this is outside the scope of a home roof
inspection. Remember that a roof that appears to be in good shape because the
current owners maintain it can very quickly deteriorate if the next owner fails
to follow the same kind of maintenance schedule.
Asphalt Shingles, Part III
Generally speaking, people from three different industries are likely to be

inspecting asphalt shingles: insurance claims adjusters; roofing contractors;
and home inspectors.
Home inspectors are supposed to be neutral, third parties who have no financial
interest in the conditions they find on the roof. Insurance companies and
roofing contractors can both be affected financially by the results of the
inspection, and they may have conflicting motivations.
Because of the many factors that can affect the condition of asphalt shingles,
it’s not always clear whether a defective condition or functional damage exists.
Conditions are not always obvious or either right or wrong.
Let's define the conditions that indicate functional damage or defective

installation in asphalt shingles, as well as the criteria used during an inspection
to determine whether functional damage exists.
Learning to diagnose roof conditions correctly will help those inspecting

shingles to identify the source of the damage. It will also make it easier for
inspectors from different industries to come to the same conclusion when
they’re each looking at the same condition.
DEFINITION OF DAMAGE
Because inspections are so often connected with insurance claims, much of the
criteria defined here is based on the standards of the insurance industry. Even if
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an inspection is for a sales transaction, if damage is found and the roof is under
warranty, the transaction may be affected by an insurance claim.
For insurance purposes, “damage” is divided into two categories: functional

damage and cosmetic damage.
Functional Damage
Functional damage is damage that insurance companies will pay for. It’s also
called covered damage or payable damage.
Functional damage is that which either diminishes the ability of the roof to shed
water, or shortens its long-term service life. This is called “premature failure.”
Cosmetic Damage
Cosmetic issues are visual issues, such as discoloration, problems with color
blending, or damage that doesn’t meet the definition of functional
damage. Some examples of cosmetic damage are general, uniform granule
loss, or marring of the shingle surface.
With asphalt shingle roofs, insurance companies typically don’t pay for
cosmetic damage.
Quiz #4
Asphalt shingles use either ________or _________ as a base.
• cellulose....fiberglass
• fiberglass....carbon fiber
• cellulose....polyvinyl chloride
Asphalt shingles that are made up of several layers are called _________.
• architectural
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• engineered
• 3-tab
T/F: An underlayment is required under all asphalt shingles.
• True
• False
When installed according to the manufacturer's instructions, asphalt shingles

can be installed on a roof with a slope as low as _______.
• 2:12
• 4:12
• 3:12
T/F: Tree branches overhanging the structure should be noted because of their
potential for damage to the roof covering.
• True
• False
Small dimples or circular depressions on asphalt shingles are often caused by

_________.
• hailstones
• under-driven nails
• nail pops
T/F: It is not necessary to note previous shingle repair if the repair was
performed by a professional.
• False
• True
Most jurisdictions allow no more than _____ layers of asphalt shingles.
• two
• four
• three
T/F: Slate tile roofs should never be walked on.
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• True
• False
The lowest quality of slate tile has ____________.
• ribboning in it
• a dark grey color
• feathered edges
T/F: Clay tiles are easily distinguishable from concrete tiles.
• False
• True
T/F: Most concrete and clay tiles are installed the same way.
• True
• False
T/F: InterNACHI's Standards of Practice require that all clay and concrete tile
roofs be walked on.
• False
• True
Concrete and clay tile roofs with a slope of less than 4:12 require ______ layers
of underlayment.
• two
• four
• three
T/F: Solid tile roofs should not be installed over solid sheathing.
• False
• True
Fasteners made of ___________ are recommended for tile roofs.
• copper or stainless steel

• galvanized steel or iron
• stainless steel or iron
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The enclosure at the eaves' edge of a traditional barrel-style roof is called a

_________.
• bird stop
• soffit vent
• drip edge
Asbestos cement roof shingles were commonly installed between the

_________.
• 1930s and 1960s

• 1960s and 1990s
• 1860s and 1930s
The inspector should ____________ when reporting on an asbestos cement tile

roof.
• note the roof material

• walk the roof looking for broken tiles
• recommend immediate replacement
A wood shingle is _________-cut, whereas a shake is split by ________.
• machine.... hand
• machine.... a saw
• hand.... a machine
T/F: Wood shingles should be installed over tar paper or a similar

underlayment, although this is not always required if installed over skip
sheathing.
• True
• False
Wood shakes and shingles should be used only on roofs with a slope of at least
_____.
• 4:12
• 5:12
• 3:12
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Rotting or saturated areas of shakes and shingles will appear as _______

patches on the roof.
• dark
• smooth
• light
Wood shakes require a minimum of ________ of separation to allow for

expansion and contraction.
• 3/8-inch to 5/8-inch
Which of the following indicates poor shake or shingle maintenance?
• moss or mildew on the covering

• too little overlap
• lack of proper underlayment
Flat Roofs: Roll Roofing

Roll roofing is common on low-pitch residential roofs, particularly those on
shed-roof additions to existing structures. In many cases, these have been
installed by the homeowner with insufficient regard for the manufacturer's
installation guidelines.
The general rule of thumb with these roofs is that the more plys they have, the
longer they are going to last, but none of them has a very long lifespan.
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Enlarge illustration.
All roll roofing is 36 inches wide and is manufactured similar to asphalt

shingles. The base material is felt impregnated with asphalt or bitumen, making
it impervious to moisture. The areas designed for full exposure also feature a
granular mineral topcoat, which is provided to protect the roofing from the
effects of ultraviolet radiation. In some areas, the topcoat has a reflective
surface to stop the roof's surface from overheating, which breaks down the
asphalt or bitumen. There are two methods of attachment to the roof
surface: nailed down with all nail heads covered, or "torched down," where the
sheet is heated with a propane torch to melt the asphalt down onto the roof
surface.
Many roll roofs have insufficient pitch to properly shed water, and these tend
to exhibit signs of ponding on the surface. In dry weather, it is often possible to
observe a ring of dirt on the roof's surface where the pond was until the water
evaporated.
Single-Ply Roll Roofing
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As the name suggests, this type of roof has only one layer of covering except
where the sheets overlap. They typically have a 3-inch lap which has no
mineral granules, so the rows or courses on the roof will appear to be 30 to 33
inches apart.
This covering should be installed by working up from the roof's eaves. The top
edge should be nailed every 3 to 4 inches, in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. The next roll should be adhered over the lap with
roofing cement so that no nail heads are visible. Any exposed nail heads should
be sealed with roofing tar.
These coverings typically last for only five to 10 years. They tend to last better
if they are fully adhered to the roof sheathing, rather than just at the laps.
Double-Ply Roll Roofing
This covering has two layers at any point on the roof. This can be achieved by a
double application of a single-ply material (as discussed above), with the joints
between rows offset by half of the roll width. Wide selvage roofing is a type
of roll roofing whose bottom half has mineral granules on the surface, so each
row has a full 50% lap over the lower courses. Therefore, each course on the
roof would appear to be 18 inches wide. Again, this will tend to last better if the
whole roll is fully adhered to the roof decking.
Despite the double covering, and even when fully adhered to the roof decking,
these roofs still have a lifespan of only 10 to 15 years.
Inspecting Ply Roofs
The inspector should pay particular attention to the following:
• any tears or rips of the covering;

• any signs of the lap edges lifting;
• exposed nail heads;
• blisters under the roof covering;
• loss of the granular covering; and
• signs of ponding on the roof.
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Issues with roll roofing include:
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• the type of roofing material;

• the number of plys, if it can be determined;
• the method of inspection;
• any rips or tears in the material;
• lifted edges;
• exposed nail heads;
• loss of granules;
• blistering; and
• signs of ponding.
Flat Roofs: Built-Up Roofing

Traditional built-up roofing is abbreviated BUR and is also sometimes called
tar-and-gravel roofing. This is the logical extension of roll roofing concepts.
While no longer used in new residential construction, most inspectors will run
into it at some point on older, flat roof systems or, more commonly, on
apartment and commercial buildings.
As with roll roofing, the more plys or overlapping layers there are, the longer the roof will tend to last. Built-up roofing
is also not maintenance-free. It needs a periodic application of an additional topcoat of tar or bitumen, or a
supplementation of the ballast or granules.
Built-up or tar-and-gravel roofs should not be installed on a roof with a slope of

more than 3:12, as the asphalt and ballast will migrate down the roof, especially
in warmer climates. However, it's rare to see BUR on anything other than a flat
roof.
Installation
Similar to roll roofing, layers or plys of asphalt or tar-impregnated roofing felt

are applied to the roof decking or sheathing. A built-up roof may have as few as
two plys, but four or five are more common.
Each layer is hot-mopped down. The heated asphalt or modified bitumen is

applied not only to the roof decking, but also between each ply or layer of the
covering, and as a continuous top or flood coat over the entire roof surface.
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The final finish may be plain asphalt, mineral granule-impregnated roll roofing
(again, hot-mopped in place), or separately applied mineral granules or crushed
stone or slag, known as ballast.
These roof systems also typically feature parapet designs, with the BUR
extending up the sides of these small surrounding walls or other interfaces
between planes on the roof's surface.
Internal drains are common on these roofs and, if installed, the parapet walls
should also feature scuppers, which are auxiliary or overflow drains which
allow excess water to flow off the roof in case of a blockage in the normal drain
system.
Inspection
If the roof has been installed with a stone-ballast covering, you will not be able
to see the roof surface and should report that the covering is not visible.
These are the main areas of concern when inspecting built-up roofs:
Alligatoring is the term for small cracks or fissures that appear in the surface
over time. As the asphalt dries out, it loses its flexibility and cracks due to
thermal expansion and contraction. This can allow moisture to saturate the felt
layers and, over time, causes the roof to leak.
Blistering, as the name suggests, refers to large blisters that form on the roof
surface, indicating trapped moisture between the plys. These will cause the roof
to delaminate, reducing its life expectancy. Some roofers will cut the blister off
and dry the roof out before repairing the area, but that's the roofer's call, not
yours. It is beyond the inspector's job to comment on whether the system is
repairable or not.
Mineral loss occurs on roofs that have a granular finish, or where ballast has
been applied. The finish should be uniform. Any areas that have worn away by
either mechanical damage or erosion will fail quicker than areas where the
surface finish is intact.
Even in dry weather, it is possible to see evidence of ponding or standing

water that has subsequently evaporated. Many roofs have simply settled over
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the years and no longer slope properly toward the drains or gutters. Sometimes,
this sinkage has been caused by too many layers of roof covering, where the
old surface should have been removed prior to a new application.
This can be quite expensive to correct because either the roof sheathing has to
be rebuilt, or additional drains need to be tied in to the water runoff system.
Roof drains and scuppers should also be examined, and any blockages noted.
Cracking at roof wall interfaces or other flashed areas, where differential

movement between the roof covering and a wall system has actually caused a
full separation of the BUR, is another defect. In these cases, inspectors may see
significant water damage on the interior of the building. However, BUR
systems are known for not leaking directly under visible damage. Since the roof
is a ply system, water often migrates horizontally under the plys before finding
another weak area and migrating downward.
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The inspector should report any of the following:
• type of material, and whether it is ballasted or not;
• how it was inspected;
• cracks or alligatoring;
• mineral loss (if applicable);
• evidence of ponding; and
• blocked drains or scuppers.
Flat Roofs: Membrane
As roofing manufacturers have worked to develop more

durable roofing materials, they have looked to various plastics
and synthetic rubber. Membrane roofing systems use rubber
and plastic-based, single-ply roofing materials. Most
home inspectors will not see these types except, perhaps, on
trailers. They are typically used on apartment buildings,
condos, and in commercial applications.
The term "membrane roof" applies to many different material types and installation methods.
Some systems come in sheet form, with sheets glued or chemically bonded
together. Others are sprayed on as a self-setting polymer or as an expanding
foam.
The earliest of these systems used PVC sheets (polyvinyl chloride) that were
glued or taped together. These had a reputation for failing rapidly from
ultraviolet radiation, and also from shrinkage that pulled the roof covering
away from the outer edges of the roof. Inspectors may also see problems where
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joints or tapes have separated, along with problems with wrinkles in the
covering. In some cases, it is possible to see ruptures in the roof covering where
the forces exerted by the covering itself have torn the membrane.
When evaluating a building that has a membrane roof, the inspector should
defer any report on the roof's condition to a licensed commercial roofing
contractor.
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Mobile Homes and Membrane Roofs
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It is quite likely that inspectors looking at mobile or manufactured homes will come across rubber membrane roofs.
Inspectors are advised against attempting to walk on these surfaces, as old rubber membranes tend to get very brittle
and are easily damaged. Any prior failures of the roof covering will have turned the sheathing into something with
the tensile strength of wet cardboard.
Inspect from a ladder, and report on:
• tears or cracking in the surface;

• deficient flashings around the vents;
• signs of ponding;
• ripples in the roof covering; and
• signs of the covering shrinking and pulling away from the sides of the
roof.
Metal Roofing
Metal Roofs: Sheet and Tiles
Until fairly recently, it appeared that metal roofs had

gone out of style. In the U.S., they have been associated
with run-down rural properties.
Contrary to their aesthetic reputation, metal roofs are sturdy and long-lasting,
when properly maintained, and modern paints and powder coatings make them
nearly maintenance-free. In the northeast, metal roofs are making a
comeback because of their superior ability to shed snow loads quickly. They
are also free of the ice-damming problems associated with shingles and tiles.
Metal roof components are manufactured from steel, galvanized steel (zinc-
coated steel), copper, lead, aluminum, and terne (a tin-lead alloy-coated steel).
Tin-plated stainless steel is available for locations where regular steel would
not last too well, such as salt-air coastal regions.
Materials
Steel, either galvanized, painted or both, has been used in sheet form with
standing seams, corrugated or in tile format.
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Tin is now used primarily as a coating on steel or in an alloy. At one time, pure
tin was common both as tiles and as sheet material.
Copper has long been the choice for high-end metal roofs because of its long
lifespan. Normally, it is used as standing-seam roofing, but it can also be
soldered together (as was the case in the past).
Aluminum is not very common as a residential roofing material, although

some shingles of this material are designed to look like wood shakes. It is used
extensively in commercial applications where its low weight is a design
advantage on wide-span roofs. Aluminum sheet roofing is easy to spot, since it
comes in small lengths and has to be installed using rubber gasketed screws
through the surface and into the roof decking.
Terne is the same as steel or galvanized steel, and is sometimes used to

manufacture both sheet and tile roof coverings.
Lead is not commonly used in North America as anything other than a flashing
material. In Europe, however, it was used extensively in sheet form on smaller
flat roofs, particularly those with parapet walls and internal drainpipes, because
the material is malleable and easy to solder together.
Styles and Installation
Tiles are coming back into fashion. They were common from the early 1900s
and still in use until the 1930s. Manufacturers produced unusual designs, aping
slate and terracotta. Some used very ornate features, and designs with
scalloped edges and diamond shapes were not unusual. All metal tiles have a
pressed or embossed design which not only increases their rigidity, but also
adds texture to the tile. They sometimes have a granular coating, but most are
just painted.
Metal tile roofs were originally installed over plank sheathing and a layer of tar
paper, and then fixed to the roof with regular roofing nails. Some designs were
also fully interlocking to prevent moisture intrusion.
Modern metal tile roofs can be installed over regular sheet ply or OSB
sheathing, with an underlayment of roofing felt. Today's tiles are fully
interlocking to provide better weather protection and resist being torn up by
high winds.
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Standing seam is the product that first comes to mind when discussing metal
roofs. Its distinctive ridges serve two purposes: the seams connect one section
to the next, and they also hide the bracket that connects the lengths of steel
roofing to the decking. Flat-seam roofs generally follow the same pattern but
are less pronounced.
Most modern systems are manufactured on site from rolls of coated steel or
copper. The rolls are 20 to 24 inches wide and typically come in 50-foot
lengths. The metal is cut to length and then fed through a forming machine that
folds up the two outside edges to form a pan (normally, 1¼ inches high, and the
other 1½ inches high when butted together). The extra 1/4-inch is folded over
the adjacent flange, and then both are folded over again, with the clip holding
the material to the decking sandwiched in the middle.
Some older copper roofs have over-locking standing or flat seam, and were also
soldered together where the plane of the roof was too long to be spanned by a
single sheet.
Older sheet-metal systems came in only 8-foot lengths, so inspectors will

sometimes see an over-locked or flat seam joint part of the way down the roof
plane.
All metal roofs can be installed over plank or sheet roof sheathing, but they
should all be installed with a tar paper or roofing felt underlayment. Also, since
metal systems do not breathe well, the roof ventilation needs to be sound in
order to cope with moisture issues. This tends to be less of an issue on older
homes, but modern homes with metal roofs need to have properly designed
ventilation.
Many older homes were fitted with corrugated sheet metal roofing, usually
made of steel, galvanized or terne. Although some find it aesthetically
displeasing, it is used all over the United States, which speaks volumes for its
longevity. It was normally installed over plank sheathing with a layer of tar
paper underneath, with the sheets overlapping by one corrugation, and
with sheets above overlapping those below.
In most cases, the installation and flashing of metal roof systems is just like
clay or concrete tiles.
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Inspecting Metal Roofs
The major areas to observe when inspecting a metal roof are:
• mechanical damage from branches or other impact;

• rust, in the case of steel or coated roofs;
• signs of repairs;
• splitting along seams;
• galvanic reactions between dissimilar metals (for example, aluminum
vents are a bad match for steel roofs);
• paint peeling from the surface; and
• damaged, rotten or missing flashings.
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What to report for metal roofing:
• the material and style of the roofing;

• how it was inspected;
• missing and damaged components;
• splitting seams;
• loose tiles;
• signs of rusting;
• painted finishes in poor condition;
• signs of previous repairs; and
• flashing issues.
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Roofing Oddities
Although this section is intended as light relief, some of these systems are more
common than inspectors may realize.
Plastic Corrugated Roofing
Nearly everyone has seen this material installed over a carport or homeowner-
built lean-to. Obviously, any attempt to walk this type of roof is extremely
unsafe.
Glaze Roofs
Many modern properties have big areas of the roof that are fully glazed, usually
as a feature of an architect's "dream home." However, common problems
include leaks and difficulty keeping them clean enough to allow adequate light
to pass through.
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Plastic Tile Roofs
These are rare. One style has a fully interlocking design over sheet sheathing. It
is a very tight system, so ridge and soffit vents should be installed to provide
adequate ventilation.
Thatched Roofs
Even in wet climates, and especially in Great Britain and other areas of
northern Europe, thatched roofs have been used for centuries. A popular
misconception is that they are made from grasses when, in fact, river reeds are
the most common material used because they are more rot-resistant.
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Grass Roof Coverings
There is a strong movement toward green building, and live turf coverings are
believed to be both sustainable and energy-efficient.
It goes without saying that the roof needs a very good membrane under the
covering, as well as a landscaper with a sense of humor!
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Quiz #5
The size of standard roll roofing is ___ inches wide.
• 36
• 24
• 48
The layers that make up a built-up roof are called ________.
• plys
• layers
• overlaps
Two-ply roll roofing is also called ________ roofing.
• wide-selvage
• tar-and-gravel
• built-up
The following should be reported when inspecting ply roofing: __________.
• all of these
• splits
• exposed nails
• blisters
Built-up roofing is also known as ________ roofing.
• tar-and-gravel
• asphalt-and-stone
• asphalt-and-rock
Blisters in built-up roofing are caused by ____________.
• water or air expanding below the covering

• movement of the building
• inadequate nailing
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T/F: Alligatoring of a roof covering is only a cosmetic issue.
• False
• True
When a flat roof has water stains, these are signs of previous ________.
• ponding
• repairs
• pooling
A metal roof covering with the ribs down is called _____________.
• standing seam
• edge-lip roofing
• terne roofing
T/F: Metal tile roofs should have exposed nails.
• False
• True
Sheet copper roofs are jointed with __________.
• standing seams or solder

• solder or roofing adhesive
• standing seams or flashings
A steel roof and an aluminum vent are a bad match because of __________.
• galvanic reaction
• acids in the air
• the wrong fasteners
T/F: Metal tile roofs require no underlayment.
• False
• True
Metal roof tiles are typically made of __________.
• steel
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• copper
• aluminum
Crushed stone or gravel ballast on a built-up roof __________.
• protects the roof from sunlight

• keeps the roof weighted down
• never needs replacing
Roof Flashing
Edge and Ridge Flashings

Roof flashing are at least as important as the roof covering itself. A covering can be brand new, but unless the flashing
are in a similar condition and properly installed, the roof is going to leak.
Basically, any interface between a roof plane and any other component,
including another roof plane with a similar covering, needs a flashing. If it is
missing or incorrectly installed, or has already failed, there will likely
be problems with the whole roofing system. Complicating matters is the fact
that it's impossible to see most flashings.
The only thing better than one flashing is two flashings doing the same job,
which is where counter-flashings come into the picture.
Materials
Flashing should be made from corrosion-resistant metal, the most common

metals for this use being galvanized steel, copper, aluminum, lead and stainless
steel. Aluminum should not be used in coastal areas, as the salt air rapidly
corrodes any flashings made of out this material.
The main types of flashing include:
• edge flashing;
• ridge and hip caps;
• valley flashing;
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• roof-wall flashing;
• roof-roof flashing;
• chimney and vent flashing; and
• skylights.
Edge Flashing
According to 2018 International Residential Code Section R905.2.8.5, all eaves

and rake edges need flashing. These prevent rainwater from wicking into the
roof sheathing or decking as it leaves the roof covering. The profile of this
flashing ensures that any drips from the edge fall away from the roof sheathing.
It is for this reason that edge flashing is also commonly referred to as drip
edges or drip flashing.
A drip edge flashing should be installed at the eaves and rake edges of shingle
roofs. Adjacent segments should overlap. The drip edge flashing should extend
at least 1/4 inch below the roof sheathing and extend backward up onto the roof
deck at least 2 inches. The drip edge flashing must be fastened to the roof deck
at at every 12 inches maximum. The underlayment can be installed over the
drip edge along the eaves. And along the rake edges, the drip edge flashing can
be installed over the underlayment.
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Above image is a drip edge flashing installed on the roof deck.
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Above image is underlayment installed on top of the drip edge flashing along
the eaves edge.
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Above image is the drip edge flashing installed on top of the underlayment
along the rake board.
Many asphalt shingle roofs have a second drip edge installed with a second
roof covering, making it hard to see how many layers of shingles there really
are. It is worth getting up on a ladder at the eaves to look carefully for a second
flashing under the top one.
Ridge and Hip Flashing
In most cases, the ridge or hip flashing is made of the same material as the rest
of the roof covering, and is also often referred to as ridge or hip caps.
On asphalt shingle roofs, ridge flashings are made by cutting down standard 3-
tab shingles, or they can be bought as a special shingle. In the case of
architectural styles, the special shingles fit better and are more effective.
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Architectural shingles are often cut down and installed over ridge vent systems
that not only look unattractive, but have cracks at the peak due to being bent
over the ridge. Asphalt shingle caps should extend 4 inches down from the roof
peak on both sides.
Ridge caps on slate tile are normally made from a terracotta material which is
glazed to match the slate color, and then mortared in place. Some of these also
feature very ornate designs. Several slate roofs use metal ridge flashing of
either copper or lead.
Asbestos cement roofs universally used specially molded roof cap tiles that are
fitted right over the peak, and are overlaid in the same manner as asphalt tile to
hide the nail heads.
Clay and concrete tiles usually feature specially manufactured ridge caps and
ends that are either nailed or mortared in place. It is common to see damaged
tile and cracked mortar with these systems.
There are three types of ridge caps for wood shake and shingle roofs. The first
type is a special ridge cap produced by manufacturers that are actually two
thick shingles connected together. The second type is a ridge cap which
is formed on site by trimming down standard shingles and shakes, and side-
jointing them at the peak with alternating side-lap joints. The third method is to
butt together two cedar planks (generally, 1x6 timber).
In all cases, there should be a metal or heavy roofing felt under the cap
extending below the uppermost course of shingles or shakes.
The two different metal roof styles generally have different ridge caps or
flashings. Sheet metal roofs tend to be installed with ridge caps of the same
material and color. Metal tile roofs generally have a ridge system that mirrors
the style of the roof itself. All must be installed in line with the manufacturer's
instructions.
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Valley Flashings
Valleys are weak spots in roofing systems. They have a lesser slope than the
adjacent roof planes. They erode faster because water is directed into them.
Inspectors must look not only at visible flashing, but also at the adjacent roof
covering, at least a couple of feet on either side.
Valleys are defined as two main types: open and closed.
Open valleys are defined as roof plane coverings that do not

overlap each other across the valley center so that the flashing
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material is visible, as is the case with most tiles and wood

shingles.
Closed valleys are flashings that are not readily visible because the roof plane
material is carried over from one plane to the next, as is the case with most
asphalt shingle applications.
Valley Flashing Materials
Valley flashing can be made of different materials and designs,

depending on the type of roof covering. The common materials
include:
• roofing felt or tar paper;

• roll roofing;
• membrane material (ice and water shield); and
• metal flashing, generally galvanized or coated steel, or stainless steel,
lead or copper.
Asphalt Shingle Valleys
Open valleys are a rare sight on asphalt shingle roofs and should be formed
with:
• roll roofing in two layers. The first layer should be 18 inches wide laid
face down in the valley, and the second layer should be 36 inches wide
laid face up. Both plys should be cemented down, and the shingles cut
back to 3 inches from the centerline; and
• metal flashing a minimum of 24 inches wide with a center rib at least 1
inch high, nailed at 18 inches on center, and not more than 1 inch from
the outer edges. Ideally, this would also have a layer of ice and water
shield installed under the flashing, extending the flashing protection to
18 inches on either side of the valley.
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In both cases, it is good practice to also cut an angle on the top of the shingle to
help stop water from migrating across the top of the shingle.
Closed and closed-cut valleys are more common with asphalt shingle roofs.
A fully closed valley is when the shingles from both planes are interwoven
across the valley and extend a minimum of 12 inches onto the adjacent plane.
A closed-cut valley is when the shingles from one roof plane cross over to the
next, but the covering overlaid from the other plane is cut back 2 inches from
the centerline of the valley.
In both cases, the valleys should still have additional protection with one of the
following applied, in addition to the normal felt or tar paper underlayment:
• one layer of 36-inch roofing felt or tar paper;

• one layer of 36-inch roll roofing; or
• one layer of 36-inch ice and water shield.
The shingles should not be nailed within 6 inches of the valley centerline, and
the un-nailed areas should be cemented down.
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Roof-to-Roof Flashings
One area of the roof often overlooked is the junction where two roofs of
different slope meet each other. Like any other interface, this requires flashing.
It is common to see changes in roof slope, especially where the house has an
addition and the roof plane transitions from a conventional slope to a low slope.
In many cases, two roof planes are covered with different styles of roof
covering. For example, regular shingles on a steep slope will transition to roll
roofing on a flat roof.
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In most cases, the material of the lower-slope roof should be extended at least
12 inches up under the covering of the conventional-slope roof. In some areas,
particularly those with high snow loads, it is better if the lower-slope covering
is extended as much as 3 feet up the conventional plane.
Even in cases where the same roofing material is continued down both planes,
there should be additional protection underneath the roof covering at the
junction. At a minimum, an inspector should see an extra layer of roofing felt
or an impermeable membrane.
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Roof-to-Wall Flashings
The design of these flashings is dependent on whether the roof surface is

horizontal or inclined down the wall. It also varies based on the type of roof
covering and the material that the wall structure is covered with.
The Basics:
All roof-wall interfaces should be protected with two flashings:
• base flashing, to prevent moisture from entering the roof-wall structure

at the interface of the two; and
• counter-flashing, to prevent water that's running down the wall from
getting behind the base flashing.
In some cases, the base flashing can be an integral part of the roof covering.
This is common with roll and membrane roofing products where the covering
can be extended up the wall surface.
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In some instances, the siding, in effect, becomes the counter-flashing, such as

vinyl siding covering the step flashing on a traditional shingle roof. When this
is the case, the siding should be installed with 1 to 2 inches of clearance to
prevent water from wicking into it.
Materials
Obviously, metals are the main choice, with galvanized steel, aluminum,
copper and lead all used extensively. Lead is still the most common choice for
flashing against masonry, as it is very malleable and retains its shape over
rough surfaces. Base flashing must be either made of corrosion-resistant metal
or a mineral-surfaced roll roofing. Cap flashing must be made of corrosion-
resistant metal.
Sidewall Flashing
Base flashing installed against a vertical wall can be continuous or step

flashing. It should be at least 4 inches in height and 4 inches in width. It must
direct water away from the wall onto the roof or into a gutter.
If siding is installed on the vertical wall, the vertical part of the base flashing
should be continuous under the siding.
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The illustration above shows the position of the bent pieces of step flashing
installed at a sidewall an asphalt shingle roof.
Tile-to-Wall Flashing
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Many roof tiles do not lend themselves to interwoven base flashing due to their
complex shapes. In this instance, a pan flashing is installed before the roof tiles
are laid down. This is especially common with Spanish style roofs. This
flashing is commonly made from galvanized steel, but could made of any
metal. One of the major problems with tile roofs is that the tiles themselves will
often outlast the flashing.
Continuous Roof-to-Wall Flashing
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Obviously, a continuous roof surface, such as roll roofing, BUR or membrane,

needs no step flashing, as such. Very often, the covering is its own base
flashing. In this type of installation, one would expect to find a cant strip that
transitions the roof covering to the wall.
Kickout Flashing
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In any location where a roof-wall flashing exists and the roof terminates on the
wall, a kickout flashing should be installed.
This flashing is designed to prevent water from running down the flashing and
entering the wall system by diverting the flow away from the bottom of the
roof-wall interface and to the side outside of the siding material.
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The above illustration is of a kickout flashing.
Chimney Flashings
At the chimney, there are essentially five types of flashing to inspect. They
include:
• step flashing;
• counter-flashing;
• apron flashing;
• cricket flashing; and
• backer flashing.
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Step flashing is installed where the roof intersects a vertical sidewall. The step
flashings are the small individual pieces of metal installed with each shingle
course. They “step” with each course.
Counter-flashing is flashing material that covers and protects the top edges of
all the other types of flashing to prevent water intrusion.
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Apron flashing is installed where a roof intersects a headwall. Common

locations for an apron flashing are at the front side (or downslope side) of a
dormer, at a chimney, and anywhere there’s a transition between a horizontal
and a vertical surface.
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Cricket flashing is installed where the roof intersects a chimney or a curbed

roof penetration. The cricket diverts water around, while the backer flashing
provides a weatherproofing transition material right where the backside of
some type of penetration intersects the roof. A recommended best practice is to
install a cricket when a chimneystack is more than 30 inches wide (the NRCA
recommends 24 inches wide).
Backer flashing is installed when a chimney that is not very wide (only 20
inches) intersects a roof, and there’s no requirement for a cricket. A backer
flashing would be installed on the upslope backside of that stack.
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Missing counter-flashing at this chimney stack sidewall. The step flashing is

installed. Because the counter flashing is missing, the top edge of the step
flashing is prone to water penetration. It has been sealed with some sealant,
but that is not a standard installation practice. Defect.
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This is a cricket installed on the backside of a masonry chimney stack covered

with a stucco exterior covering. The valley on the left side of the cricket has
been sealed up with black roofing sealant. This is an indication of a water
intrusion problem. The sealant is not permanent. Poor practice. Defect.
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This is a chimney stack on a ridge area, and the flashing materials are not
readily visible.
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This flashing was installed at the masonry chimney stack. The counter-flashing
is installed with about 1 inch of the flashing material inserted into the masonry
joint. This is good installation practice.
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The best practice is to install the top edge of the counter-flashing at a masonry
chimney by inserting at least 1 inch of the flashing materials into the masonry.
For a brick chimney stack, this insertion would be at the mortar joint. Some
installers will cut a groove in the masonry for the flashing insertion.
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Missing cricket flashing. This chimney, covered with wood siding, is almost 4
feet wide. Back flashing is installed. But the missing cricket makes this a defect.
Vents and Other Penetrations

On any roofing system, the most common failures are those associated with any
component that projects through the roof covering. In many cases where a roof
has been re-covered, the original flashing has either been damaged or re-
installed incorrectly, leading to leaks into the interior.
Plumbing Vents
Depending on location, there are primarily two different types of plumbing vent
flashing. The most common in northern climates is the neoprene or metal boot.
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In Florida and in many other southern states, a lead flashing, which also
protects the plastic vent pipe from ultraviolet damage, is more common.
Skylights
Most skylights show signs of moisture penetration. This is especially a problem

when the roof has been re-covered and the original flashing were damaged
while being removed and re-installed.
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Quiz #6
_________ flashing is the type of flashing that goes between the roof covering
and the sheathing around the roof's perimeter.
• Drip edge
• Rake edge
• Counter-
____________ is not normally used for flashings.
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• Timber
• Steel
• Copper
• Aluminum
A flashing along the peak of the roof is called the ________ flashing.
• ridge
• soffit
• gable
• valley
A closed valley means that the valley flashing _________.
• cannot be seen
• can be seen from only one side
• is visible
Metal valley flashing should be a minimum of _____ inches wide.
• 24
• 30
• 18
For most tile roofs, a standard step flashing cannot be used against a wall, so a
_______ flashing must be installed.
• pan
• bucket
• drip
The bottom of a roof should have a ________ flashing where it meets a wall.
• kickout
• cornice
• step
Flashing that covers the step flashing is called the _______ flashing.
• counter-
• vent
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• cricket
• step
T/F: A common location for an apron flashing is at the front side or downslope
side of a chimney.
• True
• False
The flashing around a plumbing vent pipe is called a ________.
• boot
• shroud
• sock
Roof Ventilation
Basic Ventilation
Poor ventilation causes many problems, not the least of
which is substantial reduction in the lifespan of asphalt-
based roof coverings.
General Venting Requirements
Roofs with unconditioned attic spaces require some type of ventilation.
All attic spaces require ventilation at a minimum rate of 1 square foot of

venting per 150 square feet of attic area. This may be reduced to 1 square foot
of ventilation per 300 square feet of attic space where most of the vents are
high on the roof and air flow is induced from a lower point, as is the case with
ridge and soffit vents.
The "1-in-300 Rule" may also apply where a vapor barrier is installed on the
warm side of the ceiling.
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These basic rules apply both to traditional attic spaces and to enclosed areas
where the ceiling material is applied directly to the underside of the roof rafters,
as one would find with a cathedral ceiling.
The primary reason for these requirements is to allow moisture-laden air to be

evacuated from the attic space, and also to attempt to balance the temperature
of the roof coverings and sheathing with that of the outside air.
Venting Types
There are many methods employed to achieve adequate venting, among them:
• gable vents, which are screened openings in the gable ends, allowing
cross-ventilation;
• turbine vents, which are wind-powered vents that promote air flow out
of the roof area;
• passive vents, which are used to provide some air flow between the
sheathing and ceiling areas on flat or low-pitch roofs;
• soffit and ridge vents, which are installed so air can be drawn from
cooler air at the soffit and exhausted through the ridge vents. This style
is the most common in new construction and is generally considered to
be the most efficient;
• powered vents use a thermostat or a switch in the attic space to energize
the fan when the attic air reaches a pre-set temperature; and
• combination venting, which refers to employing two or more of these
methods described, and, in some areas, using through-the-roof vents
installed a few feet below the ridge line.
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Vent Problems
As with any other system, roof venting may have been installed incorrectly, may not have enough area, may have been
rendered inoperable by changes to the home, or may have been badly modified by the homeowner in an attempt to save
energy. Such problems include:
• a lack of vents. It is not uncommon to see a complete lack of ventilation.

In these cases, the high temperatures within the roof covering will induce
a rapid breakdown of the materials. This not only affects asphalt shingle
roofs, but also flat and tile roofs that use roll roofing as the primary
water barrier. It is also common to find high levels of moisture in these
attics, which promotes moisture-related issues, such as rotting sheathing
and mold growth.
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• inadequate venting. Poorly vented roofs will show some of the same
issues as roof systems having no venting, but to a lesser extent.
Particularly in northern climates, there will be evidence of ice damming
and moisture on the roof sheathing. In some cases, inadequate venting
will eventually manifest as rusting shingle nails, and even frost on the
underside of the roof sheathing in cold weather.
• too much ventilation. In some cases, this can be a problem, particularly
with large but poorly screened vents that allow rain water to enter the
attic space. The key with ventilation is to strike the correct balance
between insulation, moisture barriers and ventilation. A bad installation
is, in many respects, worse than none.
• blocked vents. Very often, inspectors will see instances of poorly
installed insulation blocking the soffit and other vents. These should be
reported as in need of repair.
• false vents. It is all too common to see what appear to be vents installed
that are, in fact, not connected through the structure. Inspectors will
sometimes see instances of ridge vents apparently installed, but the
roofers did not trim back the roof sheathing along the roof's peak to
allow the vents to actually work.
• damaged vents. It is recommended that all vents be visually inspected
for proper operation wherever possible. Be sure to check to ensure that
the flashing system is in good shape and is not leaking. Inspectors will
often see vents that have been mechanically damaged, or galvanized
vents that are rusting away. These deficiencies should always be
reported as in need of repair or replacement.
• ice damming. This is typical of poorly insulated vented roofs in colder
climates and is caused by snow melting on the roof above the home's
heated envelope, and then running down the roof and being trapped by
frozen snow and ice above the eaves. The ice will act as a dam and force
water to back up under the roof covering, rotting out the sheathing or
migrating through into the interior of the structure. The cure for this is an
adequate design incorporating proper insulation, ventilation, and an ice
and water shield installed under the roof covering in potentially affected
areas.
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Unvented Roof Systems/Attic Assemblies
Spray foam (open- and closed-cell) and fiberglass insulation can perform
successfully at unvented roof systems (or unvented attic assemblies) when
airtightness is provided and humidity is controlled.
There are many other important factors involved when inspecting unvented
roof systems, including: the climate zone; roofing solar and exposure
properties; air vapor barriers; and interior humidity levels.
Wood-framed pitched-roof systems are traditionally constructed with fibrous

insulation materials installed on the ceiling plane (attic floor) or along the
sloped underside of the roof deck. Proper ventilation is critical for these types
of systems.
For vented wood-framed pitched-roof systems, the primary concern is the

potential for moisture to build up at the sloped underside of the roof deck
during cold weather. The underside of the roof deck is the condensing plane.
For unvented roof systems, the condensing plane is the underside of the air-
impermeable foam. When they’re properly installed, condensation should not
exist because the temperature of the interior face of the foam should be about
the same as the interior air temperature.
To control airtightness, an air-barrier system must be installed in the roof

insulation assembly. An air-impermeable layer may be installed on the inside of
air-permeable insulation (such as fiberglass or cellulose) to control both air and
moisture movement. For roofs sealed with spray-foam insulation, air leakage is
effectively stopped. Failure will be likely via accidental or unintended air flows
at unvented wood-framed pitched-roof systems, such as around roof
penetrations, including plumbing vents.
Unvented attic assemblies should meet the following conditions:
• The unvented attic space must be completely contained within the

building’s thermal envelope.
• Interior vapor retarders must not be installed on the ceiling (attic floor)
of the unvented attic assembly.
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• At wood shingle/shake roofs, a vented air space of ¼-inch should

separate the shingles/shakes from the roofing underlayment above the
roof deck.
• Air-impermeable insulation can be applied in direct contact with the
underside of the roof deck. For Climate Zones 5, 6, 7 and 8, air-
impermeable insulation must have a vapor retarder in direct contact with
the underside of the insulation.
As long as airtightness is provided and humidity during the winter is controlled,

unvented roof systems can perform successfully.
Quiz #7
An attic with an area of 600 square feet with ridge and soffit vents should have
a total vent area of _____ square feet.
• 2
• 4
• 6
An attic space with only gable vents should have a vent area of 1 square foot
per ____ square feet of floor area.
• 150
• 250
• 600
The ________ effective venting system for most type of roofs is ridge and
soffit vents.
• most
• least
T/F: Roof vents are required for roofs with an unconditioned attic space.
• True
• False
Flat roofs normally have _________ venting systems.
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• passive
• powered
• gable
• ridge-and-soffit
T/F: Ice dams are caused by poor venting and inadequate insulation.
• True
• False
Inspecting Chimneys
Masonry Chimneys
A visual inspection of the outer chimney structure should be performed along
with inspection of the roof covering.
On most homes, the chimney will usually be the largest projection through the
roof, or the component with the longest flashed area abutting the roof. Proper
flashing, therefore, is very important. Also, the structure should be inspected
for signs of moisture intrusion and failure.
General Chimney Requirements
All chimneys are required to meet a minimum standard for height above the
roof coverings. The basic rule for this is: a minimum of 3 feet high, as well as 2
feet higher than any roof within 10 feet horizontally.
Masonry Structures
Most chimneys are manufactured with brick, stone or concrete blocks, some of
which may be part of a manufactured chimney system. All chimney systems
should be visually inspected for signs of deterioration, which can lead to
moisture intrusion of the chimney system.
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Masonry Failures
Masonry systems are not maintenance-free and will fail over time. The most
common failures are those related to weathering of either the masonry itself or
the mortar that holds it together. Deterioration of the masonry or the mortar will
allow moisture into the chimney structure, accelerating other problems. It's
common, particularly in the northern United States, to see brick work that is
missing its face. This is caused by moisture saturating the brick and then
freezing, pushing off the front face. Once this has happened, the brick will
erode very quickly because the inside of the brick is relatively soft.
Inspectors will also see signs of the mortar failing in the joints between the
bricks. This happens as the mortar breaks down and becomes powdery. The
cure for this is to have a mason scrape out the affected mortar and replace it
with fresh mortar. This process is called re-pointing. Erosion of the brick and
mortar is called spalling.
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Chimney Crown Failures
All chimney systems should have crowns installed. They serve two purposes.
First, they seal the area between the chimney flue and the masonry structure,
preventing rain water from running down the outside of the flue within the
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chimney. Second, the crown generally extends beyond the masonry structure so
that the water drips off the edge, rather than wicking into the brick or block
work. The chimney crown, which is usually made of poured concrete, should
be pitched downward, away from the chimney flue.
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Rain Caps
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A rain cap should not be confused with a chimney cap. A rain cap is installed to
protect the inside of the chimney flue from both weather and wildlife intrusion.
In some cases, a rain cap can also be helpful in preventing downdrafts into the
flue. It is also not uncommon to see a rain cap acting as a damper for a
traditional fireplace.
Rain caps are always manufactured out of metal. The best-quality ones are
made from stainless steel or copper. Many are manufactured from galvanized
steel, which tend not to last as well in-service and will frequently rust out.
Some jurisdictions also require rain caps that incorporate spark arresters,
especially in arid regions where wildfires are relatively common occurrences.
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Chimney Flues
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While the inspection of chimney flues is a highly specialized procedure, any

obvious deficiencies in the flue should be noted. In particular, pay attention to
flues that are damaged, collapsed, or show signs of previous chimney fires.
Extra care must be taken when inspecting chimney systems that are being used
to vent fossil-fuel appliances, such as boilers, furnaces, water heaters and
manufactured fireplaces, as any deficiency in either the liner or the chimney
structure could be a potential fire starter, or could allow carbon monoxide into
the habitable space within the home. It is now required that any traditional flues
being used as vents for these appliances be fitted with continuous metal flue
liners to ensure that no noxious gases can find their way into the home.
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The home inspector should evaluate and report on the following:
• the material that the chimney is made of;
• the condition of the chimney stack;
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• the visible condition of the flashings;
• the condition of the chimney cap;
• the condition of the rain cap (if installed); and
• that the chimney meets minimum height and safety requirements.
Manufactured Chimneys
The term "manufactured chimney" generally relates to prefabricated chimney

components, as opposed to a traditional chimney that would normally be
manufactured from masonry products.
In most new housing, a manufactured chimney typically consists of a steel vent

or flue built inside an artificial chimney stack. For the most part, the clearance
requirements are the same as for any other chimney system; however, special
attention must be paid to the proper clearance of combustibles where the
chimney or vent passes through the roof covering.
Wooden Structures
In most cases, a manufactured chimney flue is covered over with a wooden

frame structure, and finished in a siding material to match the rest of the
property, or a stucco, traditional brick, or masonry veneer covering the
structure.
Any failure of the system will allow considerable moisture to enter the general
framing of the structure, so it is vital to pay particular attention to any and all
flashing systems related to the chimney. In many cases, especially those
chimneys that are sided with traditional timber siding, the inspector must
ensure that there is at least a 1- to 2-inch clearance between any wooden
components and the roof covering.
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Carefully inspect the areas of the chimney that abut the roof covering,
as there will often be considerable signs of dampness.
Chimney Caps
Normally, a manufactured chimney has a metal chimney cap to prevent water

from entering the structure between the flue and the framing. Inspectors will
often find that this flashing has failed due to moisture ponding on the cap,
resulting in rust through this flashing. The rain cap should incorporate a drip
edge similar to what one would expect to find under any roof covering. This is
required to deflect water away from the vertical sides of the chimney.
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Rain or Termination Caps
Most manufactured chimneys are supplied with rain caps or deflectors built to
the manufacturer's specifications. In many areas, these caps or deflectors are
required to be installed with spark arresters to prevent sparks from leaving the
flue. These are usually manufactured from either aluminum or galvanized
steel, and are susceptible to mechanical damage, rusting, and galvanic reaction
between dissimilar metals.
Proper Clearances
Due to the fact that all manufactured chimneys have metal flues which conduct
heat very efficiently, it is important that proper separation is maintained where
the flue passes through any ceiling-floor structures, as well as through the roof
sheathing. The minimum acceptable clearance is 2 inches. It is required that an
approved thimble is used where the vent goes through the roof sheathing and
covering in order to maintain the 2 inches of separation and prevent moisture
entry at this point.
When inspecting manufactured chimney systems, the inspector should pay

particular attention to:
• the material that the structure is built from;
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• the type of covering;
• any signs of moisture entering the covering or structure;
• the condition of the flashings;
• the condition of the chimney cap;
• the condition of the rain cap or deflector;
• the clearance from combustibles (where visible); and
• the height clearances to adjacent structures.
Quiz #8
A typical chimney is a minimum of ____ feet high.
• 3
• 4
• 2
If a roof ridge is closer than 10 feet to a chimney, the stack should be ____ feet
higher.
• 2
• 3
• 10
Chipping or breaking off of masonry or mortar is called ________.
• spalling
• efflorescence
• pointing
The process of repairing missing mortar between brick joints is called

_________.
• re-pointing
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• mudding
• grouting
The difference between a chimney cap and a rain cap is ___________.
• a chimney cap protects the structure, and a rain cap protects the inside of
the flue
• a rain cap protects the structure, and a chimney cap protects the inside of
the flue
T/F: All chimneys should have a spark arrestor fitted.
• False
• True
A clearance gap of ___ inches is required between a manufactured chimney and

combustibles.
• 2
• 3
• 6
Most manufactured chimneys come with a _________.
• rain cap
• damper extension
• rodent screen
The proper name for the connection between a manufactured chimney flue and
the roof is called a _______.
• thimble
• bucket
• boot
T/F: Manufactured chimney systems are not required to maintain the same
separation from adjoining structures as traditional chimneys.
• False
• True
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Inspection Training Videos
Instructional Video
Watch the following inspection training video.
Inspecting a Roof in 10 Steps

Play the video below:
Inspection & Writing Assignment
Inspection & Writing Assignment

Research & Writing Assignment
Research & Writing Exercise

Textbook
Textbook
Although it is not required, you may be interested in purchasing a companion
textbook to the online course.
Conclusion
Inspector Logo
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The Roof Inspector logo is available for use by all InterNACHI certified
members who successfully complete this course, including its final exam.
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InterNACHI

“How to Perform Roof Inspections” course

Goals and Objectives

How to Perform Roof Inspections Course

Welcome to InterNACHI's free, online

Take the free, online course now.

The goal of this course is to teach

• inspect all different types of residential roofs;

You will learn the following:

• Common Roof Terms

“How to Perform Roof Inspections” course

Goals and Objectives

• Roof Styles and Details

[ ( # of words / 140 ) + ( Video time in min. ) + ( # of questions x 1.85 ) ] / 50 = CEUs.

• Flat Roofs: Roll Roofing

4.0 Total Hours

Beginning and Progressing Through the Course

Check Your Internet Browser

As a member of InterNACHI, you have unlimited access to all of InterNACHI's

Leaving the Course

Various Learning Opportunities

• clear instructions and objectives;

Education Log & Transcript

Check your InterNACHI Education Log and Transcript within

Course PDF, Library & Resources

Download the course PDF.

Please visit InterNACHI's Library of Inspection Articles for additional resources.

Update Your Browser

Please visit InterNACHI's free, online Library of Inspection Training Videos.

Please visit InterNACHI's free, online Gallery of Inspection Illustrations.

Please visit InterNACHI's archive of webinars.

Student Verification and Interactivity

Student Verification & Interactivity

Communication on the message board or forum shall be of the person

Email the Director of Education, Ben Gromicko at [email protected].

Introduction to Roof Inspections

Before approaching a roof inspection, it's important to keep safety at the

Some Roofs Should Not Be Walked On

When planning to walk the roof covering, remember to wear soft-soled

Play this 1-minute video, "Walking on Concrete Tile Roofs":

Using a Ladder Video

Play this video about using a ladder:

Types of Ladders & Safety Guidelines

A ladder is an appliance designed for climbing which consists of two side-rails

Common Types of Household Ladders

• A step ladder is a self-supporting portable ladder, non-adjustable in

• A single ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder, non-adjustable

The following ladders are commonly used by inspectors:

• step ladder. The step ladder is a self-supporting ladder that is not

Here are some basic rules regarding ladder placement:

• Make sure the ladder is dry before using it.

Remember these guidelines for safe ladder set-up and use:

While on the ladder, always:

• face the ladder;

can be used to reduce any movement that could otherwise result in a

Three-Point Control for Climbing Ladders

When it comes to ladder safety, there’s a difference between three-point control

Whenever there's a risk of a serious fall, three-point control should be used

The traditional method of climbing a ladder consists of:

• keeping the belly button between the two side rails;