Unit 3 Knowledge representation

What is knowledge representation?

Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things,
which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world.
But how machines do all these things comes under knowledge representation and
reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge representation as following:

 Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence
which concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent
behavior of agents.
 It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real-world problems such
as diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural language.
 It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial
intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it
also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that
it can behave intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:
Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

 Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings,
trumpets are brass instruments.
 Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
 Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to do things.
 Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
 Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
 Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the
knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences
(Here, sentences are used as a technical term and not identical with the English
language).

Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and

situations. Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge
Following are the various types of knowledge:
1. Declarative Knowledge:

 Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

 It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
 It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
 It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

 It is also known as imperative knowledge.

 Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to
do something.
 It can be directly applied to any task.
 It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
 Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

 Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

 Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.

  Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of
approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:

 Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

 It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping
of something.
 It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial
intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior in AI
agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or
experience about that input.

Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then
how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.

As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the
environment and using knowledge. But if the knowledge part will not present then, it cannot
display intelligent behavior.

AI knowledge cycle:
An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent
behavior:

 Perception
 Learning
 Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
 Planning
 Execution

The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what
components help it to show intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it
retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory
input. The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment. In the complete cycle, the main components are knowledge representation and
Reasoning. These two components are involved in showing the intelligence in machine-like
humans. These two components are independent with each other but also coupled together. The
planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and reasoning.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are given below:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

 It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact
about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns.
 This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the
relationship between different entities is represented.
  This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Example: The following is the simple relational knowledge representation.

Player Weight Age

Player1 65 23
Player2 58 18
Player3 75 24

2. Inheritable knowledge:

 In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of classes.
 All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.
 In this approach, we apply inheritance property.
 Elements inherit values from other members of a class.
 This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between instance
and class, and it is called instance relation.
 Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.
 In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.
 We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.
 Example:

3. Inferential knowledge:

 Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.

  This approach can be used to derive more facts.
 It guaranteed correctness.
 Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:
1. Marcus is a man
2. All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:

 Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to
do specific things, and how to proceed.
 In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
 In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP language and
Prolog language.
 We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.
 But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.

1. Representational Accuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required knowledge.

2. Inferential Adequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational structures to produce new
knowledge corresponding to existing structure.

3. Inferential Efficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most productive directions
by storing appropriate guides.

4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily using automatic
methods.

Techniques of knowledge representation

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:

1. Logical Representation
2. Semantic Network Representation
3. Frame Representation
 4. Production Rules

1. Logical Representation
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and
has no ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on
various conditions. This representation lays down some important communication rules. It
consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the sound inference. Each
sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax:

 Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
 It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
 How to write those symbols.

Semantics:

 Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
 Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

1. Propositional Logics
2. Predicate logics
Note: We will discuss Prepositional Logics and Predicate logics in later chapters.

Advantages of logical representation:

1. Logical representation enables us to do logical reasoning.

2. Logical representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages of logical Representation:

1. Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.
2. Logical representation technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be so
efficient.

Note: Do not be confused with logical representation and logical reasoning as logical
representation is a representation language and reasoning is a process of thinking logically.

2. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic
networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network
consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those
objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and can also link those
objects. Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily extended.

This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:

1. IS-A relation (Inheritance)

2. Kind-of-relation

Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and
arcs.

Statements:

1. Jerry is a cat.
2. Jerry is a mammal
3. Jerry is owned by Priya.
4. Jerry is brown colored.
5. All Mammals are animal.
In the above diagram, we have represented the different type of knowledge in the form of nodes
and arcs. Each object is connected with another object by some relation.

Drawbacks in Semantic representation:

1. Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the
complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case
scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this
network.
2. Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links)
to store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic
network.
3. These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent
quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
4. Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5. These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Advantages of Semantic network:

1. Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.

2. Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3. These networks are simple and easily understandable.

3. Frame Representation
A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to
describe an entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot
values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called
facets.

Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which
enable us to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of
any particular slot is needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include
any number of facets and facets may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-
filter knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.

Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day classes and
objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a collection of frames
which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored together in
the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology which is widely used in various
applications including Natural language processing and machine visions.

Example: 1

Let's take an example of a frame for a book

Slots Filters
Title Artificial Intelligence
Genre Computer Science
Author Peter Norvig
Edition Third Edition
Year 1996
Page 1152

Example 2:

Let's suppose we are taking an entity, Peter. Peter is an engineer as a profession, and his age is
25, he lives in city London, and the country is England. So following is the frame representation
for this:

Slots Filter
Name Peter
Profession Doctor
Age 25
Marital status Single
Weight 78

Advantages of frame representation:

1. The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping the
related data.
2. The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in AI.
 3. It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4. It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5. Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

Disadvantages of frame representation:

1. In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.

2. Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
3. Frame representation has a much generalized approach.

4. Production Rules
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then
action". It has mainly three parts:

 The set of production rules

 Working Memory
 The recognize-act-cycle

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production rule
fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines which rule
may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving
steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.

The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule
can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.

If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired together,
this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and it
is called a conflict resolution.

Example:

 IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
 IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
 IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
 IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).

Advantages of Production rule:

1. The production rules are expressed in natural language.

2. The production rules are highly modular, so we can easily remove, add or modify an
individual rule.

Disadvantages of Production rule:

 1. Production rule system does not exhibit any learning capabilities, as it does not store the
result of the problem for the future uses.
2. During the execution of the program, many rules may be active hence rule-based
production systems are inefficient.

Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a
technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.

Example:

1. a) It is Sunday.
2. b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. d) 5 is a prime number.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

 Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

 In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use
any symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
 Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
 Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
 These connectives are also called logical operators.
 The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
 Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
 A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a
valid sentence.
 A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
 A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
 Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as
"Where is Rohini", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.

Syntax of propositional logic:

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:

1. Atomic Propositions
2. Compound propositions

 Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a

single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
Example:

1. a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

2. b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

 Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler

or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.

Example:

1. a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."

2. b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."

Logical Connectives:
Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence
logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical connectives. There are
mainly five connectives, which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive

literal or negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction,
where P and Q are the propositions.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Doctor, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also
known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, example If I am
breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:

Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible scenarios.
We can combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the representation of
these combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all
logical connectives:
Truth table with three propositions:
We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is made-
up of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

Precedence of connectives:

Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or logical
operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem. Following is
the list of the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators
First Precedence Parenthesis
Second Precedence Negation
Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)
Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)
Fifth Precedence Implication
Six Precedence Biconditional

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make sure of the correct interpretations.
Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q.

Logical equivalence:

Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be
logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.

Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In
below truth table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is
Equivalent to B
Properties of Operators:

 Commutativity:
o P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
o P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
 Associativity:
o (P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R),
o (P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
 Identity element:
o P ∧ True = P,
o P ∨ True= True.
 Distributive:
o P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
o P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
 DE Morgan's Law:
o ¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
o ¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
 Double-negation elimination:
o ¬ (¬P) = P.

Limitations of Propositional logic:

 We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic.
Example:
1. All the girls are intelligent.
2. Some apples are sweet.
 Propositional logic has limited expressive power.
 In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or
logical relationships.

Rules of Inference in Artificial intelligence

Inference:
In artificial intelligence, we need intelligent computers which can create new logic from old
logic or by evidence, so generating the conclusions from evidence and facts is termed as
Inference.
Inference rules:
Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are applied to
derive proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the conclusion that leads to
the desired goal.

In inference rules, the implication among all the connectives plays an important role. Following
are some terminologies related to inference rules:

 Implication: It is one of the logical connectives which can be represented as P → Q. It is

a Boolean expression.
 Converse: The converse of implication, which means the right-hand side proposition
goes to the left-hand side and vice-versa. It can be written as Q → P.
 Contrapositive: The negation of converse is termed as contrapositive, and it can be
represented as ¬ Q → ¬ P.
 Inverse: The negation of implication is called inverse. It can be represented as ¬ P → ¬
Q.

From the above term some of the compound statements are equivalent to each other, which we
can prove using truth table:

Hence from the above truth table, we can prove that P → Q is equivalent to ¬ Q → ¬ P, and Q→
P is equivalent to ¬ P → ¬ Q.

Types of Inference rules:

1. Modus Ponens:

The Modus Ponens rule is one of the most important rules of inference, and it states that if P and
P → Q is true, then we can infer that Q will be true. It can be represented as:

Example:
Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q
Statement-2: "I am sleepy" ==> P
Conclusion: "I go to bed." ==> Q.
Hence, we can say that, if P→ Q is true and P is true then Q will be true.

Proof by Truth table:

2. Modus Tollens:

The Modus Tollens rule state that if P→ Q is true and ¬ Q is true, then ¬ P will also true. It can
be represented as:

Statement-1: "If I am sleepy then I go to bed" ==> P→ Q

Statement-2: "I do not go to the bed."==> ~Q
Statement-3: Which infers that "I am not sleepy" => ~P

Proof by Truth table:

3. Hypothetical Syllogism:

The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that if P→R is true whenever P→Q is true, and Q→R is
true. It can be represented as the following notation:

Example:
Statement-1: If you have my home key then you can unlock my home. P→Q
Statement-2: If you can unlock my home then you can take my money. Q→R
Conclusion: If you have my home key then you can take my money. P→R

Proof by truth table:

4. Disjunctive Syllogism:

The Disjunctive syllogism rule state that if P∨Q is true, and ¬P is true, then Q will be true. It can
be represented as:

Example:

Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. ==>P∨Q

Statement-2: Today is not Sunday. ==> ¬P
Conclusion: Today is Monday. ==> Q

Proof by truth-table:

5. Addition:

The Addition rule is one the common inference rule, and it states that If P is true, then P∨Q will
be true.
Example:

Statement: I have a vanilla ice-cream. ==> P

Statement-2: I have Chocolate ice-cream.
Conclusion: I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. ==> (P∨Q)

Proof by Truth-Table:

6. Simplification:

The simplification rule state that if P∧ Q is true, then Q or P will also be true. It can be
represented as:

Proof by Truth-Table:

7. Resolution:

The Resolution rule state that if P∨Q and ¬ P∧R is true, then Q∨R will also be true. It can be
represented as
Proof by Truth-Table:

The Wumpus World in Artificial intelligence

Wumpus world:
The Wumpus world is a simple world example to illustrate the worth of a knowledge-based
agent and to represent knowledge representation. It was inspired by a video game Hunt the
Wumpus by Gregory Yob in 1973.

The Wumpus world is a cave which has 4/4 rooms connected with passageways. So there are
total 16 rooms which are connected with each other. We have a knowledge-based agent who will
go forward in this world. The cave has a room with a beast which is called Wumpus, who eats
anyone who enters the room. The Wumpus can be shot by the agent, but the agent has a single
arrow. In the Wumpus world, there are some Pits rooms which are bottomless, and if agent falls
in Pits, then he will be stuck there forever. The exciting thing with this cave is that in one room
there is a possibility of finding a heap of gold. So the agent goal is to find the gold and climb out
the cave without fallen into Pits or eaten by Wumpus. The agent will get a reward if he comes
out with gold, and he will get a penalty if eaten by Wumpus or falls in the pit.

Note: Here Wumpus is static and cannot move.

Following is a sample diagram for representing the Wumpus world. It is showing some rooms
with Pits, one room with Wumpus and one agent at (1, 1) square location of the world.
There are also some components which can help the agent to navigate the cave. These
components are given as follows:

1. The rooms adjacent to the Wumpus room are smelly, so that it would have some stench.
2. The room adjacent to PITs has a breeze, so if the agent reaches near to PIT, then he will
perceive the breeze.
3. There will be glitter in the room if and only if the room has gold.
4. The Wumpus can be killed by the agent if the agent is facing to it, and Wumpus will emit
a horrible scream which can be heard anywhere in the cave.

PEAS description of Wumpus world:

To explain the Wumpus world we have given PEAS description as below:

Performance measure:

 +1000 reward points if the agent comes out of the cave with the gold.
 -1000 points penalty for being eaten by the Wumpus or falling into the pit.
 -1 for each action, and -10 for using an arrow.
 The game ends if either agent dies or came out of the cave.

Environment:

 A 4*4 grid of rooms.

  The agent initially in room square [1, 1], facing toward the right.
 Location of Wumpus and gold are chosen randomly except the first square [1,1].
 Each square of the cave can be a pit with probability 0.2 except the first square.

Actuators:

 Left turn,
 Right turn
 Move forward
 Grab
 Release
 Shoot.

Sensors:

 The agent will perceive the stench if he is in the room adjacent to the Wumpus. (Not
diagonally).
 The agent will perceive breeze if he is in the room directly adjacent to the Pit.
 The agent will perceive the glitter in the room where the gold is present.
 The agent will perceive the bump if he walks into a wall.
 When the Wumpus is shot, it emits a horrible scream which can be perceived anywhere
in the cave.
 These percepts can be represented as five element list, in which we will have different
indicators for each sensor.
 Example if agent perceives stench, breeze, but no glitter, no bump, and no scream then it
can be represented as:
[Stench, Breeze, None, None, None].

The Wumpus world Properties:

 Partially observable: The Wumpus world is partially observable because the agent can
only perceive the close environment such as an adjacent room.
 Deterministic: It is deterministic, as the result and outcome of the world are already
known.
 Sequential: The order is important, so it is sequential.
 Static: It is static as Wumpus and Pits are not moving.
 Discrete: The environment is discrete.
 One agent: The environment is a single agent as we have one agent only and Wumpus is
not considered as an agent.

Exploring the Wumpus world:

Now we will explore the Wumpus world and will determine how the agent will find its goal by
applying logical reasoning.
Agent's First step:

Initially, the agent is in the first room or on the square [1,1], and we already know that this room
is safe for the agent, so to represent on the below diagram (a) that room is safe we will add
symbol OK. Symbol A is used to represent agent, symbol B for the breeze, G for Glitter or gold,
V for the visited room, P for pits, W for Wumpus.

At Room [1,1] agent does not feel any breeze or any Stench which means the adjacent squares
are also OK.

Agent's second Step:

Now agent needs to move forward, so it will either move to [1, 2], or [2,1]. Let's suppose agent
moves to the room [2, 1], at this room agent perceives some breeze which means Pit is around
this room. The pit can be in [3, 1], or [2,2], so we will add symbol P? to say that, is this Pit
room?

Now agent will stop and think and will not make any harmful move. The agent will go back to
the [1, 1] room. The room [1,1], and [2,1] are visited by the agent, so we will use symbol V to
represent the visited squares.

Agent's third step:

At the third step, now agent will move to the room [1,2] which is OK. In the room [1,2] agent
perceives a stench which means there must be a Wumpus nearby. But Wumpus cannot be in the
room [1,1] as by rules of the game, and also not in [2,2] (Agent had not detected any stench
when he was at [2,1]). Therefore agent infers that Wumpus is in the room [1,3], and in current
state, there is no breeze which means in [2,2] there is no Pit and no Wumpus. So it is safe, and
we will mark it OK, and the agent moves further in [2,2].

Agent's fourth step:

At room [2,2], here no stench and no breezes present so let's suppose agent decides to move to
[2,3]. At room [2,3] agent perceives glitter, so it should grab the gold and climb out of the cave.

Knowledge-base for Wumpus world

As in the previous topic we have learned about the wumpus world and how a knowledge-based
agent evolves the world. Now in this topic, we will create a knowledge base for the wumpus
world, and will derive some proves for the Wumpus-world using propositional logic.

The agent starts visiting from first square [1, 1], and we already know that this room is safe for
the agent. To build a knowledge base for wumpus world, we will use some rules and atomic
propositions. We need symbol [i, j] for each location in the wumpus world, where i is for the
location of rows, and j for column location.
Atomic proposition variable for Wumpus world:

 Let Pi,j be true if there is a Pit in the room [i, j].

 Let Bi,j be true if agent perceives breeze in [i, j], (dead or alive).
 Let Wi,j be true if there is wumpus in the square[i, j].
 Let Si,j be true if agent perceives stench in the square [i, j].
 Let Vi,j be true if that square[i, j] is visited.
 Let Gi,j be true if there is gold (and glitter) in the square [i, j].
 Let OKi,j be true if the room is safe.

Note: For a 4 * 4 square board, there will be 7*4*4= 122 propositional variables.

Some Propositional Rules for the wumpus world:

Note: lack of variables gives us similar rules for each cell.

Representation of Knowledgebase for Wumpus world:

Following is the Simple KB for wumpus world when an agent moves from room [1, 1], to room
[2,1]:

Here in the first row, we have mentioned propositional variables for room[1,1], which is showing
that room does not have wumpus(¬ W11), no stench (¬S11), no Pit(¬P11), no breeze(¬B11), no gold
(¬G11), visited (V11), and the room is Safe(OK11).

In the second row, we have mentioned propositional variables for room [1,2], which is showing
that there is no wumpus, stench and breeze are unknown as an agent has not visited room [1,2],
no Pit, not visited yet, and the room is safe.

In the third row we have mentioned propositional variable for room[2,1], which is showing that
there is no wumpus(¬ W21), no stench (¬S21), no Pit (¬P21), Perceives breeze(B21), no
glitter(¬G21), visited (V21), and room is safe (OK21).

Prove that Wumpus is in the room (1, 3)

We can prove that wumpus is in the room (1, 3) using propositional rules which we have derived
for the wumpus world and using inference rule.

 Apply Modus Ponens with ¬S11 and R1:

We will firstly apply MP rule with R1 which is ¬S11 → ¬ W11 ^ ¬ W12 ^ ¬ W21, and ¬S11 which
will give the output ¬ W11 ^ W12 ^ W12.

 Apply And-Elimination Rule:

After applying And-elimination rule to ¬ W11 ∧ ¬ W12 ∧ ¬ W21, we will get three statements:
¬ W11, ¬ W12, and ¬W21.

 Apply Modus Ponens to ¬S21, and R2:

Now we will apply Modus Ponens to ¬S21 and R2 which is ¬S21 → ¬ W21 ∧¬ W22 ∧ ¬ W31, which
will give the Output as ¬ W21 ∧ ¬ W22 ∧¬ W31

 Apply And -Elimination rule:

Now again apply And-elimination rule to ¬ W21 ∧ ¬ W22 ∧¬ W31, We will get three statements:
¬ W21, ¬ W22, and ¬ W31.

 Apply MP to S12 and R4:

Apply Modus Ponens to S12 and R4 which is S12 → W13 ∨. W12 ∨. W22 ∨.W11, we will get the
output as W13∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨.W11.

 Apply Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨W11 and ¬ W11 :

After applying Unit resolution formula on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 ∨W11 and ¬ W11 we will get W13 ∨
W12 ∨ W22.
  Apply Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22 and ¬ W22 :

After applying Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 ∨ W22, and ¬W22, we will get W13 ∨ W12 as output.

 Apply Unit Resolution on W13 ∨ W12 and ¬ W12 :

After Applying Unit resolution on W13 ∨ W12 and ¬ W12, we will get W13 as an output, hence it
is proved that the Wumpus is in the room [1, 3].

First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence

In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements using
propositional logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only represent the facts,
which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or natural
language statements. The propositional logic has very limited expressive power. Consider the
following sentence, which we cannot represent using PL logic.

 "Some humans are intelligent", or

 "Sachin likes cricket."
To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more powerful
logic, such as first-order logic.

First-Order logic:
 First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is
an extension to propositional logic.
 FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise
way.
 First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic. First-
order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a more
easy way and can also express the relationship between those objects.
 First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world contains
facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the world:
o Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits,
wumpus, ......
o Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any
relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
o Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
 As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:

1. Syntax
2. Semantics

Syntax of First-Order logic:

The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-order
logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write statements in short-
hand notation in FOL.

Basic Elements of First-order logic:

Following are the basic elements of FOL syntax:

Constant 1, 2, A, John, Mumbai, cat,....

Variables x, y, z, a, b,....
Predicates Brother, Father, >,....
Function sqrt, LeftLegOf, ....
Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔
Equality ==
Quantifier ∀, ∃

Atomic sentences:
  Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences are
formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
 We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).

Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).

Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).

Complex Sentences:

 Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.

First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

 Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.

 Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together in a
statement.

Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is the subject
of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.

Quantifiers in First-order logic:

 A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and quantification
specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
 These are the symbols that permit to determine or identify the range and scope of the
variable in the logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:
1. Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
2. Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

Universal Quantifier:

Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the statement
within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing.

The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles an inverted A.

Note: In universal quantifier we use implication "→".

If x is a variable, then ∀x is read as:

 For all x
 For each x
 For every x.

Example:

All man drink coffee.

Let a variable x which refers to a cat so all x can be represented in UOD as below:

∀x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).

It will be read as: There are all x where x is a man who drink coffee.

Existential Quantifier:
Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within its
scope is true for at least one instance of something.

It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E. When it is used with a
predicate variable then it is called as an existential quantifier.
Note: In Existential quantifier we always use AND or Conjunction symbol (∧).

If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be read as:

 There exists a 'x.'

 For some 'x.'
 For at least one 'x.'

Example:

Some boys are intelligent.

∃x: boys(x) ∧ intelligent(x)

It will be read as: There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent.

Points to remember:
 The main connective for universal quantifier ∀ is implication →.
 The main connective for existential quantifier ∃ is and ∧.

Properties of Quantifiers:
 In universal quantifier, ∀x∀y is similar to ∀y∀x.
 In Existential quantifier, ∃x∃y is similar to ∃y∃x.
  ∃x∀y is not similar to ∀y∃x.

Some Examples of FOL using quantifier:

1. All birds fly.

In this question the predicate is "fly(bird)."
And since there are all birds who fly so it will be represented as follows.
∀x bird(x) →fly(x).

2. Every man respects his parent.

In this question, the predicate is "respect(x, y)," where x=man, and y= parent.
Since there is every man so will use ∀, and it will be represented as follows:
∀x man(x) → respects (x, parent).

3. Some boys play cricket.

In this question, the predicate is "play(x, y)," where x= boys, and y= game. Since there are some
boys so we will use ∃, and it will be represented as:
∃x boys(x) → play(x, cricket).

4. Not all students like both Mathematics and Science.

In this question, the predicate is "like(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there are not all students, so we will use ∀ with negation, so following representation for
this:
¬∀ (x) [ student(x) → like(x, Mathematics) ∧ like(x, Science)].

5. Only one student failed in Mathematics.

In this question, the predicate is "failed(x, y)," where x= student, and y= subject.
Since there is only one student who failed in Mathematics, so we will use following
representation for this:
∃(x) [ student(x) → failed (x, Mathematics) ∧∀ (y) [¬(x==y) ∧ student(y) → ¬failed
(x, Mathematics)].

Free and Bound Variables:

The quantifiers interact with variables which appear in a suitable way. There are two types of
variables in First-order logic which are given below:

Free Variable: A variable is said to be a free variable in a formula if it occurs outside the scope
of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x ∃(y)[P (x, y, z)], where z is a free variable.

Bound Variable: A variable is said to be a bound variable in a formula if it occurs within the
scope of the quantifier.

Example: ∀x [A (x) B( y)], here x and y are the bound variables.

Inference in First-Order Logic
Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences from existing sentences.
Before understanding the FOL inference rule, let's understand some basic terminologies used in
FOL.

Substitution:

Substitution is a fundamental operation performed on terms and formulas. It occurs in all

inference systems in first-order logic. The substitution is complex in the presence of quantifiers
in FOL. If we write F[a/x], so it refers to substitute a constant "a" in place of variable "x".

Note: First-order logic is capable of expressing facts about some or all objects in the
universe.

Equality:

First-Order logic does not only use predicate and terms for making atomic sentences but also
uses another way, which is equality in FOL. For this, we can use equality symbols which
specify that the two terms refer to the same object.

Example: Brother (John) = Smith.

As in the above example, the object referred by the Brother (John) is similar to the object
referred by Smith. The equality symbol can also be used with negation to represent that two
terms are not the same objects.

Example: ￢(x=y) which is equivalent to x ≠y.

FOL inference rules for quantifier:

As propositional logic we also have inference rules in first-order logic, so following are some
basic inference rules in FOL:

 Universal Generalization
 Universal Instantiation
 Existential Instantiation
 Existential introduction

1. Universal Generalization:

 Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that if premise P(c) is true
for any arbitrary element c in the universe of discourse, then we can have a conclusion as
∀ x P(x).
  It can be represented as: .
 This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a similar property.
 In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable.

Example: Let's represent, P(c): "A byte contains 8 bits", so for ∀ x P(x) "All bytes contain 8
bits.", it will also be true.

2. Universal Instantiation:

 Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a valid inference

rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new sentences.
 The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.
 As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground term for the
variable.
 The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a ground term c (a
constant within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any object in the universe of discourse.

 It can be represented as: .

Example:1.

IF "Every person like ice-cream"=> ∀x P(x) so we can infer that

"John likes ice-cream" => P(c)

Example: 2.

Let's take a famous example,

"All kings who are greedy are Evil." So let our knowledge base contains this detail as in the form
of FOL:

∀x king(x) ∧ greedy (x) → Evil (x),

So from this information, we can infer any of the following statements using Universal
Instantiation:

 King(John) ∧ Greedy (John) → Evil (John),

 King(Richard) ∧ Greedy (Richard) → Evil (Richard),
 King(Father(John)) ∧ Greedy (Father(John)) → Evil (Father(John)),

3. Existential Instantiation:

 Existential instantiation is also called as Existential Elimination, which is a valid

inference rule in first-order logic.
  It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
 The new KB is not logically equivalent to old KB, but it will be satisfiable if old KB was
satisfiable.
 This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula given in the form of ∃x P(x) for a
new constant symbol c.
 The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new term for which P(c )
is true.

 It can be represented as:

Example:

From the given sentence: ∃x Crown(x) ∧ OnHead(x, John),

So we can infer: Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as K does not appear in the
knowledge base.

 The above used K is a constant symbol, which is called Skolem constant.

 The Existential instantiation is a special case of Skolemization process.

4. Existential introduction

 An existential introduction is also known as an existential generalization, which is a valid

inference rule in first-order logic.
 This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of discourse which has a
property P, then we can infer that there exists something in the universe which has the
property P.

 It can be represented as:

 Example: Let's say that,
"Priyanka got good marks in English."
"Therefore, someone got good marks in English."

Generalized Modus Ponens Rule:

For the inference process in FOL, we have a single inference rule which is called Generalized
Modus Ponens. It is lifted version of Modus ponens.

Generalized Modus Ponens can be summarized as, " P implies Q and P is asserted to be true,
therefore Q must be True."

According to Modus Ponens, for atomic sentences pi, pi', q. Where there is a substitution θ such
that SUBST (θ, pi',) = SUBST(θ, pi), it can be represented as:
Example:

We will use this rule for Kings are evil, so we will find some x such that x is king, and x is
greedy so we can infer that x is evil.

1. Here let say, p1' is king(John) p1 is king(x)

2. p2' is Greedy(y) p2 is Greedy(x)
3. θ is {x/John, y/John} q is evil(x)
4. SUBST(θ,q).

Forward Chaining and backward chaining in

AI
In artificial intelligence, forward and backward chaining is one of the important topics, but
before understanding forward and backward chaining lets first understand that from where these
two terms came.

Inference engine:
The inference engine is the component of the intelligent system in artificial intelligence, which
applies logical rules to the knowledge base to infer new information from known facts. The first
inference engine was part of the expert system. Inference engine commonly proceeds in two
modes, which are:

1. Forward chaining
2. Backward chaining

Horn Clause and Definite clause:

Horn clause and definite clause are the forms of sentences, which enables knowledge base to use
a more restricted and efficient inference algorithm. Logical inference algorithms use forward and
backward chaining approaches, which require KB in the form of the first-order definite clause.

Definite clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals with exactly one positive literal is
known as a definite clause or strict horn clause.

Horn clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals with at most one positive literal is
known as horn clause. Hence all the definite clauses are horn clauses.

Example: (¬ p V ¬ q V k). It has only one positive literal k.

It is equivalent to p ∧ q → k.

A. Forward Chaining
Forward chaining is also known as a forward deduction or forward reasoning method when using
an inference engine. Forward chaining is a form of reasoning which start with atomic sentences
in the knowledge base and applies inference rules (Modus Ponens) in the forward direction to
extract more data until a goal is reached.

The Forward-chaining algorithm starts from known facts, triggers all rules whose premises are
satisfied, and add their conclusion to the known facts. This process repeats until the problem is
solved.

Properties of Forward-Chaining:

 It is a down-up approach, as it moves from bottom to top.

 It is a process of making a conclusion based on known facts or data, by starting from the
initial state and reaches the goal state.
 Forward-chaining approach is also called as data-driven as we reach to the goal using
available data.
 Forward -chaining approach is commonly used in the expert system, such as CLIPS,
business, and production rule systems.

Consider the following famous example which we will use in both approaches:

Example:

"As per the law, it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations. Country A,
an enemy of America, has some missiles, and all the missiles were sold to it by Robert, who
is an American citizen."

Prove that "Robert is criminal."

To solve the above problem, first, we will convert all the above facts into first-order definite
clauses, and then we will use a forward-chaining algorithm to reach the goal.

Facts Conversion into FOL:

 It is a crime for an American to sell weapons to hostile nations. (Let's say p, q, and r are
variables)
American (p) ∧ weapon(q) ∧ sells (p, q, r) ∧ hostile(r) → Criminal(p) ...(1)
 Country A has some missiles. ?p Owns(A, p) ∧ Missile(p). It can be written in two
definite clauses by using Existential Instantiation, introducing new Constant T1.
Owns(A, T1) ......(2)
Missile(T1) .......(3)
  All of the missiles were sold to country A by Robert.
?p Missiles(p) ∧ Owns (A, p) → Sells (Robert, p, A) ......(4)
 Missiles are weapons.
Missile(p) → Weapons (p) .......(5)
 Enemy of America is known as hostile.
Enemy(p, America) →Hostile(p) ........(6)
 Country A is an enemy of America.
Enemy (A, America) .........(7)
 Robert is American
American(Robert). ..........(8)

Forward chaining proof:

Step-1:

In the first step we will start with the known facts and will choose the sentences which do not
have implications, such as: American(Robert), Enemy(A, America), Owns(A, T1), and
Missile(T1). All these facts will be represented as below.

Step-2:

At the second step, we will see those facts which infer from available facts and with satisfied
premises.

Rule-(1) does not satisfy premises, so it will not be added in the first iteration.

Rule-(2) and (3) are already added.

Rule-(4) satisfy with the substitution {p/T1}, so Sells (Robert, T1, A) is added, which infers
from the conjunction of Rule (2) and (3).

Rule-(6) is satisfied with the substitution(p/A), so Hostile(A) is added and which infers from
Rule-(7).
Step-3:

At step-3, as we can check Rule-(1) is satisfied with the substitution {p/Robert, q/T1, r/A}, so
we can add Criminal(Robert) which infers all the available facts. And hence we reached our
goal statement.

Hence it is proved that Robert is Criminal using forward chaining approach.

B. Backward Chaining:
Backward-chaining is also known as a backward deduction or backward reasoning method when
using an inference engine. A backward chaining algorithm is a form of reasoning, which starts
with the goal and works backward, chaining through rules to find known facts that support the
goal.

Properties of backward chaining:

 It is known as a top-down approach.

 Backward-chaining is based on modus ponens inference rule.
 In backward chaining, the goal is broken into sub-goal or sub-goals to prove the facts
true.
 It is called a goal-driven approach, as a list of goals decides which rules are selected and
used.
 Backward -chaining algorithm is used in game theory, automated theorem proving tools,
inference engines, proof assistants, and various AI applications.
 The backward-chaining method mostly used a depth-first search strategy for proof.

Example:
In backward-chaining, we will use the same above example, and will rewrite all the rules.

 American (p) ∧ weapon(q) ∧ sells (p, q, r) ∧ hostile(r) → Criminal(p) ...(1)

Owns(A, T1) ........(2)
 Missile(T1)
 ?p Missiles(p) ∧ Owns (A, p) → Sells (Robert, p, A) ......(4)
 Missile(p) → Weapons (p) .......(5)
 Enemy(p, America) →Hostile(p) ........(6)
 Enemy (A, America) .........(7)
 American(Robert). ..........(8)

Backward-Chaining proof:
In Backward chaining, we will start with our goal predicate, which is Criminal(Robert), and
then infer further rules.

Step-1:

At the first step, we will take the goal fact. And from the goal fact, we will infer other facts, and
at last, we will prove those facts true. So our goal fact is "Robert is Criminal," so following is the
predicate of it.

Step-2:

At the second step, we will infer other facts form goal fact which satisfies the rules. So as we can
see in Rule-1, the goal predicate Criminal (Robert) is present with substitution {Robert/P}. So
we will add all the conjunctive facts below the first level and will replace p with Robert.

Here we can see American (Robert) is a fact, so it is proved here.

Step-3:t At step-3, we will extract further fact Missile(q) which infer from Weapon(q), as it
satisfies Rule-(5). Weapon (q) is also true with the substitution of a constant T1 at q.

Step-4:

At step-4, we can infer facts Missile(T1) and Owns(A, T1) form Sells(Robert, T1, r) which
satisfies the Rule- 4, with the substitution of A in place of r. So these two statements are proved
here.
Step-5:

At step-5, we can infer the fact Enemy(A, America) from Hostile(A) which satisfies Rule- 6.
And hence all the statements are proved true using backward chaining.
Difference between backward chaining and
forward chaining
Following is the difference between the forward chaining and backward chaining:

 Forward chaining as the name suggests, start from the known facts and move forward by
applying inference rules to extract more data, and it continues until it reaches to the goal,
whereas backward chaining starts from the goal, move backward by using inference rules
to determine the facts that satisfy the goal.
 Forward chaining is called a data-driven inference technique, whereas backward
chaining is called a goal-driven inference technique.
 Forward chaining is known as the down-up approach, whereas backward chaining is
known as a top-down approach.
 Forward chaining uses breadth-first search strategy, whereas backward chaining uses
depth-first search strategy.
 Forward and backward chaining both applies Modus ponens inference rule.
 Forward chaining can be used for tasks such as planning, design process monitoring,
diagnosis, and classification, whereas backward chaining can be used for classification
and diagnosis tasks.
 Forward chaining can be like an exhaustive search, whereas backward chaining tries to
avoid the unnecessary path of reasoning.
  In forward-chaining there can be various ASK questions from the knowledge base,
whereas in backward chaining there can be fewer ASK questions.
 Forward chaining is slow as it checks for all the rules, whereas backward chaining is fast
as it checks few required rules only.

S.
Forward Chaining Backward Chaining
No.
Forward chaining starts from known facts Backward chaining starts from the goal and
1. and applies inference rule to extract more works backward through inference rules to find
data unit it reaches to the goal. the required facts that support the goal.
2. It is a bottom-up approach It is a top-down approach
Forward chaining is known as data-driven Backward chaining is known as goal-driven
3. inference technique as we reach to the goal technique as we start from the goal and divide
using the available data. into sub-goal to extract the facts.
Forward chaining reasoning applies a Backward chaining reasoning applies a depth-
4.
breadth-first search strategy. first search strategy.
Forward chaining tests for all the available Backward chaining only tests for few required
5.
rules rules.
Forward chaining is suitable for the
Backward chaining is suitable for diagnostic,
6. planning, monitoring, control, and
prescription, and debugging application.
interpretation application.
Forward chaining can generate an infinite Backward chaining generates a finite number
7.
number of possible conclusions. of possible conclusions.
8. It operates in the forward direction. It operates in the backward direction.
Forward chaining is aimed for any Backward chaining is only aimed for the
9.
conclusion. required data.