Fizika

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June 27, 2024

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Contents

1 Fizika 3
1.1 Manbalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2 Adabiyotlar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Havolalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Contributors 15

List of Figures 17

3 Licenses 21
3.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1

• Bosh sahifa 2

• Tasodifiy 3
• Yonida 4
• Kirish 5

• Moslamalar 6

• Loyihaga koʻmak 7

• Vikipediya haqida 8
• Masʼuliyatdan voz kechish 9

10

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2 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosh_Sahifa
3 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxsus:Random
4 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxsus:Nearby
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6 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maxsus:MobileOptions&returnto=Fizika
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8 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikipediya:Haqida
9 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikipediya:Mas%CA%BCuliyatdan_voz_kechish
10 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosh_Sahifa

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1 Fizika

tabiiy borliqni oʻrganuvchi fan

• Boshqa tilda oʻqish 1

• Kuzatish 2
• Tahrirlash 3
Fizika (grekcha4 : φυσικός — „tabiiy“, φύσις (physis) — „tabiat“) tabiiy borliq haqidagi fan5
boʻlib, tabiatning eng keng tarqalgan qonunlari, modda, uning tuzilishi, harakati va o'zgar-
ish qoidalarini oʻrganadi. Fizika bu tabiiy fandir, lekin undagi qonuiyatlar va hisob-kitoblar
aniqlikka asoslangan. U quyidagi asosiy qismlardan iborat:
1. Klassik mexanika6
2. Elektrodinamika7 va klassik maydon nazariyasi8
3. Kvant mexanikasi9
4. Statistik fizika10 va Termodinamika11
5. Optika12 va Spektroskopiya13
6. Molekulyar fizika14
7. Atom fizikasi15
8. Kvant maydonlar nazariyasi16
9. Gravitatsiya17 va Kosmologiya18
10. Kalibrlangan maydonlar19 va Supersimmetriya20 .

1 #p-lang
2 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maxsus:UserLogin&returnto=Fizika
3 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fizika&action=edit
4 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grek_tili
5 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan
6 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassik_mexanika
7 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrodinamika
https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klassik_maydon_nazariyasi&action=edit&
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9 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvant_mexanikasi
10 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistik_fizika
11 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termodinamika
12 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optika
13 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spektroskopiya
14 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molekulyar_fizika
15 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom_fizikasi
16 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvant_maydonlar_nazariyasi
17 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitatsiya
18 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosmologiya
https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalibrlangan_maydonlar&action=edit&
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20 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supersimmetriya&action=edit&redlink=1

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Fizika

Fizika fani eksperimental va nazariy fizikaga boʻlinadi. Eksperimental fizika21 tajribalar

asosida yangi maʼlumotlar oladi va qabul qilingan qonunlarni tekshiradi. Nazariy fizika22
tabiat qonunlarini taʼriflaydi, oʻrganiladigan hodisalarni tushuntiradi va yuz berishi mumkin
boʻlgan hodisalarni oldindan aytib beradi.
Oʻrganilayotgan obʼyektlar va materiallarning harakat shakllariga qarab, fizika fani bir-biri
bilan oʻzaro chambarchas bogʻlangan elementar zarralar fizikasi23 , yadro fizikasi24 , atom va
molekulalar fizikasi25 , gaz va suyuqliklar fizikasi26 , qattiq jismlar fizikasi27 , plazma fizikasi28
boʻlimlaridan tashkil topgan. Oʻrganilayotgan jarayonlarga va materiyaning harakat shakl-
lariga qarab, fizika moddiy nuqta va qattiq jism29 mexanikasi, termodinamika30 va statistik
fizika31 , elektrodinamika32 , kvant mexanika33 , maydon kvant nazariyasini34 oʻz ichiga oladi.
Fizikaning tarixiy rivojlanishi. Fizika tarixini 3 davrga boʻlib oʻrganish mumkin:
1) qad. zamondan XVII asrgacha boʻlgan davr;
2) XVII asrdan XIX asr oxirigacha boʻlgan davr. Bu davrdagi fizika fani, odatda, klassik
fizika35 nomi bilan yuritiladi;
3) XIX asr oxiridan hozirgi paytgacha boʻlgan davr. Hozirgi zamon fizikasi (yoki eng yangi
fizika) shu davrga mansub.
Turli hodisalarni va ularning sababini oʻrganish qad. zamon olimlarining bizgacha yetib kel-
gan asarlarida aks etgan. Miloddan avvalgi VI asrdan to milodiy II asrgacha boʻlgan davrda
moddalarning atomlardan tashkil topganligi haqidagi tushunchalar va gʻoyalar yaratildi (
Demokrit36 , Epikur37 , Lukretsiy38 ), dunyoning geosentrik tizimi ishlab chiqildi (Ptole-
mey), elektr va magnit hodisalari kuzatildi (Fales39 ), statika40 (Pifagor41 ) va gidrostatikan-
ing42 rivojlanishiga asos solindi (Arximed43 ), yorugʻlik nurining toʻgʻri chizikli tarqalishi va

21 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eksperimental_fizika
22 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazariy_fizika
https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elementar_zarralar_fizikasi&action=edit&
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24 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_fizikasi
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27 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qattiq_jismlar_fizikasi
28 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plazma_fizikasi&action=edit&redlink=1
29 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qattiq_jism
30 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termodinamika
31 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistik_fizika
32 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrodinamika
33 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvant_mexanika
34 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kvant_nazariyasi&action=edit&redlink=1
35 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klassik_fizika&action=edit&redlink=1
36 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demokrit
37 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikur
38 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukretsiy
39 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fales_Miletlik
40 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statika
41 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pifagor
42 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gidrostatika
43 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arximed

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qaytish qonunlari ochildi, miloddan avvalgi IV-asrda Aristotel44 oʻtmish avlodlar va zamon-
doshlarining ishlariga yakun yasadi. Aristotelning ijodi yutuqlar bilan birga kamchiliklar-
dan ham holi emas. U tajribalarning mohiyatini tan oldi, ammo uni bilimlarning ishonchli
belgisi ekanini inkor etib, asosiy eʼtiborni farosat bilan anglashda, deb bildi. Aristotel ijo-
dining bu tomonlari cherkov namoyandalariga qoʻl kelib, uzoq, davrlar fan taraqqiyotiga
toʻsqinlik koʻrsatdilar. IX-XVI asrlarda ilmiy izlanishlar markazi Yaqin va Oʻrta Sharq
mamlakatlariga siljidi. Bu davrga kelib, fan rivojiga, jumladan, fizikaning rivojiga Oʻrta
Osiyo45 olimlari ulkan hissa qoʻshdilar. Fizika, matematika46 , astronomiya47 va tabiat-
shunoslikka oid masalalar Xorazmiy48 , Ahmad al-Fargʻoniy49 , Forobiy50 , Beruniy51 , Ter-
miziy, Ibn Sino52 , Ulugʻbek53 , Ali Qushchi54 va boshqa Oʻrta Osiyolik olimlarning ishlarida
oʻz aksini topgan. Bu olimlarning fizikaga oid ilmiy ishlari, mexanika55 , geometriya56 , os-
mon mexanikasi, optika57 va turli tabiat hodisalarini oʻrganish bilan bogʻliqdir. Xorazmiy58
oʻrta asrlarda, nazariy va amaliy tabiatshunoslik59 hali boʻlmagan davrda, dunyoviy fan-
lar, ilgʻor ijtimoiy-falsafiy fikrlar ijodkori boʻlib chiqdi. U Sharqning dastlabki akademiyasi
„Bayt ul Hikma“60 („Donolar uyi“61 )ning shakllanishida faol ishtirok etgan. Bu yerda uning
rahbarligida arablar62 va boshqa xalqlar vakillari bilan bir qatorda Ahmad al-Fargʻoniy63 ,
Axmad Abdulabbos Marvaziy64 kabi Oʻrta Osiyolik olimlar tadqiqotlar olib borganlar.
„Algoritm“ soʻzi „Xorazmiy“ soʻzining lotincha65 transkripsiyasi boʻlib, bu soʻzni algebra
masalalarini yechishda birinchi marta qoʻllagan edi. Ahmad al-Fargʻoniyning „Osmon jism-
lari harakati“ kitobi IX asrda bitilgan boʻlib, XII asrda lotin tiliga, XIII asrda Yevropaning
boshqa tillariga tarjima qilinib keng tarqalgan edi. Ahmad al-Fargʻoniy asarlari Yevropada
Uygʻonish davri ilmiy tadqiqotchilarining asosini tashkil etgan asarlardan boʻldi. U yorugʻ-
likning sinishi va qaytishini aniqlagan. Fargʻoniy stereografik proyeksiya nazariyasining
asoschisi sifatida fazo jismlari harakatining tekisliklardagi proyeksiyalari nisbatlari asosida
baʼzi bir kattaliklarni oʻlchash mumkinligini isbotladi. Bu fikr bugun ham astrofizika fanida
oʻz qiymatini yoʻqotmagan.

44 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotel
45 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBrta_Osiyo
46 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matematika
47 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya
48 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xorazmiy
49 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Farg%CA%BBoniy
50 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forobiy
51 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Rayhon_Beruniy
52 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ali_ibn_Sino
53 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirzo_Ulug%CA%BBbek
54 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Qushchi
55 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexanika
56 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometriya
57 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optika
58 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xorazmiy
59 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabiatshunoslik
60 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bayt_ul_Hikma&action=edit&redlink=1
61 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Donolar_uyi&action=edit&redlink=1
62 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab
63 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Farg%CA%BBoniy
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65 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotin_tili

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Beruniy Yerning oʻz oʻqi atrofida aylanishini oʻzi yasagan asboblar yordamida isbotladi va
Yer radiusi 6490 km ga yaqin ekanligini aniqladi. U dunyoning moddiyligi, harakatning
turlari, atomning boʻlinishi, atomdan keyingi zarralarning oʻzaro taʼsir kuchlari, solishtirma
ogʻirlikni aniqlash usullari, jism inersiyasi, boʻshliq, atmosfera bosimi, suyuqliklar gidro-
statikasi, qor, yomgʻir va doʻlning paydo boʻlish sabablari, energiya aylanishi, jismlarning
elektrlanishi, dengiz hamda ummon suvlarining koʻtarilishi va pasayish sabablari, yorugʻ-
likning korpuskulyar hamda toʻlqin xossasi, tovush va yorugʻlik tezligi, yorugʻlikning qaytishi
hamda sinishining sabablari, dispersiya hodisasi, Yer va boshqa sayyoralarning Quyosh
atrofidagi harakatlari ellips shakliga yaqinligi, fazoviy jismlarning vaznsizligi toʻgʻrisida fikr-
lar yuritdi. Abu Nasr al-Forobiyning tovush tezligi, tovushning toʻlqin tabiati, tovush chas-
totasi, tovush toʻlqinining uzunligi haqidagi fikrlari va ularga asoslanib yaratilgan musiqa
notasi hamda optikaga oid koʻpgina ishlari fizika fanining rivojlanishiga qoʻshilgan katta
hissa boʻldi. Ibn Sino harakatning nisbiyligi, inersiya, kuch, massa va tezlanish orasidagi
bogʻlanish, aylanma harakat, markazga intilma kuch, chizikli tezlik, boʻshliq va atmosfera
bosimi, konveksiya, issiqlikning tabiati, issiqlik uzatilishining turlari, yashin va yashinning
turlari, momaqaldiroq hodisasi, tovush va yorugʻlik tezligi, yorugʻlik dispersiyasi, linza,
atom tuzil ishi va boshqa mavzularga tegishli mulohazalarining aksariyati hozirgi zamon
tushunchalariga juda moye keladi.
Hakim Termiziy dunyoviy fanlarning ungacha boʻlgan yutuqlarini qomusiy olim sifatida
oʻrgandi, jumladan, tabiat hodisalari va jarayonlarini tahlil etuvchi „Solnoma“, „Haftanoma“
kabi asarlari maʼlum. Mirzo Ulugʻbek XV asrda jahonda yagona rasadxona qurdi. Uning
„Ziji Koʻragoniy“ asarida astronomiyaning nazariy asoslari yoritdi va 1018 ta yulduzning
joylashish koordinatalarini juda katta aniqlikda berdi. Uning qiymatlari hozirgi qiymatlarga
juda yaqin.
Fizik hodisalarni tushuntirishda Oʻrta Osiyolik olimlarning mulohazalari qadimgi anʼanalar
taʼsirida rivojlangan boʻlsada, ular matematik usullarni keng joriy etib, tajribalardan foy-
dalanib, fanga katta hissa qoʻshdilar.
Klassik fizikaning rivojlanishi. XVII asrga kelib G. Galiley mexanik harakatni tajriba yoʻli
bilan oʻrganib, harakatni matematik formulalar asosida ifodalash zarurligini aniqladi va bu
fizika fanining keskin rivojiga turtki boʻldi. U jismlarning oʻzaro taʼsiri natijasida tezlik oʻz-
garib, tezlanish hosil boʻlishini, taʼsir boʻlmaganda harakat holatining oʻzgarmasligi, yaʼni
tezlanishning nolga tengligini yoki tezlikning oʻzgarmasdan saqlanishini qayd etib, Aris-
totelning shu masalaga qarashli fikrini, yaʼni taʼsir natijasida tezlik hosil boʻlishini inkor
etadi. Keyinchalik Galiley aniqlagan qonun inersiya qonuni yoki Nyutonning mexanikaga
oid birinchi qonuni degan nom oldi. 1600-yilda U. Gilbert elektr va magnit hodisalarni
oʻrganish bilan shuhrat qozondi hamda Yer tirik magnit ekanligini isbotladi. U kompas
magnit milining burilishini Yerning katta magnitga oʻxshashi orqali tushuntirdi, magnetizm
va elektrning oʻzaro bogʻlanishini tekshirdi. Galiley mexanikadagi nisbiylik prinsipini ochdi
va erkin tushayotgan jism tezlanishi uning tezligi va massasiga bogʻliq emasligini isbotladi.
E.Torrichelli yuqoridagi prinsipdan foydalanib, atmosfera bosimining mavjudligini aniqladi
va birinchi barometrni yaratdi. R. Boyl va E. Mariott gazlarning elastikligini aniqladilar
hamda gazlar uchun birinchi qonun - Boyl-Mariott qonunini yaratdilar. Gollandiyalik as-
tronom va matematik V. Snellius (Snell) bilan R. Dekart yorugʻlik nurining sinish qonunini
ochdilar.
XVII asr Fizikasining eng katta yutuqlaridan biri klassik mexanikaning yaratilishi boʻldi.
I. Nyuton 1687-yilda Galiley va oʻz zamondoshlarining gʻoyalarini umumlashtirib, klassik

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mexanikaning asosiy qonunlarini taʼriflab berdi. Nyuton tomonidan jismlar holati tushun-
chasining kiritilishi barcha fizik royalar uchun muhim boʻldi, jismlar tizimining holatini mex-
anikada ularning koordinatalari va impulslari orqali toʻla aniqlash imkoniyati yaratildi. Agar
jismning boshlangʻich vaqtdagi holati hamda harakat davomida unga taʼsir etuvchi kuch-
larning tabiati maʼlum boʻlsa, Nyuton qonunlariga asoslangan holda shu jismning harakat
tenglamasini tuzish mumkin. Bu harakat tenglamasidan foydalanib, ushbu jismning istal-
gan vaqtdagi fazodagi oʻrnini, tezlik, tezlanish va fizik kattaliklarni aniqlash mumkin boʻldi.
Nyuton sayyoralar harakatlarini tushuntiruvchi Kepler qonunlari asosida butun olam tor-
tishish qonunini ochdi va bu qonun orqali Oy, sayyoralar va kometalar harakatini isbotlab
berdi. X. Poygens va G. Leybnis harakat miqdorining saqlanish qonunini taʼrifladilar.
XVII asrning 2-yarmida fizik optika asoslari yaratila boshlandi, teleskop va boshqa op-
tik qurilmalar yaratildi. Fizik A. Grimaldi yorugʻlik difraksiyasini, I. Nyuton esa yorugʻ-
lik dispersiyasiik tadqiq qildi. 1676-yilda daniyalik astronom O. Ryomer yorugʻlik tezlig-
ini oʻlchadi. Shu davrdan yorugʻlikning korpuskulyar va toʻlqin nazariyalari yuzaga keldi
hamda rivoj topa boshladi. I. Nyuton yorugʻlikni korpuskula (zarra)lar harakati orqali
tushuntirsa, X. Gyuygens uni faraz qilinuvchi muhit — efirda tarqaladigan toʻlqinlar yor-
damida tushuntirdi.
Shunday qilib, XVII asrda klassik mexanika mustahkam oʻrin egalladi, akustika, optika,
elektr va magnetizm, issiqlik hodisalarini oʻrganish sohalarida katta izlanishlar boshlandi.
XVIII asrga kelib tajriba va mat.dan keng foydalangan klassik mexanika va osmon mex-
anikasi yanada tez surʼatlar bilan rivojlandi. Yer va Osmon hodisalarini mexanika qonunlari
orqali tushuntirish asosiy maqsad hamda bosh taʼlimot hisoblanar edi. Hatto, oʻrganilay-
otgan fizik hodisani mexanika qonunlari orqali tushuntirish mumkin boʻlmasa, tanlangan
tushuntirish yoʻli toʻliq emas yoki notoʻgʻri deb yuritilar edi.
XVIII asrda zarralar va qattiq jismlar mexanikasi bilan birga gaz hamda suyuqliklar mex-
anikasi rivojlandi. D. Bernulli, L. Eyler, J. Lagranj va boshqalar ideal suyuqlik gidrodi-
namikasiga asos soldilar. Fransuz olimi Sh. Dyufe elektrning ikki turi mavjudligini aniqladi
hamda ularning oʻzaro tortilish va itarilishini koʻrsatdi. Amerikalik olim B. Franklin elektr
zaryadining saqlanish qonunini aniqladi. T. Kavendish va undan mustasno Sh. Kulon
qoʻzgʻalmas elektr zaryadining oʻzaro taʼsir kuchini tajribada aniqladilar hamda matematik
ifodasini topib, asosiy qonun - Kulon qonunini ochdilar.
Rus fiziklari G. Rixman, M.V. Lomonosov va amerikalik olim B. Franklin atmosferada hosil
boʻladigan elektr, yashinning tabiatini tushuntirib berdilar. A. Galvani, A. Volta va keyin-
chalik rus fizigi hamda elektrotexnigi V. Petrovning kuzatishlari va tadqiqotlari elektrodi-
namikaning vujudga kelishi hamda tez surʼatlar bilan rivojlanishiga sabab boʻldi. Optika
sohasida P. Buger va I. Lambert ishlari tufayli fotometriyaga asos solindi. Infraqizil (ingliz
optigi V. Gershel va ingliz kimyogari U. Vollston) va ultrabinafsha (ingliz kimyogari I. Rit-
ter) nurlar mavjudligi aniqlandi. Issiqlik hodisalari, issiqlik miqdori, issiqlik sigʻimi, issiqlik
oʻtkazuvchanlik va h.k.ni oʻrganishda ham qator izlanishlar olib borildi. M. Lomonosov, R.
Boyl, R. Guk, Bernullilar issiqlikning molekulyar-kinetik nazariyasiga asos soldilar.
XIX asr boshida T. Yung va O. Frenellarning toʻlqin nazariyasi asosida yorugʻlik difraksiyasi
va yorugʻlik interferensiyasi yaratildi. Yorugʻlikni koʻndalang toʻlqin sifatida elastik muhitda
tarqaladi deb, Frenel singan va qaytgan yorugʻlik toʻlqinlarining intensivligini belgilovchi
miqdoriy qonunni aniqladi. Fransuz fizigi E. Malyus yorugʻlikning qutblanishi hodisasini
kashf etdi, yorugʻlik spektriga va difraksiyasiga tegishli izlanishlar olib bordi. Yorugʻlikning

7
Fizika

tabiati haqidagi korpuskulyar va toʻlqin nazariyalari orasidagi deyarli ikki asr davom etgan
kurash toʻlqin nazariyasi foydasiga hal boʻldi.
Italiyalik olimlar A. Galvani va A.Voltalarning elektr tokini kashf etishlari hamda dunyoda
birinchi marta 1800-yilda galvanik elementning yasalishi fizika fanining rivojlanishida katta
ahamiyatga ega boʻldi. 1820-yilda daniyalik fizik X. Ersted tokli oʻtkazgichning kompas
mili bilan oʻzaro taʼsirda boʻlishini elektr va magnit hodisalar orasida bogʻlanish borligi
bilan tushuntirdi. Shu yillarda A. Amper zaryadlangan zarralarning tartibli harakati tu-
fayli paydo boʻluvchi elektr toki bilan barcha magnit hodisalari bogʻliq ekanligi toʻgʻrisida
xulosaga keldi va tajriba asosida tokli oʻtkazgichlar orasidagi vujudga keluvchi oʻzaro taʼsir
kuchini ifodalovchi qonunni ixtiro qildi (Amper qonuni). 1831-yilda M. Faradey elektromag-
nit induksiya hodisasini ochdi va elektromagnit maydon tushunchasi haqidagi taʼlimotni
yaratdi. Metallarning elektr oʻtkazuvchanligini oʻrganish Om qonunining (1826), mod-
dalarning issiqlik xususiyatlarini oʻrganish — issiqlik sigʻimi qonunining yaratilishiga olib
keldi.
Tabiatning barcha hodisalarini bir butun qilib bogʻlovchi energiyaning saqlanish va aylanish
qonunining ochilishi tabiatshunoslikda, jumladan, fizikaning rivojlanishida katta ahamiy-
atga ega. XIX asr oʻrtalariga kelib tajriba orqali issiqlik miqdori bilan bajarilgan ish miq-
dorining oʻzaro qiyosiy tengligi isbotlandi va shu asosda issiqlik energiyaning maxsus turi
ekanligi aniqlandi. Energiyaning saqlanish va aylanish qonuni issiqlik hodisalari nazariyasin-
ing asosiy qonuni boʻlib, u termodinamikaning birinchi bosh qonuni deb ataladi. Bu qonunni
Yu.R. Mayer taʼriflagan, nemis fizigi G. Gelmgols aniqroq shaklga keltirgan (1874). Ter-
modinamikaning rivojlanishida S. Karno, R. Klauzius, U. Tomson, E. Klapeyron va D.I.
Mendeleyevlarning xizmatlari katta boʻldi. S. Karno issiqlikning mexanik harakatga ay-
lanishini aniqladi, R. Klauzius, U. Tomson issiqlik nazariyasining asosiy qonuni - termod-
inamikaning ikkinchi bosh qonunini taʼrifladilar, R. Boyl, E. Mariott, J. Gey - Lyussak,
B. Klapeyron ideal gazning holat tenglamasini aniqladilar. D.I. Mendeleyev uni barcha
gazlar uchun umumlashtirdi va h.k. Termodinamika bilan birga issiqlikning molekulyar-
kinetik nazariyasi rivojlanib bordi. A. Eynshteyn, polyak fizigi M. Smoluxovskiy va fran-
suz fizigi J. Perrenlar Broun harakati atom hamda molekulalarning issiqlik harakati ekan-
ligini isbotlab, molekulyar-kinetik nazariya asoslari boʻlgan Broun harakatining miqdoriy
nazariyasini yaratdilar. Bu esa, oʻz navbatida, statistik mexanikaning toʻla tan olinishiga
olib keldi. J.K. Maksvell kiritgan ehtimollik xarakteriga ega boʻlgan statistik tushunchalar
asosida gazlardagi molekulalar tezligi, erkin yugurish uzunligi, vaqt birligi ichidagi toʻq-
nashuvlar soni va boshqa kattaliklarning oʻrtacha qiymatlarini topishga yoʻl ochildi, uning
molekulalarning oʻrtacha kinetik energiyasiga bogʻliqligi koʻrsatildi. Materiyaning kinetik
nazariyasi taraqqiy etishi L. Bolsman tomonidan statistik mexanika - Bolsman statistikasi
yaratilishiga olib keldi. XIX asrning 2-yarmida J.K. Maksvell elektromagnit hodisalarn-
ing elektromagnit maydon tushunchasiga asoslangan yangi nazariyasini va uni ifodalovchi
tegishli tenglamalar tizimini yaratdi. U tabiatda elektromagnit toʻlqinlarning mavjudlig-
ini, ularning aniq, xususiyatlari — bosimi, difraksiyasi, interferensiyasi, tarqalish tezligi,
qutblanishi va h.k. borligini aniqladi. Maksvell nazariyasining eng muhim natijasi elektro-
magnit toʻlqinlarning tarqalish tezligi yorugʻlik tezligiga teng boʻlgan qiymatga ega ekanligi
toʻgʻrisidagi xulosa hisoblandi. Maksvell nazariyasidan yorugʻlikning elektromagnit xususiy-
atiga ega ekanligi kelib chiqdi. G. Gersning elektromagnit toʻlqinlarni aniqlash boʻyicha olib
borgan tajribalari buni tasdiqladi. 1899-yil P. Lebedev yorugʻlikning bosimini tajriba orqali
aniqladi. 1895-yilda A.S. Popov Maksvell nazariyasidan foydalanib simsiz aloqani yaratdi.

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Yuqoridagi va boshqa tajribalar Maksvellning elektromagnit nazariyasi toʻgʻriligiga yakun

yasadi.
Shunday qilib, XIX asr fizikasi 2 boʻlimdan — jismlar fizikasi va maydon fizikasidan iborat
boʻldi. Jismlar fizikasi asosida molekulyar-kinetik nazariya qabul qilingan boʻlsa, maydon
fizikasida elektromagnit maydon nazariyasi asosiy rol oʻynadi.
Klassik fizika modda, vaqt, fazo, massa, energiya va h.k. haqidagi maxsus tasavvurlar,
tushunchalar, qonunlar, prinsiplardan tashkil topgan. U klassik mexanika, klassik statis-
tika, klassik termodinamika, klassik elektrodinamika va boshqa boʻlimlarga boʻlinadi. Klas-
sik mexanikada harakat qonunlari — Nyuton qonunlaridan iborat. Moddiy nuqta, mutlaq
qattiq jism, tutash mux,itlar tushunchalari muhim rol oʻynaydi. Bularga moye tarzda mod-
diy nuqta mexanikasi, mutlaq qattiq jism mexanikasi, tutash muhit mexanikasi mavjud.
Koʻp amaliy hollarda qoniqarli natijalar beradigan klassik fizika katta tezliklar va
mikroobʼyektlar bilan bogʻliq hodisalarni toʻgʻri tushuntirishga ojizlik qildi. Shunday hodis-
alar qatoriga qattiq jismlarning issiqlik sigʻimi, atom tizimlarining tuzilishi va ulardagi
oʻzgarishlar xarakteri, elementar zarralarning oʻzaro taʼsiri hamda bir-biriga aylanishi,
mikrotizimlardagi energetik holatlarning uzlukli oʻzgarishi, massaning tezlikka bogʻliqligi
va boshqa masalalar kiradi. Fizikaning yangi taraqqiyoti yuqoridagiga oʻxshash hodisalarni
ham toʻgʻri tushuntirib bera oladigan yangi, noklassik tasavvurlarga olib keldi. Bunday
tasavvurlarga asoslangan yangi fizika maydon kvant nazariyasi va nisbiylik nazariyasiaan
iborat.
Fizikaning klassik va noklassik fizikaga ajratilishi shartlidir. Galiley-Nyuton mexanikasi,
Faradey-Maksvell elektrodinamikasi, Bolsman-Gibbs statistikasini, odatda, klassik fizikaga,
maydon kvant nazariyasi va nisbiylik nazariyasini hozirgi zamon fizikasiga kiritishadi. Tar-
ixiy jihatdan bu haqiqatan ham shunday. Ammo klassik fizika bilan hozirgi zamon fizikasini
bir-biriga qarshi qoʻyish asossizdir. Yangi texnika, kosmosni egallash kabi sohalarda klassik
fizikadan keng foydalanib muhim yutuqlarga erishilmoqda. Maksvell tomonidan elektro-
magnit hodisalarni oʻrganish jarayonlari uning ”Klassik elektrodinamika”si yaratishi bilan
yakunlandi. 1897-yilda J. Tomsonning elektron zarrasining ochishi bilan fizika rivojida yangi
davr boshlandi.
Hozirgi zamon fizikasi. XIX asr oxirida aniqlangan qator yangiliklar (elektronning ochilishi,
elektron massasining tezlik oʻzgarishi bilan oʻzgarishi, harakatlanuvchi tizimlarda elektro-
magnit hodisalarining roʻy berishidagi qonuniyatlar va boshqalar) Nyutonning fazo va
vaqt mutlaqligi toʻgʻrisidagi tasavvurlarini tanqidiy tekshirib chiqish kerakligini koʻrsatdi.
J.Puankare, X.A. Lorens kabi olimlar bu sohada tadqiqotlar olib borishdi. 1900-yilda M.
Plank nur chiqarayotgan tizim — ossillyatorning nurlanish energiyasi uzluksiz qiymatlarga
ega degan klassik fikrni rad etib, bu energiya faqat uzlukli qiymatlar (kvantlar)dangina ibo-
rat degan butunlay yangi farazni ilgari surdi. Shunga asoslanib nazariya bilan tajriba nati-
jalarini taqqoslanganda ularning mos kelishini aniqladi. Plank gipotezasini A. Eynshteyn
rivojlantirib, yorugʻlik nurlanganda ham, tarqalganda ham kvantlar — maxsus zarralardan
tashkil topadi degan fikrga keldi. Bu zarralar fotonlar deb ataldi. Foton iborasini 1905-
yilda A.Eynshteyn fotoeffekt nazariyasini talqin etishda qoʻllagan, bu ibora fizika fanida
1929-yildagina paydo boʻldi. Shunday qilib, fotonlar nazariyasiga muvofiq yorugʻlik toʻlqin
(interferensiya, difraksiya) va zarra (korpuskulyar) xususiyatga ega.
1905-yilda A. Eynshteyn Plank gipotezasini rivojlantirib, maxsus nisbiylik nazariyasini
yaratdi. 1911-yilda E. Rezerfordning alfa zarralarning jismlarda sochilishini tekshirish

9
Fizika

tajribasi atomlar yadrosining mavjudligini isbotladi va u atomlarning planetar modelini

yaratdi. 1913-yilda N. Bor nurlanishning kvant xarakteri asosida atomlardagi elektronlar
maʼlum barqaror holatlargagina ega boʻlib, bu holatlarda energiya nurlanishi sodir boʻl-
maydi, degan postulatni yaratdi. Nurlanish elektronlarning bir barqaror holatdan ikkinchi
barqaror holatga ”sakrab oʻtishi”da, yaʼni diskret ravishda roʻy beradi. Bu postulat oʻsha
yili J. Frank va G. Gers oʻtkazgan tajribalarda tasdiqlandi. Bor postulati atomning planetar
modeli kvant xarakterga ega ekanligini koʻrsatadi.
A. Eynshteyn butun olam tortishishi (gravitatsiya) masalasi bilan shugʻullanib, 1916-yilda
fazo, vaqt va tortishishning yangi nazariyasi — Umumiy nisbiylik nazariyasi66 (UNN)ni
yaratdi. Ilgaridan maʼlum va kuzatilgan, ammo toʻgʻri hamda mukammal ilmiy tushuntir-
ilmasdan kelayotgan qator hodisa va faktlar nisbiylik nazariyasi tufayli har tomonlama
oydinlashdi. Bu nazariya oʻziga qadar fanga maʼlum boʻlmagan koʻplab yangi hodisalar qo-
nunlarning borligini oldindan aytib berdi, eng yangi fan uchun gʻoyat zarur boʻlgan natija va
xulosalarga erishildi (massaning tezlik oʻzgarishi bilan oʻzgarishi, massa bilan energiyaning
oʻzaro bogʻlanishi, yorugʻlik nurlarining kosmosdagi jismlarning yaqin atrofidan chetlanib
ogʻishi va boshqalar). M. Laue kristallarda atomlarning tartibli joylashishini rentgen nurlari
difraksiyasi yordamida birinchi boʻlib tushuntirib berdi. Rus fizigi G.V. Vulf va ingliz fizigi
U.L. Bregg kristallarda atomlarning joylashishini, ular oraligʻidagi masofalarni aniqlab, rent-
gen strukturalari taxliliga asos soldilar. P. Debai, M. Bornlar kristall panjaralari garmonik
tebranib turadigan ossilyatorlar yigʻindisidan iborat, deb tushuntirdilar.
XX asrning 20-yillariga kelib, kvant mexanikaga toʻla asos solindi, mikrozarralar harakatin-
ing norelyativistik nazariyasi toʻla isbotlandi. Buning asosini Plank - Eynshteyn - Borlarn-
ing kvantlashuv va L. Broylning materiyaning korpuskulyar-toʻlqin xususiyati toʻgʻrisidagi
(1924) gʻoyalari tashkil etdi. 1927-yilda tajribalarda kuzatilgan elektron difraksiyasi bu
fikrni tasdiqladi. 1926-yilda avstriyalik fizik E. Shryodinger atomlarning uzlukli energiyaga
ega ekanligini ifodalovchi kvant mexanikaning asosiy tenglamasini yaratdi.
Kvant mexanika bilan bir qatorda kvant statistika ham rivojlanib bordi. U koʻp
mikrozarralardan tashkil topgan tizimlarning xossalarini kvant mexanika qonunlari yor-
damida oʻrganadi. 1924-yilda hindistonlik fizik Sh. Boze kvant statistikasi qonuniyatlarini
fotonlarga (spinlari 1 ga teng) tatbiq etib, muvozanatli nurlanish spektrida energiyaning
taqsimlanishi uchun Plank formulasini, Eynshteyn esa ideal gaz uchun energiyaning taqsim-
lanish formulasini keltirib chiqardi. 1925-yilda amerikalik fiziklar J. Ulenbek va S. Gaus-
mit elektronning xususiy harakat miqdori momentini aniqladilar. Shu yili V. Pauli bir xil
kvant holatda faqat bittagina elektron boʻla olishini koʻrsatdi (Pauli prinsipi), shu asosda
Mendeleyev davriy sistemasiga nazariy asos berildi.
1926-yilda E. Fermi va P. Dirak Pauli prinsipiga boʻysunadigan, spinlari 1/2 ga teng boʻlgan,
bir xildagi zarralar tizimi uchun Fermi-Dirak statistikasini kashf qildilar.
1928-yilda Ya. Frenkel va V. Geyzenberg ferromagnetizm asosida kvantli almashinishdagi
oʻzaro taʼsirlar hal qiluvchi ekanligini koʻrsatdilar. 1932-1933-yillarda fransuz fizigi L. Neyel
va Ya. Landaular antiferromagnitizm mavjud ekanligini oldindan bashorat qildilar. X.
Kamerling Onnes tomonidan simob, qalay va baʼzi elementlarning oʻta oʻtkazuvchanlig-
ining hamda Kapitsa tomonidan geliy II ning, oʻta oquvchanligi ochilishi kvant statis-

66 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umumiy_nisbiylik_nazariyasi

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tikasida yangi yoʻnalishlarning vujudga kelishiga olib keldi. 1950-yilga kelib L. Landau
va V. Ginzburg oʻta oʻtkazuvchanlikning batafsil nazariyasini ishlab chiqdilar.
1916-yilda Albert Eynshteyn67 yaratgan majburiy nurlanishning kvant nazariyasi asosida
50-yillarga kelib yangi kvant elektronikasi rivoj topdi. N. Basov va A. Proxorov (ulardan
mustaqil tarzda amerikalik olim U. Tauns) yaratgan mazerda elektromagnit toʻlqinlarni hosil
qilish va kuchaytirishni amalga oshirdilar. Bu 60-yillarda yorugʻlikning kvant generatori -
lazerning yaratilishiga olib keldi.
XX asrning 2-choragida atom yadrolari tizimi sirlarini va mavjud boʻlayotgan jarayon-
larni oʻrganish bilan elementar zarralar fizikasining yaratilishi fizikada inqilobiy oʻzgarishlar
boʻlishiga olib keldi.
A.E. Bekkerel P. Kyuri va M. Sklodovskaya Kyuri bilan hamkorlikda radioaktiv nurlanishni,
keyinchalik E. Rezerford bu nurlanishning oʻz-oʻzidan parchalanishi nurlanish bilan birga-
likda hosil boʻlishini ochdilar. 1932-yilda J.Chedvik neytron zarrani ochdi. Rus olimi D.D.
Ivanenko va V. Geyzenberglar atom yadrosining proton va neytrondan iborat ekanligini
aniqladilar. 1934-yilda I. Jolio va Kyurilar sunʼiy radioaktivlik hodisasini ochdilar.
Tezlatkichlarning yaratilishi zaryadlangan zarralar taʼsirida yadro reaksiyalari hosil qilish
imkonini yaratdi. Yadro boʻlinishlari hodisasining ochilishi muhim natija boʻldi. 1939-1945-
yillarda birinchi marta U 235 zanjir reaksiyasi yordamida yadro energiyasi ajralib chiqishiga
erishildi. Bu energiyadan tinch maqsadda foydalanish 1954-yildan amalga oshdi. 1952-yilda
termoyadro sintezi (termoyadro portlashi) amalga oshirildi.
Atom yadrosi fizikasi rivoji bilan bir vaqtda elementar zarralar fizikasi ham rivojlandi. Bir-
inchi muhim yutuqlar kosmik nurlarni tadqiq qilish bilan bogʻliqdir. Myuonlar, π mezonlar,
K mezonlar, giperonlar kabi zarralar topildi. Yuqori energiyali zaryadli zarralar tezlat-
kichlari yaratilishi bilan elementar zarralar, ularning xususiyatlari va oʻzaro taʼsirlari rejali
tadqiq qilina boshladi. Tajribalarda ikki xil neytrinolar va boshqa koʻplab elementar zarralar
ochildi.
Fizika tekshiradigan hodisalarni miqdoriy tahlil qilishda matematikadan keng foydalanadi.
Hodisalarning oʻtishi va ularning tabiatidagi murakkablikka qarab qoʻllaniladigan mat.
usullari ham murakkablashadi. Hozirgi davrda elementar matematika, differensial, inte-
gral hisoblar, analitik geometriya, oddiy differensial tenglamalar bilangina cheklanib qolish
mumkin emas. Masalan, maydon nazariyasida tenzorlar, operatorlar kabi tushunchalardan
keng foydalaniladi. Fizikaning rivojlanishi hamma vaqt boshqa tabiiy fanlar bilan cham-
barchas bogʻliq boʻlib kelgan. Fizikaning rivojlanishi boshqa tabiiy fanlarning rivojlan-
ishiga va koʻpgina hollarda yangi fanlarning vujudga kelishiga olib kelgan. Masalan, fizik-
lar tomonidan mikroskopning ixtiro etilishi kimyo68 , biologiya, zoologiya fanlarining keng
koʻlamda rivojlanishiga sabab boʻldi. Teleskopning yaratilishi, spektral analiz qonunlarin-
ing kashf etilishi astronomiya fanining rivojlanishini jadallashtirdi. Elektromagnit induksiya
hodisasining kashf etilishi va radioning ixtiro etilishi elektronika va radiotexnika fanlarin-
ing vujudga kelishiga olib keldi. Juda koʻp sohalar borki, ularni fizika boshqa fanlar bilan
birgalikda oʻrganadi. Shu tariqa kimyoviy fizika, biofizika, astrofizika, geofizika va boshqa
fanlar vujudga kelgan. Fizikada yaratilgan kashfiyotlar texnikaning turli sohalari rivojlan-
ishiga, provardida sanoat va xalq xoʻjaligining jadal rivojlanishiga olib kelgan. Kundalik

67 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein
68 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimyo

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Fizika

hayotda ishlatilayotgan elektr yoritkich asboblari, radiopriyomniklar, televizorlar, zavod

va fabrikalardagi turli xil stanoklar, zamonaviy elektron hisoblash mashinalari, samolyot-
lar va boshqalar fizikadagi yaratilgan kashfiyotlarning natijasidir. Oʻz navbatida, texnika
fanlarining erishgan yutuqlari fizikaning yanada rivojlanishiga sababchi boʻlgan. Texnikan-
ing, umuman xalq xoʻjaligining rivojlanib borishida uzluksiz ravishsa vujudga keluvchi fizik
muammolarni hal etib borishga toʻgʻri keldi. Bu esa texnika fanlarining hamma vaqt fizika
bilan xamkorlikda ish olib borishini taqozo etadi. Oʻzbekistonda yadro fizikasi, fizik elek-
tronika, qattiq jismlar fizikasi, yuqori energiyali va kosmik nurlar fizikasi, yarimoʻtkazgichlar
fizikasi, akustooptika, akustoelektronika, lazerlar fizikasi, geliofizika, geliotexnika va boshqa
fizika sohalarida muhim yutuqlarga erishildi.
Hozir Oʻzbekiston Fanlar akademiyasi Yadro fizikasi instituti, Fizika-texnika instituti, S.A.
Azimov nomidagi ”Fizika-Quyosh” IICHB, U.O.Orifov nomidagi Elektronika instituti kabi
oʻnlab ilmiy muassasalar, O'zbekiston Milliy Universiteti, Samarqand davlat universiteti,
Toshkent davlat texnika universiteti va respublikadagi qariyb barcha oliy oʻquv yurtlarida
ham fizika fanining turli muammmolariga oid ishlar olib borilmoqda.[1]

1.1 Manbalar
1. U.O.Orifov, S.A.Azimov, SV.Starodubsev, S.U.Umarov, Gʻ.Yo.Umarov,
R.B.Bekjonov, M.S.Saidov, U.Gʻ.Gʻulomov, P.Q.Habibullayev, Q. Gʻ.Gʻulomov,
FizikaRasulov, N.Y.Toʻrayev, M.M.Musaxonov, B.S. Yoʻldoshev, A.K.. Otaxoʻjayev,
R.A. Moʻminov, A.T. Mamadalimov, T.M. Moʻminov, M.S. Yunusov, N. Toʻrayev, A.
Noʻʼmonxoʻjayev, M. Rasulova va boshqalarning xizmatlari katta „Fizika“ OʻzME69 .
F-harfi70[sayt ishlamaydi] Birinchi jild. Toshkent, 2000-yil

Ushbu maqolada Oʻzbekiston milliy ensiklopediyasi (2000-2005)

maʼlumotlaridan foydalanilgan.

1.2 Adabiyotlar
• Kudryavsev P.S, Kratkiy kurs istorii fiziki, Moskva, 1974
• M.N.Rahmatov, Vatanimiz fiziklari, Toshkent, 1983
• M.Ahadova, Oʻrta Osiyolik mashhur olimlar va ularning matematikaga doyr ishlari,
Toshkent, 1983
• Klassicheskaya nauka Sredney Azii i sovremennaya mirovaya sivilizatsiya, Toshkent, 2000.

69 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%CA%BBzME
http://n.ziyouz.com/books/uzbekiston_milliy_ensiklopediyasi/O%CA%BBzbekiston%
70
20Milliy%20Ensiklopediyasi%20-%20F%20harfi.pdf

12
 Havolalar

1.3 Havolalar
• Fizika71 (Wayback Machine72 saytida 2013-09-06 sanasida arxivlangan73 ), Ziyonet74
Tabiiy fanlar75

Astronomiya | Biologiya | Kimyo | Geografiya | Fizika

Fanlar haqidagi ushbu maqola chaladir. Siz uni boyitib, Vikipediyaga yordam berishingiz mumkin.

Fizikaga oid ushbu maqola chaladir. Siz uni boyitib, Vikipediyaga yordam berishingiz mumkin.

So‘nggi tahrir 30-May 2024, 10:01 da amalga oshirildi

76

• Bu sahifa oxirgi marta 30-May 2024, 10:01 da tahrir qilingan.

• Matndan CC BY-SA 4.077 litsenziyasi boʻyicha foydalanish mumkin (agar aksi koʻrsatil-
magan boʻlsa).

71 http://www.ziyonet.uz/uzl/library/libid/10500
72 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine
https://web.archive.org/web/20130906062449/http://www.ziyonet.uz/uzl/library/libid/
73
10500
74 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ziyonet&action=edit&redlink=1
75 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabiiy_fanlar
76 https://uz.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fizika&action=history
77 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.uz

13
2 Contributors

Edits User

15
List of Figures

• GFDL: Gnu Free Documentation License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.

html
• cc-by-sa-4.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 4.0 License. https://
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org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en
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org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en
• cc-by-4.0: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.de
• GPL: GNU General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-2.0.txt
• LGPL: GNU Lesser General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl.
html
• PD: This image is in the public domain.
• ATTR: The copyright holder of this file allows anyone to use it for any purpose,
provided that the copyright holder is properly attributed. Redistribution, derivative
work, commercial use, and all other use is permitted.
• EURO: This is the common (reverse) face of a euro coin. The copyright on the design
of the common face of the euro coins belongs to the European Commission. Authorised

17
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is reproduction in a format without relief (drawings, paintings, films) provided they

are not detrimental to the image of the euro.
• LFK: Lizenz Freie Kunst. http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/de
• CFR: Copyright free use.
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php
Copies of the GPL, the LGPL as well as a GFDL are included in chapter Licenses1 . Please
note that images in the public domain do not require attribution. You may click on the
image numbers in the following table to open the webpage of the images in your webbrower.

1 Chapter 3 on page 21

18
List of Figures

19
3 Licenses

3.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE

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The “System Libraries” of an executable work include anything, other no charge. * c) Convey individual copies of the object code with a Others’ Freedom.
than the work as a whole, that (a) is included in the normal form of copy of the written offer to provide the Corresponding Source. This You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly
packaging a Major Component, but which is not part of that Major alternative is allowed only occasionally and noncommercially, and only provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement
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the work, or an object code interpreter used to run it. object code is a network server, the Corresponding Source may be on a less and until the copyright holder explicitly and finally terminates whom you convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy both
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veying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Affero General Public However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copy- cannot be given local legal effect according to their terms, reviewing along with this program. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
License. right holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later version. 15. courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates an abso-
Disclaimer of Warranty. lute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a
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TENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice
bined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this Li-
OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLD- to Your New Programs like this when it starts in an interactive mode:
cense will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but
the special requirements of the GNU Affero General Public License, ERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM
section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EX- If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest <program> Copyright (C) <year> <name of author> This program
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Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program
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DERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine
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choose that version for the Program. OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16. POSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details. please read <http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html>.

3.2 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008 following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9. TERMI-
stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as ”Acknowl- part of the section titles. * M. Delete any section Entitled ”Endorse- NATION
Copyright © 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, edgements”, ”Dedications”, ”Endorsements”, or ”History”.) To ”Preserve ments”. Such a section may not be included in the Modified Version.
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it remains a section ”Entitled XYZ” according to this definition. or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section. * O. Preserve any cept as expressly provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise
Warranty Disclaimers. to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void, and will automati-
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice cally terminate your rights under this License.
which states that this License applies to the Document. These War- If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appen-
ranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this dices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other impli- from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, un-
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sure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with effect on the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to no-
or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Sec-
must be distinct from any other section titles. tify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days
ondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to
get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either after the cessation.
modifications made by others. commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the copy- You may add a section Entitled ”Endorsements”, provided it contains
right notices, and the license notice saying this License applies to the nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various par- Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated
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measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the dard.
plements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder,
copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept compensa-
designed for free software. and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
tion in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough number
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, notice.
of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free pro- You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
gram should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the you may publicly display copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same material does
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on not give you any rights to use it. 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this Li-
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, LICENSE
cense principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
Document’s license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts: one.
The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the
This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such
back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this Li-
that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but
the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title cense give permission to use their names for publicity for or to as-
be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add sert or imply endorsement of any Modified Version. 5. COMBINING
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited DOCUMENTS
under the conditions stated herein. The ”Document”, below, refers to to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
is addressed as ”you”. You accept the license if you copy, modify or respects. You may combine the Document with other documents released under If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law. this License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified License ”or any later version” applies to it, you have the option of
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the In- following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, variant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and list
A ”Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license
Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifica- Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages. notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
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(not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License
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tion of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
ent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque permanently authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.
the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document’s overall copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
copy a computer-network location from which the general network- 11. RELICENSING
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall but different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
using public has access to download using public-standard network
directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original au-
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added
a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any thor or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number. ”Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or ”MMC Site”) means any
material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably pru-
mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connec- Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also
dent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity,
tion with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial, Sections in the license notice of the combined work. provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works. A public
to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the
philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them. stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server. A ”Massive
an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled ”History” Multiauthor Collaboration” (or ”MMC”) contained in the site means
edition to the public. in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled ”His- any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
The ”Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that tory”; likewise combine any sections Entitled ”Acknowledgements”, and
says that the Document is released under this License. If a section any sections Entitled ”Dedications”. You must delete all sections En- ”CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not allowed to titled ”Endorsements”. 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS 3.0 license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to
be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the profit corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco,
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then there are none. uments released under this License, and replace the individual copies by that same organization.
of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document un-
The ”Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this ”Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or
der the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other in part, as part of another Document.
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
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Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words. and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy An MMC is ”eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License,
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version: You may extract a single document from such a collection, and dis- and if all works that were first published under this License somewhere
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represented in a format whose specification is available to the general * A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title dis- of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or invariant sections, and
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with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels) generic (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
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A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file format whose markup, authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with distribution medium, is called an ”aggregate” if the copyright resulting How to use this License for your documents
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is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy
this requirement. * C. State on the Title page the name of the pub- Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to
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entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover Texts may be placed on cov- lished by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
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equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise is included in the section entitled ”GNU Free Documentation License”.
be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or H. Include an unaltered copy of this License. * I. Preserve the section they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.
XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally Entitled ”History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at 8. TRANSLATION
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in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and pub- Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute
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The ”Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus Invariant Sections with translations requires special permission from with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this describing the Modified Version as stated in the previous sentence. * Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being
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which do not have any title page as such, ”Title Page” means the text public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the
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near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the license notices in the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, pro- If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
beginning of the body of the text. based on. These may be placed in the ”History” section. You may omit
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The ”publisher” means any person or entity that distributes copies of refers to gives permission. * K. For any section Entitled ”Acknowledge- disagreement between the translation and the original version of this
the Document to the public. ments” or ”Dedications”, Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail. If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
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A section ”Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document knowledgements and/or dedications given therein. * L. Preserve all If a section in the Document is Entitled ”Acknowledgements”, ”Dedi- free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to per-
whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and cations”, or ”History”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title mit their use in free software.
3.3 GNU Lesser General Public License
GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE The “Corresponding Application Code” for a Combined Work means You may convey a Combined Work under terms of your choice that, You may place library facilities that are a work based on the Library
the object code and/or source code for the Application, including any taken together, effectively do not restrict modification of the portions side by side in a single library together with other library facilities that
Version 3, 29 June 2007 data and utility programs needed for reproducing the Combined Work of the Library contained in the Combined Work and reverse engineering are not Applications and are not covered by this License, and convey
from the Application, but excluding the System Libraries of the Com- for debugging such modifications, if you also do each of the following: such a combined library under terms of your choice, if you do both of
bined Work. 1. Exception to Section 3 of the GNU GPL. the following:
Copyright © 2007 Free Software Foundation, Inc. <http://fsf.org/>
You may convey a covered work under sections 3 and 4 of this License * a) Give prominent notice with each copy of the Combined Work * a) Accompany the combined library with a copy of the same work
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this without being bound by section 3 of the GNU GPL. 2. Conveying that the Library is used in it and that the Library and its use are based on the Library, uncombined with any other library facilities,
license document, but changing it is not allowed. Modified Versions. covered by this License. * b) Accompany the Combined Work with a conveyed under the terms of this License. * b) Give prominent no-
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This version of the GNU Lesser General Public License incorporates If you modify a copy of the Library, and, in your modifications, a facil- bined Work that displays copyright notices during execution, include Library, and explaining where to find the accompanying uncombined
the terms and conditions of version 3 of the GNU General Public Li- ity refers to a function or data to be supplied by an Application that the copyright notice for the Library among these notices, as well as a form of the same work.
cense, supplemented by the additional permissions listed below. 0. uses the facility (other than as an argument passed when the facility reference directing the user to the copies of the GNU GPL and this
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Minimal Corresponding Source under the terms of this License, and 6. Revised Versions of the GNU Lesser General Public License.
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purpose remains meaningful, or * b) under the GNU GPL, with none Combined Work, in the manner specified by section 6 of the GNU Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but
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