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Network Basics

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© Amity University Press

All Rights Reserved

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No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the publisher.

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Advisory Committee

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Chairman : Ms. Monica Agarwal
Members : Prof. Arun Bisaria

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Dr. Priya Mary Mathew
Prof. Aindril De
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Mr. Alok Awtans
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Dr. Coral J Barboza
Dr. Monica Rose
Mr. Sachit Paliwal
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SLM Review Committee

Mr. Gaurav Agarwal
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Ms. Nitika Khanna

Ms. Rashmi Saxena
Ms. Renu Singh
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Ms. Mona Chaudhary

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Published by Amity University Press for exclusive use of Amity Directorate of Distance and Online Education,
Amity University, Noida-201313
 Contents

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Page No.

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Module - I 01
1.1 Exporing Network
1.1.1 Introduction

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1.1.2 Network Evolution
1.1.3 Communicating in a Network-Centric World
1.1.4 The Network as a Platform

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1.2 Types of Network
1.2.1 Converged Networks
1.2.2 LANs, WANs,MAN and the Internet

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1.2.3 Network Architectures and Network Expension
1.2.4 Types of Network Topologies
1.3 Network Operating System Configuration

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1.3.1 Network Operating System and its type
1.3.2 Network Operating System Configuration
1.3.3 Configuring a Network Operating System : IOS Bootcamp
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1.3.4 Device configuration and access control
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1.3.5 Address Schemes
1.3.6 IOS Bootcamp
Case Study
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Module - II: Network Protocols and Communication 71

2.1 Introduction to Network Protocols and Communication \
1.1.1 Introduction
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1.1.2 Data Communication

1.1.3 Overview of Network Protocols
1.1.4 Protocols and Standards
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1.1.5 Introduction to Ethernet

1.1.6 Internet History
1.1.7 Introduction to Ethernet
1.1.8 Protocol Layering
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2.2 Reference Models

2.2.1 OSI Reference Model
2.2.2 Characteristics of OSI Model
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2.2.3 OSI Protocols

2.2.4 TCP/IP Reference Model
2.2.5 TCP/IP Protocols
2.2.6 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Protocols
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2.2.7 Request for Comments

2.3 Data Transmission
 2.3.1 Introdution
2.3.2 Serial vs Parallel Transmission

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2.3.3 Data transmission Mode
2.3.4 Digital Transmission

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Module - III: Application Layer and Transport Layer 131
3.1 Application Layer Protocols

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3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Client-Server Model
3.1.3 File Transfer Protocol(FTP)

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3.1.4 E-mail Protocol (SMTP)
3.1.5 Domain Name System (DNS)
3.1.6 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)/(HTTPS)

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3.1.7 World Wide Web (WWW)
3.1.8 Streaming Audio and Video
3.1.9 Application Protocol Intercation with End-User Application

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3.1.10 Application Layer Services
3.2 Transport Layer Protocols
3..2.1 Introduction-TCP/IP Layers
3.2.2 End Point Identification
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3.2.3 Well-known Port Numbers
3.2.4 Message Oriented Interfaces
3.2.5 Connection Less Protocol - UDP
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3.2.6 Connection Less Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

3.2.7 Connection Oriented Protocol-TCP
3.2.8 Connection Less Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
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3.2.9 TCP Congestion Control

3.2.10 Issues in Transport Layer Protocol
3.2.11 Addressing
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3.2.12 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

3.2.13 Flow Control
3.2.14 Transport Layer Service and Protocols
3.2.15 Error Control
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Module - IV: Network Layer, IP Addressing and Subnetting 194

4.1 Network Layer Design Issues
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4.1.1 Introduction: Network Layer

4.1.2 Service Provided to the Transport Layer
4.1.3 Implementation of Connection Less Service
4.1.4 Implementation of Connection Oriented Service
4.1.5 Comparision of Virtual Circuit and Datagram Network
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4.2 Routing Algorithms

4.2.1 Introduction to Routers
 4.2.2 The optimility principle
4.2.3 Shortest Path Algorithm

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4.2.4 Flooding
4.2.5 Distance Vector Algorithm

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4.2.6 Hierarichical Algirithm
4.2.7 Router Configuration
4.3 Congestion Control

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4.3.1 Approaches to Congestion Control
4.3.2 Traffic-aware Routing

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4.3.3 Admission Control
4.3.4 Load Shedding
4.4 Internetworking and Internet Protocol
4.4.1 How Network Connected

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4.4.2 Tunneling
4.4.3 Internetwork Routing
4.4.4 Packet Fragmentation

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4.4.5 IP Version 4 Protocol
4.4.6 IPV4 Network Addesses
4.4.7 IP Version 6 Protocol
4.4.8 IPV6 Network Addesses
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4.4.9 Intrenet Control Protocols
4.4.10 Internet Multicasting
4.5 Subnetting
4.5.1 Subnetting IP Networks
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4.5.2 Subnetting an IPv4 Network

4.5.3 Addressing Schemes
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4.5.4 Design Considerations for IPv6

4.5.5 Subnetting an IPv6 Network

Module - V: Network Access and Ethernet Technology 265

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5.1 Data Link Layer Design Issues

5.1.1 Intoduction : Data Link Layer
5.1.2 Service Provided to the Network Layer
5.1.3 Framing
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5.1.4 Error Control

5.1.5 Flow Control
5.1.6 Error Correctind Code
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5.1.7 Error Detecting Code

5.2 Data Link Protocols
5.2.1 Link Layer Addressing
5.2.2 Stop-Wait Protocol
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5.2.3 Sliding Window Protocol

5.2.4 Packet over SONET Protocol
 5.2.5 ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop)
5.2.6 Channel Allocation Problem

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5.2.7 Multiple Access Protocols
5.2.8 ALOHA

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5.2.9 Collision Free Protocol
5.2.10 Wireless LAN Protocol
5.3 Physical Layer

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5.3.1 Ethernet Physical Layer
5.3.2 Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol

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5.3.3 Ethernet Performance
5.3.4 Address Resolution Protocol
5.3.5 LAN Topologies
5.4 Data Link Layer Switiches

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5.4.1 Bridges
5.4.2 Routers and Switches
5.4.3 Gateways

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5.4.4 Repeaters
5.4.5 Hubs

5.5
5.4.6 Virtual LAN
Network Expension and Security
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5.5.1 Creation and Grow of Network
5.5.2 Devices in a Small Network
5.5.3 Network Security
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5.5.4 Network Performance

5.5.5 Managing IOS Configuration Files
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 Network Basics 1

Module - I
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Structure:

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1.1 Exporing Network
1.1.1 Introduction

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1.1.2 Network Evolution
1.1.3 Communicating in a Network-Centric World

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1.1.4 The Network as a Platform
1.2 Types of Network
1.2.1 Converged Networks

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1.2.2 LANs, WANs,MAN and the Internet
1.2.3 Network Architectures and Network Expension
1.2.4 Types of Network Topologies

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1.3 Network Operating System Configuration
1.3.1 Network Operating System and its type
1.3.2 Network Operating System Configuration
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1.3.3 Configuring a Network Operating System : IOS Bootcamp
1.3.4 Device configuration and access control
1.3.5 Address Schemes
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1.3.6 IOS Bootcamp

Case Study
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Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 2 Network Basics

Unit - 1.1 : Exploring Network

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Objectivess

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Understand the concept of computer networks

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●● Differentiate between different types of computer networks
●● Understand the different application of networks

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●● Compare the different network topologies

Introduction
A computer network is a collection of networked devices that can interact using a

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set of common protocols (called protocols). These devices interact in order to share
resources and services (such as files and printers).

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Here’s an example of a network with two machines linked together:

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The two PCs in the above example are connected through a cable. This tiny
network may be used to send and receive data between these two PCs alone.

What if we wish to increase the size of our network? Then, to link more than two
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computers, we may utilise a network equipment, such as a switch or a hub:

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All of the devices on the network are now able to communicate with one another.
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In this unit, we’ll go through hubs and switches in further detail. For the time
being, just remember that these devices function as a hub to which all of the PCs are
connected.

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 Network Basics 3

1.1.1 Introduction
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A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices,
peripherals, and other devices that are linked together to share data. The Internet, for
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example, is a network that links millions of individuals all over the world. An example of
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a home network with many PCs and other network devices is shown to the right.

Examples:
1. Desktop computers, mainframes, laptops, and servers.
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2. Repeaters
3. Firewalls
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4. Thin clients and consoles

5. Bridges
6. Switches, modems, hubs, and routers
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7. Network Interface cards

8. Webcams
9. Tablets and Smartphones
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Network Topologies and Network Types

The word network topology refers to a geometric graph that depicts the relationship
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between linked devices. On the graph, devices are represented as vertices, while their
relationships are represented as edges. It specifies how many connections each device
has, in what sequence they are connected, and in what hierarchy they are connected.

Bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, tree topology, and hybrid
topology are examples of common network configurations.
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Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 4 Network Basics

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Public networks, which are frequently provided by adjacent companies and other
publicly accessible sites, are a simple method to connect to the Internet.

Before connecting to a public Wi-Fi network, some networks demand a password.

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If the network in your list of accessible Wi-Fi networks has a lock symbol, it requires a
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password.

Some networks don’t require a password to login, but you must first log in using
your web browser before you can access the Internet.
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Other public networks do not necessitate the use of a password. Without

authentication, any suitable device can connect to these Wi-Fi networks.

All public networks are insecure compared to your own network. The URLs you
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visit can be eavesdropped even if the websites you visit utilise encryption. As a result,
if you can do it elsewhere, you should not send private or sensitive information over
a public Wi-Fi network. We highly advise you not to connect any of your devices to a
public network that does not need a password.
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Benefits of a Network
1. The benefits of a network outnumber the drawbacks. Many businesses nowadays
would not be able to function without the use of a network. The benefits of a network
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are listed below.

2. Share data and information - One of the most significant advantages of a network
is the ability to share data and information among the devices connected to it.
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Furthermore, networks facilitate database access and collaboration on more

complicated tasks.
3. Communication - A network allows users to connect with one another instantly
through chat, instant messaging, e-mail, and videoconferencing. Hardware devices
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that are connected to a network can be shared by all users. A few instances of
network hardware that can be shared are shown below.

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 Network Basics 5

4. NAS (network-attached storage) is a type of storage that can store and access large
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volumes of data.
5. All network users can print to the same printer with a network printer.

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6. Supercomputers, render farms, and more powerful computers can accomplish
complicated tasks that would take a single computer longer to complete.
7. Share software - Software may be shared with the right software licence.

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8. Money transfer - When a person or business is linked to a secure network, they
may digitally transfer money between banks and users. A network, for example, may
allow a corporation to handle employees’ payroll as well as send their salary to their

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bank accounts.

The Drawbacks of a Network

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Although a network has numerous benefits (as indicated above), it also has certain
drawbacks. The downsides of a network are listed below.

Malware and Viruses - Networks make it simple for network members to share

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information. Unfortunately, this also implies that viruses and malware may propagate
more easily over a network of computers.

Vulnerabilities - Creating a network provides additional techniques of remotely

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accessing machines, particularly if they’re connected to the Internet. Computers,
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users, and data on a network may be exposed to new vulnerabilities because of these
potential new means of accessing the computer.

Networks are complicated and setting up and operating one for a business or
organisation necessitates a great deal of experience or qualification.
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1.1.2 Network Evolution

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We’ve arrived at a vital juncture in the evolution of technology’s potential to extend

and enhance human ability to communicate. The Internet’s globalisation has happened
quicker than anybody could have predicted. To stay up with the expansion of this global
network, the way people connect socially, commercially, politically, and personally is
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constantly changing. Innovators will utilise the Internet as a starting point for their efforts
in the next stage of human evolution, developing new goods and services that are
particularly built to take use of the network’s potential. Modelling exercises have been
added to the Networking Academy curriculum! They may be found at the start and end
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of each chapter.

Globally Networked
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We are surrounded by networks. They allow us to communicate and exchange

information and resources with others in our immediate vicinity or throughout the world.
This necessitates a diverse set of technologies and methods that can quickly adapt to
changing situations and needs.
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Today’s Networking
The usage of networks has become an everyday event for the majority of people.
The availability of these networks has changed how we communicate with one another.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 6 Network Basics

Our Daily Lives and Networks

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The urge to engage with people is second only to our need to survive among all
the needs for human existence. Our dependency on oxygen, water, food, and shelter is

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virtually as crucial to us as communication.

Communication strategies change and evolve all the time. Whereas we used to be
confined to face-to-face encounters, technological advancements have vastly expanded

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our communication capabilities. Every new discovery has strengthened and expanded
our ability to interact and communicate with others, from cave art to the printing press to
radio and television. Technology in the Past and Present

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Consider a world where the Internet does not exist. Google, Whatsapp, Instant
Messaging, YouTube, Facebook, Wikipedia, internet gaming, Netflix, iTunes, and rapid
access to current information are no longer available. There will be no more pricing

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comparison websites, no more buying online to avoid queues, and no more searching
for phone numbers and map instructions to numerous locations with the touch of a
mouse. What would our life be like if we didn’t have all of this? Just 15 to 20 years
ago, it was the world we lived in. Data networks, on the other hand, have progressively

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expanded and been reused through time to improve the quality of life for people all
around the world.

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During the course of a day, the resources accessible on the Internet can assist you.
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Figure: Network Evolution

The Internet of Objects (IoE) connects people, processes, data, and things to make
networked relationships more useful and meaningful. It transforms data into actions that
provide people, organisations, and governments greater skills, richer experiences, and
unparalleled economic opportunities.
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What do you believe we’ll be able to achieve with the network as a platform in the
future?
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 7

The International Community

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The most significant change agents in the world today are advancements in
networking technology. They are assisting in the creation of a society in which national

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boundaries, geographic distances, and physical limits are less significant and present
less and fewer barriers.

The way people engage socially, commercially, politically, and personally has

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altered as a result of the Internet. The instantaneous nature of Internet communication
supports the formation of worldwide communities. Global communities allow people
to communicate socially regardless of their location or time zone. The development of

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online communities for the sharing of information and ideas has the potential to boost
productivity.

The influence of the Internet and networks on individuals and companies is the

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focus of the human network.

What impact has the human network had on you?

The Way We Learn Is Supported by Networks

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Networks and the Internet have altered every aspect of our lives, including how we
study, interact, work, and even play.

Learning in a Different Way r

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The key building blocks of education are communication, cooperation, and
involvement. Institutions are always working to improve these procedures in order
to promote information diffusion. The textbook and the teacher are the two primary
sources of knowledge from which the student can receive information in traditional
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learning techniques.

1. Encourage the establishment of virtual classrooms.

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2. Make video available on demand.

3. Make collaborative learning places possible.
4. Make mobile learning possible.
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Access to high-quality education is no longer limited to pupils who reside near the
location where it is provided. Distance learning through the internet has broken down
geographical borders and increased student opportunities. The delivery of online
(e-learning) courses across a network is now possible. These courses can include
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data (text, links), speech, and video that students can access at any time and from any
location. Students can collaborate with the teacher, other students in the class, or even
students from other countries using online discussion groups and message boards.
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Blended courses mix instructor-led classrooms and online courseware to give

students the best of both worlds. To see a movie that demonstrates how networks have
enlarged the classroom, go to the second image in the online course.

In addition to the advantages for students, networks have enhanced course

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management and administration. Student enrolment, assessment delivery, and

progress monitoring are just a few of the online activities available.

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 8 Network Basics

The Way we Communicate is Supported by Networks

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Networks break down geographical and time-zone barriers, allowing us to contact
with people all over the world.

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The Way we Communicate is Changing
The Internet’s globalisation has ushered in new modes of communication that

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enable anyone to generate content that is accessible to a worldwide audience.

Instant Messaging (IM) and texting are two examples of communication methods.
Both instant messaging and texting allow two or more individuals to communicate in

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real time. File transmission is a function that many instant messaging and texting apps
include. Additional capabilities, such as audio and video communication, can be added
to IM apps.

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Use of Social Media: People and groups utilise social media to produce and share
user-generated content with friends, family, peers, and the rest of the world.

Collaboration Tools: Collaboration tools allow users to collaborate on documents

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that are shared. Individuals linked to a shared system can communicate with one
another regardless of their location or time zone, sometimes through real-time
interactive video. They can share text and graphics and collaborate on papers across
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the network. Organizations can move rapidly to exchange information and achieve
goals when collaboration tools are constantly available. Persons in rural regions may
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participate on an equal footing with people in the heart of huge population centres,
thanks to the widespread diffusion of data networks.

Weblogs (blogs): Weblogs are easy-to-update and-edit web sites. Unlike

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commercial websites, which are designed by experienced communications specialists,

blogs allow anybody with no technical expertise of web design to convey their opinions
to a worldwide audience. There are blogs on practically every topic imaginable, and
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communities typically emerge around well-known bloggers.

Wikis are collaboratively edited and viewed web pages that may be edited and
seen by a group of individuals. A wiki is a communal production, but a blog is more
of an individual, personal journal. As a result, it may be subjected to more thorough
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scrutiny and editing.

Wikis, like blogs, may be built in phases and by anybody, without the support of
a large corporation. Wikipedia has grown into a comprehensive resource—an online
encyclopaedia—of subjects that have been contributed by the public. Individuals and
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private groups can also create their own wikis to collect information on a certain topic.
Wikis are widely used as an internal collaboration tool in many firms. People from many
walks of life may engage in wikis and contribute their own opinions and information to a
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shared resource thanks to the worldwide Internet.

Podcasting: Podcasting is an audio-based media that allows users to record and

convert audio for later use. Podcasting allows anyone to reach a large audience with
their recordings. The audio file is uploaded to a website (or a blog or a wiki) so that
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people may download it and listen to it on their PCs, laptops, or other mobile devices.

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 Network Basics 9

P2P file sharing has grown in popularity as media files, such as music and video
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files, have been more widely digitised. Not everyone is a fan of peer-to-peer (P2P) file
sharing. Many people are worried about breaking copyrighted content restrictions.

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What additional websites or technologies do you use to express yourself?

The Way We Work is Supported by Networks

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Regardless of the employee’s geographic location, networks enable rapid,
dependable access to corporate resources.

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The Way We Work is Changing
Data networks were first used by corporations to record and handle financial
information, consumer information, and employee payroll systems on an internal level.

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Peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing allows users to exchange files without needing to
store and download them from a central server. The user just instals the P2P software
and joins the P2P network. This allows the user to find and exchange files with other
P2P network users.

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Email, video, messaging, and phone are just a few of the information services that
may be transmitted through these corporate networks.
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The acceptance of using networks to deliver efficient and cost-effective staff
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training is growing. Online learning alternatives may reduce time-consuming and
expensive travel while yet ensuring that all staff are fully prepared to do their duties
safely and efficiently.
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1.1.3 Communicating in a Network-Centric World

In a Network-Centric World, how do you Communicate?

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1. An Overview
We’ve arrived at a key juncture in the application of technology to expand and
empower our human network. The Internet’s globalisation has happened quicker than
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anybody could have predicted. To stay up with the expansion of this global network,
the way people connect socially, commercially, politically, and personally is constantly
changing.

Innovators will utilise the Internet as a starting point for their efforts in the next
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stage of human evolution, developing new goods and services that are particularly built
to take use of the network’s potential.

The capabilities of the linked networks that make up the Internet will play an
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increasingly important role in the success of these initiatives as developers push the
boundaries of what is feasible.

This chapter introduces the data network platform on which our social and
professional connections are becoming more reliant. The content gives the foundation
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for learning about the services, technologies, and difficulties that network professionals
face while designing, building, and maintaining modern networks.

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 10 Network Basics

This chapter will teach you how to: - Explain how networks affect our daily lives.
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- Explain the importance of data networking in the human network.
- Recognize the essential components of any data network.

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- Recognize the benefits and drawbacks that converged networks present.
- Describe the following network design characteristics: fault tolerance, scalability,

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quality of service, and security.
- Set up and utilise IRC clients as well as a Wikiserver.

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Network Advancing Our Way of Life
The urge to engage with others rates only behind our need to survive among all of
the requirements for human existence. We rely on communication almost as much as
we rely on air, water, food, and shelter.

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We employ a variety of strategies to convey ideas and information, and these
methods are continually changing and evolving. Whereas the human network used to

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be restricted to face-to-face interactions, technological advancements have continued
to expand the extent of our communications. Each new advancement, from the
printing press to television, has increased and enriched human communication. The
establishment and connectivity of resilient data networks, as with every improvement in
communication technology. r
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Early data networks were only capable of transmitting character-based data
between linked computers. Voice, video streams, text, and graphics are all carried
across current networks between a variety of devices. Separate and different channels
of communication have merged onto a single platform. This platform gives users access
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to a variety of new and alternative communication ways that allow them to communicate
with one another nearly instantly.
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The instantaneous nature of Internet communication supports the formation of

worldwide communities. These networks encourage social connection regardless of
geographical location or time zone.
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Figure: Global community and networking

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 Network Basics 11

Global Community
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Technology is possibly the most important change agent in the world today, as it
aids in the creation of a society in which national borders, geographic distances, and

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physical restrictions become less relevant and present ever-diminishing barriers. The
establishment of online communities for the sharing of ideas and information has
the potential to boost global productivity. As the Internet links people and allows for

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unrestricted communication, it provides a platform for running businesses, responding
to emergencies, informing individuals, and advancing education, research, and
governance.

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Data Network Provides Service
It’s amazing how fast the Internet has become a part of our daily lives. The millions
of users who make the network a cherished and intimate part of their life are unaware of

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the network’s complicated integration of technological gadgets and media.

Data networks, which were originally used to carry information from one company
to another, have been repurposed to improve people’s quality of life all around the

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world. During the course of a day, the Internet’s resources can assist you with:

Use current weather conditions to help you decide what to wear.

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Find the least crowded route to your location by combining weather and traffic
footage from the webcam.
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Check your bank account balance and pay bills online.

At a lunchtime Internet café, you may send and receive e-mail or make an Internet
phone call.
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Obtain health and nutritional advice from specialists across the world, and then
post to a forum to share related health or treatment information.
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To make a wonderful supper, download new recipes and culinary techniques.

Post and share your photos, videos, and experiences with your friends and the rest
of the world.
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Many Internet applications would have been unthinkable just a few years ago.
Consider one person’s experience with self-publishing a home music video:

Popular Communication Tools in Use Today

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The Internet’s emergence and widespread usage have brought in new modes
of communication that enable anyone to generate content that is accessible to a
worldwide audience.
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Messages Received Immediately

Instant messaging (IM) is a sort of text-based real-time communication between
two or more individuals. Computers connected across a private internal network or a
public network, such as the Internet, transmit the text. IM, which evolved from previous
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Internet Relay Chat (IRC) systems, now includes file transmission, audio, and video
communication. IM delivers a written record of the exchange, similar to e-mail. IM
communications, on the other hand, are received promptly, although e-mail messages
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 12 Network Basics

are occasionally delayed. Real-time communication is the term for the method of
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communication used by Instant Messaging.

Weblogs (Blogs)

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Weblogs (Blogs) are easy-to-update and-edit web sites. Unlike commercial
websites, which are designed by experienced communications specialists, blogs
allow anybody with no technical expertise of web design to convey their opinions to

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a worldwide audience. There are blogs on practically every topic imaginable, and
communities typically emerge around well-known bloggers.

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Wikis
Wikis are collaboratively edited and viewed web pages that may be edited and
seen by a group of individuals. A wiki is a communal production, but a blog is more

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of an individual, personal journal. As a result, it may be subjected to a more thorough
review and editing process. Wikis, like blogs, may be built in phases and by anybody,
without the support of a large corporation. Wikipedia, a public wiki, is growing into a
comprehensive resource - an online encyclopaedia - of user-contributed subjects.

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Individuals and private groups can also create their own wikis to collect information on
a certain topic. Wikis are widely used as an internal collaboration tool in many firms.
People from many walks of life may engage in wikis and contribute their own opinions
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and information to a shared resource thanks to the worldwide Internet.
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Podcasting
Podcasting is an audio-based media that first allowed individuals to record audio
and convert it for use with iPods, Apple’s tiny, portable music player. It’s not new
ni

to be able to record audio and store it to a computer file. Podcasting, on the other
hand, allows users to broadcast their recordings to a large audience. The audio file is
uploaded to a website (or a blog or a wiki) so that others may download it and listen to it
U

on their computers, laptops, or iPods.

Collaboration Software
Collaboration technologies allow users to collaborate on materials that are shared.
ity

Individuals linked to a shared system can communicate with one another, share text
and graphics, and collaborate on projects without regard to their physical location or
time zone. Organizations can move rapidly to exchange information and achieve
goals when collaboration tools are constantly available. Persons in rural regions may
m

participate on an equal footing with people in the heart of huge population centres
because to the widespread diffusion of data networks.

The Way We Learn is Supported by a Network

)A

The key building blocks of education are communication, cooperation, and

involvement. Institutions are always working to improve these procedures in order to
promote information diffusion. Students’ learning experiences are supported and
enhanced by robust and dependable networks. These networks provide educational
(c

content in a variety of media. Interactive tasks, evaluations, and feedback are all
included in the learning resources.

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 Network Basics 13

Online learning experiences, or e-learning, are courses that are offered via network
Notes

e
or Internet resources. The availability of e-learning courseware has greatly increased
the number of resources available to students. The textbook and the teacher are the
two primary sources of knowledge from which the student can receive information in

in
traditional learning techniques. Both in terms of presenting structure and timing, these
two sources are restricted. Online classes, on the other hand, can include speech, data,
and video and are accessible to students at any time and from any location. In order to

nl
improve their learning experience, students can follow links to various sources and topic
specialists.

Students can collaborate with the teacher, other students in the class, or even

O
students from around the world using online discussion groups and message boards.
Blended courses mix instructor-led classrooms and online courseware to give students
the best of both worlds.

ty
Access to high-quality education is no longer limited to pupils who reside near
the location where it is provided. Distance learning through the internet has broken
down geographical borders and increased student opportunities. Students can use

si
online resources including e-mail, bulletin/discussion boards, chat rooms, and instant
messaging to engage with the teacher and other students. Outside of the courseware,
links allow access to learning resources. Blended e-learning combines the advantages

r
of computer-based training with those of instructor-led instruction. Students may study
at their own speed and ability level while still having access to an instructor and other
ve
live resources while working online.

The Way We Work Is Supported by a Network

Businesses utilised data networks to record and handle financial information,
ni

consumer information, and employee payroll systems internally at first. Many other
forms of information services, such as e-mail, video, messaging, and telephone, have
been sent through these commercial networks.
U

Intranets, or private networks used by a single firm, allow employees and branch
sites throughout the world to interact and trade. Extranets, or extended internetworks,
are created by businesses to give suppliers, vendors, and consumers restricted access
ity

to corporate data in order to verify order status, inventories, and component lists.

Network Supporting our Playing Style

The entertainment and tourism sectors’ increased usage of the Internet improves
m

the capacity to enjoy and share a variety of recreational activities regardless of location.
It is now feasible to interactively explore areas that we could only dream of seeing in the
past, as well as preview actual destinations before taking a journey. Details and images
from these trips may be shared with the public on the internet.
)A

Traditional types of entertainment are also utilised on the Internet. We listen to

music, watch trailers or full movies, read complete books, and download content for
future offline use.
(c

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 14 Network Basics

Communication
Notes

e
In our daily lives, communication takes numerous forms and occurs in a variety of
settings. Whether we’re conversing on the internet or taking part in a job interview, we

in
have distinct expectations. Expected actions and styles vary depending on the scenario.

Developing the Rules

nl
We set rules or agreements to govern the discourse before we start talking to one
other. In order for the message to be delivered and interpreted correctly, certain rules,
or protocols, must be followed. The following are some of the protocols that govern

O
effective human communication:

- A sender and recipient who can be recognised

- A means of communication has been agreed upon (face-to-face, telephone, letter,

ty
photograph)
- Usual grammatical and lexical constructs
- Timeliness and speed of delivery

si
- Requirements for confirmation or acknowledgement
The rules of communication might change depending on the situation. A
r
confirmation that a communication has been received and comprehended is required if
it provides a significant information or notion. Less significant communications may not
ve
necessitate the recipient’s acknowledgment.

These basics are shared by network communications methods and human talks.

Some norms can be assumed since many of our human communication protocols
ni

are implicit or engrained in our cultures. It is vital to be considerably more precise about
how communication takes place and how it is evaluated effective while constructing
data networks.
U

2. Communication Effectiveness
When the meaning of the message recognised by the recipient matches the
ity

meaning intended by the sender, communication between persons is considered

successful. We utilise the same basic criteria to assess the success of data networks.
However, various circumstances might prevent a communication from reaching its
intended destination or alter its intended meaning as it travels through the network.
m

Factors from Outside

The intricacy of the network and the number of devices a message must
pass through on its way to its final destination are external variables that impact
)A

communication.

External elements that influence communication success include: - The quality of

the communication route between the sender and the recipient.

- The number of times the message must alter its format.

(c

- The number of times the message must be rerouted or redistributed.

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 Network Basics 15

- The number of other messages being sent over the same communication network
Notes

e
at the same time.
- The amount of time set aside for effective communication.

in
Internal Constraints
Internal variables that obstruct network communication have to do with the

nl
message’s content. The intricacy and relevance of different sorts of communications
may differ. Complex communications are frequently more difficult to comprehend than
clear and succinct statements. Important communications require extra attention to
ensure that they are delivered and comprehended.

O
Internal elements impacting network communication success include: - the
message’s size; - the message’s complexity; - the message’s significance.

ty
At various places in the network, large communications may be stopped or
delayed.

1.1.4 The Network as a Platform

si
The network has evolved into a platform for reliably, efficiently, and securely
delivering a wide range of services to end users.

The Network is Converging

r
ve
Modern networks are always changing to fit the needs of their users. Early data
networks were only capable of transmitting character-based data between linked
computers. Data networks were kept distinct from traditional telephone, radio, and
ni

television networks. Previously, each of these services required its own specialised
network, complete with separate communication routes and technology to transmit a
specific communication signal. To guarantee good communication, each service has its
own set of norms and standards.
U

Take, for example, a major school in the early 1990s. Classrooms were wired
for the public address system, the telephone system, a video network for televisions,
a data network, and maybe a security network back then. As seen in Figure, these
ity

different networks were dissimilar, which meant they couldn’t interact with one another.

Thanks to technological advancements, we can now combine these many types

of networks into a single platform, referred to as a converged network. Converged
networks, unlike dedicated networks, may offer audio, video streams, text, and images
m

to a variety of devices through the same communication channel and network topology,
as indicated in the diagram.
)A
(c

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 16 Network Basics

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
Figure: Converged network diagram

r si
ve
ni
U
ity
m

Figure: Multiple network diagram

)A

This platform gives users access to a variety of new and alternative communication
ways that allow them to communicate with one another nearly instantly.

There are still multiple points of contact and specialised devices in a converged
network, such as personal computers, phones, TVs, and tablet computers, but there is
(c

a single network architecture. The same set of rules, agreements, and implementation
standards apply to this network architecture.

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 Network Basics 17

Future-oriented Planning
Notes

e
As illustrated in Figure, the initial phase in constructing the intelligent information
network is the convergence of various types of communications networks into a single

in
platform. This is the stage of network evolution that we are now at. The next step will
be to combine not just the many types of communications into a single network, but
also the programmes that create, transmit, and protect the messages onto integrated

nl
network devices.

Not only will voice and video be sent over the same network, but the machines that
handle telephone switching and video broadcasting will also route messages over the

O
network.

ty
r si
ve
ni
U

Figure: Intelligent information network

The speed with which fascinating new convergent network applications are being
ity

developed can be linked to the Internet’s fast growth and expansion. With just around
10 billion of the 1.5 trillion items on the planet already linked, the IoE has enormous
potential to connect the disconnected. This growth has resulted in a larger audience for
every message, product, or service that may be provided.
m

The underlying mechanisms and procedures that underlie this rapid expansion
have resulted in a network architecture that is both adaptable and expandable.

The Architecture of the Supporting Network

)A

Networks must be able to serve a diverse set of applications and services, as

well as function across a variety of cables and devices that make up the physical
infrastructure. In this sense, the word network architecture refers to the technologies
that underpin the infrastructure as well as the programmed services and rules (or
(c

protocols) that transmit messages throughout the network.

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 18 Network Basics

As networks evolve, we’re learning that the underlying architectures must handle
Notes

e
four key features, as depicted, in order to fulfil user expectations: a. Fault tolerance, b.
Scalability, c. Quality of service (QoS) and d. Security

in
nl
O
ty
r si
ve
ni

Figure: Basic 4 characteristics of networking

U

Circuit-Switched Network Fault Tolerance

Given our reliance on networks, some steps must be taken to guarantee that the
ity

network continues to function as intended, even if anything goes wrong.

Tolerance for Mistakes

The millions of users who rely on the Internet are expected to have access
m

to it at all times. This necessitates the use of a fault-tolerant network design. A fault-
tolerant network minimises the impact of a breakdown by affecting the fewest number
of devices possible. It’s also designed to allow for speedy recovery in the event of a
failure. Multiple pathways between the source and destination of a message are
)A

required in these networks.

Connection-Oriented Circuit-Switched Networks

We may learn about the importance of redundancy by looking at how early
(c

telephone networks operated. When someone dialled a number on a conventional

phone, the call proceeded through a setup procedure. The telephone switching
locations between the individual making the call (the source) and the phone set

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 Network Basics 19

receiving the call were determined using this method (the destination). For the length
Notes

e
of the phone conversation, a temporary route, or circuit, was constructed. The call was
dropped if any connection or device in the circuit failed. To reconnect, a fresh call with a
new circuit has to be established. This is referred to as a circuit-switched process, and it

in
is demonstrated.

nl
O
ty
r si
ve
Figure: Circuit switching network

Existing circuit connections are prioritised above new circuit requests in many
ni

circuit-switched networks. Even if no communication occurs between the parties

on either end of the connection once a circuit is formed, the circuit stays linked and
resources are spent until one of the parties disconnects the call. As there are only so
U

many circuits that can be formed, you can get a warning saying that all circuits are busy
and that you can’t make a call.

Circuit-switched technology was not ideal for the Internet because of the cost of
ity

creating numerous other channels with adequate capacity to sustain a high number
of simultaneous circuits, as well as the technologies required to dynamically re-create
dropped circuits in the case of a failure.

Packet-Switched Network Fault Tolerance

m

As of the technical challenges and high expense of constructing a fault-tolerant

circuit-switched network, network designers have shifted their focus to packet-switched
)A

technology.
(c

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 20 Network Basics

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
si
Figure: Packet-Switched Network

r
Networks with Packet Switching
ve
Early Internet designers looked into packet-switched networks in their pursuit
for a more fault-tolerant network. A single message can be split down into numerous
message blocks in this network, with each message block including addressing
information to indicate the originating location and eventual destination. These message
ni

chunks, known as packets, may be transmitted via the network using this embedded
information and reassembled into the original message when they arrive at their
destination, as shown.
U

The content of individual packets is usually unknown to the devices inside the
network. Only the end destination’s address is revealed. IP addresses, which may be
rendered in dotted-decimal notation, such as 10.10.10.10, are commonly used to refer
to these addresses. Each packet is sent from one site to another separately. A routing
ity

choice is taken at each point as to which path should be used to forward the packet
to its eventual destination. This would be the equivalent of sending 10 postcards to a
buddy with a long message. The recipient’s address is printed on each postcard.

The routing function can dynamically determine the next best accessible path if a
m

previously utilised path is no longer available. The few packets that may be lost can be
retransmitted to the destination over an alternative path since the messages are sent in
fragments rather than as a single complete transmission. In many circumstances, the
)A

target device is completely ignorant that there has been a failure or rerouting. If one of
the postcards is lost along the route, only that postcard has to be delivered again, using
our postcard example.

In a packet-switched network, there is no requirement for a single, reserved

(c

circuit from end to end. Any part of a message can be sent over the network using any
accessible path. Packets carrying fragments of messages from many sources can also
transit the network at the same time. The Internet has become a fault-tolerant mode

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 Network Basics 21

of communication by allowing users to dynamically choose redundant channels without

Notes

e
having to intervene. In our mail example, our postcard will share transportation with
other postcards, mails, and packages as it goes through the postal system. One of the
postcards, for example, may be placed on an aeroplane alongside a variety of other

in
packages.

Despite the fact that packet-switched connectionless networks are the fundamental

nl
foundation for today’s Internet, a connection-oriented system such as the circuit-
switched telephone system has certain advantages. The quality and consistency
of messages conveyed over a connection-oriented network can be assured since
resources at multiple switching sites are allocated to supplying a restricted number of

O
circuits. Another advantage is that the service provider can charge network users for the
amount of time the connection is operational. A core concept of the telecommunications
service sector is the ability to charge consumers for active network connections.

ty
Networks that are scalable
A network must not only be fault resistant, but also expand to accommodate
additional users and services.

si
Scalability

r
Every week, thousands of new consumers and service providers join the Internet.
The Internet must be scalable in order to accommodate such fast expansion. A scalable
ve
network can swiftly grow to handle additional users and applications while maintaining
the performance of the service currently being supplied to existing users. The Internet’s
structure is seen in Figure.
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

Figure: Scalability
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 22 Network Basics

The fact that the Internet can expand at its current rate without severely affecting
Notes

e
individual user performance is due to the architecture of the protocols and underlying
technology on which it is based. For addressing, naming, and connecting services,
the Internet has a hierarchical layered structure. As a result, network traffic meant

in
for local or regional services no longer has to pass via a central distribution point.
Common services can be copied across regions, diverting traffic away from higher-level
backbone networks.

nl
Although very scalable, the existing Internet infrastructure may not always be
able to keep up with the rate of user demand. To keep up with the growing number of
Internet applications and services, new protocols and addressing structures are being

O
developed.

Providing Quality of Service

ty
As more Internet applications and services are introduced, it becomes clear
that a system is needed to handle the many types of traffic that converged networks
experience.

si
Quality of Service
Quality of service (QoS) is becoming increasingly important in today’s networks.
r
New applications accessible to users through internetworks, such as phone and live
video broadcasts (as illustrated in Figure), raise consumer expectations for service
ve
quality. Have you ever attempted to view a video with many stops and breaks?

Networks must deliver services that are predictable, quantifiable, and, in certain
cases, guaranteed. The packet-switched network design does not ensure that all
ni

packets that make up a message will arrive on time, in the right order, or even at all.
U
ity
m
)A
(c

Figure: Converged network traffic

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 Network Basics 23

Networks also require techniques to deal with overburdened traffic. The data-
Notes

e
carrying capability of a network is measured by its bandwidth. To put it another way,
how much data can be delivered in a given length of time? The amount of bits that can
be sent in a single second, or bits per second, is the unit of measurement for network

in
bandwidth (bps). When several communications are attempted across the network at
the same time, the demand for network capacity may exceed the available bandwidth,
resulting in network congestion. The network simply has more data to send than the

nl
communication channel’s bandwidth can handle.

When the amount of packets is larger than the network’s capacity to carry them,
devices queue, or hold, the packets in memory until resources become available to

O
send them. As new packets cannot be transferred before previous packets have been
processed, queuing packets creates delays. The memory queues will fill up and packets
will be discarded if the number of packets queued continues to grow.

ty
The secret to a successful end-to-end application quality solution is achieving the
needed QoS by regulating the latency and packet loss parameters on a network. This
may be performed in a number of ways, one of which is categorization. As illustrated

si
in Figure, we employ a mix of communication parameters and the relative significance
provided to the application to construct QoS classifications of data. We then apply the
same criteria to all data within the same categorization. Time-sensitive communication,

r
such as voice transmissions, is categorised differently from communication that can
withstand delays, such as file transfers.
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A

Figure: QoS

Priority considerations for an organisation might include the following:

1. Prioritize time-sensitive communication services such as telephone and video

dissemination.
(c

2. Reduce the priority of online page retrieval or email for non-time-sensitive

communication.

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 24 Network Basics

3. Increase the priority of production control or business transaction data for the
Notes

e
organisation.
4. Unwanted communication: Reduce the importance of unwanted communication,

in
such as peer-to-peer file sharing or live entertainment.

Providing Network Security

nl
As more users and services join the network, it becomes increasingly vital to take
steps to guarantee that information access is tightly regulated.

Security

O
The Internet has progressed from a closely restricted network of educational and
government institutions to a broadly accessible medium for commercial and personal
communication. As a result, the network’s security needs have altered. Network

ty
infrastructure, services, and data on network-attached devices are important personal
and company assets. Compromise of these assets’ integrity might have catastrophic
implications, such as

si
1. Network disruptions that prohibit conversations and transactions from taking place,
resulting in lost revenue.
2. Theft and utilisation of intellectual property (research ideas, patents, or inventions)
by a rival r
ve
3. Without the users’ agreement, personal or private information is hacked or made
public.
4. Loss of personal or business cash due to misdirection
ni

5. Data loss that requires a lot of effort to replace or is irreplaceable

Network infrastructure security and information security are the two sorts of
network security problems that must be addressed.
U

Physically protecting devices that enable network connectivity, as well as

preventing unwanted access to the management software that resides on them, are all
part of safeguarding a network infrastructure.
ity

Information security refers to the safeguarding of data included in packets being

transported across a network as well as data saved on network-attached devices. In a
network, security precautions should be adopted.

Avoid unintentional revelation.

m

Prevent information theft

Prevent illegal information alteration

)A

Prevent service denial (DoS)

There are three major prerequisites for achieving network security goals, as
depicted in Figure:
(c

Keeping things private: Data confidentiality means that data may only be accessed
and read by the intended and authorised recipients—individuals, processes, or devices.
This is achieved by implementing a robust user authentication system, requiring users to
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 25

change their passwords often, and mandating difficult-to-guess passwords. Confidentiality

Notes

e
also includes encrypting data so that only the intended receiver may read it.

Maintaining the integrity of communication: Data integrity refers to the confidence

in
that data has not been tampered with during transmission from source to destination.

When information is damaged, whether intentionally or accidently, data integrity

is jeopardised. Data integrity is ensured by requiring sender validation and employing

nl
measures to ensure that the packet has not altered during transmission.

Assuring accessibility: For authorised users, availability is having the certainty of

timely and dependable access to data services. Network firewalls, as well as desktop

O
and server antivirus software, can help assure system stability and the capacity to detect,
repel, and respond to such threats. These dangers can be mitigated by constructing
completely redundant network infrastructures with minimal single points of failure.

ty
r si
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U

Figure: Uses of Network security

ity

Check your Understanding

Fill in the blanks:

1. ________is a computer network created for an individual person.

m

2. ___________system allows us to talk to any person in the world at any time.

3. A computer network enables two or more computers to share _____and hardware
)A

resources.
4. In a network modification or up gradation of the software or data is done at a
_________only.
5. The computer that communicates with each other are called_________.
(c

6. A network maintained without using wires is called_____________.

7. __________rare the different types of networking.

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 26 Network Basics

State True or False:

Notes

e
1. Nodes and servers have the same function.
2. Wi-Fi stands for wireless fidelity.

in
3. Network cards are used to physically attach a computer to a network.
4. WAN stands for Wide Ares networks.

nl
5. In Client Server network, there is no central server.
6. Extranet refers to a computer network restricted to an organization.

O
Summary
●● A computer network is made up of two or more autonomous computers that are
linked (connected) together in order to: (files, printers, modems, fax machines).

ty
◌◌ Distribute application software such as Microsoft Office.
◌◌ Make electronic communication possible.
◌◌ Boost productivity

si
●● Computers on a network may be connected by cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites, and other means.
●● r
A computer network contains the network operating system in the client and server
machines, the cables that connect the computers, and any supporting hardware
ve
devices.
●● Computer networks are often classed as follows based on their structure and
location:
ni

◌◌ Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that spans a relatively limited
area, such as a single building or school.
◌◌ Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN is a sort of computer network that is
U

built for a city or town.

●● Wide Region Network (WAN): A WAN is a network that spans a vast geographical
area and connects several cities, states, and even nations.
ity

●● The following additional criteria are also used to classify distinct types of networks:
◌◌ Topology: The graphical layout of computer systems in a network is known as
topology. A bus, star, ring, and mesh are examples of common topologies.
◌◌ Protocol: A protocol is a collection of rules that computers on a network use
m

to communicate between hardware and software elements. The Ethernet

protocol is one of the most widely used LAN protocols. The token-ring network
is another common LAN protocol for PCs.
)A

◌◌ Architecture: Networks can be roughly characterised as either peer-to-peer or

client/server.

Activity
1. Prepare an illustrative PowerPoint Presentation for Network-Centric World.
(c

2. Talk to a friend working in IT sector. Gather the problems he encounters in his Network.

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 Network Basics 27

Question and Answers

Notes

e
1. Explain the difference between Client/Server and Peer-to-peer architecture.
2. Write briefly about the areas where networks are used?

in
3. Differentiate between Broadcast and point-to-point networks.
4. List the important aspects that should be kept in mind while designing a network?

nl
Glossary
●● PPP: Point-to-Point connection is a protocol which is used as a communication

O
link between two devices.
●● LAN: Local Area Network is designed for small areas such as an office, group of
building or a factory.

ty
●● WAN: Wide Area Network is used for the network that covers large distance such
as cover states of a country
●● MAN: Metropolitan Area Network uses the similar technology as LAN. It is

si
designed to extend over the entire city.

Further Readings:
1. r
Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tenenbaum, PHI, New Delhi.
ve
2. Data and Computer Communication, William Stalling, PHI, New Delhi.

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
ni

1. PAN
2. Communication
U

3. Data
4. Single Point
5. Node
ity

6. Wireless Networking
7. LAN and MAN

State True or False:

m

1. False
2. True
)A

3. True
4. True
5. False
6. False
(c

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 28 Network Basics

Unit - 1.2 : Types of Network

Notes

e
Objectivess

in
In this unit, you will be able to study:

●● Define and classify network

nl
●● Distinguish between different types of networks, and
●● Understand what is OSI model and TCP reference model and functions of each
layer.

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Introduction
A computer network is a collection of two or more networked computer systems

ty
that share resources and files via common connection protocols. A computer network
connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and
software are used to link computers and tools in any network.

si
A computer network, also known as a data network, is a telecommunications
network that allows computers to exchange data. Data communications refers to the
transmission of digital data between two or more computers, and a computer network,
r
also known as a data network, is a telecommunications network that allows computers
ve
to exchange data. Cable or wireless media is used to make a physical link between
networked computing devices. The Internet is the most well-known computer network.
ni
U
ity
m

1.2.1 Converged Network

)A

A computer network was designed to transmit solely data traffic in the early days of
networking. With the invention of VOIP (Voice-Over-IP) technology, computer networks
had to be constructed to transport voice traffic as well. A Converged network is one that
transports both data and voice traffic over a single network fabric.

Computer networks have existed for decades, connecting computers, servers, and
(c

printers to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of enterprises. If you need to print
a huge document, you must first log into the network and select the location where your

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 Network Basics 29

content will be printed.

Notes

e
A convergent network is the next step in computer networking, allowing users
to share not just data but also speech and video through the Internet protocol (IP). A

in
converged network can be thought of as a “super network.” A converged network
is utilised instead of traditional phone lines, lowering or eliminating long-distance
expenditures, which is a significant benefit to any firm.

nl
Prerequisites
Broadband

O
As converged network transfers a lot of data, a big broadband connection is
required to manage a high volume of transactions. You don’t want to be in a position
where a video can’t be shown at a meeting because there are too many individuals
utilising voice/phone services.

ty
Tools
Businesses must invest in software and technology that can manage not just the

si
convergent network needs, but also control and maintain proper data flow using tools
like QoS (Quality of Service) systems. You want to receive the tools that will assist
your IT personnel in quickly diagnosing and resolving network issues. These systems
r
may be constructed using “html” since the network employs Internet protocol, reducing
ve
training time.

Architecture
If your organisation lacks an expert, you should employ an IT consulting firm with
ni

the skills and knowledge to execute the job effectively, including developing a long-term
architecture for your company.

Investing in a converged network infrastructure that allows for scalability and

U

security of the entire system is a smart idea.

A converged network is a data network that may be utilised by both IT and non-IT
devices.
ity

Software is used to segregate these devices from one another. A converged

network is one in which many systems use the same data cabling but utilise various
network switches.

A building services data network is sometimes known as a CNS (common or combined

m

network system), an INS (integrated network system), or simply a convergent network.

It’s a good idea to invest in a converged network architecture that provides for
)A

system scalability and security.

A converged network is a data network that may be used by IT and non-IT devices
simultaneously.

These devices are separated from one another via software. Many systems use
(c

the same data cabling but utilise different network switches in a converged network.

A CNS (common or combined network system), an INS (integrated network

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 30 Network Basics

system), or simply a convergent network are all terms used to describe a building
Notes

e
services data network.

Data cabling, data outlets, patch leads, and a network switch are used to connect

in
a device to a network. The network switch may deliver power to a device in addition to
transferring bits of data, eliminating the requirement for an electrical outlet. There are a
variety of ways to provide power over data cable, but one of the most frequent is termed

nl
Power over Ethernet (PoE).

Building services devices are increasingly not only IP devices, but also IP devices
that employ PoE. The following are some examples of these devices:

O
1. Clocks
2. Intercoms
3. Solenoid valves for lighting

ty
4. Cameras that record
5. Controllers for door locks

si
6. Telephones
7. Readers for electronic point of sale
8. r
Boxes with variable air volume controls
ve
9. Access points for Wi-Fi
Contractors have discovered that as more and more building services equipment
become IP devices, they must now offer a data network for their systems.
ni

Each building service can have its own network, and this is what happens on many
projects. The building control system has its own network, which the controls contractor
instals, commissions, and maintains. The security contractor is in charge of the security
network. The electrical contractor is in charge of the energy monitoring and metering
U

network. The elevator firm is in charge of the elevator control and management
network, and so on.

However, there are several disadvantages to this strategy. There may be overlap or
ity

duplication if each contractor constructs its own network. For example:

1. There might be a variety of network switches available from various vendors.

2. Some network switches may have upgrade capacity, while others may not. Switches
m

may have limited or no administration capabilities.

3. Additional ports on a network switch may have been permitted by the designer for
future added devices, however this may not have been the case in all cases.
)A

4. It’s possible that hubs will be utilised instead of network switches, which might have
an impact on data delivery.
5. Multiple networks in the building may utilise the same addressing system, generating
confusion.
(c

The industry was able to handle both data and voice traffic on the same network
devices as network gear improved in performance and capability (routers, switches,

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 Network Basics 31

etc). This is known as a Converged Network, which is a single network fabric capable of
Notes

e
carrying both voice and data traffic:

in
nl
O
ty
si
Figure: Converged network
r
To graphically show the distinct IP networks, it employs two separate switches and
ve
two router interfaces for Data and Voice traffic. However, using VLANs, the same result
may be achieved with just one switch and one router interface:

Converged Network using LAN

ni

The following are some of the reasons why a converged network is superior to
multiple separate networks:
U

1. A converged network saves money on capital costs since it uses a single infrastructure
rather than many infrastructures.
2. As just a single network needs to be maintained, operational costs are minimised
because only one contractor can be hired.
ity

3. Instead of using many manufacturers of varied quality, a single manufacturer may be

utilised for network gear.
4. Instead of using many manufacturers of varied quality, a single manufacturer may be
m

utilised for network cabling.

5. Different naming methods for data cabling may exist, resulting in conflicting marks
across the facility.
)A

6. It’s possible that the data cabling installation doesn’t follow best practises or meet
industry standards.
7. The network switches can be deployed regardless of ventilation, upgradeability, or
power quality protection.
(c

8. Network switches may be put in regions that aren’t documented, making

troubleshooting difficult. Network switches may be utilised that aren’t capable of
applying security or network traffic conditioning.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 32 Network Basics

1.2.2 LANs, WANs, MAN and the Internet

Notes

e
Computers may connect and interact with one another across any media via
the network. The three basic types of networks are LAN, MAN, and WAN, which are

in
intended to function over a certain region. There are some parallels and differences
between them. One of the most significant distinctions is the geographical region they
cover, with LAN covering the smallest, MAN covering a bigger area than LAN, and WAN
covering the biggest of all.

nl
There are numerous additional kinds of computer networks, such as:

1. PAN (Personal Area Network)

O
2. SAN (Storage Area Network)
3. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
4. EPN (Enterprise Private Network)

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To enable a network to supply services and resources, several distinct components
are necessary. These numerous components work together to guarantee that resources
are distributed to people who need them in a timely way.

si
1. LAN
The LAN acronym stands for ‘Local Area Network.’ It links the computers by
r
spanning the local region within 10m to 1.5 km, as the name implies. LAN is found in
local sites such as workplaces, colleges, schools, groupings of buildings, and corporate
ve
organisations since it spans a limited local region.

One individual or a small organisation manages and uses this network. By linking
devices such as printers, scanners, projectors, and other storage components, this
network is utilised for resource sharing, data storage, and document printing.
ni

TCP/IP is the most prevalent protocol that is used in this network (LAN, WAN, and
MAN). The LAN is commonly connected by Ethernet cables and Wi-Fi, as well as Token
Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface, or FDDI.
U

Sharing your internet connection with someone else is also an example of LAN
sharing. Only two computers are required to form the smallest LAN.

LAN transmission rates range from 4Mbps to 16Mbps, with a maximum speed of
ity

100 Mbps. We may use any form of network topology that matches the needs of the
network, such as a bus or ring topology, to connect the hosts in a LAN.
m
)A
(c

Figure: LAN

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 Network Basics 33

We can connect up to 1000 PCs to a LAN. Wire connections are utilised in the
Notes

e
majority of LANs. However, it is currently also utilised without a cable, in wireless
communications. The high speed, cheap costs, and security of this network are all
pluses.

in
LAN Features
1. LAN Network Capacity: A LAN’s network capacity is restricted to a single room and

nl
small geographical regions such as residences, small businesses, and offices.
2. The LAN offers the benefit of fast data transfer speeds.

O
3. As backup files are kept on a server, file transmission and recovery are easier to
manage in a LAN network.
4. It has no link to the outside world, ensuring privacy.

ty
5. The LAN network is a privately owned network that is not controlled by any
government agencies.
6. The network stretches from 1 metre to 1.5 kilometre.

si
Advantages of LAN
LAN Resource Sharing Benefits: Unlimited data sharing between PCs and printers
through Wi-Fi or ethernet cable; this saves money. r
ve
Sharing Software Applications: Using the same software over the network rather
than purchasing separately licenced software saves money for each customer.

Data and messages may be quickly transmitted to networked computers, making

ni

communication simple and inexpensive.

Users’ data is centralised on the server’s database, so there’s no need to be

concerned about losing data or documents. As there is a backup option, such mistakes
U

can be avoided.

Intermediate level of security.

Internet Sharing: A local area network (LAN) allows all users connected to the
ity

network to share a single Internet connection.

LANs are commonly used as a local network for exchanging data at home as well
as on-campus at colleges and schools. In the same way, LAN is utilised as an intranet
for businesses via wifi.
m

Disadvantages of LAN
Although LANs save money in the long run by pooling computer resources, the
)A

initial cost of setting up a local area network is high.

Software installation, wire configuration, wifi router hardware issues, and cable
malfunctions all demand the services of a LAN administrator.

Server Load: If the server isn’t up to par, it won’t be able to handle a large number
(c

of computer connections without causing problems.

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 34 Network Basics

Hackers can get access to the system, putting the system at danger of
Notes

e
vulnerability. Viruses and malware, on the other hand, can infiltrate a LAN and do harm
to everyone connected.

in
Covers a Small Area: A local area network (LAN) only covers a small area, such as
a house, an office, a building, or a group of surrounding buildings.

nl
2. The Man
The MAN acronym stands for ‘Metropolitan Area Network.’ The WAN is a more
advanced form of the LAN network that is commonly used in cities and other areas to

O
send data at fast speeds over a distance of 5-60 km.

As it is an enormous network by joining numerous LANs into a single big network

with a common bridge, MANs are high-speed connection networks.

ty
Two or more local area networks are linked in this MAN network. The backbone
line, which is commonly built by optical fibre and twisted pair cables to enhance data
transmission speed, is referred to as that bridge.

si
This network connects the city’s most important colleges, schools, government
buildings, and corporate groups. As a result, we may define a MAN network as a
collection of LANs.
r
Cable TV in the heart of a city is the finest illustration of a MAN since its cable runs
ve
across the city and the user accesses the service through the cable network.
ni
U
ity
m

Figure: MAN
)A

A MAN is a person who works for a large corporation. It links to a separate branch
through this branch. When such networks are utilised on a college campus, it is referred
to as a CAN (campus area network).

A MAN can be defined as a collection of one or more LAN networks linked by a

(c

single cable. In MAN, communication protocols like as RS-232, X-25, Frame Relay, and
ATM are commonly used.

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 Network Basics 35

MAN’s Characteristics Include:

Notes

e
1. MAN has a larger network reach than LAN but is smaller than WAN.
2. It has substantial geographical boundaries, such as a town or a city.

in
3. The pace of data transfer is modest.
4. It might be owned by public or private entities.

nl
5. The network stretches from 5 to 60 kilometres.

Advantages of MAN

O
1. MAN is utilised in a city’s many government agencies, police stations, and private
businesses. Officers and workers may easily interact with one another, as well as
across departments and branches, to swiftly send essential data and messages
through this network without the need for an Internet connection.

ty
2. As a result, it allows for resource sharing over a greater distance in the city than LAN
networks.

si
3. MAN uses fibre optic cable to deliver high-speed communication.
4. This allows WANs more access and provides a robust backbone for huge networks.
5. It serves a number of towns and cities, allowing for excellent interconnection across
wide regions at a reasonable cost. r
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6. The MAN’s dual bus allows data to be sent in both directions at the same time.

MAN’s Disadvantages
1. More cables are required by MAN to link connections from one location to another.
ni

2. The longer the cable, the higher the cost of creating the MAN will be.
3. Anyone may hack the network from such a long distance. As security cannot be
U

implemented at every point of the network in widely dispersed places, it becomes

simpler for unauthorised individuals to get access to the network for their own gain.
4. It’s tough for the system to defend against hackers’ graphical areas and industrial
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espionage.
3. WAN
WAN stands for ‘Wide Area Network.’ A wide area network (WAN) is used to link
computers that are not physically close to one another. It’s a grouping of multiple LANs
m

with a considerably broader range than LAN and MAN.

The geographical peripheral of a WAN network is more vast than that of a LAN,
WAN, or MAN network, such as a network of systems extending over a whole city,
)A

nation, or even continent.

This network communicates in the same way as LANs and MANs do. The majority
of wide area networks (WANs) are public networks, such as phone lines and satellites,
telephone systems, or leased lines.
(c

In most WANs, fibre optic cable is employed as the transmission medium. This
network utilises the OSI Reference Model’s physical, data-link, and network layers.

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 36 Network Basics

Frame Relay, X-25, Integrated Services Digital Network, or ISDN, and Point-to-
Notes

e
Point Protocol, or PPP, are some of the most widely used WAN protocols today.

The Internet is an example of the world’s largest WAN. People can connect from

in
one location to other computers or users all over the world via the Internet. A public
broadcasting system is in charge of putting it into action.

nl
O
ty
r si
Figure: WAN
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WAN’s Characteristics Include:
1. It’s often utilised in mobile and landline phone apps for voice and data.
ni

2. This single network allows a big number of people to interact with one another.
3. Its data transfer speed varies from sluggish to extremely fast.
4. A WAN’s network range or coverage area is much larger, therefore we can get more
U

information from it.

The Benefits of WAN

ity

1. Long-distance firms and corporations can join on a single network since it spans a
vast geographic region.
2. Connected workstations can share software and resources.
3. Messages may be delivered extremely quickly to another user on the system; the
m

transmission rate is quite high even when sending huge files larger than 10 MB.
4. The data is available to everyone on the network. This eliminates the issue of some
users having older versions of information than others.
)A

5. There will be no chances of a correspondence hole between all customers connected

over WAN since they will always be in synchronisation with each other.
6. Military services make use of WAN networks. In this configuration, a satellite
technique of communication is employed. In this industry, WAN is employed for high-
(c

security military communication and operations.

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 Network Basics 37

7. WAN networks are used by airlines and railways to purchase tickets from anywhere
Notes

e
in the country. This is done because client nodes are spread across the country and
are connected to a single network via a centralised server.

in
WAN’s Disadvantages
1. To prevent anonymous hackers from compromising the data and disturbing the
network, a strong firewall is required.

nl
2. Setting up a network is costly, time-consuming, and difficult. The costlier a system is,
the more thorough it is.

O
3. The full-time maintenance of connections necessitates the appointment of technicians
and managers.
4. There is a need to invest a lot of money on security.

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Intranets, Extranets, and the Internet
Most people need to communicate with a resource on a network other than their
home, college, or organization’s local network. This is accomplished through the use of

si
the Internet.

The Internet
r
The Internet is a network of interconnected networks that spans the globe
ve
(internetworks or internet for short). Consider the Internet in terms of a network of
interconnected LANs and WANs.
ni
U
ity
m
)A

Figure: Interconnected WANs and LANs

Some of the LAN instances are linked together through a wide area network
(c

(WAN). The WANs are then linked together. All of the many methods we link networks
are represented by the red WAN connection lines. Copper lines, fibre optic cables, and
wireless communications can all be used to link WANs (not shown).
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 38 Network Basics

There is no one or group that owns the Internet. The adoption of consistent and
Notes

e
widely recognised technologies and standards, as well as the collaboration of numerous
network management organisations, are required to ensure successful communication
across this heterogeneous infrastructure.

in
Leased lines are reserved circuits in the service provider’s network that connect
geographically isolated workplaces for private voice and/or data networking. Typically,

nl
circuits are hired on a monthly or annual basis. They may be rather costly.

Ethernet WANs expand LAN access technology to the wide area network. In a
subsequent chapter, you’ll learn about Ethernet, which is a LAN technology. Ethernet’s

O
advantages are now being extended over the WAN.

DSL – Business DSL comes in a variety of forms. Symmetric Digital Subscriber

Lines (SDSL) are a popular option, as they are similar to consumer-grade DSL yet offer

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the same upload and download speeds.

Satellite - Satellite service, like small office and home office users, can provide a
connection when a wired connection is unavailable.

si
The type of connection available depends on your location and the service
provider’s availability.

r
1.2.3 Network Architectures and Network Expansion
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The physical and logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and medium
for data transfer is referred to as computer network architecture. Simply, it refers to how
computers are arranged, and duties are assigned to them.
ni

The following are the two types of network architectures that are used:

1. Client/Server network
2. Peer-to-Peer network
U
ity
m

Peer-to-peer (P2P) Networking

)A

A peer-to-peer network is one in which all computers are connected and have the
same privileges and obligations for data processing.

Peer-to-peer networks are ideal for small groups of up to ten machines.

There is no dedicated server in a peer-to-peer network.

(c

Each computer is given special rights in order to share resources, however this
might cause issues if the computer with the resource is down.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 39

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
si
Benefits of a Peer-to-Peer Network: It is less expensive since it does not require a
dedicated server. r
ve
If one computer fails, the remaining computers will continue to function.

It’s simple to set up and maintain because each computer runs independently.

Peer-to-Peer Network Disadvantages: In the case of a peer-to-peer network, there

ni

is no centralised system. As a result, it can’t back up the data because it’s different in
different places.

It has a security flaw because the gadget is self-managed.

U

Network of Clients and Servers

The client/server network is a network paradigm that allows end users, or clients, to
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access resources such as music, videos, and other media from a central computer, or
server.

All other computers in the network are referred to as clients, while the central
controller is referred to as a server.
m

All key functions, such as security and network administration, are performed by a
server.
)A

A server is in charge of all resources, including files, directories, printers, and so

on.

A server connects all of the clients and allows them to interact with one another.
For example, if client 1 wishes to communicate some data to client 2, it must first obtain
permission from the server.
(c

To begin communication with client 2, the server delivers the answer to client 1.

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 40 Network Basics

Notes

e
in
nl
O
Client/Server Network Benefits:
The centralised system is housed in a Client/Server network. As a result, we can

ty
easily back up the data.

A dedicated server in a Client/Server network enhances the overall performance of

the system.

si
As a single server manages the shared resources in a Client/Server network,
security is improved.

r
It also improves the pace with which resources are shared.
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Client/Server Network Disadvantages: Client/Server networks are expensive since
they require a server with a lot of memory.

Network Expansion
ni

New Trends

When you consider how the Internet has impacted so many aspects of people’s
lives, it’s hard to think that it’s only been around for approximately 20 years for
U

most people. It has completely changed the way people and businesses interact.
Organizations and small businesses, for example, depended heavily on print marketing
to make consumers aware of their products before the Internet became so readily
ity

available. Businesses depended on mass print marketing operations since determining

which families were potential clients was difficult. These programmes were costly, and
their success varied. Consider how consumers are contacted nowadays.

Most businesses have a website where clients may learn more about their
m

products, read customer reviews, and place orders straight from the internet.
Businesses and social networking sites collaborate to promote products and services.
Bloggers collaborate with companies to promote and support products and services.
The majority of this product placement is aimed at potential customers rather than the
)A

general public.

Businesses and consumers must continue to adapt to this ever-changing

environment as new technology and end-user devices are introduced. The network’s
function is evolving to allow people, devices, and information to be connected.
(c

Several new networking developments will have an impact on businesses and

consumers. The following are some of the most popular trends:

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 Network Basics 41

You must bring your own device (BYOD)

Notes

e
Collaboration through the internet

Communication via video

in
Cloud computing is a type of computing that uses the

These trends are intertwined and will continue to feed off one another in the years

nl
ahead. These tendencies will be discussed in further depth in the following sections.

However, keep in mind that new trends are created and designed every day. What
do you imagine the Internet will look like in ten years? How about 20 years?

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BYOD (Bring Your Own Device)
The notion of connecting any device to any material in any form is a big global

ty
trend that is requiring considerable changes in how devices are utilised in commercial
IT systems. Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) is the term for this movement (BYOD).

A company-provided device, such as a laptop or PC, was formerly supplied to an

si
employee who needed access to the business network. These gadgets were usually
pricey and regarded as work equipment. Employees should expect to have access
to some of the most modern technologies for personal usage as consumer gadgets
become more affordable. r
ve
Laptops, netbooks, tablets, cellphones, and e-readers are examples of personal
tools. BYOD refers to the flexibility that end users have to use their own devices to
access information and communicate over the corporate network. These can be
employer-purchased gadgets, employee-purchased devices, or a combination of
ni

the two. BYOD refers to any device, regardless of ownership, that is used anywhere.
Employees benefit from more flexibility and productivity as a result of enhanced
connectivity to the business network via mobile and remote access.
U

BYOD is a powerful trend that has or will have an impact on every IT business.
When setting up a BYOD environment, there are a lot of things to think about.

Considerations for Bringing Your Own Device

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Individuals in a BYOD workplace are likely to have many devices connected

to the network at the same time. As a result, the aggregate number of linked devices
skyrockets. The network must be configured to accommodate these new devices and
their associated traffic.
m

Furthermore, a comprehensive BYOD solution must address how to provide the

organization’s entire services to BYOD users in a seamless manner, delivering the
same sorts of services as are available to BYOD users on corporate PCs. This offers
)A

features like integrated phone, video, instant messaging, conferencing, and application
sharing.

Finally, regardless of whether access to those apps or collaboration tools occurs at

the main campus, branch office, home office, or mobile teleworker location, the network
(c

and applications must be able to provide quality of service. Any solution must take into
account not just the person who is using their own device, but also the people and apps
with whom they are interacting.

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 42 Network Basics

In a BYOD context, security is a crucial factor, thus any solution must be a highly
Notes

e
secure mobile solution. Mobile and remote-access devices are rarely subjected to the
same level of inspection and supervision as company-provided desktop and laptop
PCs.

in
As a result, when employees connect with these devices, suitable security and
user controls must be implemented to secure business data. The scope of those

nl
regulations may differ depending on the level of BYOD access desired by an enterprise.

A variety of BYOD rules, ranging from restricted access to sophisticated BYOD

implementation, may be in place depending on the needs of the enterprise. End-user

O
agreements must be included in each of these deployments, outlining the usage of
personal devices on business networks, regulations for how and what such devices can
access, and procedures for dealing with lost or stolen devices.

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Online Collaboration
Considerations

One of humanity’s greatest achievements has been the capacity to work together

si
to tackle a common challenge. When we all work together, great things can happen.
However, putting a collaborative plan in place is not always simple, and there might be
several obstacles to overcome.
r
End users have high expectations for application performance to be consistent
ve
across time, place, and device. Users also expect collaboration capabilities regardless
of service provider, which means they want such capabilities whether they’re using
collaboration tools on a corporate-managed network or connecting via their mobile
device.
ni

To be successful in its collaboration strategy, a company must first assess its

collaboration needs and then evaluate which technologies best satisfy those needs.
Furthermore, a business must be able to prioritise traffic as well as properly monitor and
U

control the performance of collaboration tools. Finally, to guarantee that business data
stays safe, a firm must examine security needs for collaboration and develop proper-
use regulations.
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Today’s industry offers a diverse selection of collaboration solutions, including

mobile apps, telepresence, and online web-conferencing platforms, to mention a few.

Video Communication
m

The usage of video is another networking trend that is crucial in the communication
and cooperation endeavour. Video conferencing and person-to-person video calling
are already proving to be extremely effective for sales operations and conducting
)A

business remotely, both locally and worldwide. Businesses are now adopting video to
revolutionise essential business operations in order to gain a competitive edge, save
costs, and minimise environmental impact, especially by eliminating the need for travel.
The trend of video in communication is seen in the graph.
(c

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 Network Basics 43

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
Figure: The trend of video in communication

si
This shift is being driven by both consumers and corporations. As firms expand
across geographical and cultural borders, video is becoming a critical prerequisite for

r
efficient cooperation. Video viewers today expect to be able to watch any material, on
any device, at any time.
ve
Businesses are beginning to see the value of video in enhancing the human
network. The proliferation of media, as well as the various applications for which
it is being placed, is pushing the need to include audio and video into a variety of
ni

communication formats. The audio conference and the video conference will coexist.
Desktop video will be integrated into collaboration solutions meant to connect remote
staff, bringing teams closer together.
U

Cloud Computing
The utilisation of computer resources (hardware and software) offered as a service
through a network is known as cloud computing. A firm pays a service charge to the
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cloud provider in exchange for using the cloud’s hardware and software.

When it comes to executing network applications, local computers no longer

have to do all of the “hard lifting.” Instead, they are handled by the cloud’s network of
computers. The user’s hardware and software needs are reduced. The user’s computer
m

must communicate with the cloud using software, such as a web browser, and the
cloud’s network will handle the rest.

Another worldwide development that is transforming the way businesses access

)A

and keep data is cloud computing. Cloud computing is a method of reducing expenses
and improving corporate operations by utilising cloud-based services. Cloud computing
refers to any subscription-based or pay-per-use service delivered in real time via the
Internet that expands IT capabilities without needing additional infrastructure, people
training, or software licence. These services are on-demand and cost-effectively
(c

supplied to any device, anywhere in the globe, without jeopardising security or

functionality.

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 44 Network Basics

Cloud computing allows businesses to move their IT investment from one-time

Notes

e
capital expenditures to continuous operating costs. It also enables enterprise IT to
share cloud solution assets and give dynamic, on-demand service delivery to the whole
organisation.

in
The following are some of the possible advantages of cloud computing:

1. Organizational flexibility: Using a web browser, users may access information at any

nl
time and from any location.
2. Agility and quick deployment: The IT department can concentrate on providing tools
to mine, analyse, and exchange data and knowledge from databases, files, and

O
people.
3. Refocus IT resources: Hardware and application cost savings can be put to better
use elsewhere.

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4. New business models may be created since applications and resources are readily
available, allowing organisations to respond swiftly to client requirements. This aids
them in developing strategies to encourage innovation while potentially breaking into

si
new markets.

1.2.4 Types of Network Topologies

r
The architecture of the numerous interconnected parts of a computer network is
ve
known as network topology. Physical or conceptual topology are both possible. Network
topologies are important to understand because various types of networking standards
may utilise one physical topology but a completely other logical topology. The physical
topology of a computer network refers to how it is physically linked. We have multiple
ni

hosts linked to the network medium through a wire in the first scenario. This is the
topology of a bus.

The physical pattern of interconnection between network devices is referred to

U

as network topology. A network is made up of computers that are connected to one

another, and Network Topology is the mapping of these computers and hardware
parts that allows for smooth data flow. It’s a phrase that’s frequently used in network
fundamentals.
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Network Topologies Types

Physical Topology

The term “physical topology” refers to the spatial layout of devices, such as cables,
m

device placement, and their arrangement on the workstation. In other terms, it is a Local
Area Network configuration (LAN). It has a direct influence on the network’s capability.
)A

The communication between network media, regardless of the actual

interconnection between hardware parts, is known as logical topology or signal
topology. In a nutshell, the way data packets transit the Physical Topology or the path
they take.

A direct point-to-point link between two computers and peripheral devices is the
(c

most basic network structure. As the communication channel is not shared in this
topology, the devices monopolise it, and no mechanism for device identification is

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 Network Basics 45

required. It might be one of three kinds: Simple: unidirectional signal flow, half-duplex:
Notes

e
bidirectional but not at the same time, fullduplex: bidirectional but not at the same time.

in
nl
O
ty
si
Figure: Network Topology Diagram

Topology of the Bus

r
ve
Every device in the bus topology is connected to a backbone or trunk. The ends
of cables are terminated by plugging in some devices, and each device is linked using
just one cable. In this architecture, Coax cable is often utilised. Only one computer
may send data on the bus at a time, and data transfer is unidirectional. This makes
identifying problems in this topology rather challenging. When a main line or trunk fails,
ni

the entire network is brought to a halt, whereas single computer faults may be resolved
without disrupting the entire network. Linear Bus Topology is used when there are just
two nodes, or endpoints.
U

This topology is very inexpensive and simple to set up because no additional gear
is necessary, and the amount of wire required is minimal. Coax cable is long-lasting
and performs well in tough environments. It’s simple to upgrade the network; all that’s
ity

needed is a T connection. It is a good choice for small network installations since it

utilises less cable than star topology. It is the simplest architecture for connecting
networks in a linear manner.

Star Topology
m

Among all of the topologies, star topology is one of the most popular. All
computers, switches, MAUs (Multi Station Access Units), and repeaters are connected
to the central switch, also known as the network’s root, through a dedicated connection
)A

(see figure). When a signal has to be sent from one computer to another, it first goes
to the central switch, which then broadcasts it to all peripheral devices. Coaxial cable,
optical fibre, or twisted pairs can all be used to create a star topology.

The main advantage of the Star topology is that it is relatively simple to set up;
(c

all that is required is a point-to-point connection between the central unit and the
peripherals to set up the network.

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 46 Network Basics

It’s simple to add and remove derives from the topology, and it’s done
Notes

e
without disrupting the rest of the network or causing shutdowns. This also makes
troubleshooting a breeze in the event of a breakdown. Until and unless they are non-
central, failures are fairly easy to control. It has a high tolerance and provides great

in
performance with fewer nodes. The network’s speed is mostly determined by the
capacity of the central hub and the performance of the cables. Packets becoming
caught in between are quite rare on our network.

nl
As of the additional cabling in the centre, this high-performance network costs a lot
of money to set up.

O
Table: Network Topology-Performance Metrics

Topology Star Bus Ring Mesh

Cost High Low High Very High

ty
Expansion Moderate Easy Difficult Easy
Ease of Installation Difficult Easy Difficult Easy
Security High High Low High

si
Response Time Low Moderate High Low
Ease of Fault Finding Difficult Easy Moderate Easy
Reliability High High Low High
Ring Topology
r
ve
Each computer is connected to another device in Ring Topology, and the last one
is connected to the first to form a complete loop. On both sides, every WorkStation is
linked. Repeaters are used to convey data from one computer to the other on the other
ni

end of the ring. Although the ring topology is unidirectional, two rings are frequently
used for bidirectional communication or as a backup in the event of a breakdown.

Tokens are used to transport data in a sequential bit-by-bit way. Token Passing:
U

Every packet of data delivered contains a token, which is a unique address assigned
by the source. Computers in between the source and the destination use these tokens
to determine if the data is intended for them or whether they must send it on. This
continues until the package arrives at its destination.
ity

In comparison to other topologies, the ring topology is highly inexpensive and

simple to set up, but its upgrading method is complicated and impacts the entire
network. The main advantage is that it eliminates the need for a server to manage
network communication between workstations. It provides fast speeds and a high level
m

of data security. This architecture ensures that all computers have equitable access to
all resources. MAUs and Network cards are used.

As every communication passes via each computer, this architecture is slower than
)A

star topology. Troubleshooting the issues is complex, because it can’t be done without
causing network disruption. It makes use of MAUs and network cards, which are more
costly than Ethernet or a hub.

Mesh Topology
(c

Mesh topology is created by connecting each and every network device with
a point-to-point link. It’s a completely linked architecture that’s reliable but not

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 Network Basics 47

adaptable, and it’s often employed in wide-area networks. There are two common data
Notes

e
transmission methods:

Routing: Using the table of functioning channels to find the shortest path between

in
source and destination, accounting for broken links and reconfigured failures.

Flooding: In flooding, data from a source is sent to all network nodes; it is more
reliable than routing, but it adds to the network’s burden. As each node is linked

nl
to the others, each carrier carries its own load, ensuring a high level of security
and anonymity. In this topology, locating the fault is a breeze. As there are so many
connections, installation costs are considerable, and setup is challenging.

O
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topology is the mixture of two or more basic topologies, as the name

ty
suggests. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of various topologies. WANs
are often connected in a twin ring and star configuration. This architecture is created
in such a way that it optimises the network based on its usage pattern, such as Mesh
can be utilised at the top level of topology and extended through bus to minimise the

si
number of nodes.

This collection of topologies contributes to the creation of a hybrid with quick fault

r
detection and debugging, scalability, network flexibility, and dependability. However, this
results in a more complicated design and more installation effort.
ve
It can occasionally raise costs because to the requirement for a hub that can
function with many architectures. It will need a big, expensive infrastructure, as well as
cooling and cabling.
ni

Tree Topology
Tree topology, also known as hierarchical topology, is a type of hybrid topology
U

that combines Star and Bus topologies. It has hierarchical tiers with a root node or core
level. Between the successive layers of topology, there is a point-to-point relationship.
There should be at least three layers in a tree topology. The number of devices in
the network has no effect on the branching factor. There are one less point-to-point
ity

connections than hardware parts. When comparing the performance of nodes, those
closest to the root outperform those further away.

When compared to other topologies, this one is the most popular. It has the
advantage of allowing individual segments to be connected point to point. This topology
m

is a little tricky to set up, and the dependability is dependent on the backbone line.
Topologies define the network’s physical and logical views. They might be similar or
dissimilar. The topology of a network influences the kind of functions it can do and the
)A

quality of communication it can provide. It is not required that logical topology be linked
to a particular topology.

Cost, expansion, security, bandwidth capacity, delay or data flow efficiency, fault
finding ease, and other factors all influence topology selection. When compared to other
topologies, this one is the most popular. It has the advantage of allowing individual
(c

segments to be connected point to point. This topology is a little tricky to set up, and
the dependability is dependent on the backbone line. Topologies define the network’s

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 48 Network Basics

physical and logical views. They might be similar or dissimilar. The topology of a
Notes

e
network influences the kind of functions it can do and the quality of communication it
can provide. It is not required that logical topology be linked to a particular topology.

in
Cost, expansion, security, bandwidth capacity, delay or data flow efficiency, fault
finding ease, and other factors all influence topology selection.

nl
Check your Understanding
Fill in the blanks:

1. MAN is abbreviated as__________.

O
2. Network used in school is an example of_______network.
3. ________is a computer network created for an individual person.
4. ___________system allows us to talk to any person in the world at any time.

ty
5. A computer network enables two or more computers to share _____and hardware
resources.

si
Summary
●● In its most basic form, data transfer can occur between two devices that are

r
directly linked by some type of communication media. However, connecting two
devices directly point to point is impractical. This is because of the following
ve
factors:
i) The gadgets are a long distance apart.
(ii) There is a collection of devices, each of which may need to connect to others at
ni

different times.
●● The solution is to link each gadget to a communication network.
●● Computer networks are a collection of interconnected autonomous systems that
U

allow for dispersed information processing.

●● Networks with diverse interconnection architectures and designs, access methods,
protocols, and DATA carrying capacity are available to satisfy the demands of
ity

various applications. Geographic coverage can be used to classify networks.

Network Classification
●● LAN (Local Area Network) • MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) • WAN (Wide Area
m

Network) (WAN).
Local Area Network (LAN) A local region network (LAN) is a smaller, privately
owned network with a maximum spread of 10 kilometres that provides local connection
)A

within a building or a limited geographical area. LANs differ from other types of
networks in three ways: I size, (ii) transmission technology, and (iii) topology.

As a result, there are several LAN standards, such as IEEE standards 802 x.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A metropolitan area network (MAN) is described

(c

as being fewer than 50 kilometres in length and providing regional connectivity often
within a limited geographical area. It is intended to cover an entire city.

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 Network Basics 49

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Notes

e
There is no distance restriction with a Wide Area Network. The subnet in most
WANs is made up of two separate components. Transmission lines, sometimes known

in
as circuits, channels, or connections, as well as switching and routing devices (switches
& routers). Transmission lines are used to transfer data between devices, whereas
routers link two or more transmission lines.

nl
A WAN allows for the long-distance transmission of data, voice, image, and video
information across enormous geographical areas, which may include a nation, a
continent, or even the whole world.

O
Activity
1. Prepare an illustrative PowerPoint Presentation for Types of Network.
2. Gather information on different companies and mention which networks they use

ty
and what is their core purpose of using it.

Question and Answers

si
1. What are various types of networks?
2. Write briefly about the areas where networks are used?
3. Differentiate between Broadcast and point-to-point networks.
4. r
What is the difference between broadcasting and Multicasting?
ve
Glossary
1. PPP: Point-to-Point connection is a protocol which is used as a communication link
between two devices.
ni

2. LAN: Local Area Network is designed for small areas such as an office, group of
building or a factory.
3. WAN: Wide Area Network is used for the network that covers large distance such as
U

cover states of a country

19. MAN: Metropolitan Area Network uses the similar technology as LAN. It is designed
to extend over the entire city.
ity

Further Readings:
1. Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tenenbaum, PHI, New Delhi.
2. Data and Computer Communication, William Stalling, PHI, New Delhi.
m

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
)A

1. Metropolitan Area Network

2. LAN
3. PAN
4. Communication
(c

5. Data

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 50 Network Basics

Unit - 1.3 : Network Operating System Configuration

Notes

e
Objectives

in
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Know how to install various network services

nl
●● Configure a Dynamic Host Control Protocol
●● Understand and configure a Domain Name System

O
Introduction
Throughout its life cycle, every device on the network is subjected to Network
Configuration Management. It includes device detection, inventory management,

ty
configuration backup, monitoring configuration changes and compliance, tracking user
activity, and troubleshooting through the use of suitable network operations.

Let’s have a look at some of the most important network configuration management

si
features.

1. NOS manages resource sharing and performs a variety of additional tasks thanks to

r
its client/server design.
ve
2. Some are built-in, while others must be customised during installation.
3. NOS components differ depending on the NOS version and kind.
4. Servers and Network Operating Systems
ni

5. Networks make use of servers that are more powerful than the bare minimum.
6. Choosing the best server hardware
U

Applications have an impact on:

1. Processing load depends on the type of application and the resources utilised.
2. Reputation criteria for vendors
ity

3. Excellent technical support, high quality, and reliability

4. A dependable server
5. Spend as much as you need to.
m

6. Component failure has far-reaching consequences.

7. Client Support is a critical NOS feature.
8. Allows for effective communication and resource sharing when performing NOS
)A

customer support duties.

Client-Server Communication
Redirector for the logon process intercepts requests and decides where they
(c

should be handled.

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 Network Basics 51

Protocol for gaining access to files

Notes

e
Communication between a Windows XP client and a Windows Server 2008 CIFS
(Common Internet File System) server

in
SMB (Server Message Block) is an older protocol with widespread support that
allows any client type to authenticate and access resources.

nl
Middleware
Translates requests and answers between the client and the server in a three-tier
architecture.

O
Middleware is used in a client/server scenario.

Groups and Users

ty
Client receives access to NOS services and resources after NOS client
authentication. Administrators account Most privileged user account Unlimited privileges
to server, domain resources, and objects

si
On UNIX or Linux systems, Root is created by default.

Identifiers for users

r
Each network user has access to files and other shared resources thanks to NOS.
ve
Groups
Ensures resource sharing and security control by serving as the foundation for
resource and account management.
ni

Network administrator at a public elementary school, for example.

U

1.3.1 Network Operating System and its Type

Operating System for Networks

Network operating systems (NOS) manage the actions of several computers
ity

across a network, unlike operating systems such as Windows, which are designed for
single users to handle one machine. To keep the network working smoothly, the network
operating system works as a director.

The software that allows many computers to connect, share information, and
m

physical devices is known as a network operating system. Novell Netware, Windows

NT/2000, Linux, Sun Solaris, UNIX, and IBM OS/2 are some of the most popular
network operating systems.
)A

Novell NetWare was the first network operating system, launched in 1983.
Following Netware, various network operating systems such as Banyan VINES and
Microsoft Windows NT were launched. Windows 2000, Microsoft Windows XP, Sun
Solaris, and Linux are examples of different network operating systems. A group of
(c

personal computers connected by a local network, together with a shared printer,

server, and file server for archive storage, is a frequent example of a network operating
system.

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 52 Network Basics

Network Operating System Features

Notes

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1. It lets many computers to connect so that data, files, and hardware devices may be
shared.

in
2. Provide fundamental operating system capabilities such processor support, protocol
support, automated hardware identification, and application multi-processing
support.

nl
3. Authentication, login limitations, and access control are examples of security
features.
4. Name and directory services are provided.

O
5. File, print, online, and backup services are all available.
6. Internetworking features such as routing, and WAN ports are supported.

ty
7. System management, administration, and auditing tools with graphical interfaces;
user management and support for logon and logoff; remote access
8. It’s capable of clustering.

si
9. It also includes basic network administration features such as user access.
10. It also gives priority to printing tasks that are waiting in the network queue.

r
11. When new hardware is added to the system, it is detected.
ve
Network Operating System Characteristics
The support component is the first characteristic of network operating systems:
The numerous processors, software, and hardware devices that make up a network
ni

are supported by network operating systems. The systems assist users in connecting
to the network, as well as processing requests for particular documents and hardware
utilisation. Users can also request protocols from NOSs, such as Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and others.
U

The security component is the second feature of network operating systems:

Users, computer workstations, and other devices accessing a network are authorised
and authenticated by NOSs. When an unauthorised user or machine tries to enter a
ity

network, the NOS prevents them and reports the intrusion attempt in its log files. The
NOS also monitors software and hardware instals to prevent users from installing
unlicensed applications or equipment.

The user setup component is the third characteristic of network operating systems:
m

network operating systems generate user accounts and manage users logging in and
out of the network. The systems also control which file and directory services a certain
user has access to, as well as who may access the network remotely and how the
)A

network’s graphical interface appears to them.

The printing and file services component is the fourth characteristic of network
operating systems: Network operating systems, like other operating systems, are
responsible for all printing, storage, backup, and duplicating services for machines and
(c

users connected to a network.

Access to the Internet, local-area (LAN) and wide-area networks (WAN), port
routing, and intranet web services are all controlled by the systems. NOS quickly filters
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 Network Basics 53

documents and files as they pass via the printing/file services. Documents and data can
Notes

e
be sent over the network by many users for printing, backup, and other purposes.

The email component is the fifth and final feature of network operating systems:

in
Electronic mail, often known as email, is managed by a NOS for the whole network,
including users who access the NOS remotely and over the Internet. The NOS prevents
SPAM and other harmful emails from being sent or received, as well as allowing users

nl
to create additional email accounts.

Network Operating System Benefits:

O
1. Highly reliable centralised servers.
2. Servers are used to tackle security problems.
3. The system can readily accommodate new technologies and hardware upgrades.

ty
4. Remote server access is accessible from a variety of places and platforms.

Network Operating System Drawbacks:

si
1. Servers are expensive.
2. For most procedures, the user must rely on a central site.
3. Regular maintenance and upgrades are necessary.
r
ve
1.3.2 Network Operating System Configuration

Access Control and Device Setup

Regardless of whose network operating system you use for your network servers,
ni

you may install the NOS software on the server computer in one of many methods.
These options are described in the sections below.
U

Upgrade vs. Full Install

One of the first decisions you’ll have to make while installing NOS is whether you
want to do a complete installation or an upgrade installation. Even if you’re installing the
ity

NOS on a machine that already has a previous version installed, you might be better off
doing a full installation in some instances. Here are the options:

When you install the NOS on a brand-new server, you’re doing a full installation,
which includes installing the operating system and configuring it with default settings.
m

Install the new server operating system alongside the previous operating system
via a multiboot installation. You may pick the operating system to use when you restart
the machine.
)A

Warning
Although multiboot installation may appear to be a smart idea, it is risky. I
recommend avoiding the multiboot option unless you have a compelling reason to do
so. See the adjoining sidebar “Giving multiboot the boot” for additional information on
(c

multiboot configurations.

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 54 Network Basics

A client version of Windows cannot be upgraded to a server version. Instead, you

Notes

e
must execute either a full installation, which removes the current Windows operating
system, or a repair installation, which replaces the existing Windows operating system.

in
If you’re installing the NOS on a server machine that already has a server
operating system, you may do an upgrade installation, which replaces the old operating
system with the new one while keeping as much of the old operating system’s settings

nl
as feasible.

A full installation can also be done on a machine that already has an operating
system installed. If that’s the case, you have two choices:

O
Delete the previously installed operating system.

Installation through the Internet

ty
The NOS is normally installed from the distribution discs on the server’s CD-ROM
drive. However, if the server machine already has network connection, you can install
the operating system from a shared drive on another computer. You may either copy the

si
full contents of the distribution disc into a shared hard drive or utilise a shared CD-ROM
drive.

Getting rid of Multiboot

r
You may install multiple operating systems on a single computer using a multiboot
ve
installation. Of fact, at any one time, only one of these operating systems may be
active. When you turn on the computer, a menu opens, listing all of the operating
systems that have been installed.
ni

If you insist on installing two or more operating systems on a network server, make
sure each one has its own partition on the disc. Despite the fact that most network
operating systems allow you to install two (or more) operating systems on a single
partition, this is not a good idea. To support two operating systems on a single partition,
U

the operating systems must engage in a dangerous shell game with crucial system files,
shifting or renaming them each time the machine is restarted. Things can, unfortunately,
go awry. For example, if lightning strikes and the power goes out just as the NOS is
ity

rearranging the starting files, you can end up with a server that won’t boot to any of its
partitions.

Installing each operating system onto its own partition is the ideal approach to
set up a multiboot machine. Then, when you start the computer, you may use a boot
m

management tool to select which partition you wish to boot from.

For this strategy to operate, the server machine must have network connectivity. If
the server already has an operating system installed, it is likely to have network access.
)A

If not, you can use a disc with basic network capabilities to start the machine.

If you’re intending to install the NOS on many servers, transfer the distribution CD
to a shared hard drive first to save time. That’s because the network is faster than even
the quickest CD-ROM drives. Installations that are automated and can be done from
(c

afar.

If you find yourself in the painful position of having to install a NOS on several
servers, there are a few strategies you may take to speed up the process:
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 Network Basics 55

Automated setup: Allows you to construct a setup script that answers all of the
Notes

e
installation program’s inquiries. You may start the automatic setup after you’ve created
the script, then leave and return when the installation is complete.

in
As writing the setup script is time consuming, automated setup is only practical if
you have a large number of servers to install.

nl
3. Multiple Boot Options
If more than one operating system is required on a single machine, this option can
be set to allow the usage of several operating systems. Each operating system will

O
be installed on its own partition afterwards. As a result, prior to installing a multi-boot
system, there must be partition preparation.

There are a few things to consider when installing the operating system, including:
– The partition’s structure that will be used. The creation of separate partitions for

ty
system and data is one method for securing data on a computer. As a result of this
separation, the system may be improved without compromising the data.

si
Identifying the File System Type
The file system is a file management system that the operating system uses
to handle the data on the hard disc. At this time, a variety of file systems have been
r
established. FAT16/32, NTFS, HPFS, ext2, ext3, and ext4 are some of the most
ve
commonly used file systems. There may be many file systems in a single operating
system. Ubuntu, for example, can handle practically every file system that exists today.
Each file system has its own set of disadvantages and benefits.
ni

1.3.3 Configuring a Network Operating System: IOS Bootcamp

Operating Systems
U

The operating system is depicted on this page as three concentric rings. The
following are the labels for the circles:

The outer circle has a label on it. Shell: The user interface that allows people to
ity

instruct the computer to perform specified tasks. These requests may be made using
either the CLI or the GUI.

Kernel: Manages how hardware resources are used to satisfy software needs and
communicates between the hardware and software of a computer in the middle circle.
m

The inner circle is labelled Hardware, which refers to the physical components of a
computer, as well as the underlying electronics.
)A

Purpose
PC operating systems (Windows 8 and OS X) include technological features that
allow you to accomplish things like:

1. Utilise a mouse
(c

2. View the output

3. Enter your text here

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 56 Network Basics

Router or switch:
Notes

e
1. Configure interfaces
2. Activate the routing and switching features

in
A default IOS is installed on all networking devices. Upgrades to the IOS version or
feature set are possible.

nl
Cisco IOS Location:
1. Cisco IOS is saved in Flash memory.

O
2. Non-volatile storage that is not lost when the power is turned off.
3. Changes or overwrites can be made as needed.
4. Can be used to save several IOS versions.

ty
5. The IOS was transferred from the flash memory to the volatile RAM.
6. The IOS that may be utilised is determined by the amount of flash and RAM memory
available.

si
In the first column, the following nine situations are listed:

You’re in an equipment room, and you need to configure a new switch.

r
As you are not in the building, you cannot reach the device you are configuring
ve
using a cable.

You dial a phone number to connect to it.

Your boss hands you a unique cable and instructs you to setup the switch with it.
ni

You connect to the IOS via a network connection through another intermediate
device.
U

You’re on vacation and need to verify the status of one of your routers. Your hotel
analogue phone is your sole means of communication.

As the networking equipment is physically available to you, you do not require

ity

remote access services to setup it.

You phone your boss to inform him that you are unable to connect to your router in
another city over the internet. He gives you the information you need to use a telephone
connection to go to the switch.
m

A device’s password has been updated. No one knows what the new password is,
so you’ll have to reset it.

To remotely access a device via a network, you utilise a password-encrypted

)A

connection.

The headers in the other three columns are:

1. Console
(c

2. Telnet/SSH
3. AUX

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 Network Basics 57

1.3.4 Device Configuration and Access Control

Notes

e
Access control is the selective limitation of access to a location or other resources
in the domains of information security and physical security. After permitting SSH

in
or Telnet access, one of the most critical things to configure on any Cisco equipment
is to limit who is authorised to access it. Having the password on a line is the most
basic stage, however if telnet is used for communication, all of the passwords may be

nl
communicated in clear text across a wire. It implies that if someone sniffed a line while
you were telneting into the router, they could be able to see your password and so get
access to that equipment.

O
Management plane protection and password encryption are discussed in the
sections below.

Lines (AUX, VTY, Console)

ty
VTY, or virtual teletype, is a command line interface that is formed in the router and
may be used to connect to a daemon using Telnet, a network protocol that is commonly
used in local area networks. Users must enter a valid password to connect to the VTY.

si
This VTY employs a set of CLI command operations based on the three categories of
tasks that the CLI may perform: moving, editing, and advanced. There are three limited
interface mode instructions in the VTY interface, such as

1. r
VTY other: Include modes like TFTP, which stands for “trivial file transfer protocol.”
ve
2. VTY Enable: This option allows you to read and write to the command line interface.
3. VTY View: It provides read-only access to the interface.
The VTY line is the router’s virtual terminal line, which is primarily used to regulate
ni

inbound telnet connection. It is virtual in the sense that they are the software’s function.
It is not accompanied by any hardware. It may also be used to connect to a router and
do configuration checks or status adjustments. The majority of routers contain five VTY
U

ports, numbered 0 to 4. It means that you may have nearly five network administrators
setting a router at the same time. Even so, it is feasible to construct a large number of
VTY lines.
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An auxiliary port is the AUX line. Although, these days, not all routers include an
AUX port. The AUX port will only be used to access a router if you are locked out of a
console port.

A console port is represented by the CTY line type. It will display in a router
m

configuration as line con 0 and in the output of a show line command as the cty on
any router. This console port is mostly used for accessing the local system through a
console terminal. The CTY port is used to setup a router when it is brand new and does
not yet have an IP address configured.
)A

A console port is a serial port, therefore use the rolling cable to connect from a
serial port on the computer to a console port, and use the DB9 to RJ45 adaptors to
connect from a serial port on the computer to a console port.

Use the command line console in configuration mode to get to the console
(c

configuration mode. To reset a console configuration mode parameter to its default values,
such as line console and no line console, use this form of the line console command.

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The password authentication can be specified for each of the aforementioned line
Notes

e
types. This line can alternatively be set to use a single password for all users or a single
password for each user.

in
The authentication server may also be used to give authentication or the user
specific password can be specified locally on a router.

The following are the most helpful and straightforward line configuration variants on

nl
the Cisco router:

The router lines are configured as follows:

O
Router (config) # line con 0

Router (config) # line aux 0

Router (config) # line vty 0 4

ty
Example
Router (config) # line vty 0 4

si
Router (config-line) # password my713!CiscoRouter (USE

A STRONG PASSWORD)
r
Router (config-line) # logging synchronous
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Router (config-line) # exec-timeout 60 0

Regarding the VTY lines:

ni

Router (config-line) # transport input <telnet OR ssh>

If the problem persists, remember to use the command clear line to clear the
connection on the router line.
U

Double-check the settings:

Test the configuration

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Check that the commands are typed correctly in the router’s configuration. The
show running-config command is used to view a router’s current configuration. Simply
log off a terminal and log back in using the set password to access a router to test the
configuration.
m

Management Plane Protection (MPP)

Management plane protection is abbreviated as MPP. The MPP function in the
)A

IOS software allows you to limit which interfaces the network management packet
can access the device over. The network operator can also designate one or more
router interfaces as management interfaces using the MPP capability. Only these
management interfaces are authorised to send and receive device management
communications. No interface other than the allocated management interface can
(c

accept intended network management communication to a device when the MPP is

enabled.

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 Network Basics 59

Restricting management packets to the chosen interface gives you more control
Notes

e
over the device’s management and increases its security. It has advantages such as
increased data packet speed on the nonmanagemnet interface, network scalability, the
need for an access control list to restrict access to a device, and management packet

in
flood on the routing and switching interface is avoided from reaching the CPU.

The management plane is a logical channel for all traffic relevant to routing

nl
platform administration. The device is managed via its network connection using the
management plane.

Telnet, SNMP, secure HTTP, SSH, BEEP, FTP, and Telnet are just a few of the

O
protocols that are processed on a management plane.

The administration interface may be simply configured, deleted, or modified using

the CLI command. When an MPP feature is enabled, the Cisco IOS enabled on the

ty
management interface remains available at all times.

Setting up the device for MPP:

si
To configure the device that you added to an existing device or network on the
network.

It enables the privileged EXEC mode in the first step. If prompted, enter your
password. r
ve
for example, Router>enable

Step 2: Now you’re in global configuration mode.

for example, Router# configure terminal

ni

Step 3: It switches to the host configuration mode of the control plane.

for example, Router(config)# control-plane host

U

Step 4: It sets up the interface as a management interface that accepts

management protocols and determines which management protocols are permitted.
The interface is the name of the interfaces you’ve been allocated as the management
interface, and the protocol is the management protocol you’d like to allow on that
ity

interface.

Ex:

Router (config-cp-host)#
m

Management-interface

FastEthernet 0/0 allow ssh

)A

snmp

Step 5: The privileged EXEC mode is restored.

Ctrl z Router(config-cp-host)#
(c

Step 6: It shows details about a management interface, such as the amount of lost
and processed packets, the protocol enabled on the interface, and the interface type.
This is the interface for which you would want to see information. The protocol name is

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the protocol for which you would want to access information, and the protocol specifies
Notes

e
that the protocol is indicated. Interface, protocol, and protocol name are optional in this
case.

in
Ex: Router# show management

interface FastEthernet 0/0

nl
For checking the setup, the command display management - interface is quite
handy.

for example, router# display management-interface

O
Password Encryption
The password encryption protects the content by limiting access to those who have
been given a password. There was no need for a licence for password encryption.

ty
It’s crucial to understand AES password encryptions and master encryption keys
when it comes to password encryption. You may also activate strong and reversible

si
128-bit encryption here. Type-6 encryption is often known as AES password encryption.
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is an advanced encryption standard. Enable the
advanced encryption standard option and set the master encryption keys, which are
also used to decode and encrypt the password, to begin employing type-6 encryption.
r
ve
Unless the type-6 password encryption is disabled, all freshly created and existing
plain text passwords for the supported programmes are saved in type-6 encrypted
forms after activating the AES password encryptions and configuring the master key.
The NX-OS may also be configured to convert all existing weakly encrypted passwords
to type-6 encrypted passwords.
ni

The following setup limits and rules apply to password encryptions:

TACACS+ and RADIUS are applications that can employ the AES password
U

encryption function.

Users with administrative privileges can only change the AES password encryption
feature, as well as the accompanying decryption or encryption commands as well as
ity

master keys.

Disable the functionality of AES password encryptions, destroy a master key, and
decode all type 6 passwords before downgrading from Cisco NX-OS 5.2 to a previous
edition.
m

Enable the AES password encryption capability without the master keys, however
encryption will not begin until the master is accessible in the system.
)A

To migrate a device configuration to other devices, either decrypt the configuration

before transferring it to another device or set the same master keys on each device to
apply the configuration.

If a master key is deleted, type 6 encryption is disabled, and all type 6 encrypted
passwords are rendered unreadable; otherwise, a new master key is reconfigured.
(c

The default password encryption settings are as follows:

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AES password encryptions have the following features: Master key is disabled
Notes

e
since it isn’t set up correctly.

Password encryption configuration:

in
Enable the AES function and configure the master keys for type 6 encryption.

1.3.5 Address Schemes

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The Internet’s Addressing Scheme
In a computer network, an addressing scheme is explicitly required for

O
communication. Packets are routed from one point to another using an addressing
scheme. Each of the three tiers of the TCP/IP protocol stack model, 2, 3, and 4, outputs
a header, as shown in Figure. Host 1 connects with host 2 over a network of seven

ty
nodes, R1 through R7, and a payload of data contained in a frame by the link layer
header, the network layer header, and the transport layer header is carried across a link
in this diagram. Each source or destination is given an address as identification for the
matching pr inside either of these three headers.

r si
ve
ni
U
ity

Figure: A typical frame structure transmitted via a link

m

Layer 2 (link layer) address. Media Access Control (MAC) address is a 6-byte
(48-bit) field that is represented as a 6-field hexadecimal number, such as 89-A1-33-
2B-C3-84, with each field being two bytes long. Every networking device’s input or
)A

output has an interface to its linked link, and each interface has its own MAC address.
At the link level, a MAC address is only known locally. It’s fair to presume that no two
interfaces have the same MAC address in most cases. As shown in the diagram, a
link layer header comprises the MAC addresses of both the source and destination
interfaces.
(c

The address of the network layer (layer 3) Internet Protocol (IP) address is
a 4-byte (32-bit) field that is represented by a 4-field dot-separated number, such

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as 192.2.32.83, with each field being one byte long. In order to be identified in a
Notes

e
conversation, every entity in a network must have an IP address. At the network level,
an IP address might be known globally. As shown in the diagram, a network layer
header comprises the IP addresses of both the source and destination nodes.

in
The address of the transport layer (layer 4) A port number is a 2-byte (16-bit)
field that is represented by a 16-bit number, such as 4,892. In a transmission, the port

nl
numbers indicate the ports of the two end hosts.

As a single host can execute many network apps at once, each application must
be recognised by another host connecting with the targeted application. For example,

O
to uniquely identify an application process operating on destination host 2, source host
1 in Figure 1.1 requires a port number for communication. As shown in the diagram, a
transport layer header comprises the port numbers of a source and destination host. A
transport-layer “port,” which acts as the end-point application identification in a host, is a

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conceptual port rather than an actual or physical one.

IP Addressing Scheme

si
The IP header comprises 32 bits dedicated to addressing a specific network
device. A device’s IP address is a unique identifier that may be used to locate it on
the Internet. The address structure is separated into the network ID and the host ID to
r
make the system scalable. The network ID identifies the device’s network, whereas the
host ID identifies the device itself. This means that every device on the same network
ve
has the same network ID. The IP address is further separated into classes A, B, C, D
(multicast), and E (reserved) based on the bit placement assigned to the network ID
and the host ID, as illustrated in Figure.
ni
U
ity
m
)A

Figure: IP address classes

Take a look at the lengths of the appropriate fields for each class in this diagram:
(c

1. Class A begins with a zero, followed by a network ID of 7 bits and a host ID of 24 bits.
2. Class B begins with a ten, followed by a network ID of 14 bits and a host ID of 16 bits.
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 Network Basics 63

3. Class C begins with 110, followed by a network ID of 21 bits and an 8-bit host ID.
Notes

e
4. Class D begins with 1110 and ends with 28 bits. Class D is solely used for multicast
addressing, which consists of a number of hosts forming a multicast group, each of

in
which requires its own multicast address. Multicast approaches and routing are the
focus of Chapter 6.
5. Class E begins with 1111 and ends with 28 bits. Only network experiments are

nl
allowed in Class E.
The IP address is written in dot-decimal format for convenience of usage. The
address is broken down into four bytes separated by a dot. An IP address with 32 bits of

O
all 0s, for example, can be represented by the dot-decimal form 0.0.0.0, where each 0
represents 00000000 in logic bit notation.

The “number of available network addresses” and the “number of available host

ty
addresses per network” have already been reduced by two in this table. The size of the
network ID field in class A, for example, is shown in the table as N = 7, yet the number
of accessible network addresses is listed as 2N – 2 = 128-2=126.

si
Example. 10001000 11100101 11001001 00010000 is the IP address of a host.
Determine the IP address’s class and decimal equivalent.

Solution. As it begins with 10, the host’s IP address is classified as class B.

136.229.201.16 is the decimal equivalent. r
ve
Masking and Subnet Addressing
To remedy the inadequacies of IP addressing, the notion of subnetting was
established. Managing a big group of hosts is a huge undertaking. A corporation using
ni

a class B addressing system, for example, may accommodate up to 65,535 hosts on a

single network. A multiple-network address scheme, or subnet scheme, is employed if
the firm has more than one network. The original IP address’s host ID is partitioned into
U

subnet ID and host ID in this method, as illustrated in Figure.

ity
m

Figure: In class B addressing, a subnet ID and a host ID are used.

Different subnet ID and host ID values can be used depending on the network
)A

size. As a result, the outside world would not be plagued by a lack of fresh network
addresses. A subnet mask—logic AND function—is used to calculate the subnetting
number. A field of all 0s for the host ID and a field of all 1s for the remaining field make
up the subnet mask.
(c

Example. Determine the maximum number of hosts per subnet given an IP

address of 150.100.14.163 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.128.

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Solution. The answer is depicted in detail in the figure. When the IP address
Notes

e
is masked by 255.255.255.128, the result is 150.100.14.128. The IP address
150.100.14.163 is obviously a class B address. The lowest 16 bits of a class B address
are used for the subnet and host fields. We can see that the maximum number of hosts

in
is 27 = 128 after applying the mask.

nl
O
ty
si
Figure: A subnet and masking example

r
Example. A packet with the destination IP address 190.155.16.16 is received by a
ve
router connected to a network. 190.155.0.0 is the IP address assigned to the network.
Assume the network contains two subnets with addresses of 190.155.16.0 and
190.155.15.0, respectively, and that both subnet ID fields are 8 bits long. Demonstrate
the intricacies of packet routing.
ni

Solution. The router selects which subnet the packet should be routed to when
it gets it, as follows: The target IP address is 190.155.16.16, and the router’s subnet
mask is 255.255.255.0, yielding 190.155.16.0. The router consults its routing database
U

to find the subnet that corresponds to 190.155.16.0, which is subnet 2. When the
packet arrives at subnet 2, the router decides that the destination is in its own subnet
and forwards it to its intended destination.
ity

Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)

The addressing technique described in the preceding section required the address
space to be partitioned into five classes. Giving a specific class C address space
to a certain university campus, on the other hand, does not ensure that all of the
m

addresses inside the space will be used, and hence some addresses may be wasted.
This condition is rigid and would exhaust the available IP address space. As a result,
the classful addressing scheme, which includes classes A, B, C, D, and E, uses the
address space inefficiently.
)A

A new structure arose, with no restrictions on the courses. Classless interdomain

routing (CIDR) is a very flexible protocol that uses a variable-length prefix to represent
the network ID and the remaining bits of the 32-field address to indicate the network’s
hosts. For example, one company may use a 20-bit network ID, while another would
(c

choose a 21-bit network ID, with the first 20 bits of each being identical. This indicates
that one organization’s address space overlaps with that of another.

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 Network Basics 65

The use of CIDR has resulted in a large boost in router speed and a significant
Notes

e
reduction in the size of routing tables. A pair of network IP addresses and the mask
are listed in the routing table of a router that uses the CIDR address space. A CIDR
approach known as supernetting allows a single routing record to represent a collection

in
of neighbouring addresses. The routing table may have two entries with the same prefix
due to the usage of a variable-length prefix. The router uses the longest-prefix-match
approach to pick between the two entries when routing a packet that matches both of

nl
these entries.

O
ty
r si
ve
Figure: CIDR routing

Example. Assume that router R1 receives a packet with the destination IP address
205.101.0.1, as illustrated in Figure. Determine the packet’s final destination.
ni

Solution. Two routes, L1 and L2, belonging to 205.101.8.0/20 and 205.101.0.0/21,

respectively, are first matched with the packet’s IP address in the table entries of router
R1. The longer prefix must then be the eligible match, according to the CIDR protocol.
U

Due to a lengthier match, link L1, with its 21-bit prefix, is picked, as seen at the bottom
of this image. The packet is finally routed to N3, the destination network, over this link.

1.3.6 IOS Bootcamp

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iOS developers have touched millions of people since the iPhone’s introduction.
Start by enrolling in one of these bootcamps. iOS bootcamps educate students the
technologies and languages they’ll need to create iPhone apps that can be sold on
the App Store. Objective-C, Swift, XCode, and other technologies are among them.
m

Many iOS mobile programming bootcamps include web development principles as a

prerequisite. Part-time, full-time, in-person, online, beginner, and expert iOS bootcamps
are available across the United States and Canada.
)A

On your Mac, install Windows.

You might need an external USB drive to install Windows, depending on your
Mac model (you’ll be asked for one when you prepare your Mac for Windows if it’s
necessary). Newer Mac models, running OS X 10.11 or later, use the internal disc to
(c

temporarily store the items needed to install Windows, eliminating the requirement for a

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USB drive. Check the “Learn more” section of the Apple Support article Install Windows
Notes

e
10 on your Mac with Boot Camp Assistant to see if you require an external USB drive.

Do one of the following to install Windows on your Mac:

in
If your Mac doesn’t require an external USB drive, see Install Windows on a Newer
Mac using Bootcamp.

nl
Set macOS as the default operating system.

After installing Windows, you can choose between macOS and Windows as your
preferred operating system. When you power on or restart your Mac, you want to utilise

O
the default operating system.

Choose Apple menu > System Preferences, then Startup Disk on macOS.

Click the lock, then enter in an administrator name and password before clicking

ty
Unlock.

Choose the starting disc with the operating system you wish to use as the default.

si
Click Restart if you wish to use the default operating system right now.

The default operating system is used the next time you switch on or restart your
Mac.
r
In Windows, open the Boot Camp Control Panel.
ve
Click the display hidden icons arrow on the right side of the taskbar in Windows on
your Mac.

Select Boot Camp Control Panel from the Boot Camp icon.
ni

If prompted by a User Account Control popup, choose Yes.

In Windows, open the Boot Camp Control Panel User Guide.

U

Click the display hidden icons arrow on the right side of the taskbar in Windows on
your Mac.

Select Boot Camp Help from the Boot Camp icon.

ity

Apple website has Support articles that may be of use in troubleshooting Boot
Camp on an Intel-based Mac:

On your Mac, download and install Windows support software.

m

Utilise Boot Camp with Pro Display XDR

If Boot Camp Assistant says your USB drive couldn’t be created or there isn’t
enough space on it, or if Boot Camp Assistant says your disc can’t be partitioned,
)A

If Boot Camp Assistant stops responding or reports a Boot Camp installation

failure, or if the Boot Camp installer won’t launch after using Boot Camp Assistant

Boot Camp Assistant helps you install Windows 10 on your Mac.

(c

In macOS or Windows, restart your computer.

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Boot Camp Allows you to Install Windows on your Newer Mac.

Notes

e
Boot Camp Assistant may be used to install Windows 10 on an Intel-based Mac.

Windows is installed on your Mac in a more efficient manner on newer Mac

in
systems. Determine the “Learn more” section of the Apple Support article Install
Windows 10 on your Mac using Boot Camp Assistant to see if your Mac utilises this
approach. If your Mac is an older model that requires an external USB drive, Install

nl
Windows on an Older Mac Using Boot Camp for instructions.

What you’ll Require

O
1. The Apple keyboard, mouse, and trackpad that comes with your computer. Use a
USB keyboard and mouse if they aren’t accessible.
2. On a disc image (ISO file) or other installation media, a full-installation 64-bit version

ty
of Windows 10.
3. Microsoft offers a Windows 10 Disc Image (ISO File) for download.
4. On your starting drive, there is plenty free storage space. See the Apple Support

si
Article for details on the required quantity of free space. With Boot Camp Assistant,
you can install Windows 10 on your Mac.
Before you start, make sure you have everything you need.
r
ve
Make a backup of crucial files before installing Windows.

You may back up your files using Time Machine or any other technique. Back up
your files with Time Machine and Ways to back up or secure your files are also good
places to start.
ni

Let’s see how to Perform Installation

Follow the instructions below in order on your Mac.
U

Step 1: Make sure your software is up to date.

1. Install all macOS updates before installing Windows.
ity

2. Log in as an administrator on your Mac, close any active programmes, and then log
out any other users.
3. Install all available macOS updates by going to Apple menu > System Preferences >
Software Update.
m

4. If your Mac restarts after applying an update, go back to Software Update and install
any remaining updates.
)A

Step 2: Get your Mac ready for Windows.

1. Boot Camp Assistant gets your Mac ready for Windows by creating a new partition
called BOOTCAMP and downloading the Boot Camp support software.
2. Important: If you’re using a Mac laptop computer, make sure it’s plugged in before
(c

proceeding.
3. The overall amount of disc space available on the machine is verified. To create
room for Boot Camp, older Time Machine snapshots and cached iCloud data are
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 68 Network Basics

erased. It’s possible that this procedure will take a long time to finish (you can click
Notes

e
the Stop button to skip this process).
4. Choose the Windows ISO image if you only have one internal disc, then choose the

in
partition size by sliding the separator between the macOS and Windows partitions,
then click Install.
5. It’s important to note that you won’t be able to resize the partition afterwards.

nl
6. If your computer has numerous internal drives, use the onscreen instructions to
choose and prepare the disc you wish to install Windows on, as well as the Windows
ISO image.

O
7. You may build an extra partition for Windows if you choose your starting disc. Drag
the boundary between the macOS and Windows partitions to set the partition size.
8. If you choose an APFS-formatted drive, you have the option of creating a separate

ty
partition for Windows or erasing the entire disc and creating a partition for Windows.
If you want to make a new partition, slide the separator between the macOS and
Windows partitions to choose the partition size.

si
9. You can delete the entire drive and create a partition for Windows if you use a non-
APFS-formatted disc.
10. If Boot Camp is already installed on the disc you choose, you can choose to uninstall
it. r
ve
Step 3: Set up Windows.
1. Follow the onscreen instructions in the Windows setup.
2. When the installation is complete, your Mac will restart in Windows mode.
ni

3. To set up Windows, follow the onscreen directions.

Step 4: Download and install Boot Camp for Windows.

U

1. Boot Camp drivers that support your Mac hardware begin to install once Windows is
installed.
2. Note: You must manually install the support software if it does not install automatically.
ity

See the Apple Support article for more. After utilising Boot Camp Assistant, if the
Boot Camp installer does not open.
3. Follow the onscreen instructions in the Windows Boot Camp installation.
m

4. Important: In any of the installer dialogues, do not click the Cancel button.
5. If you see a notice saying the programme, you’re downloading failed Windows Logo
testing, click Continue Anyway.
)A

6. You don’t have to answer to installer dialogues that occur for a few seconds during
installation, but if one asks you to install device software, click Install.
7. If nothing appears to be occurring, you may need to react to a hidden window. Look
through the open windows.
(c

8. Click Finish after the installation is finished.

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 Network Basics 69

9. Follow the instructions for any further installers that appear once your Mac has
Notes

e
restarted.

Check your Understanding

in
Fill in the blanks:

1. In data communication components, ___________ is used to receive a data.

nl
2. In _____________ based network, resources are located on a central server or a
group of server.
3. ___________ is used by Macintosh computers to communicate over a network.

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4. In centralized network, each terminal other than server acts as a ___________
device.
5. ___________ layer take a raw transmission facility & transform it in to line.

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Summary
●● A computer network promotes interpersonal communications, permits file

si
sharing, and allows for the sharing of network and computational resources,
among other things. To accomplish so, different network services that support the
aforementioned network applications must be configured.
●● r
Network Configuration: Network configuration and setup of numerous services in
ve
any business is a difficult operation. Configuring multiple network services such as
DHCP, DNS, Web Service, Email, and so on to operate various applications that
need to be accessed through network is a difficult task.
●● The unit covers several fundamental and vital network services that are necessary
ni

in every company so that various applications may be executed and accessible via
an organisational network.
U

Activity
1. How to configure Samba server.
2. List and draw the components required to configure BIND.
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Question and Answers

1. Explain what is IoS Bootcamp?
2. Write how a network is configured.
m

3. What are Address Schemes. Give examples.

4. Describe device configuration and access control.
)A

Glossary
●● Access control list: It can contain those hosts, domains or IP addresses that one
wants to group together and apply the same level of access to DNS server. C acl
records to group those addresses, and then indicate what domain information the
(c

locations in that acl can or can’t access.

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 70 Network Basics

●● Listen-on ports: By default, name server accepts only name server requests that
Notes

e
come to port 53 on name server. You can add more port numbers if you want your
name server to accept name-service queries on different ports.

in
●● Authentication: This is to verify the identities of hosts that are requesting services
from DNS server, can use keys for authentication and authorization. (the key and
trusted-keys statements are used for authentication.)

nl
●● Caching name server: It simply caches the information it receives about the
locations of hosts and domains. It holds information that it obtains from other
authoritative servers and reuses that information until the information expires.

O
●● Forwarding name server: It is essentially a caching name server but is useful in
cases where computers lie behind a firewall and in which only one computer can
make DNS queries outside that firewall on behalf of all the internal computers.

ty
Further Readings:
1. Computer Networks by Andrew S Tanenbaum, Fifth Edition
2. SA2, Redhat System Administration I & II, Student Workbook

si
3. Cisco Certified Network Associate Study Guide, Seventh Edition by Todd
Lammle
4. r
Redhat Enterprise Linux System Administration
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Check your Understanding-Answers
Fill in the blanks:
1. Receiver
ni

2. Server
3. Apple talk
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4. input/output
5. Data link
ity
m
)A
(c

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 Network Basics 71

Module - II: Network Protocols and Communication

Notes

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Structure:

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2.1 Introduction to Network Protocols and Communication \
1.1.1 Introduction

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1.1.2 Data Communication
1.1.3 Overview of Network Protocols

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1.1.4 Protocols and Standards
1.1.5 Introduction to Ethernet
1.1.6 Internet History

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1.1.7 Introduction to Ethernet
1.1.8 Protocol Layering
2.2 Reference Models

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2.2.1 OSI Reference Model
2.2.2 Characteristics of OSI Model
2.2.3 OSI Protocols r
ve
2.2.4 TCP/IP Reference Model
2.2.5 TCP/IP Protocols
2.2.6 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Protocols
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2.2.7 Request for Comments

2.3 Data Transmission
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2.3.1 Introdution
2.3.2 Serial vs Parallel Transmission
2.3.3 Data transmission Mode
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2.3.4 Digital Transmission

m
)A
(c

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 72 Network Basics

Unit - 2.1: Introduction to Network Protocols and

Notes

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Communication

in
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

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●● Have a reasonable understanding of the IP protocol architecture
●● Describe the operation of IP protocol and its header format

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●● Understand the role and meaning of IP addressing and classes
●● Describe and understand how to use subnet addressing
●● Understand the simple routing protocols.

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Introduction
A protocol is a formal specification that describes the processes that must be

si
followed while transmitting or receiving data in the networking and communications
field. Protocols establish the network’s format, timing, sequencing, and error checking.

In plain English, this implies that if two or more devices, such as computers, wish
r
to connect, they’ll require a common “Protocol,” which is a collection of rules that tells
ve
them how and when to interact.

The way this “definition” happens in computer land is through RFCs (Requests
For Comments), where the IETF (a group of lifeless engineers) creates new standards
and protocols, which the major vendors (IBM, Cisco, Microsoft, Novell) then follow and
ni

implement in their products in order to make more money and try to take over the world!

There are thousands of protocols available, and it would be difficult to include them
all here. Instead, we’ve listed some of the more common protocols so you can learn
U

more about them.

The most common TCP/IP protocols are shown in the table below. You may use
the OSI model to discover which layer each of these protocols belongs to.
ity

The protocols examined on Firewall are listed below. cx: Internet Protocol (IP),
TCP, ICMP, DNS, UDP, FTP, TFTP, RIP, Ethernet, OSPF

2.1.1 Introduction
m

The module introduces the concept of computer networks and the protocols that
are commonly used in today’s networks, namely the TCP/IP suite and a few additional
)A

supporting protocols. The lesson follows the traditional method of describing network
components known as layers one by one. However, it also delves into a few cutting-
edge networking technologies such as packet categorisation, MPLS (Multi-Protocol
Label Switching), IoT (Internet of Things), and SDN (Software Defined Networks),
among others. Packet categorisation and SDN also provide insight on how traffic
(c

engineering is required in modern networks and how it might be addressed.

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 Network Basics 73

Data communication is the process of sending data or information between two

Notes

e
devices across a transmission channel, such as a computer network. This procedure
necessitates the use of a communication system comprised of both hardware and
software. The transmitter and receiver devices, as well as the intermediary devices

in
through which the data goes, are all part of the hardware. The software element
includes rules that describe what should be conveyed, how it should be sent, and
when it should be communicated. It’s also referred to as a Protocol. The parts that

nl
follow discuss the fundamental qualities that are necessary for the efficient operation
of the data communication process, followed by the components that make up a data
communications system.

O
Characteristics
The following four key factors determine the efficacy of any data transmission
system:

ty
1. Data delivery: Data must be supplied to the relevant user and destination.
2. Accuracy: The data should be sent precisely and without any mistakes via the

si
communication mechanism. During transmission, data may get damaged, reducing
the accuracy of the data given.
3. Timeliness: Audio and video data must be supplied without delay in a timely way; this
is known as real-time data transmission. r
ve
4. Jitter: This is the time difference between packet arrivals. The timeliness of data being
transferred may be harmed by uneven jitter.

Components of Data Communication

ni

1. Your message
The information to be sent by the sender to the receiver is referred to as a message.
U

2. The sender
Any device capable of transferring data is referred to as the transmitter (message).
3. Receiver A receiver is a device to which the transmitter wishes to transfer data
ity

(message).
4. Medium of Transmission
It’s the route that the communication takes to go from sender to recipient. It can be
wired or wireless, and both have several variants.
m

5. Protocol A protocol is a set of rules that the sender and receiver agree on in order to
transfer data. A protocol is a collection of rules that control the transmission of data.
In data communications, without a protocol, the communicating entities are like two
)A

people trying to communicate with one other.

Representation of Data
Data is a collection of unprocessed facts that is used to derive information. Data
(c

may be represented in a number of different ways. The following are some examples of
data types used in communications:

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 74 Network Basics

1. Text The text consists of a blend of upper- and lower-case alphabets. It is saved as
Notes

e
a bit pattern. ASCII and Unicode are the most widely used encoding systems.
2. Quantities Numbers are made up of digits ranging from 0 to 9. It is saved as a bit

in
pattern.
The most common encoding systems are ASCII and Unicode
3. Images The phrase “a picture is worth a thousand words” is well-known. Images are

nl
digitally saved in computers.

2.1.2 Data Communication

O
Humans are the only species on the planet who can communicate with one
another via the use of language. Humans, on the other hand, take this gift to a
whole new level. Distance, time, and a person’s physical presence no longer matter

ty
in communication since people have developed a communication system that allows
them to communicate or exchange data such as photographs, videos, text, and files
with their loved ones at any time and from anywhere. Communication is described as a
process in which more than one computer exchanges data, instructions, and resources

si
with one another. To put it another way, communication is the process or act of sending
or receiving data. A computer network is defined as a collection of computers that work
together to solve a problem.
r
ve
Data Communication Components
The following components make up a communication system:

A message is a piece of information that is intended to be passed from one person

ni

to another. It might be a text file, audio file, video file, or other type of file.

Sender: A sender is basically a device that transmits data. It might be a computer,

smartphone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, among other things.
U

The term “receiver” refers to a device that receives communications. It might be a

computer, a phone, a workstation, or something else entirely.

Communication Channels / Transmission Medium: The medium that connects

ity

two or more workstations is known as a communication channel. Workstations can be

linked via wired or wireless connections.

A set of rules (protocol): When someone gives data (the sender), it must also be
intelligible by the recipient; otherwise, the data is useless. Rupali, for example, sends
m

a message to Nutan. It’s a pointless debate if Rupali writes in Hindi and Nutan doesn’t
comprehend Hindi.
)A
(c

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 Network Basics 75

Notes

e
in
nl
O
Figure: Communication medium

As a result, every computer linked to the internet follows a set of rules (protocols),
which are as follows:

ty
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a protocol that allows you to send and
receive data over the internet. It’s in charge of breaking down communications into
packets on the source computer and putting them back together at the destination or

si
receiver computer.

It also ensures that the packets contain information about the message’s source,
destination, and the order in which the message data should be reassembled, as well
r
as ensuring that the message was transmitted successfully to the specified destination.
ve
Internet Protocol (IP): Have you ever wondered how computers figure out which
packet belongs to which device? What happens if your father receives the message
you sent to your friend? That’s right, it’s terrifying. Well! IP is in charge of managing the
target computer’s address so that each packet is sent to the correct location.
ni

Data Transmission Type

As we all know, data communication is the process of sending and receiving data
U

from one device to another. There are three forms of data communication:

Communication in Simplex: It’s one-way communication, or unidirectional

communication, in which one device only receives data and another device only sends
ity

data, and both devices employ their whole transmission capacity. For instance, Internet
of Things, data entry with a keyboard, music listing with a speaker, and so on.

Half-duplex communication is a two-way or bidirectional connection in which both

devices may transmit and receive data but not at the same time.
m

When one device sends data, the other just receives data, and vice versa.
Consider the walkie-talkie.
)A

Communication in full duplex mode: It is a bidirectional or two-way connection in

which both devices may transmit and receive data at the same time. Mobile phones,
landlines, and other similar devices are examples.

Channels of Communication
(c

The medium that links two or more workstations is known as a communication

channel. Workstations can be linked via wired or wireless connections. A transmission
medium is another name for it. A transmission medium, often known as a channel, is
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 76 Network Basics

a connection that transmits data between two or more devices. The communication
Notes

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media may be divided into two categories.

1. Media transmission - guided

in
2. Media transmission - unguided
1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, a physical link is established between
two or more computers or devices using wires or cables, and then data is conveyed in

nl
the form of signals utilising these links. Types of guided media transmission include:
Twisted pair cable: This is the most popular type of communication line. Two

O
identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix in a twisted-pair cable. Crosstalk
is reduced by twisting the wire. It’s the leakage of a signal from one wire to another,
which can cause signal corruption and network faults. Internal crosstalk and external
kinds of signal interference are both protected by the twisting.

ty
Twisted Pair Cable Types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): This type of cable is frequently used in computers

si
and telephones. As there is no exterior shielding, it does not provide protection against
external interference. It is less expensive than STP.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): The shield provides more protection against
r
crosstalk. It shields against external interference thanks to shielding. In comparison to
ve
UTP, it is heavier and more expensive.

Coaxial Cable: A solid wire core is surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields in
coaxial cable.
ni

The signal is carried via the inner core of the coaxial cable, while the outside
shield serves as a ground. It is frequently utilised for television transmissions and is
also employed in building security systems by major organisations. When compared to
twisted pair, this cable transmits data better but is more costly.
U

Optical fibres: An essential technology is optical fibre. It is extensively used in

internet cables because it carries massive volumes of data at extremely fast rates. It
transmits data in the form of light that goes via a thin glass fibre. Three parts make up
ity

the fibre optic cable:

Core: The portion that allows light to pass through is the core. It’s usually made out
of glass or plastic.
m

Cladding: This is the material that covers the core and reflects light back to it.

Fiber cable is protected from the environment by a sheath, which is a protective

covering.
)A

2. Unguided Medium: An unguided transmission media is a kind of communication in

which signals are wirelessly transferred from one device to another. Signals can
travel via air, water, or vacuum. It’s most commonly utilised to send messages in all
directions. Unguided Media is further subdivided into the following sections:
(c

Microwave: Microwave transmission eliminates the need for wires. Radio and
television signals are analogous to microwave signals. It’s a type of long-distance
communication system.
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 Network Basics 77

A transmitter, receiver, and environment make up a microwave transmission. There

Notes

e
are parabolic antennas built on towers in microwave transmission to deliver a beam to
another antenna. The larger the range, the higher the tower.

in
Radio wave: A radio wave transmission is when communication is conducted out via
radio frequencies. It allows you to move about. It is made up of two parts: a transmitter
and a receiver. Antennas are used by both to transmit and receive radio signals.

nl
Infrared communication: It is a form of short-range communication that may flow
through any object. It’s commonly found in TV remotes, wireless mice, and other
electronic devices.

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2.1.3 Overview of Network Protocols
A network protocol is a collection of rules that govern how data is exchanged

ty
between devices connected to the same network. In essence, it enables linked devices
to interact with one another despite variations in internal operations, structure, or
design. Network protocols are responsible for allowing you to interact with individuals all
over the globe, and they play an important part in modern digital communications.

si
As of established rules integrated into devices’ software and hardware, network
protocols enable devices to engage with one other in the same way that speaking the
r
same language facilitates communication between two humans.
ve
Without network protocols, neither local area networks (LANs) nor wide area
networks (WANs) could function as they do today.

Network Protocols and How They Work

ni

Large-scale activities are broken down into tiny, particular jobs or functions using
network protocols. This happens at every level of the network, and each function must
work together to achieve the greater goal at hand at each level. The phrase protocol
U

suite refers to a collection of smaller network protocols that function together.

Various networking or information technology groups often establish network

protocols based on industry standards.
ity

Different network protocols have been defined and published by the following
organisations:

1. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is a professional

association of electrical and electronic engineers (IEEE)
m

2. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is a group of people who work (IETF)
3. The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is a non-profit organisation
)A

dedicated to (ISO)
4. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is a non-profit organisation that
promotes (ITU)
5. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is a non-profit organisation (W3C)
(c

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 78 Network Basics

While network protocol concepts are typically similar, each protocol is distinct and
Notes

e
runs according to the instructions provided by the organisation that designed it.

What are Network Protocols and Who Uses Them?

in
Certified network specialists and IT professionals aren’t the only ones who need
to know about network protocols. Whether they realise it or not, billions of individuals
utilise network protocols on a regular basis.

nl
You utilise network protocols every time you access the internet. Though you may
not understand how network protocols function or how often you come across them,

O
they are required for any use of the internet or digital communications.

Protocols for Networking

There are dozens of distinct network protocols, but they all do the same thing: they

ty
do one of three things:

Communication

si
Security in network management

Each kind is required to utilise network devices quickly and safely, and they
collaborate to make this possible.
r
ve
Communication
Different network devices can interact with each other thanks to communication
protocols. They are utilised in both analogue and digital communications and may be
used for a variety of tasks, including file transfers between devices and internet access.
ni

The following are examples of common communication protocols:

1. Automation: These protocols are used to automate a variety of operations in both

U

business and personal contexts, such as smart buildings, cloud computing, and self-
driving cars.
2. Messages sent instantly: A variety of instant messaging network protocols enable
text-based conversations on cell phones and computers in real time.
ity

3. Routing protocols allow routers and other network devices to communicate with one
another. There are also particular routing protocols for ad hoc networks.
4. Bluetooth: Bluetooth devices, such as headsets, smartphones, and laptops, need a
m

number of Bluetooth protocols to function.

5. You’ve utilised file transfer protocols if you’ve ever moved files from one device to
another, whether on a physical or digital medium (FTP).
)A

6. Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol that allows data to be exchanged across the
internet between devices. Without IP, the internet would not function as it does now.

Network Management
(c

The numerous methods required to efficiently operate a computer network are

defined and described by network management protocols. These protocols influence
a variety of devices on a single network, such as computers, routers, and servers, in

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 Network Basics 79

order to guarantee that each one, as well as the network as a whole, performs at its
Notes

e
best.

The following are some of the roles of network management protocols:

in
1. These protocols create and maintain reliable connections between devices on the
same network.

nl
2. Link aggregation technologies allow several network connections to be combined
into a single link between two devices.
3. This boosts the connection’s strength and ensures that it stays connected even if

O
one of the links fails.
4. Troubleshooting: Troubleshooting protocols enable network administrators to
discover network faults, assess the network connection’s quality, and determine how
to resolve any difficulties.

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Security
Security protocols, often known as cryptographic protocols, strive to keep

si
unwanted users out of the network and the data transferred across it.

The following are some of the most common functions of security network
protocols:
r
ve
1. Encryption: Encryption techniques safeguard data and secure areas by forcing users
to provide a secret key or password to get access to them.
2. Entity Authentication: Entity authentication methods provide a system in which
various devices or users on a network must validate their identity before gaining
ni

access to secure regions.

3. Transportation: Data is protected while being moved from one network device to
another using transportation security standards.
U

Example of a Network Protocol

You’ve almost certainly encountered network protocols when using electronic
gadgets, whether you realise it or not — and some of them are easily recognised.
ity

The following are some of the most regularly used network protocols.

1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is an Internet Protocol that specifies how data
is delivered over the internet and how web servers and browsers should respond
m

to requests. This protocol (or its secure equivalent, HTTPS) is found at the start of
many URLs and web addresses on the internet.
2. SSH (Secure Socket Shell): This protocol allows you to access a computer securely,
)A

even if it’s connected to an insecure network. SSH is especially helpful for network
managers who need to handle several systems from a distance.
3. SMS (Short Message Service) is a text messaging technology that was developed to
send and receive text messages over cellular networks. SMS stands for text-based
(c

messaging alone. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), an extension of the SMS

protocol, is required to send pictures, videos, or other material.

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 80 Network Basics

Network protocols govern how devices and processes interact with one another, not only
Notes

e
how they operate alone. Without these set standards and regulations, the internet would be
devoid of the infrastructure it requires to function and be used. The digital world could not exist
without network protocols, which constitute the bedrock of modern communications.

in
2.1.4 Protocols and Standards

nl
Protocol: Some rules and processes should be agreed upon at the sending
and receiving ends of the system in order for communication between devices to be
successful. Protocols are the names given to such regulations and processes. For

O
different sorts of communication, multiple protocols are employed. Protocols are
depicted as a collection of rules in the figure above. As a result, without a protocol,
communication between the sender and the receiver is impossible.

Standards are a collection of criteria for data transmission that are required for

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the flow of data between devices. It is critical to adhere to standards established by
organisations such as IEEE, ISO, and ANSI, among others.

Standards are divided into several categories.

si
1. De Facto Standard.
2. De Jure Standard.
r
Standard in Practice: “By Fact” or “By Convention” is the meaning of the term “De
ve
Facto.”

These are standards that have not been certified by any organisation but have
been adopted as standards due to their widespread application. Furthermore,
ni

manufacturers are sometimes the ones who set these requirements.

For example, Apple and Google are two corporations that have formed their own
set of regulations for their own goods. They also employ some of the same production
U

standards for their products.

De Jure Standard: “By Law” or “By Regulations” is the meaning of the term “De
Jure.”
ity

As a result, these are the standards that have been authorised by official bodies
such as ANSI, ISO, IEEE, and others. These are the standards that must be followed if
they are necessary or required.

For example, all data transmission standard protocols such as SMTP, TCP, IP, and
m

UDP must be followed when they are required.

Ethernet has proven to be a relatively affordable, moderately fast, and widely used
LAN (local area network) technology for decades.
)A

2.1.5 Introduction to Ethernet

Beginning in 1972, engineers Bob Metcalfe and D.R. Boggs invented Ethernet.
The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.3 set of specifications,
(c

which was based on their work, was developed in 1980. Ethernet standards describe
low-level data transfer methods as well as the technical specifics that manufacturers
must know in order to construct Ethernet cards and connections.
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 Network Basics 81

In the years afterwards, Ethernet technology has progressed and developed.

Notes

e
Consumers may now rely on off-the-shelf Ethernet goods to perform as expected and to
communicate with one another.

in
nl
O
ty
Ethernet Technology

si
10 megabits per second data transmissions are supported via traditional Ethernet
(Mbps). As network performance requirements grew, the industry developed new
Ethernet standards for Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet.

r
Fast Ethernet boosts regular Ethernet speeds to 100 Mbps, while Gigabit
ve
Ethernet boosts speeds to 1,000 Mbps. 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) networks
are presently powering the networks of some enterprises, data centres, and Internet2
entities, despite the fact that they aren’t available to the typical consumer.

Ethernet cables can also be made to a variety of standard requirements. Category

ni

5 (CAT5 cable) is the most widely used Ethernet cable, and it supports both standard
and Fast Ethernet. Gigabit Ethernet is supported by Category 5e (CAT5e) and Category
6 (CAT6) cables.
U

Plug an Ethernet cable into the gadget’s Ethernet port to connect it to a computer
(or other network device). Dongles, such as USB-to-Ethernet adapters, can be used to
connect devices that don’t have Ethernet connectivity. Ethernet cables employ RJ-45
connections, which are similar to those used on standard telephones.
ity

Ethernet’s Types
10Base5, often known as Thicknet, was the initial version of Ethernet technology.
Until 10Base2 Thinnet was introduced in the 1980s, the industry utilised Thicknet.
m

Thinnet has a smaller (5 millimetres vs. 10 millimetres) and more flexible cable than
Thicknet, making it easier to wire office buildings for Ethernet.

Traditional Ethernet, on the other hand, is most often known as 10Base-T. As

)A

10Base-T cables use unshielded twisted pair (UTP) wire rather than coaxial, it has
better electrical qualities than Thicknet or Thinnet. In comparison to fibre optic cable,
10Base-T is much more cost-effective.

Other Ethernet standards, such as 10Base-FL, 10Base-FB, and 10Base-FP for

(c

fibre optic networks and 10Broad36 for broadband cabling, are less well-known.

More Information about Fast Ethernet

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 82 Network Basics

Fast Ethernet technology evolved in the mid-1990s, achieving its design aims of
Notes

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improving standard Ethernet performance while avoiding the need to fully re-cable
existing Ethernet networks.

in
There are two types of fast Ethernet:

Gigabit Ethernet (100Base-T) (using unshielded twisted pair cable)

nl
100Base-FX is an acronym that stands for “100Base-FX (using fibre optic cable)

The most common is 100Base-T, which comprises 100Base-TX (Category 5 UTP),

100Base-T2 (Category 3 or better UTP), and 100Base-T4 (Category 4 or better UTP)

O
(100Base-T2 cabling modified to include two additional wire pairs).

Gigabit Ethernet
While Fast Ethernet increased the speed of standard Ethernet from 10 to 100

ty
megabits per second, Gigabit Ethernet surpasses Fast Ethernet by providing 1,000
megabits per second (1 Gigabit). Gigabit Ethernet was designed to travel through
optical and copper cable, but it is also supported by the 1000Base-T standard.

si
1000Base-T employs Category 5 cabling, which is equivalent to 100 Mbps Ethernet, but
it needs the installation of extra wire pairs to achieve gigabit speeds.

r
Ethernet Protocols and Topologies
ve
A bus topology is used in traditional Ethernet, which means that all devices or
hosts on the network share the same communication connection. Each device has
an Ethernet address, often known as MAC address. Ethernet addresses are used by
sending devices to designate the intended recipients of messages.
ni

Frames are the units of data delivered via Ethernet. A header, data section, and
footer with a total length of no more than 1,518 bytes make up an Ethernet frame. Both
the intended receiver and the sender’s addresses are included in the Ethernet header.
U

Data sent via Ethernet is disseminated to all devices on the network automatically.
Each Ethernet device checks each frame to see whether it was meant for it by
comparing the Ethernet address to the address in the frame header, and then reads or
ity

discards the frame as necessary. This feature is included into the hardware of network
adapters.

Devices that wish to transmit over an Ethernet network run a preliminary check
to see whether the medium is accessible and if a transmission is currently in process.
m

The transmitting device broadcasts onto the cable if Ethernet is available. However, it’s
feasible that two devices will execute this test at roughly the same time and broadcast
at the same time.
)A

The Ethernet standard does not forbid several simultaneous broadcasts by

design as a performance compromise. When these so-called collisions happen, both
transmissions fail, forcing both transmitting devices to retransmit. To calculate the
suitable waiting duration between retransmissions, Ethernet employs an algorithm
based on random delay times. This method is also implemented by the network
(c

adapter.

CSMA/CD (carrier sense multiple access/collision detection) is the conventional

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 Network Basics 83

Ethernet protocol for broadcasting, listening, and detecting collisions. Some later
Notes

e
Ethernet versions do not use CSMA/CD. Instead, they employ the full-duplex Ethernet
protocol, which allows for simultaneous sending and receiving between two points
without the need for listening.

in
More Information about Ethernet Devices
The reach of Ethernet cables is restricted, and small spans (as little as 100

nl
metres) are insufficient to support medium and large network deployments. In Ethernet
networking, a repeater connects numerous cables and enables for longer distances to
be covered. A bridge device connects an Ethernet network to another form of network,

O
such as a wireless network. An Ethernet hub is a common form of repeater equipment.
Switches and routers are two more devices that are sometimes mistaken with hubs.

Ethernet network adapters come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Ethernet

ty
adapters are incorporated into computers and game consoles.

Conclusion

si
Ethernet is one of the most important internet technologies. Despite its age,
Ethernet is still used to power many of the world’s local area networks, and it is
constantly improving to meet future high-performance networking requirements.

2.1.6 Internet History

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ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A

So, what exactly is the Internet?

To the younger generations who have grown up under its influence, the answer
may appear simple, but defining it is not. The Internet, often known as the Globe Wide
(c

Web (www), is a global system of interconnected computer networks that connect to

billions of devices all over the world using the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP). This has
had such a huge influence that it has been dubbed the world’s eighth continent. This

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 84 Network Basics

contains a wide range of material, ranging from top-secret military and research files to
Notes

e
the week’s most popular and viral video.

Everyone has access to this huge repository, and each computer contributes to the

in
ever-growing treasure mine of knowledge.

The internet has had a significant impact on most traditional communication

mediums, such as newspapers, telephones, and television. They are paving the way

nl
for new services like internet phone and internet television. The communication
of information has been exponentially increased, and as a result, the interchange
of knowledge has resulted in a rise in the standard of living for many individuals

O
throughout the world.

The structure of the internet is what intrigues me the most. In terms of policy, it has
no centralised governance, either technologically or legally.

ty
The Internet’s History
In the 1960s, research into what was then known as packet switching gave birth to

si
the Internet. The hardware solution to the problem, i.e., the circuitry, was deemed to be
a better and faster means of transferring data than packet switching. The United States
Military’s development of ARPANET relied heavily on packet switching technology. The
ARPANET, sometimes known as the internet, was the first known network of networked
r
computers. This technique was used to relay sensitive information between military
ve
units.

This data sharing system was then made available to educational institutions
in the United States, allowing them to connect to the government’s supercomputer
at 56 kbit/s, 1.5 Mbit/s, and 45 Mbit/s, respectively. Com In the late 1980s, internet
ni

service providers began to emerge, and by 1995, the internet had been completely
commercialised in the United States.
U

Computer Networks Types

A network is made up of two or more computers that are connected in order to
exchange files, share resources, and communicate electronically. Cables, radio waves,
ity

telephone lines, infrared beams, and satellites all connect these interlinked computers.
The two primary types of computers networks are listed below.

A local area network (LAN) is a group of two or more linked laptops, computers, or
phones that share information in a small geographic area. A network of computers at
m

home or at business, for example.

A wide area network (WAN) is made up of two or more interconnected local area
networks. These networks are more distant than a LAN’s systems. Telephone lines or
)A

radio waves can be used to communicate.

The present internet population is estimated to be over 3.4 billion people, with Asia
accounting for 48.1 percent and North America accounting for 10%. With 3.4 billion
users, the internet has tremendous power and significance in today’s world.
(c

People are becoming more empowered as knowledge is shared more widely,

and as they learn more, their lives improve as well. The internet has become a fully
representative body of the world’s population due to its unrestricted availability to
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 Network Basics 85

everyone on the planet. Humans are experiencing spurts of creativity as a result of

Notes

e
the internet’s convenience and inventiveness. People are in touch with each other in
greater numbers than ever before. Its destiny is now inextricably linked to the future of
our race. It has grown so important that it is woven into the very fabric of our society.

in
2.1.7 Protocol Layering

nl
Protocol layering is a strategy for simplifying networking designs by splitting them
into functional levels and assigning protocols to accomplish the tasks of each tier.

O
ty
r
Figure: Protocol layering
si
ve
Separating the duties of data delivery and connection management into different
layers, and hence separate protocols, is typical. As a result, one protocol is meant to
transport data, while another protocol, placed on top of the first, manages connections.
The data distribution protocol is straightforward and does not take into account
ni

connection management. As it does not have to deal with data transmission, the
connection management protocol is likewise extremely basic.
U

Simple protocols with a few well-defined duties are the result of protocol stacking.
The protocols can then be put together to form a functional whole. For certain purposes,
individual protocols can be deleted or replaced as needed.

The OSI Seven Layer Model and the Internet’s initial DoD model are the two most
ity

important layered protocol architectures. The current Internet is a hybrid of the two
paradigms.

DoD Four-Layer Model

m

The DARPA Internetwork Project, which eventually blossomed into the Internet,
used the Department of Defense Four-Layer Model in the 1970s. Although the OSI
Seven Layer Approach is rightfully favoured for new designs, the basic Internet
)A

protocols conform to this model.

From bottom to top, the four levels of the DoD model are:

1. The Network Access Layer is in charge of transmitting data over the hardware medium
currently in use. Depending on the type of physical network, several protocols are
(c

chosen from this layer.

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Notes

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in
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Figure: DoD Four-Layer Model

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2. The Internet Layer is in charge of transporting data through a network of physical
networks that connect a source and destination equipment.

si
3. Routing protocols, as well as the IP Protocol, the Internet’s foundational protocol, are
most closely related with this layer.
4. Connection rendezvous, flow control, retransmission of lost data, and other basic
r
data flow management are all handled by the Host-to-Host Layer. The most essential
ve
elements of this layer are the mutually exclusive TCP and UDP protocols.
5. Protocols that implement user-level tasks such as mail delivery, file transfer, and
remote login are found under the Process Layer.
ni

OSI Seven-Layer Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite was first developed in
the 1980s by the European-dominated International Standards Organisation (ISO). An
U

abstract networking model (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model) and a
set of specific protocols make up the OSI. The standard documents that explain OSI
are available for purchase and are not currently available on the internet.
ity

The abstract model, as specified in OSI 7498 and its subsequent addenda, has
affected Internet protocol development more than any other part of OSI. A networking
system is separated into layers in this paradigm. One or more entities implement each
layer’s functionality.
m

Each object only interacts with the layer underneath it directly and offers services
for the layer above it to utilise. Protocols allow an entity on one host to communicate
with a corresponding entity on another host at the same layer.
)A
(c

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Notes

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in
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Figure: OSI Seven-Layer Model

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The OSI Basic Reference Model has seven levels (from bottom to top):

1. The Physical Layer addresses the physical qualities of various communication

si
mediums, as well as the electrical properties and interpretation of the signals that
are transmitted. This layer, for example, specifies the size of Ethernet coaxial cable,
the kind of BNC connector used, and the manner of termination.
2. r
The Data Link Layer (DLL) specifies the logical arrangement of data bits sent across
ve
a certain media. For example, the framing, addressing, and checksumming of
Ethernet packets are all defined by this layer.
3. The Network Layer shows how data may be sent between any two nodes in a
network through a series of exchanges through various data channels. This layer,
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for example, defines the Internet’s addressing and routing structure.

4. The Transport Layer specifies the data delivery’s quality and type. This layer, for
example, specifies whether or not retransmissions will be utilised to assure data
U

delivery.
5. The Session Layer organises data sequences that are bigger than the packets
handled by the lower levels. In a remote procedure call, for example, this layer
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explains how request and reply packets are coupled.

6. The Presentation Layer specifies the grammar of the data being transmitted. This
layer, for example, explains how floating-point values may be transmitted between
hosts using various math formats.
m

7. The Application Layer outlines how actual work is accomplished. This layer, for
example, would handle file system activities.
The original Internet protocol specifications established a four-level model, and
)A

protocols built around it (such as TCP) have a hard time fitting into the seven-layer
paradigm. The seven-layer model is used in the majority of recent designs.

\begin{soapbox}

The OSI Basic Reference Model has significantly more popularity than the OSI
(c

protocols themselves. This is due to a number of factors. OSI’s committee-based

design methodology resulted in out-of-date, uninspired procedures that were never

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deemed efficient. European supremacy aided in the protection of their X.25 investments
Notes

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(CONS is basically X.25 for datagram networks). Perhaps most crucially, X.25 data
networks were never as popular as the Internet, which has a long history of providing
free, downloadable protocol specifications and has been hesitant to adopt another

in
another networking scheme in which you had to pay to figure out how things operate.

Why should we care about that? The most serious flaw with OSI is that it does not

nl
provide anything novel. Its role as an “international standard” is the most compelling
argument for its deployment, although we already have a de facto worldwide standard
in the form of the Internet. Although OSI protocols will continue to exist, the concept of
networking reflected by its layered model will be the most important contribution.

O
If there’s one thing the Internet community should be concerned about, it’s the
risk of the IETF becoming another ISO: a large, overgrown standards organisation run
by committees, churning out thousands of pages of nonsense, and dominated by big

ty
business players more interested in protecting their investments than improving the
state of art.

\end{soapbox}

si
Advantages & Disadvantages of Protocol Layering
Advantages-The following are some of the benefits of layered protocols:
r
ve
1. As a result of protocols that operate at a certain layer having described information
that they work with and a defined interface to the layers above and below, it aids in
protocol style.
2. As items from several suppliers will work together, Foster’s competition will be fierce.
ni

3. Prevents changes in technology or capabilities in one layer from affecting layers

above and below.
4. Explains networking features and capabilities in a common language.
U

Disadvantages- The following are some of the drawbacks of multilayer protocols:

1. The cost in computation and message headers produced by the abstraction barriers
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between levels is one of the fundamental downsides of layered systems. As a

message must often transit across several (10 or more) protocol layers, the overhead
of those borders is frequently more than the computation itself.
2. As the upper-level layers can’t observe what’s going on in the lower layers, an
m

application can’t figure out where a problem is or what the issue is in a complex
network.
3. The higher-level layers cannot control all aspects of the lower layers, so they cannot
)A

change the transfer system if it is beneficial (for example, controlling windowing,

header compression, CRC/parity checking, and so on), nor can they specify routing,
and must rely on the lower protocols to work. They also cannot specify alternatives
when there are problems.
(c

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Check your Understanding

Notes

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Fill in the blanks:

1. __________________ is a two-way or bidirectional connection in which both devices

in
may transmit and receive data but not at the same time.
2. ____________ technologies allow several network connections to be combined into
a single link between two devices.

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3. Security protocols, often known as __________ protocols, strive to keep unwanted
users out of the network and the data transferred across it.

O
4. __________ is an Internet Protocol that specifies how data is delivered over the
internet and how web servers and browsers should respond to requests.
5. Standards are a collection of criteria for ___________ that are required for the flow
of data between devices.

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Summary
●● Computing protocols define rules for communication among processes within

si
a computer. Communication protocols define rules for communication among
computers connected to the same or different networks.
●●
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Computing protocols are concerned with storage, retrieval and processing
functions of information management.
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1) Communication protocols are concerned with acquisition, transmission and
distribution functions of information management.
2) Examples of signalling from our daily life: i) A bus conductor’s whistle to stop
ni

and start the bus ii) Flagging of a sport event like running race iii) Indicator
lights in cars iv) Caller tunes in mobile phones.
3) Small Messaging Service is a connectionless service. One prepares a message
U

and sends it across expecting it to be delivered. The service is provided on the

best-of-efforts basis.
4) ARQ is the technique used here. You observe (detect) an error, erase (discard)
ity

it and input the right character (retransmit).

Activity
1. Gather all day-to-day life examples of the protocols you know.
m

Question and Answers

1. What are Network Protocols and How do they Work?
)A

2. What are the benefits of using Network Protocols?

3. What is data communication. Explain in detail.
4. Write about the channels of communication.
5. Mention few examples on common communication protocols.
(c

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Glossary
Notes

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●● Data delivery: Data must be supplied to the relevant user and destination.
●● Accuracy: The data should be sent precisely and without any mistakes via

in
the communication mechanism. During transmission, data may get damaged,
reducing the accuracy of the data given.
●● Timeliness: Audio and video data must be supplied without delay in a timely way;

nl
this is known as real-time data transmission.
●● Jitter: This is the time difference between packet arrivals. The timeliness of data
being transferred may be harmed by uneven jitter.

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●● Message: A message is a piece of information that is intended to be passed from
one person to another. It might be a text file, audio file, video file, or other type of
file.

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●● Sender: A sender is basically a device that transmits data. It might be a computer,
smartphone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, among other things.
●● Receiver: The term “receiver” refers to a device that receives communications. It

si
might be a computer, a phone, a workstation, or something else entirely.
●● Communication Channels / Transmission Medium: The medium that connects two
r
or more workstations is known as a communication channel. Workstations can be
linked via wired or wireless connections.
ve
●● Protocol: Simply known as a set of rules. When someone gives data (the sender),
it must also be intelligible by the recipient; otherwise, the data is useless. Rupali,
for example, sends a message to Nutan. It’s a pointless debate if Rupali writes in
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Hindi and Nutan doesn’t comprehend Hindi.

Further Readings:
U

1. Black, U. Computer Networks: Protocols, Standards and Interfaces. 2nd

Edition. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 1999. Print
2. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
ity

3. Homer, Douglas E. Internetworking with TCP/IP, Volume I. 3rd Edition. New

Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2001. Print
4. Lin, Yi-Bing. Wireless and Mobile Network Architectures. Singapore: John
Wiley & Sons (Asia), 2001. Print
m

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
)A

1. Half-duplex communication
2. Link aggregation
3. cryptographic
4. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
(c

5. data transmission

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Unit - 2.2 : Reference Models

Notes

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Objectives

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Understand each layer of OSI model

nl
●● Functions of each layer of OSI model
●● Understanding of TCP/IP model and its four Layers

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●● Detail Description of protocol used in each layer
●● Similarities of OSI and TCP/IP

Introduction

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Reference models in computer networks provide a conceptual foundation for
standardising communication between diverse networks.

si
The OSI Model and the TCP/IP Protocol Suite are two common reference models.

OSI Model
r
The International Standards Organisation (ISO) created the OSI (Open System
ve
Interconnection). It provides a layered networking architecture that conceptualises how
diverse systems should communicate. It is made up of seven layers that are all related.

Physical layer, data connection layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer,
presentation layer, and application layer are the seven levels of the OSI Model. The
ni

hierarchy is illustrated in the diagram below.

U
ity
m
)A

Figure: OSI Model

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

(c

Transmission Control Protocol is abbreviated as TCP, whereas Internet Protocol is

abbreviated as IP. It’s a set of communication protocols organised into four tiers. It may

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be used for both public and private networks and can communicate via the internet.
Notes

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As shown in the diagram, the four levels are application layer, transport layer,
internet layer, and network access layer.

in
nl
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Figure: TCP/IP Protocol Suite

ty
2.2.1 OSI Reference Model
Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a reference model that specifies how
information from one computer’s software application passes across a physical media

si
to another computer’s software application.

The OSI is made up of seven levels, each of which serves a different network
function.
r
ve
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) established the OSI
model in 1984, and it is currently used as an architectural paradigm for inter-computer
communications.

The OSI model breaks down the process into seven smaller, more achievable
ni

steps. Each layer is given a certain duty.

Each layer is self-contained, allowing each layer to do tasks separately.

U

OSI Model Characteristics:

The OSI model is split into two levels: upper and lower layers.

The OSI model’s top layer mostly deals with application-related difficulties, which
ity

are exclusively implemented in software. The application layer is the one that is closest
to the user. The software applications are interacted with by both the end user and the
application layer. The layer directly above another is referred to as an upper layer.

The OSI model’s lowest layer deals with data transmission difficulties. Hardware
m

and software are used to implement the data connection and physical layers. The
physical layer is the OSI model’s lowest layer, and it’s the one nearest to the physical
media. The physical layer is primarily in charge of putting data on the physical media.
)A
(c

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Notes

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Figure: OSI Reference Model

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OSI Layers and Their Functions
There are seven levels in the OSI model. Each layer has a distinct purpose. The
following is a list of seven layers:

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1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer

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3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer r
ve
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
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m

Figure: Functions of OSI Reference Model

)A
(c

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Notes

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Figure: Physical layer functions

Physical Layer

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1. The physical layer’s primary duty is to transport individual bits from one node to
another.
2. It is the OSI model’s lowest layer.
3.
r
The physical link is established, maintained, and deactivated by it.
ve
4. It defines network interface mechanical, electrical, and procedural standards.
1. Line Configuration: This specifies how two or more devices can be physically
linked.
ni

2. Data Transmission: It specifies whether the network’s two devices are

communicating in simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex mode.
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3. Topology refers to the arrangement of network devices.

4. Signals: It specifies the sort of signal that is utilised to transfer data.

Data-Link Layer
ity
m
)A
(c

This layer is in charge of ensuring that data frames are sent without errors.

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It specifies the data format on the network.

Notes

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It allows two or more devices to communicate reliably and efficiently.

It is primarily responsible for each device on a local network’s unique identifier.

in
It is divided into two layers:

nl
Layer of Logical Link Control
1. It is in charge of transmitting packets to the Network layer of the receiving device.
2. It extracts the network layer protocol’s address from the header.

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3. It also regulates the flow of information.

Layer of Media Access Control

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1. A Media Access Control Layer connects the Logical Link Control layer to the physical
layer of the network.
2. It is used to send and receive packets via a network.

si
The Data-link Layer’s Functions
1. Framing: The data connection layer converts the raw bit stream from the physical
r
into packets known as frames. The header and trailer are added to the frame by the
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Data link layer. The hardware destination and source addresses are included in the
frame header.
2. Physical Addressing: The Data Link Layer adds a destination address to the frame’s
header. The frame is sent to the specified destination address in the header.
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3. Error control is accomplished by adding a computed value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy

Check) to the Data Link Layer’s trailer, which is then appended to the message
frame before it is delivered to the physical layer. If an error appears, the receiver
U

sends an acknowledgement for the corrupted frames to be retransmitted.

4. When two or more devices are linked to the same communication channel, data link
layer protocols are used to determine which device has control of the channel at any
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particular time.

Network Layer
It’s a layer 3 that handles device addressing and keeps track of where devices are
on the network.
m

Based on network circumstances, service priority, and other considerations, it

calculates the optimum way to transport data from source to destination.
)A

The Data Link Layer is in charge of packet routing and forwarding.

Routers are layer 3 devices that offer routing services inside an internetwork. They
are specified at this layer and are utilised to deliver these services.

Network layer protocols are the protocols that are used to route network traffic. IP
(c

and IPv6 are two examples of protocols.

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Notes

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Figure: Network layer

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Network Layer Functions:
1. Internetworking: The network layer’s primary job is internetworking. It establishes a
r
logical link between many devices.
ve
2. Addressing: The source and destination addresses are added to the frame header
by a network layer. On the internet, addressing is used to identify the device.
3. Routing: Routing is a significant component of the network layer that identifies the
best optimum path from the source to the destination among many paths.
ni

4. Packetizing: The packets from the higher layer are received by a Network Layer,
which turns them into packets. Packetizing is the term for this procedure. The internet
protocol is responsible for this (IP).
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Transport Layer
The Transport layer is a Layer 4 that guarantees that messages are sent in the
ity

order they are received and that data is not duplicated.

The transport layer’s primary job is to finish the data transmission.

It gets data from the higher layer and turns it into segments, which are smaller
units.
m

This layer is known as an end-to-end layer because it establishes a reliable point-

to-point link between the source and the destination.
)A
(c

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Notes

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Figure: Transport Layer

Transport Layer Functions:

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Service-point addressing: As computers execute several programmes at the
same time, data must be sent from source to destination not just from one machine
to another, but also from one process to another. The transport layer inserts a header
r
with the service-point address, also known as a port address. The network layer’s job is
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to send data from one computer to another, while the transport layer’s job is to get the
information to the right process.

Reassembly and segmentation: When the transport layer gets a message from the
higher layer, it separates it into numerous segments and assigns a sequence number
ni

to each segment, which uniquely identifies it. The transport layer reassembles the
message based on its sequence numbers after it has arrived at its destination.

Controlling the connection: Two services are provided by the transport layer. There
U

are two types of services: connection-oriented and connectionless. Each part of a

connectionless service is treated as a separate packet, and they all take distinct paths
to get to their destination.
ity

Before delivering packets, a connection-oriented service establishes a connection

with the transport layer at the target computer. All packets in a connection-oriented
service travel via a single path.

Flow control is likewise provided by the transport layer, however it is done end-to-
m

end rather than over a single connection.

Error control is also the responsibility of the transport layer. Error control is carried
out from beginning to finish, rather than across a single connection. The sender transit
)A

layer ensures that the message arrives at its intended location without mistake.
(c

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Session Layer
Notes

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ty
si
In the OSI model, it is a layer 3.

The Session layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and synchronising

communication between devices.
r
Session layer’s functions are as follows:
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Controlling the dialogue: The session layer is a dialogue controller that produces
a dialogue between two processes, or more precisely, it facilitates communication
between two processes that can be half-duplex or full-duplex.
ni

Synchronisation: When transferring data in a series, the session layer inserts

certain checkpoints. If a data transmission fault happens in the midst of the process,
the transmission will be restarted from the checkpoint. This method is known as
U

Synchronisation and recovery.

Presentation Layer
ity
m
)A
(c

The syntax and semantics of the information transferred between the two systems
are the primary concerns of the Presentation layer.

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It serves as a network’s data translator.

Notes

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This layer is a component of the operating system that transforms data between
different display formats.

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The syntax layer is another name for the presentation layer.

Presentation layer’s functions are as follows:

nl
Translation: Information is sent between two systems in the form of character
strings, integers, and so on. Different computers employ different encoding methods,
and the presentation layer is in charge of ensuring compatibility between them.

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It translates data from a sender-dependent format to a common format, which it
then converts back to a sender-dependent format at the receiving end.

Encryption: To guarantee privacy, encryption is required. Encryption is the process

ty
of changing information sent by the sender into a different format and sending the
resultant message through the network.

Data compression is the process of compressing data or reducing the number

si
of bits that must be transferred. In multimedia such as text, music, and video, data
compression is critical.

Application Layer r
ve
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Users and application processes can access network services through an

application layer, which acts as a window.
m

It deals with concerns like network transparency, resource allocation, and so on.

Although an application layer is not an application, it performs the duties of the

application layer.
)A

This layer offers end-users with network services.

Application layer functions include:

FTAM stands for file transfer, access, and management. A user can access files
(c

on a distant computer, recover files from a computer, and manage files on a remote
computer using an application layer.

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Email services are provided via an application layer that allows for email forwarding
Notes

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and storage.

2.2.2 Characteristics of OSI Model

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Seven Layers in the OSI Model: Characteristics

The following are the layer-by-layer properties of the OSI model:

nl
In the OSI Model, the first layer is the physical layer.

The OSI model’s physical layer contains the following characteristics:

O
It is concerned with sending raw pieces of data through a physical media.

It is hardware-specific and is in charge of the physical connection between your

computer and a network media.

ty
1s and 0s are used to represent data. Light pulses, electric voltages, and radio
frequencies are used to represent this.

si
Signaling is handled by all devices at this layer.

This layer includes Ethernet cables, token ring networks, pin-outs, cable kinds, and
connectors, among other things.
r
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Figure: Physical Layer

2. OSI Model Data Link Layer

m

The OSI model’s data connection layer contains the following characteristics:

Media access control allows data to be moved from one device to another across a
connection.
)A

Packet addressing is the process of assigning a unique address to each packet.

The frame that is used to enclose data is being formatted.

On the physical layer, there is an error notice.

(c

It manages the flow of bits and packets between data segments. The outcome is
referred to as frames. They contain material that is organised in a logical fashion.

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By correctly transmitting frames, provide error-free connection between two

Notes

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devices.

The Data Link Layer is further broken down into two parts. Media Access Control

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(MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC) are the terms used to describe them.

nl
O
ty
Figure: Data link layer

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3. The OSI Model’s Network Layer
The OSI model’s network layer contains the following characteristics:

Establishing pathways for the transit of data packets between network devices is
the responsibility of this role. r
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Direction of travel.

Service and logical network addresses are two types of addresses.

Routing.
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Switching packets.

Packet sequence control.

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From transmission to receiver, complete error detection is available.

Controlling traffic.
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Services that act as a gateway.

m
)A
(c

Figure: Network Layer

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4. The OSI Model’s Transport Layer

Notes

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The following are the properties of the transport layer in the OSI model:

Message transmission between networked hosts is the responsibility of this

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component. This layer fragments and reassembles messages. It also manages the
trustworthiness of any particular connection.

nl
Data delivery is guaranteed.

Resolution of the name

Controlling the flow of information.

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Detection and recovery of errors.

The most prevalent transport protocols used at this tier are TCP and UDP.

ty
r si
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Figure: Transport layer
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5. The OSI Model’s Session Layer

The OSI-session model’s layer contains the following characteristics:
U

Establish, monitor, and terminate the application-to-application communication

session.

Data synchronisation, name lookup, and security functions

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In a packet, the header information is placed.

Determines whether full or half duplex messages are exchanged during a session.
m
)A
(c

Figure: Session layer

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6. OSI Model Presentation Layer

Notes

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The OSI model’s presentation layer contains the following characteristics:

This layer specifies the communication syntax used by network hosts.

in
Compression of data.

Data encryption and decryption.

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Translation of data.

Understanding and interpreting graphical commands.

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Conversion of protocols.

Services that act as a gateway.

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Figure: Presentation layer

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7. OSI Model Application Layer

The OSI model’s application layer contains the following characteristics:
ity

It serves as a link between the computer’s software and the network protocol. It
delivers services that are required to keep the apps running.

This layer offers an interface for FTP, email, and telnet applications.

The following are some of the most often used protocols in this layer:
m

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol for sending and (SMTP).
)A

IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Protocol for the Post Office (POP).

(c

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Notes

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Figure: Application layer

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2.2.3 OSI Protocols

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The OSI model serves as a guideline for creating network protocols. The protocols
utilised in each layer of the OSI model will be discussed in this chapter. When creating
a protocol using the OSI model, the first question to consider is which OSI layer will
r
give service to the new protocol. The functionality and network needs will determine
which layers are used. For example, suppose you wish to create a network protocol
ve
that simply requires IP packet routing capability. The new protocol will be above the OSI
model’s Network layer, and if connection-oriented message delivery is required, it will
be above the OSI model’s Transport layer.
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The following is a list of protocols and the OSI layer to which they belong.

DHCP OSI layer:

U

DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol is
used in a real-world implementation of DHCP. The Dynamic Host Control Protocol is
the entire name. When the network connection is established. To function in a computer
network, a computer need an IP address. As a DHCP client, the machine that connects
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to the computer network. It makes a request to the server for the IP address. You may
have seen this while setting the IP address for a Windows machine’s Ethernet or LAN
device. In this situation, the internet router serves as a DHCP server.

ARP OSI layer: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is an OSI layer. It converts an
m

IP address to the Ethernet card’s MAC address. In the OSI model, ARP is the data link
layer protocol.

DNS OSI layer: This is a domain name system. It’s a protocol for the application
)A

layer.

ICMP OSI layer: It functions as an IP layer user. ICMP uses the IP layer protocol to
send protocol messages to the distant end. This is an application layer protocol since it
delivers a service to the end-user.
(c

UDP OSI layer: UDP (Universal Datagram Protocol) is a transport layer protocol.
This is a datagram protocol that does not need the establishment of a connection.

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Although unreliable, it is useful for real-time distribution. It’s a protocol for the transport
Notes

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layer.

Another example of a layer four (transport layer) protocol is the TCP OSI model. It

in
is a protocol that is based on TCP OSI: relationships.

OSI model and SS7: SS7 has a lot of layers. The table below shows the mapping
of SS7 protocol layers to the OSI model.

nl
SS7 Layers OSI Layers
MTP1 Physical Layer

O
MTP2 Data Link Layer
MTP3 Network Layer
SCCP Transport Layer
TACP, ISUP Session Layer and PResentation Layer

ty
MAP, INAP, Camel Application Layer

Figure: SS7 protocol layers

si
OSI layer and Telnet:
Telnet is an OSI model application layer protocol. It’s used for remote computer
r
network activities. The telnet protocol messages are transported via TCP/IP.
ve
SIP and OSI Layers:
In a VoIP network, Sip is a session initiation protocol. This is part of the OSI
application layer.
ni

IP and OSI Layers:

IP stands for Internet Protocol and is a layer 3 protocol in the OSI architecture. IP
U

makes advantage of the data link layer’s functions while also providing services to the
transport layer. SCTP, TCP, UDP, and other transport layer protocols are examples.

2.2.4 TCP/IP Reference Model

ity

The TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layer communication protocol suite. The

Department of Defense (DoD) created it in the 1960s. TCP and IP are the two primary
protocols utilised in the concept; hence it’s called after them. Transmission Control
Protocol is abbreviated as TCP, whereas Internet Protocol is abbreviated as IP.
m

The TCP/IP protocol suite is made up of four levels.

Host-to- The lowest layer, the network layer, is responsible for the physical
)A

conveyance of data. TCP/IP does not specify any protocol, although it does support all
of the common protocols.

The Internet Layer establishes the mechanisms for logical data transfer over a
network.
(c

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal protocol in this layer, and it is backed by
the protocols ICMP, RARP, IGMP, and ARP.

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The Transport Layer is in charge of ensuring that data is delivered without errors
Notes

e
from beginning to end. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) are the protocols discussed here (UDP).

in
The uppermost layer, the application layer, defines the interface between host
programmes and transport layer services. Telnet, HTTP, DNS, FTP, SMTP, and other
high-level protocols are included in this layer.

nl
The layers and procedures in each layer are depicted in the diagram below.

O
ty
r si
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1. Network Access Layer — In the OSI model, this layer is a mix of the Data Link Layer
ni

and the Physical Layer. It looks for hardware addressing, and the protocols at this
layer enable data to be physically sent.
We recently discussed how ARP is an Internet layer protocol, but there is some
U

debate over whether it should be classified as an Internet layer or a network access

layer protocol. It is characterised as being enveloped by layer 2 protocols and existing
in layer 3.
ity

2. Internet Layer — This layer performs the same duties as the Network layer of the
OSI model. It specifies the protocols that are in charge of logical data transfer across
the whole network. The following are the key protocols found at this layer:
IP – stands for Internet Protocol, and it is in charge of sending packets from a source
m

host to a destination host based on the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP

comes in two flavours: IPv4 and IPv6. The IPv4 protocol is presently used by the
majority of websites. However, IPv6 is becoming more popular as IPv4 addresses
become scarce in comparison to the number of users.
)A

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is an acronym for Internet Control
Message Protocol. It is responsible for supplying hosts with information about
network faults and is contained within IP datagrams.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is an acronym for Address Resolution Protocol.
(c

Its job is to determine a host’s hardware address from a known IP address. Reverse
ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP are the four forms of ARP.

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3. Host-to-Host Layer — This layer is similar to the OSI model’s transport layer. It is in
Notes

e
charge of end-to-end communication and error-free data transfer. It protects upper-
layer applications from data complexity. The following are the two primary protocols
found in this layer:

in
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) — This protocol is notable for ensuring error-
free and reliable communication between end systems. It does data segmentation

nl
and sequencing. It also features an acknowledgement function and uses a flow
control method to govern data flow. It is a very effective protocol, but because of
these qualities, it has a lot of overhead. Increased overhead translates to higher
costs.

O
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) — On the other side, it lacks these capabilities. If
your application does not require dependable transmission, this is the protocol to use
because it is relatively cost-effective. UDP is a connectionless protocol, unlike TCP,

ty
which is a connection-oriented protocol.
4. Application Layer - This layer is responsible for the functions of the OSI model’s top
three layers: Application, Presentation, and Session Layer. It’s in charge of node-to-

si
node communication and user interface requirements. HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, TFTP,
Telnet, SSH, SMTP, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP, NFS, X Window, and LPD are some
of the protocols found in this layer. For further information on these protocols, see
r
Protocols in the Application Layer. Protocols not included in the linked article include:
ve
Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTPS) - HTTP
stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. The World Wide Web makes use of it to
coordinate communication between web browsers and servers. HTTPS (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol Secure) is a secure version of HTTP.
ni

Secure Shell (SSH) is an acronym for Secure Shell. It’s a terminal emulator programme
that works similarly to Telnet. The ability to maintain an encrypted connection is one
of the reasons SSH is recommended. It establishes a secure connection using a
U

TCP/IP connection.
Network Time Protocol (NTP) - NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It’s utilised to
synchronise all of our computers’ clocks to a single common time source. It comes in
handy in circumstances such as bank transactions. Consider the following scenario
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in the absence of NTP. Consider a transaction in which your computer sees the time
at 2:30 p.m., but the server records it as 2:28 p.m. If the server is out of sync, it might
crash catastrophically.
m

2.2.5 TCP/IP Protocols

Protocols are standards for communication formats and processes that allow
machines and application programmes to communicate with each other. In order for the
)A

receiving host to interpret the message, each computer engaged in the transmission
must obey certain principles. The TCP/IP protocol suite may be broken down into layers
(or levels).

The levels of the TCP/IP protocol are depicted in this diagram. Application Layer,
(c

Transport Layer, Network Layer, Network Interface Layer, and Hardware are listed in
order from top to bottom.

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Notes

e
in
nl
Figure: TCP/IP suite protocols

TCP/IP is a protocol that specifies how data is sent from a sender to a receiver.

O
Application programmes first transmit messages or data streams to one of the
Internet Transport Layer Protocols, such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) (TCP). These protocols take the data from the
application, break it down into packets, add a destination address, and then send the

ty
packets to the next protocol layer, the Internet Network layer.

The Internet Network layer encapsulates the packet in an Internet Protocol (IP)
datagram, adds the datagram header and trailer, determines where to deliver the

si
datagram (directly to a destination or via a gateway), and transfers the datagram to the
Network Interface layer.

r
The Network Interface layer receives IP datagrams and sends them as frames
across network devices such as Ethernet or Token-Ring.
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A

Figure: Information is sent from a sender programme to a receiver host.

This diagram depicts the flow of data from the Sender to the Host through the TCP/
IP protocol levels.
(c

Frames received by a host go backwards through the protocol levels. Until the data
reaches the application layer, each layer removes the matching header information.

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Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
Figure: Information is sent from the host to the application.

si
This diagram depicts the flow of data from the Host to the Sender through the TCP/
IP protocol levels.
r
The Network Interface layer receives frames (in this case, an Ethernet adapter).
ve
The datagram is sent up to the Network layer after the Network Interface layer removes
the Ethernet header. The Internet Protocol pulls the IP header from the packet and
sends it up to the Transport layer in the Network layer. TCP (in this example) takes out
the TCP header and delivers the data up to the Application layer in the Transport layer.
ni

On a network, hosts send and receive data at the same time. Figure depicts a host
in more detail as it communicates.
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ity
m
)A
(c

Figure: Data transmissions and receptions are hosted on this server.

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Data is seen flowing in both directions across the TCP/IP layers in this diagram.
Notes

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Version 6 of the Internet Protocol (IP)

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IP version 6 (IPv6 or IPng) is the next generation of the Internet Protocol (IP). It
was created as a natural progression from IP version 4. (IPv4).

Tracing packets

nl
Packet tracing is the process of determining a packet’s journey through the layers
to its destination.

O
Packet headers for network interfaces
Packet headers are connected to outgoing data at the Network Interface layer.

ty
Protocols at the network level of the Internet
Machine-to-machine communication is handled through Internet network-level
protocols.

si
Transport-Level Protocols on the Internet
Application programmes can connect with one another using the TCP/IP transport-
level protocols. r
ve
Application-Level Protocols over the Internet
At the application software level, TCP/IP implements higher-level Internet protocols.
ni

Numbers Assigned
Well-known numbers are allocated to Internet versions, networks, ports, protocols,
and protocol choices for interoperability with the general network environment.
U

Machines, networks, operating systems, protocols, services, and terminals have all
been given well-known names.

2.2.6 Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Protocols

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OSI is a protocol-independent general The TCP/IP paradigm is built on common

standard that serves as a communication protocols that the Internet has grown up
bridge between the network and the end around. It is a network communication
m

user. protocol that allows hosts to communicate

over a network.
The transport layer in the OSI model The transport layer in the TCP/IP
ensures packet delivery. paradigm does not ensure packet
)A

delivery. Even so, the TCP/IP approach is

more trustworthy.
It takes a vertical approach. Follows a horizontal strategy.
There is a Presentation layer and a There is no distinct Presentation or
(c

Session layer in the OSI model. Session layer in TCP/IP.

The Transport Layer is a Connection- Both connection-oriented and connection-
Oriented Architecture. less transport layers exist.

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Both Connection Oriented and The Network Layer has no connections.

Notes

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Connectionless Network Layers exist.
The OSI model is a foundation upon In certain ways, the TCP/IP paradigm is

in
which networks are constructed. It is an implementation of the OSI model.
commonly used as a guiding tool.
The OSI model's network layer offers both In the TCP/IP paradigm, the Network

nl
connection-oriented and connectionless layer offers connectionless service.
services.
The OSI model has a challenge in fitting Any protocol does not suit the TCP/IP
protocols into it. paradigm.

O
The OSI model hides protocols, which It is difficult to replace a protocol in TCP/
may be readily altered as technology IP.
evolves.

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The OSI model explicitly specifies Services, interfaces, and protocols are
services, interfaces, and protocols, as not explicitly separated in TCP/IP. It's also
well as the differences between them. It is protocol specific.
protocol agnostic.

si
It is made up of seven layers. It is made up of four layers.

Check your Understanding

Fill in the blanks:
r
ve
1. In a VoIP network, SIP is a __________________.
2. The TCP/IP Reference Model is a _____-layered protocol.
3. IP stands for Internet Protocol and is a ________protocol in the OSI architecture.
ni

4. __________ are standards for communication formats and processes that allow
machines and application programmes to communicate with each other.
U

5. The Network Interface layer receives __________ and sends them as frames across
network devices such as Ethernet or Token-Ring.

Summary
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●● This unit started with an overview of the OSI reference model.

●● It provided thorough information on the various levels and functions of the OSI
reference model.
●● The unit focuses on understanding how communication occurs in a network. It also
m

discussed the TCP/IP paradigm.

●● The OSI and TCP/IP models were compared, along with their similarities and
differences.
)A

●● Some relevant protocols from each TCP/IP layer were explained.

Activity
1. Draw OSI & TCP/IP Layer Protocols and make a concept map with its important
functions.
(c

Question and Answers

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 112 Network Basics

1. What are IP Address Classes? Describe each of them.

Notes

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2. What is TCP/IP Layer Protocol? Write the advantages.
3. Describe OSI Model.

in
4. What do you understand on simple routing protocols? Describe briefly.

Glossary

nl
●● Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a reference model that specifies how
information from one computer’s software application passes across a physical
media to another computer’s software application.

O
●● Framing: The data connection layer converts the raw bit stream from the physical
into packets known as frames. The header and trailer are added to the frame by
the Data link layer. The hardware destination and source addresses are included
in the frame header.

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●● Physical Addressing: The Data Link Layer adds a destination address to the
frame’s header. The frame is sent to the specified destination address in the
header.

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●● Connectionless: A service or protocol that commences information transfer without
establishing a connection with the destination
●● Addressing: The source and destination addresses are added to the frame header
r
by a network layer. On the internet, addressing is used to identify the device.
ve
●● Routing: Routing is a significant component of the network layer that identifies the
best optimum path from the source to the destination among many paths.
●● Packetizing: The packets from the higher layer are received by a Network Layer,
which turns them into packets. Packetizing is the term for this procedure. The
ni

internet protocol is responsible for this (IP).

●● Error control: The process of detecting and correcting errors
U

●● Interoperability: Ability of different applications to interwork with each other using

common data
●● IP: Internet Protocol
ity

Further Readings:
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Achyut S. Godbole, Web Technoligies TATA McGrawHill, 2003.
3. Berhouz Forouzan, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, 3rd edition, TATA McGraw Hill,
m

2006.

Check your Understanding-Answers

)A

Fill in the blanks:

1. session initiation protocol
2. four
3. layer 3
(c

4. Protocols
5. IP datagrams
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 Network Basics 113

Unit - 2.3 : Data Transmission

Notes

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Objectives

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Learn types of transmissions

nl
●● Describe time and frequency - domain concepts
●● Compare difference between analog and digital signal

O
●● Know type of transmission impairments
●● Understand transmission media.
Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analogue data to one or

ty
more devices across a communication channel. It allows devices to communicate and
transmit data in a variety of contexts, including point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, and
multipoint-to-multipoint.

si
Although data transmission can be analogue or digital, it is most commonly used
to deliver and receive digital data. As a result, data transfer is also known as digital
communications or digital transmission.

r
It’s used when a device wants to send a data item or file to one or more recipients.
ve
The digital data arrives in the form of digital bit streams from the source device.

For transmission to the destination device, these data streams are positioned over
a communication channel. A baseband or passband signal can be sent forth.
ni

Data transmission can also be done internally, between various portions of the
same device, in addition to outward communication. Data transmission is the process of
transmitting data from a random-access memory (RAM) or a hard drive to a processor.
U

2.3.1 Introduction
The direction of information flow between two communication devices is defined
by the Data Transmission mode. It’s also known as Directional Mode or Data
ity

Communication. It determines the direction of information flow in a computer network

from one point to another.

The Physical Layer of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) Layer Model is
dedicated to data transmission in the network. It primarily determines the direction in
m

which data must travel in order to reach the reception system or node.

So, in this chapter, we’ll look at several data transmission modalities based on the
)A

direction of transmission, synchronisation between the transmitter and receiver, and the
quantity of bits delivered at the same time.

Based on the direction of information exchange, data transmission mechanisms

may be classified into three categories:
(c

1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex

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3. Full duplex
Notes

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Based on the synchronisation between the transmitter and the receiver, data
transmission modalities may be divided into two categories:

in
1. Synchronous
2. Asynchronous

nl
Based on the amount of bits delivered concurrently through the network, data
transmission modalities may be divided into two categories:

1. Serial

O
2. Parallel
Let’s take a look at each of the many data transmission modalities in a computer
network one by one.

ty
According to the direction of information exchange:

1. Simplex

si
Simplex is a data transmission mode in which data can only travel in one direction,
resulting in unidirectional communication. A transmitter can only send data in this mode
and cannot receive it. A receiver, on the other hand, can only receive data and not
transmit it. r
ve
This transmission method isn’t as common as others since it doesn’t allow for two-
way contact between the sender and recipient. It’s mostly utilised in the business world,
such as in sales that don’t demand a response. It’s analogous to driving down a one-
way street.
ni

For example, radio and television transmissions, keyboards and mouse, and so on.
U

Figure: Simplex Mode

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The benefits of adopting a Simplex transmission method are as follows:

During data transfer, it makes maximum use of the communication channel’s

capacity.
m

As data goes solely in one way, it has the least or no data traffic difficulties.

The downsides of employing a Simplex transmission method are as follows:

)A

It is unidirectional in nature, with no device-to-device communication.

There is no means for sending information back to the sender (No mechanism for
acknowledgement).
(c

2. Half-Duplex
Half-duplex data transmission allows data to travel in both ways but only in one
direction at a time. Semi-Duplex is another name for it. To put it another way, each
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 Network Basics 115

station may send and receive data, but not at the same time. When one device is
Notes

e
sending, the other is only capable of receiving, and vice versa.

Each direction can use the complete capacity of the channel in this sort of

in
transmission method. Data can be transferred in both directions over transmission lines,
but only in one direction at a time.

This form of data transmission technique can be employed when there is no

nl
requirement for simultaneous communication in both directions.

O
ty
Figure: Half-Duplex

It may be used to detect errors when the sender fails to send or the receiver fails
to receive data correctly. The data must be re-transmitted by the receiver in such

si
instances.

For example, Walkie-Talkies, Internet Browsers, and other similar devices.

r
The benefits of adopting a half-duplex transmission method are as follows:
ve
It allows for the most efficient utilisation of the communication channel.

It has a two-way communication system.

The downsides of employing a half-duplex transmission method are as follows:

ni

It is not possible to establish two-way connection at the same time.

Due to the fact that only one way communication is available at a time,
U

transmission delays may occur.

3. Full-Duplex System
Full-duplex data transmission allows information to travel in both directions at the
ity

same time. It’s a bi-directional system. It is a two-way communication system in which

both stations may send and receive data at the same time.

When compared to half-duplex mode, full-duplex mode has twice the bandwidth.
The channel’s capacity is split between the two communication routes. When
m

simultaneous communication in both directions is necessary, this method is utilised.

Consider a telephone network in which both parties may talk and listen to each
)A

other at the same time.

(c

Figure: Full-Duplex

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The benefits of adopting a full-duplex transmission mode are as follows:

Notes

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Both directions of two-way communication can be carried out at the same time.

It’s the quickest way for gadgets to communicate with one other.

in
The downsides of employing a half-duplex transmission method are as follows:

The communication channel’s capacity is split into two halves. Furthermore, there

nl
is no specialised data transfer channel.

As there are two different pathways for two connecting devices, it has inefficient
channel bandwidth use.

O
The following is based on the synchronisation of the transmitter and receiver:

Synchronised

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The synchronous transmission mode is a method of communication in which bits
are transferred one after the other without any pauses or start/stop bits.

si
The transmitter and receiver are both timed by the same system clock.
Synchronisation is done in this manner.

Bytes are transferred as blocks in a continuous stream of bits in the Synchronous

r
method of data transmission. As the message block lacks start and stop bits. The
ve
receiver is responsible for accurately grouping the bits. As the bits come, the receiver
counts them and organises them into an eight-bit unit. The information is continually
received by the receiver at the same rate as it is delivered by the transmitter. Even if no
bits are transferred, it listens to the messages.
ni

As the bits are transmitted sequentially with no space between each character in
synchronous mode, it is required to provide certain synchronisation components with
the message; this is referred to as “Character-Level Synchronisation.”
U

If there are two bytes of data, for example (10001101, 11001011), it will be
transferred in synchronous mode as in the figure:
ity

Figure Synchronous
m

For instance, communication in the CPU, RAM, and so on.

The advantages of employing a Synchronous transmission method are as follows:

)A

As there is no gap between the data bits, transmission speed is quick.

The following are some of the drawbacks of adopting synchronised transmission

mode:
(c

It is really costly.

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2. Asynchronous
Notes

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The asynchronous transmission mode is a type of communication in which the
message contains a start and stop bit. The start and stop bits ensure that data from the

in
sender to the receiver is appropriately delivered.

The start bit is usually ‘0,’ whereas the end bit is usually ‘1.’

nl
The term asynchronous refers to asynchronous behaviour at the byte level,
although the bits remain synchronised. Each character has a consistent and
coordinated timing between them.

O
Data bits can be transferred at any point in time in an asynchronous style of
communication. Only one data byte may be transferred at a time, and messages are
delivered at unpredictable intervals.

ty
This transmission technique is suitable for data delivery over short distances.

If there are two bytes of data, for example (10001101, 11001011), it will be
delivered in asynchronous mode as shown in the diagram:

r si
ve
ni

Figure: Asynchronous

For instance, data entered into a computer using a keyboard.

U

The benefits of adopting an asynchronous transmission method are as follows:

1. It is a low-cost, high-efficiency way of transmission.

2. Due to the existence of start and stop bits, data transmission accuracy is good.
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The downsides of employing an asynchronous transmission method are as follows:

1. As of the gaps between separate blocks of data, data transmission may be slower.
2. According to the quantity of bits transferred in a network at the same time:
m

1. Serial
Serial data transmission mode is a method in which data bits are transferred one
)A

after the other via the transmission channel in a sequential order.

(c

Figure: Serial

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For communication, it only requires a single transmission line. The data bits are
Notes

e
received in synchrony with each other. As a result, synchronising the transmitter and
receiver is a difficulty.

in
The system requires many clock cycles to convey the data stream in serial data
transmission. The data integrity is preserved in this mode because the data bits are
transmitted in a precise order, one after the other.

nl
This kind of transmission is suitable for long-distance data transfer or when the
amount of data being delivered is modest. Data transmission between two computers,
for example, utilising serial ports.

O
The following are some of the benefits of employing serial transmission mode:

1. As it is dependable, it may be utilised for long-distance data transmission.

ty
2. There are fewer cables, and the complexity is reduced.
3. It is a cost-effective solution.
The downsides of employing a serial communication method are as follows:

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Due to a single transmission channel, data transfer is sluggish.

2. Parallel
r
The parallel data transmission mode sends data bits one at a time in a parallel
ve
fashion. To put it another way, there is a simultaneous transmission of n-bits.
ni
U
ity
m

Figure: Parallel

In such transmission schemes, several transmission lines are employed. As a

result, a single system clock can send several data bytes. When a significant amount of
)A

data must be transferred in a short length of time, this style of transmission is utilised. It
is mostly used for communication over short distances.

We need n-transmission lines for n-bits. As a result, the network becomes more
complicated, yet the transmission speed remains high. If two or more transmission
(c

lines are too near together, there is a risk of data interference, which will degrade signal
quality.

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Data transmission between computers and printer, for example.

Notes

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The advantages of employing a parallel transmission mode are as follows:

1. It’s simple to programme or put into action.

in
2. As of the n-transmission channel, data transmission speed is very fast.
3. The following are some of the drawbacks of adopting parallel transmission:

nl
4. It needs additional transmission channels, making it inefficient.
5. Interference in data bits, as well as visual conferencing, is a problem.

O
As a result, after learning about the various transmission modes, we can infer that
the following factors must be considered when choosing a data transmission mode:

1. The rate of transmission.

ty
2. The length of time it lasts.
3. Installation Costs and Ease
4. The ability to withstand adverse environmental circumstances.

si
2.3.2 Serial vs Parallel Transmission
r
The method data is sent is the major distinction between serial and parallel
ve
transmission. It is sequential in serial transmission, but it is simultaneous in parallel
transmission. Data is conveyed digitally using bits in the computer world. Data is
transferred consecutively via serial transmission, with each bit sent one after the other
over a single cable. Data is conveyed in parallel when numerous bits are supplied at
the same time over multiple wires in parallel transmission. Serial transmission provides
ni

greater advantages than parallel transmission for a variety of reasons, which we will
explore below. As a result, serial transmission is now employed in the majority of
interfaces, such as USB, PCI Express and SATA.
U

What is Serial Transmission and How Does It Work?

Serial transmission refers to the transfer of one bit at a time in a consecutive
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order. Let’s say we have a byte of data to send via a serial communication channel:
“10101010.” Bit by bit, one after the other, it transmits. The number “1” is sent first,
followed by “0,” “1,” and so on. As a result, only one data line/wire is required for
transmission, which is advantageous in terms of cost. Serial transmission is used
in many transmission methods nowadays because it offers various advantages. One
m

significant advantage is that there is no requirement for synchronisation because there

are no parallel bits.

In that situation, the clock speed can be adjusted to a very high level, resulting in
)A

a high baud rate. As of the same reason, serial transmission may be used over great
distances without difficulty. Furthermore, because there are no nearby parallel lines, the
signal is not influenced by problems like cross talk and interference from adjoining lines,
which may occur in parallel transmission.
(c

Serial transmission is closely associated with RS-232, a serial communication

technology first introduced in IBM PCs many years ago. It is also known as the serial
port since it employs serial communication.
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Notes

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Figure: This figure is showing a serial transmission cable

The most frequently used interface in the computer industry today, USB (Universal

si
Serial Bus), is also serial. Serial communication is also used in Ethernet, which we
utilise to link networks. SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) is a serial
interface that is used to connect hard drives and optical disc readers. Firewire, RS-485,
r
I2C, SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), and MIDI are examples of other well-known serial
ve
communication systems (Musical Instrument Digital Interface). Furthermore, PS/2,
which was used to link mice and keyboards, was a serial protocol. Most crucially, PCI
Express, which is used to connect current graphics cards to PCs, uses a serial mode.
ni

What is Parallel Transmission, and How does it Work?

Parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of parallel data bits. Assume
we have an 8-bit-per-second parallel transmission system. It should be made up
U

of eight independent lines or wires. Consider the data byte “10101010” that we wish
to send through parallel transmission. The first line sends “1,” the second line sends
“0,” and so on, all at the same time. Each line simultaneously delivers the bit that
corresponds to it. The drawback is that many cables are required, which increases the
ity

cost. Furthermore, because more pins are required, the ports and slots become bigger,
making it unsuitable for tiny, embedded devices.

The first thought that springs to mind when discussing parallel transmission is
that it should be quicker because several bits are delivered at the same time. Although
m

this is true in theory, parallel transmission is actually slower than serial transmission
for practical reasons. The reason for this is that before the next data set is delivered,
all parallel data bits must be received at the receiver’s end. However, the signal on
)A

separate cables might take different times, and so not all bits are received at the same
time, necessitating a waiting interval for synchronisation. As a result, the clock speed
cannot be adjusted as much as it can in serial transmission, resulting in the slow speed
of parallel transmission.

Another downside of parallel transmission is that crosstalk and interference

(c

between adjoining cables degrade the signals. Parallel transmission is utilised for
short distances for these reasons. The printer port, commonly known as IEEE 1284, is

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the most well-known parallel transmission. This is the port that’s also referred to as a
Notes

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parallel port. This was utilised by printers, but it is no longer frequently used. Previously,
PATA was used to link hard drives and optical disc readers to the PC (Parallel Advanced
Technology Attachment). These ports, as we all know, are no longer in use, having

in
been supplanted by serial transmission methods.

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Figure: IEEE 1284 Cable

SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) and GPIB (General Purpose Interface
r
Bus) are two more parallel transmission interfaces utilised in the industry.
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However, it is critical to understand that the computer’s quickest bus, the front side
bus, which connects the CPU and RAM, is a parallel transmission.

What’s the Difference Between Parallel and Serial Transmission?

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1. Data is transferred one bit at a time in serial transmission. Sequential transmission

is used. Several bits are communicated at the same time in parallel transmission,
making it simultaneous.
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2. Serial transmission requires just one cable, but parallel transmission requires several
wires.
3. Serial buses are often smaller than parallel buses due to the lower number of pins.
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4. Parallel transmission lines, on the other hand, encounter interference and cross talk
concerns owing to adjoining lines, but serial transmission lines do not.
5. By boosting the clock rate to extremely high levels, serial transmission may be made
much quicker. However, with parallel transmission, the clock rate must be set slower
m

in order to synchronise the entire receipt of all bits, hence parallel transmission is
often slower than serial transmission.
6. Parallel transmission lines cannot transport data over great distances, however
)A

serial transmission lines can.

7. Serial transmission is the most extensively utilised transmission technology today.

Serial vs Parallel Conclusion

(c

In today’s computer sector, serial transmission is far more common than parallel
transmission. The reason for this is because serial transmission can send data over a
great distance at a very low cost. The main distinction is that serial transmission sends
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just one bit at a time, whereas parallel transmission sends many bits at the same time.
Notes

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As a result, serial transmission only requires one wire, but parallel transmission need
numerous lines. Serial transmission is used in devices such as USB, Ethernet, SATA,
and PCI Express. Parallel transmission is no longer extensively utilised; however, it was

in
once used in printer ports and PATA.

2.3.3 Data Transmission Mode

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Transmission mode refers to the method or procedure by which data is sent from
one device to another. This technique of data transfer is sometimes referred to as

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“communication mode.”

As a result, we may say that data is sent from one device to another using a
transmission mechanism. The transmission mode determines which direction data
must travel in order to reach the receiving system or node. In the physical layer, the

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transmission mode is defined.

There are three types of transmission modes:

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1) Simplex mode
2) Half duplex mode
3) Full duplex mode
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U

Figure: Data transmission modes

Simplex
All data flow in simplex communication is unidirectional.
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A simplex communication channel delivers and receives data in just one direction.
On a connection, only one of the two devices can send, while the other can only
receive.
m

A radio station, for example, normally delivers information to the listeners in one way
but never gets a signal from them. Other monitors, keyboards, and a television station
)A

Figure: Simplex transmission mode

Simplex mode has the following advantages:

(c

1. As the transmission is one-way, the entire capacity of the transmission medium is

used.

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2. It means that the station may use the whole bandwidth of the communication channel,
Notes

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allowing for more data to be transferred at once and avoiding traffic congestion.
Simplex mode has one disadvantage: bidirectional communication is not possible.

in
As a result, two devices cannot connect utilising the simplex method of transmission.
means There is no device-to-device communication.

Half Duplex Mode

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Data can be readmitted in both ways on a signal carrier in half duplex mode, but
not at the same time. This permits the sender and receiver to speak with one another,

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but they must first wait for the other. As information may travel in both directions, half
duplex can have a greater performance output than a simplex channel. It is actually a
simplex channel whose transmission direction can be altered at some time.

A typical half-duplex gadget is a walkie-talkie. It has a “push-to-talk” button that

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may be used to switch on the transmitter while also turning off the receiver.

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Figure: Half duplex transmission mode

Half-duplex has the following advantages:

r
ve
Both devices can send and receive data in half duplex mode, and they can also
use the whole bandwidth of the communication channel during data transmission.

Half-duplex has the following disadvantages:

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It is impossible to create a two-way Communion at the same time.

When one device sends data, the other must wait for it.

Due to the fact that only one way communication is available at a time,
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transmission delays may occur.

>> distinctions between basic, half-duplex, and full-duplex,

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Full Duplex Mode

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Figure: Full duplex transmission mode

A full duplex communication channel is capable of simultaneously transmitting

data in both directions on a signal carrier. It’s made up of two simplex lines that can
transmit data in both directions at the same time. Take the telephone as an example:
(c

because there are two communication lines connecting them, persons on both ends
of a conversation may talk and be heard at the same time. As a result, employing full
duplex mode can considerably improve communication efficiency.

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Full duplex has the following advantages:

Notes

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1. At the same time, both stations can send and receive data.
2. It is the quickest form of device communication.

in
Disadvantages of Full duplex:
1. The communication channel’s capacity is split into two halves. There is also no

nl
specialised data transfer route.
2. As there are two different pathways for two connecting devices, it has inefficient
channel bandwidth use.

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2.3.4 Digital Transmission
Analog and digital storage are two methods for storing data or information. The

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data must be in distinct digital form for a computer to utilise it. Signals, like data, can
have both analogue and digital forms. Data must first be transformed to digital form
before it can be transmitted digitally.

si
Conversion from Digital to Digital
This section describes how to transform digital data into digital signals. There
r
are two ways to do it: line coding and block coding. Line coding is required for all
communications, but block coding is optional.
ve
Line Coding
Line Coding is the process of transforming digital data into digital signals. Binary
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data is the most common type of digital data. Internally, it is represented (stored) as a
succession of 1s and 0s.
U
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Figure: Line Coding

m

Discrete signal, which represents digital data, denotes a digital signal. There are
three different types of line coding schemes:
)A
(c

Figure: Types of Line Coding

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Unipolar Encoding Techniques

Notes

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Unipolar encoding techniques encode data with a single voltage level. In this
scenario, high voltage is delivered to represent binary 1 while no voltage is transmitted

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to represent binary 0. As there is no rest condition, it is also known as Unipolar-Non-
return-to-zero. It either represents 1 or 0.

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O
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Figure: Unipolar encoding

Polar Encoding

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Polar Encoding is a type of coding that is used.

Multiple voltage levels are used to represent binary information in the polar
encoding system. There are four types of polar encodings:
r
Non-Return to Zero in the Polar Regions (Polar NRZ)
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To represent binary values, it requires two separate voltage levels. In general,
positive voltage equals 1 and negative voltage equals 0. It’s also NRZ because to the
lack of a rest period.
ni

The NRZ system is divided into two parts: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
U
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m
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Figure: NRZ system

When a different bit is detected, NRZ-L changes voltage level, whereas NRZ-I
(c

changes voltage when a 1 is found.

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Return to Zero (RZ)

Notes

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The problem with NRZ is that if the sender and receiver’s clocks are not synced,
the receiver cannot determine when a bit finished and when the next bit begins.

in
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O
Figure: Return to Zero (RZ)

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Positive voltage is used to indicate 1, negative voltage is used to represent 0 and
zero voltage is used to represent none. Signals change between bits, not during them.

si
Manchester
RZ and NRZ-L are combined in this encoding technique. The duration of a bit is
split into two parts. When a different bit is met, it changes phase and transits in the
midst of the bit. r
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Differential Manchester
RZ and NRZ-I are combined in this encoding technique. It likewise transits in the
centre of the bit, but only when 1 is encountered does it change phase.
ni

Encoding in Bipolar Mode

Positive, negative, and zero voltage levels are used in bipolar encoding. Bit 1 is
U

represented by varying positive and negative voltages, whereas binary 0 is represented

by zero voltage.
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m
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Figure: Bipolar encoding

Block coding is a type of coding that is used.

(c

Redundant bits are utilised to guarantee that the received data frame is accurate.
In even-parity, for example, one parity bit is inserted to make the frame’s count of 1s
even. The initial number of bits is raised in this way. It’s known as Block Coding.

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Slash notation, mB/nB, is used to indicate block coding.

Notes

e
Where n > m, an m-bit block is replaced by an n-bit block. Three phases are
involved in block coding: division, substitution, and combination.

in
It is then line coded for transmission when block coding is completed.

Conversion of Analog to Digital

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Microphones produce analogue speech, while cameras provide analogue video,
both of which are processed as analogue data. Analog to digital conversion is required
to transport this analogue data via digital impulses.

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Digital data is discrete, but analogue data is a continuous stream of data in the wave
form. Pulse Code Modulation is used to transform analogue waves into digital data (PCM).

ty
si
Figure: Sampling

r
One of the most often utilised methods for converting analogue data to digital form
ve
is PCM. There are three steps to it:

Sampling, Quantisation, Encoding.

ni
U

Figure: Quantisation

Every T interval, the analogue signal is sampled. The rate at which an analogue
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signal is sampled is the most essential element in sampling. The sample rate must be
at least two times the signal’s maximum frequency, according to the Nyquist Theorem.

Encoding
m

Sampling transforms a continuous analogue signal into a discrete form. Every

discrete pattern depicts the analogue signal’s amplitude at that particular time.
The quantisation is carried out between the maximum and least amplitude values.
)A

Approximation of the immediate analogue value called quantisation.

(c

Figure: Encoding
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Each estimated value is then transformed into binary format during encoding.
Notes

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Transmission Modes

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How data is sent between two computers is determined by the transmission method.
Binary data in the form of 1s and 0s may be sent in two ways: parallel and serial.

Parallel Transmission

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Figure: Parallel Transmission

The binary bits are grouped into fixed-length groups. With the same number of

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data lines, the transmitter and receiver are linked in parallel. Both computers can tell
the difference between high and low order data lines. On all lines, the sender sends
ve
all the bits at the same time. A whole group of bits (data frame) is transferred in one go
because the data lines are equal to the number of bits in a group or data frame. Parallel
transmission has the advantage of fast speed, but the downside is the cost of wires,
which is proportional to the number of bits delivered in parallel.
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Serial Transmission
Bits are sent one after the other in a queue in serial transmission. Only one
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communication is required for serial transmission.

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Figure: Serial Transmission

Asynchronous or synchronous serial communication is possible.

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Serial Asynchronous Transmission

It’s called such since time isn’t important. Data bits have a distinct pattern that aids
)A

the receiver in identifying the start and end of data bits. Every data byte, for example,
is prefixed with a 0 and one or more 1s are appended at the end. A gap may exist
between two continuous data-frames (bytes).

Serial Synchronous Transmission

(c

As there is no method to detect start and finish data bits in synchronous

transmission, timing is critical. There is no prefix/suffix technique or pattern. Burst mode

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sends data bits without keeping a space between bytes (8-bits). Several bytes can be
Notes

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included in a single burst of data bits. As a result, time becomes extremely essential.
The receiver is responsible for recognising and separating bits into bytes. Synchronous
transmission offers the advantage of fast speed and does not have the overhead of

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additional header and footer bits compared to that of asynchronous transmission.

Check your Understanding

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Fill in the blanks:

1. _______ allows information to travel in both directions at the same time.

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2. Bytes are transferred as _________ in a continuous stream of bits in the Synchronous
method of data transmission.
3. The asynchronous transmission mode is a type of communication in which the

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message contains a ________ bit.
4. Serial data transmission mode is a method in which data bits are transferred one
after the other via the transmission channel in a _____________ order.

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5. ___________ is the simultaneous transmission of parallel data bits.

Summary
●● r
Transmissions can take place across guided or unguided medium, and they can
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be simplex, half duplex, or full duplex.
●● Simplex data/signals are transmitted in one way by a station, i.e., by the sender;
half duplex data/signals can be communicated in one direction at a time; and full
duplex data/signals can be broadcast in both directions.
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●● The time domain and frequency domain concepts are concerned with
electromagnetic signals and components at distinct frequencies in the spectrum.
●● The notion of analogue and digital transmission is concerned with data signalling
U

and transmission, which can be analogue data, i.e., a signal that occupies the
same spectrum as digital data, and digital data that is encoded using a modem to
generate an analogue signal.
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●● The third kind of transmission is digital, which employs bit stream. Magnetic media
are used in transmission and are one of the most prevalent ways to physically
store data on tapes, floppy discs, and hard drives.
●● Twisted pairs are utilised for both analogue and digital transmission. Twisted pair
m

can be cat 3, cat 5, or both. They are both UTP cables. Base band cable is used
for longer distances at fast speeds.
●● Typically, 50 ohm and 75 ohm are utilised. Broadband Coaxial cable is anything
)A

with a frequency range greater than 256kHz.

●● Broadband capacity is divided into numerous channels, each of which can also be
utilised for analogue signals. It may be used to transport CD-quality audio (or bit
streams) and video data.
(c

Activity
1. Draw the directions of transmission flows in different types of Data Transmission.

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2. Let’s say we have a byte of data to send via a serial communication channel:
Notes

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“10101010.” Write the order of transmission.

Question and Answers

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1. What is Analog data transmission?
2. Explain the use of repeaters with respect to data transmission.

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3. What is the difference between data rate and bandwidth?
4. Write a short note on Frequency Domain Concepts.

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5. What is parallel transmission, and how does it work?

Glossary
●● Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a reference model that specifies how

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information from one computer’s software application passes across a physical
media to another computer’s software application.
●● Framing: The data connection layer converts the raw bit stream from the physical

si
into packets known as frames. The header and trailer are added to the frame by
the Data link layer. The hardware destination and source addresses are included
in the frame header.
●● r
Data transmission: It is the process of sending digital or analogue data to one or
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more devices across a communication channel.
●● Simplex: It is a data transmission mode in which data can only travel in one
direction, resulting in unidirectional communication.
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●● Half-duplex Data Transmission: It allows data to travel in both ways but only in one
direction at a time.
●● Full-duplex Data Transmission: Full-duplex data transmission allows information to
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travel in both directions at the same time. It’s a bi-directional system.

Further Readings:
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
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2. Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tannenbaum, PHI, New Delhi.

3. Data and Computer Communication, William Stalling, PHI, New Delhi

Check your Understanding-Answers

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Fill in the blanks:

1. Full-duplex data transmission
)A

2. blocks
3. start and stop
4. sequential
(c

5. Parallel transmission

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Module - III: Application Layer and Transport Layer

Notes

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Structure:

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3.1 Application Layer Protocols
3.1.1 Introduction

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3.1.2 Client-Server Model
3.1.3 File Transfer Protocol(FTP)

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3.1.4 E-mail Protocol (SMTP)
3.1.5 Domain Name System (DNS)
3.1.6 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)/(HTTPS)

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3.1.7 World Wide Web (WWW)
3.1.8 Streaming Audio and Video
3.1.9 Application Protocol Intercation with End-User Application

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3.1.10 Application Layer Services
3.2 Transport Layer Protocols
3..2.1 Introduction-TCP/IP Layers r
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3.2.2 End Point Identification
3.2.3 Well-known Port Numbers
3.2.4 Message Oriented Interfaces
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3.2.5 Connection Less Protocol - UDP

3.2.6 Connection Less Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
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3.2.7 Connection Oriented Protocol-TCP

3.2.8 Connection Less Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
3.2.9 TCP Congestion Control
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3.2.10 Issues in Transport Layer Protocol

3.2.11 Addressing
3.2.12 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
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3.2.13 Flow Control

3.2.14 Transport Layer Service and Protocols
3.2.15 Error Control
)A
(c

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Unit - 3.1 : Application Layer Protocols

Notes

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Objectives

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Have a reasonable understanding of the application layer

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●● Describe the operation of application layer protocols
●● Understand the role and meaning of Domain Name System (DNS)

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●● Describe and understand the working of Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
●● Learn Telnet and File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Introduction

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The Transport Layer is responsible for sending data between two points. As a
result, it handles a variety of tasks, including data retransmission if the prior attempt
failed, flow control, and error control. You should be aware of the differences between

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Transport Layer and DLL error control. Let us learn about them in the coming chapters:

3.1.1 Introduction
r
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The application layer of the internet protocol suite provides communication
protocols and interface methods that are used to process communication across the
network. Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SMTP, SNMP, DNS, and DHCP are among the protocols
found in the application layer. Application layer protocols. The applications layer
protocols are listed below.
ni

1. TELNET: Application Layer - This layer is close to the user interface. The Application
Layer is where the user interacts with the network. Let’s talk about the HTTP Protocol.
U

The end user is given a rule by the application layer about data transfer over the
internet. It is more focused on software.

Command:
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telnet [\\RemoteServer]

\\RemoteServer: Specifies the name of the server to which you want to connect

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is the protocol
m

that allows us to send and receive files. This may be done between any two machines
that use it. FTP, on the other hand, is both a protocol and an application. FTP allows
users to share files with others over the internet using a secure and efficient data
transfer protocol. For FTP, the data port is 20 and the control port is 21.
)A

Command:
ftp machinename

3. TFTP: The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a stripped-down, stock version of
(c

FTP that you should use if you know exactly what you’re looking for and where to get
it. It’s a simpler form of FTP that allows you to transfer data across network devices.

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The TFTP port number is 69.

Notes

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Command
tftp [ options... ] [host [port]] [-c command]

in
4. NFS (Network File System): This stands for a network file system. It allows remote
computers to mount file systems across a network and interact with them as if they

nl
were locally mounted. This allows system administrators to concentrate resources
on the network’s centralised servers. The NFS port number is 2049.

Command

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service nfs start

5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol includes it. SMTP transmits your email on and across

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networks via a procedure known as “store and forward.” It collaborates with the Mail
Transfer Agent (MTA) to deliver your message to the correct computer and email
mailbox. The SMTP port number is 25.

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Command
MAIL FROM:<[email protected]?

6.
r
Line Printer Daemon (LPD): This stands for Line Printer Daemon. It’s made for
ve
shared printers. It’s the section that takes the request and processes it. A server or
agent is referred to as a “daemon.” The LPD port number is 515.

Command
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lpd [ -d ] [ -l ] [ -D DebugOutputFile]

7. X Window: It is a protocol for creating client/server applications with a graphical

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user interface. The concept is to execute an application called a client on a single

machine. It’s mostly utilised in linked mainframe networks. For each server, the port
number for the X window starts at 6000 and grows by one.
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Command
Run xdm in runlevel 5

8. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): SNMP stands for Simple Network
Management Protocol. It collects data by polling network devices at specified or
m

random intervals from a management station, compelling them to provide particular

information. It’s a mechanism for servers to communicate information about their
present status, as well as a way for administrators to change pre-defined settings.
)A

The SNMP port numbers are 161 (TCP) and 162 (UDP) (UDP).

Command
snmpget -mALL -v1 -cpublic snmp_agent_Ip_address sysName.0
(c

9. DNS (Domain Name System): DNS stands for Domain Name System. As a result,
every time you use a domain name, a DNS provider must convert the name into an
IP address. The domain name www.abc.com, for example, may be translated as

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 134 Network Basics

198.105.232. 4.
Notes

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Command

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ipconfig /flushdns

10. DHCP: It stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol and its port number is 53.
(DHCP). It assigns IP addresses to servers. When a computer registers for an IP

nl
address with a DHCP server, the DHCP server can offer a lot of information to the
host. The DHCP port numbers are 67 and 68.

Command

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clear ip dhcp binding {address | * }

3.1.2 Client-Server Model

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The client-server paradigm is a distributed application structure that divides tasks
or labour between servers, who supply a resource or service, and clients, who request
that service. When a client computer submits a data request to the server via the

si
internet, the server acknowledges the request and returns the data packets requested
to the client. Clients do not share any of their assets with one another. Email, the World
Wide Web, and other client-server models are examples.
r
What is the Client-Server Model and how does it work?
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In this post, we’ll look at the Client-Server concept and how the Internet operates
using web browsers. This essay will assist us in establishing a solid web foundation and
dealing with web technologies with ease.
ni
U
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Figure: Client–server Model

So, the Client requests something, and the Server fulfils the request as long as it is
m

stored in the database.

The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file is entered by the user.
)A

The DNS(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server is then requested by the browser.

What is the relationship between the browser and the servers?

To interface with the servers as a client, there are a few steps to do.

1. Lookup the WEB Server’s address on the DNS Server.

(c

2. The WEB Server’s IP address is returned by the DNS Server.

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3. The browser sends an HTTP/HTTPS request to the WEB Server’s IP address

Notes

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(provided by DNS server).
4. The website’s relevant files are sent across by the server.

in
5. The files are subsequently rendered by the browser, and the webpage is shown.
The DOM (Document Object Model) interpreter, CSS interpreter, and JS Engine,
together known as the JI, are used to render the page.

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O
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Figure: Connecting browser and the servers

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Client: When we talk about a client, we’re talking about a person or an organisation
who uses a specific service. A Client is a computer (Host) in the digital world, capable

r
of receiving information or using a specific service from the service providers (Servers).
Both distant processes run at the same time and share data through a shared resource.
ve
Servers: When we talk about servers, we’re talking about a person or a medium
who serves things. A server is a distant computer that delivers information or access to
certain services in the digital world. So, the Client requests something, and the Server
fulfils the request as long as it is stored in the database. A Client is a remote process
ni

that requests a resource from a Server, which is another remote application process.

Any process can behave as a Server or Client in a client-server paradigm. It is

U

the capacity to service requests, not the type of system, its size, or its computational
capability, that distinguishes a machine as a server.
ity
m
)A
(c

Figure: Client server model

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A system can serve as both a server and a client at the same time. That is, one
Notes

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process serves as a server, while another serves as a client. It’s also possible that both
the client and the server processes are running on the same system.

in
Communication
In a client-server paradigm, two processes can communicate in a variety of ways:

nl
1. Sockets
2. Calls for Remote Procedures (RPC)

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Sockets
In this paradigm, the Server process establishes a socket on a well-known (or
known by the client) port and waits for a client request. The second process, which acts

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as a Client, creates a socket as well, but instead of waiting for an incoming request, it
processes ‘requests first.’

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U

Figure: Server process creates a socket

The request is served once it reaches the server. It might be a request for
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information or a request for resources.

Call for a Remote Procedure

Procedure calls are a way through which one process communicates with another.
m

The operation on the remote host is called by one process (client). Server is the name
of the remote host’s process. Stubs are assigned to both processes. The following is
how this conversation takes place:
)A

1. The client stub is referred to by the client process. It passes all of the program’s local
parameters to it.
2. The arguments are then packaged (marshalled) and sent to the other side of the
network using a system call.
(c

3. Kernel delivers data through the network, which is received by the other end.
4. Data is sent from the remote host to the server stub, where it is unmarshalled.

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5. The procedure is then performed when the arguments have been supplied to it.
Notes

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6. In the same way, the result is returned to the client.

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Client-Server Advantages:
Centralized system with all data in one location.

Data recovery is feasible, and cost-effectiveness necessitates lower maintenance

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costs.

The Client and Server capacities can be modified independently.

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Client-Server Model’s Drawbacks:
Viruses, Trojans, and worms can infect clients if they are present on the server or
are uploaded to the server.

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Denial of Service (DoS) attacks are common on servers.

During transmission, data packets might be faked or manipulated.

si
Phishing, or collecting a user’s login credentials or other relevant information, is
prevalent, as are MITM (Man in the Middle) assaults.

3.1.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) r

ve
TCP/File IP’s Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an Internet utility. Abhay Bhushan
created the initial functionality of FTP in 1971. It facilitates the transfer of files from one
computer to another by granting access to distant directories or folders and allowing the
transmission of software, data, and text files between many types of computers. The
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connection’s end-user is referred to as localhost, while the server that supplies data is
referred to as remote host.

File transfer protocol (FTP) is an acronym for File Transfer Protocol.

U

FTP is a TCP/IP-based standard internet protocol for transferring files from one
server to another.
ity

It is mostly used to transport web page files from their originator to a computer that
serves other computers on the internet as a server.

It may also be used to download files from other servers to a PC.

m

FTP’s Objectives
1. It allows users to share files.
2. It’s a tool that encourages people to use distant computers.
)A

3. It transports data in a more secure and efficient manner.

What is the Purpose of FTP?

FTP is a well-known file transfer protocol. There are alternative protocols for
(c

transferring data between computers, such as HTTP, but they lack the clarity and
concentration of FTP. Furthermore, the systems engaged in the connection are
heterogeneous, meaning they have different operating systems, directories, formats,
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character sets, and so on. FTP protects the user from these variations and allows them
Notes

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to transmit data quickly and reliably. FTP allows you to send ASCII, EBCDIC, or picture
files. The ASCII file sharing format is the default, and each character is encoded by
NVT ASCII. The destination in ASCII or EBCDIC must be prepared to accept files in this

in
format.

Transferring data from one machine to another is quite simple and uncomplicated,

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although it can occasionally cause issues. Two systems, for example, may have distinct
file conventions. Text and data may be represented differently in two systems. The
directory structures of two systems may differ. By creating two connections between
hosts, the FTP protocol solves these issues. One link is utilised for data transport, while

O
the other is used for control.

Transferring data from one machine to another is quite simple and uncomplicated,
although it can occasionally cause issues. Two systems, for example, may have distinct

ty
file conventions. Text and data may be represented differently in two systems. The
directory structures of two systems may differ. By creating two connections between
hosts, the FTP protocol solves these issues. One link is utilised for data transport, while

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the other is used for control.

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Figure: Mechanism of FTP

The FTP’s fundamental model is depicted in the diagram above. The user
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interface, control procedure, and data transmission method are all parts of the FTP
client. The server control process and the server data transmission process are the two
processes that make up the server.

Control Connection: The control connection communicates using extremely

m

basic rules. We can transfer a single line of command or answer at a time via control
connection. Between the control processes, a control link is established. During the
interactive FTP session, the control connection stays open.
)A

Data Connection: As data types differ, the Data Connection employs a

sophisticated set of principles.
A file transfer protocol (FTP) client is an application that allows you to transmit data
between two hosts on the internet.
(c

It enables users to connect to a remote server and upload or download files.

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It includes a set of instructions for connecting to a host, transferring files between

Notes

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you and your host, and closing the connection.

A Web browser can also include an FTP application as a built-in component. This

in
GUI-based FTP client makes file transfers simple and eliminates the need to memorise
FTP commands.

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Clients for FTP
FTP is a client-server protocol. The FTP client is an application that runs on a
user’s computer that allows them to communicate with and download data from remote

O
computers. It’s a series of instructions that establishes a connection between two hosts,
assists with file transfer, and then disconnects the connection. Get filename (retrieve a
file from the server), mget filename (retrieve multiple files from the server), and ls are
some of the commands (lists files available in the current directory of the server). There

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are also built-in FTP tools, which make file transfers easier and eliminate the need to
memorise instructions.

FTP’s benefits include:

si
1. One of the most significant advantages of FTP is its speed. FTP is one of the quickest
methods for transferring files from one computer to another.
2. r
It is more efficient since we do not have to do all of the processes to obtain the whole
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file.
3. Security: We must use the username and password to access the FTP server. As a
result, we may conclude that FTP is more secure.
4. Transferring files back and forth: FTP allows us to transmit files back and forth.
ni

Assume you are a firm management who sends information to all employees, who
then return information back to the same server.
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Disadvantages of FTP
1. All FTP communications must be encrypted, according to industry standards.
However, not all FTP services are created equal, and not all offer encryptions. As a
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result, we’ll have to keep an eye out for FTP services that offer encryption.
2. FTP is used for two purposes: sending and receiving huge files over a network.
However, the maximum file size that may be transferred is 2GB. It also doesn’t
enable you to send data to several recipients at the same time.
m

3. Passwords and file contents are transferred in clear text, allowing for unauthorised
listening. As a result, it’s conceivable that attackers will try to guess the FTP password
in a brute force assault.
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4. It is incompatible.

3.1.4 E-mail Protocol (SMTP)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an acronym for Simple Mail Transfer
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Protocol.

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Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a set of communication protocols that

Notes

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allows applications to send electronic mail over the internet.

It’s an application that uses e-mail addresses to deliver messages to other

in
computer users.

It allows users on the same or separate computers to exchange mail, and it also
supports:

nl
1. It can transmit one or many recipients a single message.
2. Text, audio, video, and images can all be used to send messages.

O
3. It can also deliver messages through networks that aren’t connected to the internet.
SMTP is mostly used to establish communication rules between servers.
The servers have a mechanism for identifying themselves and stating the type of

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communication they are attempting. They also have a system in place to deal with
problems like an inaccurate email address. If the recipient address is incorrect, the
receiving server will respond with an error message.

si
SMTP Components

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Figure: Step 1

First, we’ll separate the SMTP client and server into two parts: the user agent (UA)
and the mail transfer agent (MTA) (MTA). The user agent (UA) composes the message,
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generates the envelope, and inserts the message inside it. This mail is transferred
across the internet through a mail transfer agent (MTA).
m
)A
(c

Figure: Step 2
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By adding a relaying system to SMTP, a more complicated system may be created.

Notes

e
More MTAs, operating as either a client or a server to relay the email, can be added
instead of simply one MTA on the sending side and one on the receiving side.

in
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O
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Figure: Step 3

si
The mail gateway may be used to send emails to users without using the TCP/IP
protocol, and this is accomplished by using the relaying system. The mail gateway is a
message transfer agent (MTA) that may be used to receive email.

SMTP’s Operation
r
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Message Composition: A user composes an electronic mail message using a
Mail User Agent to send an e-mail (MUA). A software that sends and receives mail
is known as a Mail User Agent. The message is divided into two parts: the body and
ni

the header. The body of the message is the most important element, whereas the
header contains information like the sender and recipient addresses. The header also
contains descriptive information, such as the message’s subject. The message body is
analogous to a letter, while the header is analogous to an envelope with the recipient’s
U

address.

Mail Submission: After writing an email, the mail client uses SMTP on TCP port 25
to send the finished message to the SMTP server.
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Mail Distribution: E-mail addresses are made up of two parts: the recipient’s
username and the domain name. priya @gmail.com, for example, where “priya” is the
recipient’s username and “gmail.com” is the domain name.
m

If the recipient’s email address’s domain name differs from the sender’s domain
name, MSA will forward the message to the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA). The MTA will
look for the destination domain in order to transport the email. To get the destination
domain, it looks for the MX record in the Domain Name System. The MX record
)A

contains the recipient’s domain’s domain name and IP address. MTA connects to the
exchange server to send the message after the record has been found.

Mail Receipt and Processing: The exchange server transmits the incoming
message to the incoming server (Mail Delivery Agent), which stores the e-mail and
(c

waits for the user to retrieve it.

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Mail Access and Retrieval: MUA may be used to retrieve email saved in MDA (Mail
Notes

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User Agent). Login and password are required to access MUA.

3.1.5 Domain Name System (DNS)

in
An application layer protocol specifies how messages are sent between application
processes on various platforms.

nl
Domain Name System is the abbreviation for Domain Name System.

DNS is a directory service that maps a host’s name to its numerical address on a

O
network.

DNS is necessary for the internet to function.

A domain name is a sequence of symbols indicated by dots that is assigned to

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each node in a tree.

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a service that converts domain names into
IP addresses. This allows network users to search for other hosts using user-friendly

si
names rather than knowing IP addresses.

For instance, if EduSoft’s FTP site had an IP address of 132.147.165.50, most

users would access it by typing ftp.EduSoft.com. As a result, the domain name is more
r
trustworthy than the IP address.
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DNS is a TCP/IP protocol that may be used on a variety of systems. Generic
domains, country domains, and inverse domains are the three divisions of the domain
name space.
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U
ity
m

Figure: DNS
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Country Domain
The structure of a country domain is similar to that of a generic domain, except
instead of three-character organisational abbreviations, it uses two-character country
abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States).
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Domain Reversed
Notes

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When mapping an address to a name, the inverse domain is employed. When the
server receives a request from a client and only the files of authorised clients are stored

in
on the server. To see if the client is on the approved list, it sends a query to the DNS
server, asking for an address to be mapped to the name.

DNS’s Operation

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1. DNS is a network communication mechanism for clients and servers. DNS clients
make queries to DNS servers, and DNS servers respond to the requests.

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2. Forward DNS lookups are queries that contain a name that is turned into an IP
address, whereas reverse DNS lookups are requests that contain an IP address that
is transformed into a name.

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3. DNS uses a distributed database to keep track of the names of all the hosts on the
internet.
4. A piece of software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to

si
acquire the IP address of a hostname when a client such as a web browser submits
a request containing a hostname. If a DNS server does not have the IP address for
a hostname, the request is sent to another DNS server. If the resolver receives an IP

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address, it completes the request through the internet protocol.
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Figure: Working of DNS

3.1.6 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)/(HTTPS)

(c

The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.

It’s a method of gaining access to data on the World Wide Web (www).

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The HTTP protocol may be used to send plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and
Notes

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other types of data.

As of its efficiency, this protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol. It

in
allows us to utilise it in a hypertext environment where there are quick leaps from one
document to another.

HTTP is similar to FTP in that it sends files from one server to another. However,

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HTTP is easier to use than FTP since it just utilises one connection to transport data,
with no control connection.

The data is transmitted through HTTP in a MIME-like format.

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As data is transmitted between the client and the server, HTTP is comparable
to SMTP. The way messages are transferred from the client to the server and from
the server to the client differs between HTTP and SMTP. HTTP communications are

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delivered quickly, whereas SMTP messages are saved and sent.

HTTP has the following features:

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HTTP is a protocol that does not require a connection. The HTTP client sends a
request to the server and waits for a response. When the server gets the request, it
processes it and provides the response to the HTTP client, who then disconnects

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the connection. The client-server connection exists just for the duration of the current
request and response.
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Data may be transferred as long as both the client and the server know how to
handle the data content, making the HTTP protocol media neutral. Both the client and
the server must define the content type in the MIME-type header.
ni

HTTP is a stateless protocol, which means that the client and server only know
each other for the duration of the current request. As of the protocol’s design, neither
the client nor the server keep track of information between web page requests.
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ity
m
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Figure: HTTP

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Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

Notes

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The HTTP transaction between the client and the server is depicted in the diagram
above. A transaction is started by the client submitting a request message to the server.

in
The HTTP transaction between the client and the server is depicted in the diagram
above. A transaction is started by the client submitting a request message to the server.
A response message is sent by the server in response to the request message.

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Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure
“HyperText Transport Protocol Secure” is an acronym for “HyperText Transport

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Protocol Secure.” HTTPS is the same as HTTP, but it encrypts data via a secure socket
layer (SSL). Banking and investing websites, e-commerce websites, and most websites
that need you to log in are all examples of sites that employ HTTPS.

The typical HTTP protocol transmits and receives data in an unencrypted way.

ty
This means that the data being exchanged between the user and the Web server can
be eavesdropped on. While this is exceedingly improbable, it is unsettling to think that
your credit card number or other sensitive information entered on a website may be

si
intercepted. Secure websites, on the other hand, employ the HTTPS protocol to encrypt
data transferred back and forth via SSL encryption. The data being transported through
HTTPS would be unrecognisable if it were intercepted.
r
By looking at the URL in your browser’s address bar, you can detect if a website
ve
is safe. You’ll know you’re on a secure website if the address begins with https://.
Most browsers will also show a lock icon anywhere along the window’s edge to signify
that the page you’re browsing is safe. You may examine the security certificate that
authenticates the website by clicking the lock icon.
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Figure: HTTP vs HTTPS

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Messages
There are two kinds of HTTP messages: request and response. The message
)A

format is the same for both sorts of messages.

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Figures: HTTP Message

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The client sends a request message, which consists of a request line, headers,
Notes

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and, in certain cases, a content.

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The server sends a response message to the client that includes a status line,
headers, and, in rare occasions, a content.

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URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) (URL)
A client who wants to view a document on the internet requires an address, and
HTTP leverages the idea of Uniform Resource Locator to make document access
easier (URL).
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Figure: URL
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The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard method of describing any type
of online data.

Method, host computer, port, and route are all defined in the URL.

The technique refers to the protocol for retrieving a document from a server. Take
m

HTTP, for example.

Host: The host is the computer that stores the information, and it is given an alias
name. Web pages are mostly kept on computers, which are given an alias name that
)A

starts with the letters “www.” This field is not required.

The server’s port number can also be found in the URL; however this is an optional
parameter. If the port number is used, it must be placed between the host and the route
and separated from the host by a colon.
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The pathname of the file where the information is saved is called Path. Slashes
divide the directories from the subdirectories and files in the path itself.

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3.1.7 World Wide Web (WWW)

Notes

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The World Wide Web, sometimes known as a Web, is a collection of websites or
web pages maintained on web servers and accessible through the internet by local

in
computers. Text pages, digital photos, audios, and videos, among other things, can
be found on these websites. Users may access the content of these sites through the
internet utilising devices such as computers, laptops, and cell phones from anywhere in

nl
the globe. The WWW, in conjunction with the internet, allows you to retrieve and display
text and media on your device.

History

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It is a project started in 1989 by Timothy Berner’s Lee to allow researchers at
CERN to collaborate more efficiently. The World Wide Online Consortium (W3C) is a
non-profit organisation dedicated to furthering web development. Tim Berners-Lee,

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dubbed the “Father of the Web,” is in charge of this institution.

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Architecture of the System:
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The web, from the user’s perspective, is a massive, international network of

documents or web pages. Each page may have connections to other pages on the
internet. Browsers such as Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Google, Chrome, and
U

others can be used to get and view the pages.

The WWW, in conjunction with the internet, allows you to retrieve and display text
and media on your device.
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Web pages, which are formatted in HTML and connected by connections known
as “hypertext” or hyperlinks and accessible over HTTP, are the building blocks of the
Web. These are electronic linkages that connect relevant bits of information so that
users may easily get what they need. The advantage of hypertext is that it allows you
m

to choose a word or phrase from a text and then go to other sites that provide further
information on that word or phrase.

A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is an internet address given to a web page

)A

(URL). A website is a collection of online pages that belong to a given URL, such as www.
facebook.com, www.google.com, and so on. As a result, the World Wide Web functions
as a massive electronic book, with pages saved on many servers throughout the world.

Small websites keep all of their WebPages on a single server, but large websites or
(c

organisations store their WebPages on many servers in various countries so that when
people from that location search their site, the information may be rapidly retrieved from
the nearest server.

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As a result, the web serves as a platform for users to retrieve and share data
Notes

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through the internet. A website is a collection of online pages that belong to a given
URL, such as www.facebook.com, www.google.com, and so on. As a result, the World
Wide Web functions as a massive electronic book, with pages saved on many servers

in
throughout the world.

Small websites keep all of their WebPages on a single server, but large websites or

nl
organisations store their WebPages on many servers in various countries so that when
people from that location search their site, the information may be rapidly retrieved from
the nearest server.

O
As a result, the web serves as a platform for users to retrieve and share data
through the internet. When you send an email or speak with someone online, for
example, you are utilising the internet. However, when you access information from a
website such as google.com, you are utilising the World Wide Web, which is a network

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of servers connected by the internet. When you use a browser to request a webpage
from your computer, the server produces that page for you. Your computer is referred
to as a client since it runs a programme (web browser) and requests information from

si
another computer (server).

How the World Wide Web Was Created:

r
Tim Berners-Lee took the lead in the creation of the World Wide Web in March
1989, writing the initial proposal for the World Wide Web. In May 1990, he submitted
ve
a new plan. After a few months, it was formalised as a management plan with Robert
Cailliau in November 1990. The essential concepts and vocabulary connected to the
Web were specified in this proposal. This article included a description of the World
Wide Web, a “hypertext project” in which browsers could see a web of hypertext pages.
ni

The three key technologies were included in his proposal (HTML, URL, and HTTP). Tim
Berners-Lee was able to test his ideas by running the first Web server and browser at
CERN in 1990. He wrote the code for his Web server on a NeXT computer and kept a
U

note on the machine “The machine in question is a server. DO NOT TURN IT OFF!!” So
that it isn’t unintentionally turned off by someone.

Tim built the world’s first website and Web server in 1991. It had the address info.
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cern.ch and was operating on the NeXT computer at CERN. In addition, the first URL
was http://info.cern.ch/hypertext/WWW/TheProject.html. This page included links to
information on the WWW project, as well as Web servers, hypertext descriptions, and
instructions for building a W3C site.
m

The Web Expands: Only a few people had access to the NeXT computer platform.
Later on, work on a ‘line-mode’ browser that could operate on any machine began.
Berners-Lee released his WWW software in 1991, which included a ‘line-mode’
)A

browser, Web server software, and a developer’s library.

It was made available to coworkers using CERN computers in March 1991. After a
few months, he announced the WWW software on internet newsgroups in August 1991,
which sparked worldwide interest in the project. Tim Berners-Lee originally showed the
world the internet’s graphic interface on August 6, 1991. It was made accessible to the
(c

general public on August 23, 1991. Globalization: The first Web server was launched in
the United States in December 1991. There were only two sorts of browsers available

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at the time: the original development version, which was only accessible on NeXT
Notes

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computers, and the ‘line-mode’ browser, which was simple to install and run on any
platform but was less user-friendly and restricted in capability.

in
Berners-Lee urged other developers to contribute to its development over the
internet in order to enhance it further. For the X-Window System, several developers
created browsers. In 1991, Standard University in the United States introduced the first

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web server outside of Europe. In the same year, just ten web servers were known all
over the world. The National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) released
the initial version of their Mosaic browser in early 1993. The X Window System was
used to run it. The NCSA later released versions for the PC and Macintosh platforms.

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The WWW began to expand rapidly over the world after the advent of user-friendly
browsers on these machines.

In the same year, the European Commission authorised its first online initiative,

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which included CERN as a partner. CERN released the source code for WWW on a
royalty-free basis in April 1993, making it open software.

Royalty-free indicates that you don’t have to pay a royalty or licencing charge to

si
utilise copyright content or intellectual property. As a result, CERN made the code and
web protocol available to the public for free. The technology used to create the WWW
became open source, allowing anybody to utilise them for free. People eventually
r
began to build websites for online commerce, information, and other similar uses. There
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were over 500 web servers towards the end of 1993, and the WWW accounted for 1%
of all internet traffic.

The First International World Wide Web Conference, sometimes known as the
“Woodstock of the Web,” was held at CERN in May 1994, with roughly 400 users and
ni

developers in attendance. Telecommunication firms began giving internet connectivity in

the same year, and consumers now had access to the WWW from their homes.

In the same year, another conference was conducted in the United States, with
U

about 1000 persons in attendance. The NCSA and the newly created International
WWW Conference Committee collaborated to put it on (IW3C2). The World Wide Web
had roughly 10,000 servers and 10 million users towards the end of this year (1994).
ity

To meet rising requirements and ensure security, the technology was constantly
enhanced, and e-commerce features were determined to be included shortly.

The fundamental goal was to retain the Web as an open standard for everyone
rather than a proprietary system. As a result, CERN submitted a proposal to the
m

European Union Commission under the ESPRIT initiative “WebCore.” The goal of
this initiative was to build a worldwide consortium with the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT) in the United States. Berners-Lee left CERN in 1994 to join MIT
)A

and form the International World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which required a new
European partner.

The European Commission invited INRIA, the French National Institute for
Research in Computer Science and Controls, to take over the job of CERN. INRIA
became the first European W3C host in April 1995, while Keio University of Japan
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became another Asian host in 1996.

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ERCIM (European Research Consortium in Informatics and Mathematics) took

Notes

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up the position of European W3C Host from INRIA in 2003. W3C announced Beihang
University as the fourth Host in 2013. There were almost 400 member organisations
from all around the world in September 2018.

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The Web has evolved significantly since its birth, and it continues to evolve today.
Search engines have improved their ability to read, comprehend, and process data.

nl
They can quickly locate the information that consumers have requested, as well as
present additional pertinent information that may be of interest to them.

What is the Function of the World Wide Web?

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We now know that the World Wide Web (WWWW) is a collection of websites linked
to the internet that allow users to search for and exchange information. Let’s have a
look at how it works now!

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The internet’s core client-server format, as represented in the accompanying
graphic, governs how the Web functions.

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Figure: internet’s core client-server format

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When users request web pages or information, the servers store and transport it to
their computers on the network. A web server is a computer programme that provides
web pages to people who access them using a browser. A client is the computer of a
user who requests documents from a server. Users can access the papers that have
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been obtained using a browser that has been installed on their machine.

Web servers hold all of the websites. A website, like a person who rents a house,
takes up space on a server and is kept there. When a user requests a website’s
WebPages, the server hosts it, and the website owner is responsible for paying the
m

hosting fee.
)A
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Notes

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O
Figure: Web servers

The WWW starts operating the instant you open your browser and put a URL into
the address bar or search for anything on Google. In order to send information (web

ty
pages) from servers to clients, three basic technologies are used (computers of users).
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and Web
browsers are examples of these technologies (See chapter 3.1.6 for more information

si
on HTTP/HTTPS).

3.1.8 Streaming Audio and Video

r
People had to buy a modem, connect it to their computer and a phone line, then
ve
dial the phone number for their local internet service provider when the internet first
became popular in the mid-to-late 1990s (ISP). The connections were painfully
sluggish.
ni
U
ity

Figure: Audio and video streaming

m

When the web was first created in the 1960s, it was not designed to stream audio
or video, but enterprising developers discovered a way to help customers listen to real-
time audio, and the first live audio streaming event was broadcast on Sept. 5, 1995,
for a game between the Seattle Mariners and the New York Yankees. At first, it was
)A

innovative, and there wasn’t much long-form material.

In just a few years, technology has advanced to the point where streaming video
and audio has become increasingly common. Netflix and Hulu, for example, provided
live movies and television. Content companies like Paramount and Disney launched
(c

their own video streaming networks, while internet behemoths like Apple and Amazon
followed suit. On demand, you may view old classic TV series or the most recent
movies.
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Streaming audio has also progressed. With music services like Deezer, Pandora,
Notes

e
and Spotify, you can listen to live sports from across the world or transform your
computer or smartphone into a bespoke radio station. People listen to true-crime
podcasts or the latest audiobooks on their way to work or the grocery store.

in
In just a few years, technology has advanced to the point where streaming video
and audio has become increasingly common. Netflix and Hulu, for example, provided

nl
live movies and television. Content companies like Paramount and Disney launched
their own video streaming networks, while internet behemoths like Apple and Amazon
followed suit. On demand, you may view old classic TV series or the most recent
movies.

O
Streaming audio has also progressed. With music services like Deezer, Pandora,
and Spotify, you can listen to live sports from across the world or transform your
computer or smartphone into a bespoke radio station. People listen to true-crime

ty
podcasts or the latest audiobooks on their way to work or the grocery store.

Audio and video streaming became popular enough in the previous decade for
cable and satellite TV providers to “cut the cord” and cancel their subscriptions in favour

si
of cheaper streaming choices. According to Nielsen, a media research firm, streaming
video has surpassed over-the-air television in popularity in the United States as of June
2021. Streamers had a 26 percent market share, compared to 25 percent for over-the-
r
air TV. Although this may not seem like much, especially because cable TV still has a
ve
39 percent market share, streaming media is expected to expand in the future, while
cable subscriptions are expected to shrink.

You may have even taken part in a live streaming broadcast. Many individuals
dialled in for remote meetings or online lessons during the COVID-19 epidemic. Live
ni

audio and video streaming may be done concurrently in one broadcast using tools
like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, or Google Meet. It’s similar to when phone companies
promised us videophones in the mid-twentieth century, but better. Locating and Using
U

Streaming Video and audio streaming service providers must figure out how to get their
material to your device in the most user-friendly way possible.

High-resolution photos, audio, and video files are sometimes big at first. Let’s
ity

pretend your smartphone has a 12-megapixel camera, despite the fact that imagines
aren’t streaming yet. The print size of a still shot taken with that camera is 9.7 by 14.5
inches (17.8 by 36.8 centimeters). That’s more than you’ll need for a short Instagram
post, but the higher file size means you may use the image for other purposes, such as
a poster.
m

As it’s typically a better idea to produce a huge file and reduce it down, our phones
create larger sound, video, and image files. It’s more difficult to expand a tiny media file
while maintaining great quality.
)A

Streaming services employ file formats that enhance quality at standard internet
speeds. Codecs, which are instructions for coding and decoding visual and audio
information in a common file format, are used to compress them. Lossless formats, on
the other hand, capture more of the original file’s integrity while still having higher file
(c

sizes. Many formats, on the other hand, are lossy, meaning they eliminate part of the
data in the file while preserving as much of the original as feasible.

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A lossy-format codec can recognise bits of the video that it may duplicate and
Notes

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use later in the show to condense audio and video data. To keep the file size down,
it removes superfluous information. Codecs can also limit the amount of colours in a
video, as well as the video’s resolution and frame rate. Lossy audio codecs may

in
eliminate frequencies from the original recording that are inaudible to most people, such
as 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

nl
While this may reduce streaming bandwidth, it can also cause issues. If visuals
appear washed out or pixilated while watching a show, you may have seen some file
compression side effects.

O
You might not hear a severely compressed audio file if you’re jogging with
earphones in, but with good headphones, you might.

Streaming service providers want to ensure that their service is as quick and

ty
reliable as possible, which necessitates the development of specialised traffic-handling
technologies.

In 2016, Queen Mary University of London academics issued a paper on Netflix’s

si
content delivery network (CDN). The streaming video business has recently become a
global service with 4,669 servers in 243 sites across the world at the time. It has been
working on its own CDN since 2011 in order to prepare the service for worldwide traffic.

r
Netflix Open Connect, as it’s known, relies on internet service providers (ISPs) all
ve
around the world to make it work.
ni
U
ity
m
)A

Figure: Netflix streaming

Netflix incentivizes these ISPs to join the system by providing them with free Open
Connect Appliances (OCAs), which are Netflix’s proprietary streaming devices. The
(c

device is embedded in the networks of its ISP partners. The devices are then used by
Netflix to link users to the network’s nearest service point. It improves service quality
and keeps the network architecture from being overburdened.

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The process of live-streaming a conference call is a little different. At the same time
Notes

e
as the other participants, each participant streams live audio and video to and from
their device. For people who need to attend but can’t access the internet, providers
emphasise connectivity above video quality and provide phone-based choices.

in
Another stumbling block is the security of a company’s computer network. The
Intelligent Transport Layer, which is part of Zoom’s streaming software, chooses the

nl
appropriate communication protocol for connecting many callers over diverse networks.
During conversations, Zoom employs a dispersed network and its own proprietary
codec to encode and transfer data.

O
What happens to the video and audio streams on your end? We frequently use
a proprietary application built by the streamer on our smartphones and tablets to take
care of the business for us. When you watch a Disney+ stream on your phone, you
don’t have to worry about being able to see it.

ty
Streaming, on the other hand, operates a little differently on a web browser.
The quality of the media stream on your system is influenced by your computer and
internet connection. With the advent of HTML 5, the language in which websites are

si
written, streaming services may now embed music and video files in their pages without
requiring the use of browser plugins.

r
ve
ni
U
ity

Figure: Smart TV streaming

Smart TVs and devices that connect into televisions, such as the Roku or Apple
TV, have their own operating systems and specific streaming apps. It’s quite similar
m

to using a smartphone or tablet. Depending on the deals streamers and hardware

manufacturers figure out — or don’t work out — your experience may vary. Due to a
contract issue, Roku pulled YouTube TV from its channel shop in 2021.
)A

Some content providers take use of their company structure to offer bundles to
potential multi-service subscribers. AT&T gives the HBO Max streaming service for free
to anybody who subscribes to its highest-end television, internet, or phone plans at the
time of writing in June 2021.
(c

HBO Max is a division of Warner Media, which is owned by AT&T. Similarly,

consumers of Comcast’s Xfinity package get Peacock Premium for free (Comcast
owns NBCUniversal and its library of content). The material you may access may be

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 Network Basics 155

influenced by the device you own and the internet service you subscribe to, for better or
Notes

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worse.

3.1.9 Application Protocol Interaction with End-User Application

in
The interaction between a web server and a web browser is an example of how
a protocol suite is used in network communications. In order to exchange information,

nl
this contact employs a variety of protocols and standards. The various protocols work
together to guarantee that both parties receive and comprehend the communications.
The following are some examples of these protocols:

O
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a standard protocol that oversees the
interaction between a web server and a web client. The content and formatting of
requests and answers sent between the client and server are defined by HTTP. HTTP is
implemented as part of the application by both the client and the web server software.

ty
To control how messages are delivered between client and server, the HTTP protocol
relies on other protocols.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a transport protocol for managing

si
individual interactions between web servers and web clients. TCP breaks down HTTP
communications into segments, which are then transmitted to the destination client. It’s
also in charge of limiting the amount and speed with which messages are sent between
the server and the client. r
ve
Internetwork Protocol (IP) is the most widely used internetwork protocol (IP). IP
is in charge of encapsulating TCP’s structured segments into packets, assigning the
necessary addresses, and choosing the optimal path to the destination host.
ni

Governing Communications Rules

All communication, whether face-to-face or through a network, is regulated by
protocols, which are preset rules. These methods are tailored to the conversation’s
U

features. The rules we use to communicate over one medium, such as a phone
conversation, are not always the same as the protocols we use to communicate over
another medium, such as mailing a letter, in our day-to-day personal communication.
ity

Consider how many distinct laws or protocols govern all of the many forms of
communication that exist today.

The interplay of several distinct protocols is required for successful communication

between hosts on a network.
m

Viewing a host as a stack is one of the greatest methods to visualise how all of
the protocols interact. A protocol stack depicts how the suite’s constituent protocols
are implemented on the host. The protocols are organised in a tiered structure, with
)A

higher-level services relying on the functionality described by lower-level protocols. The

lowest levels of the stack are responsible for transporting data across the network and
delivering services to the top layers, which are responsible for the message’s content
and user interface.
(c

Face-to-face communication is described using layers.

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Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
Figure: Face-to-face communication is described using the mentioned layers

Consider the case of two persons conversing face-to-face. This action may
be described in three levels, as shown in the diagram. We have two humans at the

si
bottom layer, the Physical layer, each with a voice capable of uttering words loudly.
We have an agreement to talk in a common language at the second tier, the Rules
layer. The uppermost layer, the Substance layer, contains the actual words spoken—the
communication’s content. r
ve
We would not notice “layers” floating in space if we were to witness this exchange.
It’s vital to remember that layering is a model, and as such, it’s a simple approach to
break down a difficult operation into sections and define how they operate.
ni

Protocols for Networking

Some communication norms are formal at the human level, whereas others are
merely known or implicit, based on tradition and practise. A network protocol suite must
U

specify specific needs and interactions in order for devices to communicate properly.

Protocol suites for networking define procedures such as:

ity

1. The message’s format or structure

2. The process through which networking devices communicate route information with
other networks.
3. How are error and system messages transferred between devices, and when are
m

they passed?
4. Data transfer session creation and termination
A protocol suite’s individual protocols may be vendor-specific and private. In
)A

this sense, proprietary indicates that only one firm or provider has authority over the
protocol’s definition and operation. With authorization from the owner, some proprietary
protocols can be utilised by various organisations. Others can only be used on
proprietary vendor-made equipment.
(c

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3.1.10 Application Layer Services

Notes

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What are the differences between server and PC applications (services) and how
do they complement one other? Understanding Application Layer Services will aid you

in
in comprehending the capabilities and functions found at Layer 7 on either a server or
a computer. Applications at the OSI Module are technically referred to as services, and
particular roles of those services are reserved for Servers alone. With the right hardware

nl
arrangement, a server operating system may operate numerous or dedicated rolls. PC
operating systems were not designed to host services in the same way that servers do.

Apps and Services for TCP/IP

O
Generally, the operating system distinguishes between a Network device operating
as a Server Roll and a Network device operating as a Personal Computer. Nonetheless,
a large number of client devices can execute Services for testing purposes.

ty
For example, you may run Apache Server on a Windows 7 machine, but is Win7
suitable for Apache production? Of course, the answer is no. Understanding the roles of
servers and clients in terms of applications and services will help you comprehend why

si
we have two distinct roles - server and client.

r
ve
ni
U

Figure: Server and PC applications (services)

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Apps and Services for TCP/IP

Generally, the operating system distinguishes between a Network device operating
as a Server Roll and a Network device operating as a Personal Computer. Nonetheless,
m

a large number of client devices can execute Services for testing purposes.

For example, you may run Apache Server on a Windows 7 machine, but is Win7
suitable for Apache production? Of course, the answer is no. Understanding the roles of
)A

servers and clients in terms of applications and services will help you comprehend why
we have two distinct roles - server and client.

The Difference
A Request for Information: Client-side software that is used to request data from a
(c

server. As a result, the Server’s Services provide the appropriate data in response to
the client’s request.

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Note: Understanding the differences between Server and Client Sending and
Notes

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Receiving methods will make troubleshooting IP Networks a breeze.

Applications for Clients

in
As you may be aware, there are several applications that are utilised on clients;
however, I will focus on Web Browsers and the components that are used to retrieve
Web page data. To access the internet, the HTTP client’s programme (Internet Browser)

nl
such as Firefox, Safari, and IE should have three basic components:

1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) — Layer 7 client-side service.

O
2. World Wide Web (www) — This indicates that you are looking at Internet articles.
3. URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) - Indicates a full Web address or URL.
When they’re all put together, they make a web address or link that looks like

ty
https://www.ccnahub.com.

The World Wide Web’s data communication is built on the http:// protocol.
Following the establishment of a TCP connection between the Browser and the Web

si
Server, the http file transfer between the two machines begins. The HTTP protocol is
used to transport files in article format between two network devices.

r
To do this, the browser sends a GET request to a web server to obtain the index.
html file, and the web server responds with a Get response command with a code of
ve
200 signalling an OK message. One of the most well-known HTTP codes is 404, which
indicates that a file was not found or that the page could not be displayed.

W3 or “The Web” is the abbreviation for www. A system of interlined hypertext

ni

Articles accessed over the internet that is referred to by an umbrella name that
incorporates all web servers across the world. You are exploring Articles or information
as “Web Pages,” such as this Article, according to the web.
U

In a nutshell, the web is a collection of articles; both client browsers and HTTP
servers such as Apache or Nginx allow users to request and view articles as web pages
via the http protocol.
ity

Domain Name - Domain Names come in a variety of degrees. The top level
domains are.com,.net,.org, and so on. The name ccnahub.com is the second level. The
third level, which is identified by sub-domains and can include mail.ccnahub.com, ftp.
ccnahub.com, and so on, is determined by the business requirements.
m

URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator and is also known as Web Address. A
URL can be typed into the browser’s Web Address box. URLs may be used with any
protocol, not just http. FTP is also a file transfer protocol. Its web address is as follows:
ftp:/ftp.ccnahub.com/uploads/.
)A

As previously said, a URL can have multiple components, such as http:// or ftp:/;
if it’s for web (articles), it may or may not contain www, such as http://archive.ccnahub.
com; if it’s for FTP requests, it may or may not include www, such as ftp:/us.ccnahub.
com/uploads/; and so on.
(c

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 Network Basics 159

HTTP as a Service
Notes

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Web Browsers, such as Firefox, Safari, and Internet Explorer, are used on the
client side to peruse content from the internet that may be found on any Hosting Server.

in
To access material from Web Servers, most clients, such as PCs and smart
devices, employ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http) and the World Wide Web (www)
addressing structure.

nl
Remember that when a client’s browser requests articles from the internet, the
client’s Layer 4 selects a random dynamic TCP port as the source port (as shown in
Understanding Multiplexing TCP and UDP Sockets) and port 80 as the destination port

O
to create a TCP socket for the HTTP service.

IP packets containing data (articles) begin to flow after the socket is established.

ty
Web Hosting Services
For a Server Roll, there are far too many services available; nevertheless, I will
concentrate on those utilised by a Hosting Server. At the end of the day, the principle

si
behind HTTP, FTP, MAIL, and any other Network TCP/IP service is the same: Server
side and Client side.

Apache or Nginx offer HTTP as a service called Web Server. It can be referred to
r
as a Web Server or a Web Service. The term “hosting server” refers to a system that
ve
hosts many services or servers, such as web or mail servers. IP packets containing
data (articles) begin to flow after the socket is created.

The majority of these custom web servers use custom ports such as 8080, 10000,
and 8181, depending on the design. Configuring a network printer through its Web
ni

interface, for example.

DNS
U

As DNS Layer 3 only knows IP addresses and individuals can’t recall them, there
must be a means to convert human names to IP addresses. DNS and Name Servers
are used to convert domain names like ccnahub.com to their public IP addresses; DNS
ity

uses TCP or UDP port 53 to serve DNS queries from DNS clients.

When a user requests ccnahub.com via a web browser, the DNS client asks the
DNS server to translate ccnahub.com to its Public IP address, allowing the user to
access the ccnahub.com home page.
m

Services for POP3 and IMAP

It is frequently used by hosting servers to distribute mail to clients through Push
)A

or Sync mail technologies. POP3 TCP port 110 is used by Push Technology for Post
Office Protocol Version 3 (POP3). Sync Technology uses TCP port 143 for Internet Mail
Access Protocol (IMAP).

On the client side, Outlook or other client applications can be set up to connect with
a POP3 or IMAP server. Push or sync technology is used to distribute mail to clients
(c

using POP3 and IMAP services.

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The difference between the two systems is that POP3 sends everything to the
Notes

e
client mailbox (Outlook) and empties the mail server, whereas IMAP syncs the server
and client inboxes, keeping emails up to date on all devices. POP3 and IMAP each
have their own set of benefits and drawbacks.

in
POP3 uses TCP port 995 for safe and encrypted communication, while IMAP uses
TCP port 993 as a secure socket for secure and encrypted communication.

nl
SMTP/SMTPS Service
Client-initiated mail is sent via the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and

O
(SMTPS). For upfront communication, SMTP utilises TCP port 25, while for secure
communication, it uses TCP port 465 (SSL) or TCP port 587 (TLS).

Secure Shell and Telnet Services

ty
To remotely administer network devices, Telnet and SSH are utilised. TCP port 23
is used by the Telnet server, while TCP port 22 is used by SSH (the secure version
of Telnet). Secure Shell may be used for a variety of services, including safeguarding

si
FTP, SCP, and VPN tunnels. SSH is most commonly used to manage Cisco routers,
switches, and Linux computers.

r
Services for FTP, TFTP, and SCP
ve
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) makes use of two TCP ports: 20 for data and 21
for control. In order to serve its customers, the FTP server requires both ports to be
open on the firewall or router. It’s important to remember that FTP isn’t safe; instead,
FTP can be offered using an SSL certificate as FTPS via 443 port, or SFTP, which uses
SSH TCP port 22 for secure connections. On Linux servers, OpenSSH is typically used
ni

to set up SFTP.

The TFTP (Trivial File Transmit Protocols) service uses UDP port 69 to transfer
U

firmware and operating system images such as Cisco IOS from a PC to a switch or
router. TFTP server may be installed on Windows as well; there are several free TFTP
server versions available online. Tftp clients that use the copy command come pre-
installed on routers and switches.
ity

SSH TCP port 22 is also used by the Secure Copy Protocol (SCP) service, and the
client interface is a command line interface for UNIX and Linux workstations. WinSCP
is a Windows client programme that can connect to SCP, SFTP, FTP, or FTPS services.

SNMP Service (Service for Network Management Protocol)

m

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an important agent

component for monitoring and collecting data from network devices. The SNMPv3
)A

agent has encryption and is commonly used to monitor routers, switches, servers, and
other network devices.

Network Management System (NMS) must be installed on one of your Windows or

Linux servers in order for SNMP to be helpful. To receive notifications/traps from SNMP
agents, the manager (NMS) service utilises UDP port 162.
(c

SNMP agents connect with the NMS service through UDP port 161 at the
Application Layer of the OSI model (installed or configured on Network Devices such
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 Network Basics 161

as Routers or Switches). Spiceworks.com is a well-known free version for monitoring

Notes

e
network devices all over the world. Install it on a server machine, configure all of your
network devices with SNMP agents, and then let the Spiceworks engine scan your
network.

in
NMS might be a large system like HP OpenView, and Cisco, of course, has its own
range of router and switch monitoring solutions, one of which is NetFlow. Cisco NetFlow

nl
is a flow technology created by Cisco that allows a network’s capacity to be monitored.
Cisco Prime Network is another advanced Cisco solution that uses SNMP to monitor all
of your network devices.

O
SNMP and NMS work together to collect and display relevant information about
network devices; it may also warn administrators to devices with low performance or
that have failed. Spiceworks.com and OpenNMS are free versions of NMS. Finally,
Cisco devices may be setup with SNMP agent using only a few commands.

ty
Both TCP and UDP ports are used.
TCP and UDP ports may be used by some programmes. As of UDP’s minimal

si
overhead, DNS can serve a large number of client requests fast. However, in some
cases, providing the desired data may need the use of TCP. Both TCP and UDP
protocols utilise the well-known port number 53 in this scenario. As a result, TCP and
UDP can use DNS Port 53 as needed. r
ve
Check your Understanding
Fill in the blanks:

1. The _____________is an application layer protocol that is used between workstations

ni

and routers for transporting SNA/NetBIOS traffic over TCP sessions.

2. The Application Layer Firewalls inspect traffic through the ________ layer(s) of the
TCP/IPmodel and up to and including the ________ layer.
U

3. ________ type of Endpoint Identity Agent includes packet tagging and computer
authentication.
4. In the R80 Smart Console, on ____________ tab are Permissions and Administrators
ity

defined.
5. ____________information is included in the “Full Log” tracking option, but is not
included in the “Log” tracking option.
m

Summary
●● The Transport Layer is responsible for sending data between two points. As
a result, it handles a variety of tasks, including data retransmission if the prior
)A

attempt failed, flow control, and error control.

●● The application layer of the internet protocol suite provides communication
protocols and interface methods that are used to process communication across
the network. Telnet, FTP, TFTP, SMTP, SNMP, DNS, and DHCP are among the
(c

protocols found in the application layer.

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 162 Network Basics

●● The client-server paradigm is a distributed application structure that divides tasks

Notes

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or labour between servers, who supply a resource or service, and clients, who
request that service.

in
●● Sockets-In this paradigm, the Server process establishes a socket on a well-
known (or known by the client) port and waits for a client request. The second
process, which acts as a Client, creates a socket as well, but instead of waiting for

nl
an incoming request, it processes ‘requests first.’
●● TCP/File IP’s Transfer Protocol (FTP) is an Internet utility. Abhay Bhushan created
the initial functionality of FTP in 1971. It facilitates the transfer of files from one

O
computer to another by granting access to distant directories or folders and
allowing the transmission of software, data, and text files between many types of
computers.
●● FTP is a well-known file transfer protocol. There are alternative protocols for

ty
transferring data between computers, such as HTTP, but they lack the clarity and
concentration of FTP.
●● Transferring data from one machine to another is quite simple and uncomplicated,

si
although it can occasionally cause issues. Two systems, for example, may have
distinct file conventions.

Activity r
ve
1. Draw different types of Application layer protocols.
2. Make a schematic representation of FTP

Question and Answers

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1. What is the Purpose of FTP?

2. What are the different application layer protocols?
U

3. What is the purpose of a client server protocol?

4. What is DNS. Explain briefly.
5. Describe Email protocol.
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Glossary
●● TELNET: Application Layer - This layer is close to the user interface. The
Application Layer is where the user interacts with the network. Let’s talk about the
m

HTTP Protocol. The end user is given a rule by the application layer about data
transfer over the internet. It is more focused on software.
●● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is the protocol
)A

that allows us to send and receive files. This may be done between any two
machines that use it. FTP, on the other hand, is both a protocol and an application.
FTP allows users to share files with others over the internet using a secure and
efficient data transfer protocol. For FTP, the data port is 20 and the control port is
21.
(c

●● TFTP: The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a stripped-down, stock version
of FTP that you should use if you know exactly what you’re looking for and where

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 Network Basics 163

to get it. It’s a simpler form of FTP that allows you to transfer data across network
Notes

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devices. The TFTP port number is 69.
●● NFS (Network File System): This stands for a network file system. It allows remote

in
computers to mount file systems across a network and interact with them as if they
were locally mounted. This allows system administrators to concentrate resources
on the network’s centralised servers. The NFS port number is 2049.

nl
●● SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol includes it. SMTP transmits your email on and
across networks via a procedure known as “store and forward.” It collaborates with

O
the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to deliver your message to the correct computer
and email mailbox. The SMTP port number is 25.
●● Line Printer Daemon (LPD): This stands for Line Printer Daemon. It’s made for
shared printers. It’s the section that takes the request and processes it. A server or

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agent is referred to as a “daemon.” The LPD port number is 515.
●● X Window: It is a protocol for creating client/server applications with a graphical
user interface. The concept is to execute an application called a client on a single

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machine. It’s mostly utilised in linked mainframe networks. For each server, the
port number for the X window starts at 6000 and grows by one.
●●
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SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): SNMP stands for Simple Network
Management Protocol. It collects data by polling network devices at specified
ve
or random intervals from a management station, compelling them to provide
particular information. It’s a mechanism for servers to communicate information
about their present status, as well as a way for administrators to change pre-
defined settings. The SNMP port numbers are 161 (TCP) and 162 (UDP) (UDP).
ni

Further Readings:
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
U

2. Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tannenbaum, PHI, New Delhi.

3. Data and Computer Communication, William Stalling, PHI, New Delhi
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Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
1. DCAP
m

2. lower; application
3. Full
4. Manage and settings
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5. data type information

(c

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Unit - 3.2 : Transport Layer Protocols

Notes

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Objectives

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Know the Functions and Services of transport layer

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●● Understand the Working of transport layer
●● Understand the TCP Window management

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●● Know the different transport layer design issues

Introduction
In the transport layer of the Internet, there are two basic protocols: a

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connectionless protocol and a connection-oriented protocol. The procedures are
complementary to one another. UDP is a connectionless protocol. It essentially does
nothing except transfer packets between apps, allowing programmes to add their own

si
protocols as needed. TCP is the connection-oriented protocol.

3.2.1 Introduction-TCP/IP Layers

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The Internet Protocol Suite includes the TCP/IP model. This paradigm links hosts
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on the Internet and serves as a communication mechanism for computer networks. Its
structure consists of four levels and is a condensed version of the OSI Model.

The TCP/IP Model’s Origins and Evolution

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The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) conducted research

and development on this procedure in the 1960s. A few key points that contributed to
the advancement of the TCP/IP paradigm are listed below:
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1. In 1975, Stanford and University College London conducted a two-network TCP/IP

communications test.
2. The US Department of Defense established TCP/IP as the standard for all military
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computer networking, which aided in the promotion of this approach. This happened
in March of 1982.
3. ARPANET accepted this structured protocol as a standard protocol in 1983.
m

4. Other computer and information technology firms, such as IBM, DEC, and others,
also adopted the TCP/IP architecture as their standard communication protocol.
5. The TCP/IP code was accepted for public domain by the University of California in 1989.
)A

6. This Internet protocol suite, often known as the TCP/IP paradigm, became widely
acknowledged as a complete foundation for computer networking and Internet
communication throughout time.
7. The Open Systems Interconnection Paradigm and the TCP/IP model are thought
(c

to be comparable. The two, however, have fundamentally distinct frameworks and

architecture, and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol was introduced
before the OSI Model. The TCP/IP Model’s Layers

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 Network Basics 165

Unlike the OSI model, which is made up of seven levels, the TCP/IP model is made
Notes

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up of four layers. These are the four layers:

Network Access Layer

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1. The TCP/IP model architecture’s lowest layer is this.
2. It is a hybrid of the OSI model’s Data Link and Physical Layers.

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3. This layer is where data is physically sent.
4. This layer encapsulates the IP datagram into the frames after they have been sent
by a network.

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5. This is also where IP addresses are translated into physical addresses.
6. This layer’s primary role is to convey data between two devices connected by a
network.

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Internet Layer
In terms of structure, it is the second layer of the TCP/IP paradigm, and it is similar

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to the Network Layer of the OSI Model.

The Internet layer’s principal job is to send data packets to their destination networks.

This level is where data is logically sent. r

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In this layer, three distinct protocols are employed. These are some of them:

IP: This is one of the most significant protocols since it detects a device’s IP
address, which is then used for internetwork connections. The path by which the
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data will be transferred is determined by this protocol. To understand the differences

between IPv4 and IPv6, look up the terms IPv4 and IPv6.

Host-To-Host Layer
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This layer is similar to the OSI Model’s transport layer.

This layer’s primary job is to ensure that data is delivered without errors.
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In this layer, there are two primary protocols:

TCP: The Transmission Control Protocol, which is also an important component, is

a dependable communication protocol. It is in charge of data flow, i.e. data sequence
and segmentation.
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UDP: It’s a connectionless protocol, which saves money but makes it less
dependable.
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TELNET: Telecommunication Network is used to gain access to Telnet network files

and administer them through the internet.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol): As the name implies, FTP provides for convenient file
transfer.
(c

Network File System (NFS), Secure Shell (SSH), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP), and others are examples of Application
layer protocols.

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 166 Network Basics

3.2.2 End Point Identification

Notes

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A message can be delivered to an endpoint, which could be a mobile device, an
email address, or a phone number.

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Create, obtain information about, update, or remove a specific endpoint from an
application using the Endpoint resource. This includes changing an endpoint’s settings
and properties. Use the Endpoints resource to conduct these operations for numerous

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endpoints in a single operation.

An endpoint is the ‘connecting point’ of a networked service, tool, or application.

Any software programme that is operating and “listening” for connections utilises an

O
endpoint as the “front door” in the software world. When you wish to exchange data with
an application/service/tool, you connect to its endpoint.

WCF services were first referred to as Endpoints. Despite the fact that this

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term is now identical with API resources, REST suggests that these URIs (URI[s]
that comprehend HTTP verbs and follow the REST architecture) be referred to as
“Resources.”

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In a word, a Resource or Endpoint is an access point to a remotely hosted
programme that allows users to connect with it via the HTTP protocol.

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What is an Endpoint Identifier (EIDs)?
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Endpoint identifiers (EIDs) are IPv4 or IPv6 addresses that are used to identify a
network endpoint. These EIDs are used to identify endpoints, such as a gateway or
H.323 terminal, where a locator gives information on the endpoint’s topological location.
If the endpoint moves, the locator providing information will not change its position. This
ni

is because endpoint IDs are used to identify endpoints. Nimrod’s internetworking and
routing design uses endpoint IDs particularly.

3.2.3 Well-known Port Numbers

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TCP/UDP Ports Information

These TCP/UDP port numbers range from 0 to 1023 and are considered well-
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known ports. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority assigns these ports to certain
server services (IANA). Web servers, for example, utilise port 80.

Ports 1024 to 49151 can be registered with IAMA by an organisation, such as

application developers, to be utilised for a specific service. These should be considered
m

as though they were partially reserved.

“Client applications, such as a web browser, utilise port numbers between 49152
and 65535. When you visit a website, your browser will allocate a port number from this
)A

range to that session. You may utilise any of these p as an application developer.
(c

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 Network Basics 167

Well-Known TCP/UDP Ports 0 to 1023

Notes

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Port # Protocol Description Status
0 TCP, UDP Reserved; do not use (but is a permissible source Official

in
port value if the sending process does not expect
messages in response)
1 TCP, UDP TCPMUX Official

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5 TCP, UDP RJE (Remote Job Entry) Official
7 TCP, UDP ECHO protocol Official
9 TCP, UDP DISCARD protocol Official

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11 TCP, UDP SYSTAT protocol Official
13 TCP, UDP DAYTIME protocol Official
17 TCP, UDP QOTD (Quote of the Day) protocol Official

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18 TCP, UDP Message Send Protocol Official
19 TCP, UDP CHARGEN (Character Generator) protocol Official
20 TCP FTP Protocol (data) - port for transferring FTP data Official

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21 TCP FTP Protocol (control) - port for FTP commands and Official
flow control
22 TCP, UDP SSH (Secure Shell) - used for secure logins, file Official

23
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transfers (scp, sftp) and port forwarding
TCP, UDP Telnet protocol - unencrypted text communication, Official
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remote login service
25 TCP, UDP SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) - used for Official
email routing between email servers
26 TCP, UDP RSFTP - A simple FTP-like protocol Unofficial
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35 TCP, UDP QMS Magicolor 2 printer Unofficial

37 TCP, UDP TIME protocol Official
38 TCP, UDP Route Access Protocol Official
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39 TCP, UDP Resource Location Protocol Official

41 TCP, UDP Graphics Official
42 TCP, UDP Host Name Server/WINS Replications Official
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43 TCP WHOIS protocol Official

49 TCP, UDP TACACS Login Host protocol Official
53 TCP, UDP DNS (Domain Name System) Official
57 TCP MTP, Mail Transfer Protocol Official
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67 UDP BOOTP (BootStrap Protocol) server; also used by Official

DHCP
68 UDP BOOTP (BootStrap Protocol) client; also used by Official
)A

DHCP
69 UDP TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) Official
70 TCP Gopher protocol Official
79 TCP Finger protocol Official
80 TCP HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) - used for Official
(c

transferring web pages

81 TCP Torpark - Onion routing ORport Unofficial

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82 UDP Torpark - Control Port Unofficial

Notes

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88 TCP Kerberos - authenticating agent Official
101 TCP HOSTNAME

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102 TCP ISO-TSAP protocol/Microsoft Exchange
107 TCP Remote Telnet Service
109 TCP POP, Post Office Protocol, version 2

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110 TCP POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) - used for Official
retrieving emails
111 TCP, UDP SUNRPC protocol

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113 TCP Ident - old server identification system, still used by Official
IRC servers to identify its users
115 TCP SFTP, Simple File Transfer Protocol
117 TCP UUCP-PATH

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118 TCP, UDP SQL Services Official
119 TCP NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) - used for Official
retrieving newsgroups messages

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123 UDP NTP (Network Time Protocol) - used for time Official
synchronization
135 TCP, UDP EPMAP / Microsoft RPC Locator Service Official
137 r
TCP, UDP NetBIOS NetBIOS Name Service Official
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138 TCP, UDP NetBIOS NetBIOS Datagram Service Official
139 TCP, UDP NetBIOS NetBIOS Session Service Official
143 TCP, UDP IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol 4) - used Official
for retrieving emails
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152 TCP, UDP BFTP, Background File Transfer Program

153 TCP, UDP SGMP, Simple Gateway Monitoring Protocol
156 TCP, UDP SQL Service Official
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157 TCP, UDP KNET VM Command Message Protocol

158 TCP, UDP DMSP, Distributed Mail Service Protocol
159 TCP, UDP NSS-Routing
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160 TCP, UDP SGMP-TRAPS

161 TCP, UDP SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) Official
162 TCP, UDP SNMPTRAP Official
170 TCP Print-srv
179 TCP BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) - an exterior gateway Official
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routing protocol that enables groups of routers to share

routing information to ensure efficient and loop-free
routes can be established. BGP is commonly used
)A

within and between ISPs.

190 TCP, UDP Gateway Access Control Protocol (GACP)
191 TCP, UDP Prospero Directory Service
192 TCP, UDP OSU Network Monitoring System, Apple AirPort Base
(c

Station PPP status or discovery, AirPort Admin Utility

or Express Assistant
192 TCP. UDP SRMP (Spider Remote Monitoring Protocol)

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194 TCP IRC (Internet Relay Chat) Official

Notes

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201 TCP, UDP AppleTalk Routing Maintenance
209 TCP, UDP The Quick Mail Transfer Protocol

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213 TCP, UDP IPX Official
218 TCP, UDP MPP, Message Posting Protocol
220 TCP, UDP IMAP, Interactive Mail AccessProtocol, version 3

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259 TCP, UDP ESRO, Efficient Short Remote Operations
264 TCP, UDP BGMP, Border Gateway Multicast Protocol
311 TCP Apple Server-Admin-Tool, Workgroup-Manager-Tool

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318 TCP, UDP TSP, Time Stamp Protocol
323 TCP, UDP IMMP, Internet Message Mapping Protocol
383 TCP, UDP HP OpenView HTTPs Operations Agent
366 TCP, UDP SMTP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. On-Demand

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Mail Relay (ODMR)
369 TCP, UDP Rpc2portmap Official
371 TCP, UDP ClearCase albd Official

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384 TCP, UDP A Remote Network Server System
387 TCP, UDP AURP, AppleTalk Update-Based Routing Protocol
389 TCP, UDP LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) Official
401 TCP, UDP UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
r Official
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411 TCP Direct Connect Hub port Unofficial
427 TCP, UDP SLP (Service Location Protocol) Official
443 TCP HTTPS - HTTP Protocol over TLS/SSL (used for Official
transferring web pages securely using encryption)
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444 TCP, UDP SNPP, Simple Network Paging Protocol

445 TCP Microsoft-DS (Active Directory, Windows shares, Official
Sasser worm, Agobot, Zobotworm)
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445 UDP Microsoft-DS SMB file sharing Official

464 TCP, UDP Kerberos Change/Set password Official
465 TCP SMTP over SSL - CONFLICT with registered Cisco Conflict
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protocol
500 TCP, UDP ISAKMP, IKE-Internet Key Exchange Official
512 TCP exec, Remote Process Execution
512 UDP comsat, together with biff: notifies users of new c.q.
yet unread e-mail
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513 TCP Login

513 UDP Who
514 TCP rsh protocol - used to execute non-interactive
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commandline commands on a remote system and

see the screen return
514 UDP syslog protocol - used for system logging Official
515 TCP Line Printer Daemon protocol - used in LPD printer
(c

servers
517 TCP Talk

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518 UDP NTalk

Notes

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520 TCP efs
520 UDP Routing - RIP Official

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513 UDP Router
524 TCP, UDP NCP (NetWare Core Protocol) is used for a variety Official
things such as access to primary NetWare server

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resources, Time Synchronization, etc.
525 UDP Timed, Timeserver
530 TCP, UDP RPC Official

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531 TCP, UDP AOL Instant Messenger, IRC
532 TCP netnews
533 UDP netwall, For Emergency Broadcasts
540 TCP UUCP (Unix-to-Unix Copy Protocol)

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542 TCP, UDP commerce (Commerce Applications)
543 TCP klogin, Kerberos login
544 TCP kshell, Kerberos Remote Shell

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546 TCP, UDP DHCPv6 client
547 TCP, UDP DHCPv6 server
548 TCP AFP (Apple Filing Protocol)
550 UDP r
new-rwho, new-who
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554 TCP, UDP RTSP (Real Time Streaming Protocol) Official
556 TCP Remotefs, rfs, rfs_server
560 UDP rmonitor, Remote Monitor
561 UDP monitor
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561 TCP, UDP chcmd

563 TCP, UDP NNTP protocol over TLS/SSL (NNTPS) Official
587 TCP Email message submission (SMTP) (RFC 2476) Official
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591 TCP FileMaker 6.0 Web Sharing (HTTP Alternate, see Official
port 80)
593 TCP, UDP HTTP RPC Ep Map/Microsoft DCOM Official
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604 TCP TUNNEL

631 TCP, UDP IPP, Internet Printing Protocol
636 TCP, UDP LDAP over SSL (encrypted transmission) Official
639 TCP, UDP MSDP, Multicast Source Discovery Protocol
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646 TCP LDP, Label Distribution Protocol

647 TCP DHCP Failover Protocol
648 TCP RRP, Registry Registrar Protocol
)A

652 TCP DTCP, Dynamic Tunnel Configuration Protocol

654 TCP AODV, Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
665 TCP sun-dr, Remote Dynamic Reconfiguration Unofficial
666 UDP Doom, First online FPS
674 TCP ACAP, Application Configuration Access Protocol
(c

691 TCP Microsoft Exchange Routing Official

692 TCP Hyperwave-ISP

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695 TCP IEEE-MMS-SSL

Notes

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698 TCP OLSR, Optimized Link State Routing
699 TCP Access Network

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700 TCP EPP, Extensible Provisioning Protocol
701 TCP LMP, Link Management Protocol.
702 TCP IRIS over BEEP

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706 TCP SILC, Secure Internet Live Conferencing
711 TCP TDP, Tag Distribution Protocol
712 TCP TBRPF, Topology Broadcast based on Reverse-Path

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Forwarding
720 TCP SMQP, Simple Message Queue Protocol
749 TCP, UDP kerberos-adm, Kerberos administration
750 UDP Kerberos version IV

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782 TCP Conserver serial-console management server
829 TCP CMP (Certificate Management Protocol)
860 TCP iSCSI

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873 TCP rsync - File synchronisation protocol Official
901 TCP Samba Web Administration Tool (SWAT) Unofficial
902 VMware Server Unofficial
911 TCP
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Network Console on Acid (NCA) - local tty redirection
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over OpenSSH
981 TCP SofaWare Technologies Remote HTTPS management Unofficial
for firewall devices running embedded Checkpoint
Firewall-1 software
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989 TCP, UDP FTP Protocol (data) over TLS/SSL Official

990 TCP, UDP FTP Protocol (control) over TLS/SSL Official
991 TCP, UDP NAS (Netnews Admin System)
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992 TCP, UDP Telnet protocol over TLS/SSL Official

993 TCP IMAP4 over SSL (encrypted transmission) Official
995 TCP POP3 over SSL (encrypted transmission) Official
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• Well-known ports range from 0 to 1023.”

• Registered Ports (typically used by software developers to identify a specific port for their
programme) are 1024 to 49151; Public Ports are 49152 to 65535.

3.1.4 Message Oriented Interfaces

m

There is a lot of material on Service Oriented Architecture right now, but the finer
intricacies of Service Design are rarely addressed. I’d want to share a few suggestions
for getting started with service interface design in a service-oriented architecture.
)A

The loose coupling of services is given top priority in a service-oriented design.

Services should have as little knowledge of each other’s implementation specifics as
feasible.

However, developers with an Object-Oriented experience commonly find

(c

themselves creating and implementing service interfaces that are nothing more than the
service’s defined public APIs.

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 172 Network Basics

1. Message-oriented service interfaces should be used.

Notes

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This may be thought of as an evolution of the Transfer / Value Object interface
design pattern. For its usefulness in the SOA world, we’ll take it a step further. Let’s

in
begin with an example.

Consider a company with the following attributes: id, name, and description.
Consider the Entity service, which performs standard CRUD (Create, Read, Update,

nl
and Delete) activities.

O
ty
r si
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ni
U
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In a service-oriented design, the suggested “message-oriented” interfaces can

be formalised as a new public interface called EntityService. Such an interface should
m

improve service decoupling while simultaneously offering a standardised but extendable

access to the outside world.

An EntityRequest will be abstracted as a class comparable to a Value Object or a

)A

Transfer Object.

The EntityData object will be wrapped in an object of the EntityRequest type.

The EntityRequest object contains a data component called operationCode in

addition to the EntityData object.
(c

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Notes

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in
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O
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r si
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Advantages
The notion of a service request is codified as a java bean class and exposed to the
outside world in the example above.
U

Fine-grained interfaces are encapsulated in the new interface architecture, which

decreases entanglement between services and their customers.

The new service interface design standardises and unifies the interface.
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The service interface can be extended and modified without causing service client
code to fail owing to changes in compile time dependencies.

The service interface is designed for ESB-like queue-based interactions.

m

Disadvantages
Inherent validations on service data are missing: Along with getter and setter
)A

methods in the ServiceRequest class, operation-specific validations on the contents of

data in the value object can be implemented.

When utilising the service interface, sacrifice compiler-assisted strong type

checking: This is a concern, but integration clients should utilise the coarse-grained
service interface utilising the ServiceRequest object as a general rule, since a greater
(c

decoupling may be preferable to compile-time type-checking in their case.

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2. Queues should be used for service interactions.

Notes

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Invoking each other’s programmatic interfaces is the traditional way for services to
communicate with one another. This is seen in the diagram below.

in
nl
Figure: Invoking each other’s programmatic interfaces

Instead, an intermediate Queue, which may be a component of an ESB, provides a

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unique approach for services to interact.

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r si
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Figure: Using intermediary queue

For speed purposes, the Queue itself can be an in-memory Queue.

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The Queue may also be used as a full-fledged JMS Queue, with features such as
guaranteed delivery, acknowledgements, and retries.

The Queue might have either an asynchronous or synchronous turn around

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characteristic.

The establishment of an intermediate Queue as a mechanism of contact between

services decouples services by isolating them from implementation concerns such as
the service’s programmatic interfaces.
m

In terms of speed, this type of service interaction has very little overhead,
especially if we use in-memory queues (also known as VM (virtual machine) Queues
by some ESBs). However, as shown in the figure below, this queue-based architecture
)A

gives us a lot of flexibility in terms of being able to interface with a number of message
types and transports.
(c

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Notes

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in
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Figure: Queue-based architecture

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In addition, most ESBs offer pre- and post-transformer wiring to ESB queues via
the ESB container’s settings. This increases the architectural flexibility of employing
intermediate Queues even further.

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Service Interactions Chronology:
A File Adapter reads an input data file, converts it to an appropriate format, and
places it on the Persistence Service’s Queue.

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The persistence service reads the new message from the queue and processes it
using the appropriate business logic.

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Finally, the persistence service queues messages for the Audit and Notification
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Services.

The audit and notification services both read messages from their respective
queues and process them before storing them in their respective local data stores.
ni

The presentation tier can also make advantage of programmatic interactions with
services if desired (using message-oriented service interfaces). This can improve
service interface invocation for presentation tiers with poor tolerance for sluggish data
retrievals.
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Conclusion: Message-oriented service interfaces and an architecture based on

intermediate Queues should aid in the development of loosely linked services and the
realisation of a service-oriented architecture.
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3.2.5 Connection Less Protocol – UDP

Before transferring a segment, UDP Connectionless Protocol does not need
handshaking between sending and receiving transport layer entities. As a result, the
m

term “connectionless” was coined.

Assume you want to develop a no-frills, bare-bones transport protocol to better

grasp the notion. How would you go about doing this? On the sending side, you may
)A

consider taking messages directly from the application process and passing them to the
network layer; on the receiving side, you might consider taking messages directly from
the network layer and giving them to the application process. But, as we’ve seen, we
need to do a bit more than that!
(c

In order to transfer data between the network layer and the relevant application
level activity, the transport layer must at the very least provide a multiplexing/

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 176 Network Basics

demultiplexing service. UDP, as specified in [RFC 768], is a transport protocol that

Notes

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performs almost nothing. It adds nothing to IP except for the multiplexing/demultiplexing
function and some minimal error checking. In reality, if the application developer uses
UDP rather than TCP, the software is practically directly communicating with IP.

in
UDP takes messages from the application process, adds the multiplexing/
demultiplexing service’s source and destination port number fields, two more tiny fields,

nl
and sends the resultant segment to the network layer. The transport layer segment is
encapsulated in an IP datagram by the network layer, which then makes a best-effort
delivery attempt to the receiving host. When the segment arrives at the receiving
host, UDP utilises the destination port number to transmit the data to the appropriate

O
application process. Before sending a segment, there is no handshaking between the
sending and receiving transport layer entities using UDP.

DNS is an application layer protocol that generally makes use of UDP. When a

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DNS application in a hot requests a query, it creates a DNS query message and sends
it via UDP. The host-side UDP adds header fields to the message and delivers the
resultant segment to the network layer without doing any handshaking with the UDP

si
entity executing on the destination end system. The datagram is sent to a name server
after the network layer encapsulates the UDP segment in a datagram. The requesting
host’s DNS programme then waits for a response to its query.

r
If it doesn’t obtain a response (perhaps because the underlying network lost the
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query or the reply), it either retries the query or alerts the calling programme that it can’t
get a response.

You might be asking why an application developer would pick UDP over TCP when
creating a new application. Isn’t it always better to use TCP since it provides a more
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dependable data transport service than UDP?

The answer is no, because UDP is better suited for many applications for the
following reasons:
U

1. Control over what data is transmitted and when at the application level.
2. There was no way to create a connection.
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3. There is no status of connection.

4. Overhead for small packet headers
Updates to the RIP routing table are done via UDP. As RIP updates are delivered
on a regular basis (usually every 5 minutes), any updates that are lost will be replaced
m

by more current updates, rendering the lost, out-of-date update ineffective. Network
management data is also sent over UDP. Since network management programmes
must frequently operate while the network is strained – precisely when reliable,
)A

congestion-controlled data transfer is harder to achieve – UDP is preferable over TCP

in this scenario. Furthermore, as previously stated, DNS uses UDP to avoid TCP’s
connection formation latency.

Today, multimedia applications such as internet phone, real-time video

(c

conferencing, and streaming of stored audio and video employ both UDP and TCP.
These applications can withstand a modest degree of packet loss, therefore data

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 Network Basics 177

transmission reliability isn’t absolutely necessary for their performance. TCP’s

Notes

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congestion management also has a negative impact on real-time applications like
internet phone and video conferencing. For these reasons, multimedia application
developers may opt to execute their programmes via UDP rather than TCP. TCP, on the

in
other hand, is becoming more popular for transporting streaming media. According to a
study, TCP was utilised in over 75% of on-demand and live streaming.

nl
TCP becomes an increasingly desirable protocol for streaming video transport
when packet loss rates are low and some businesses ban UDP traffic for security
concerns.

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Running multimedia programmes via UDP is contentious, despite its widespread
use today. UDP, as previously stated, has no congestion control. However, congestion
control is required to prevent the network from becoming overburdened, resulting in
very little valuable work being completed. There would be so much packet overflow

ty
at routers if everyone started streaming high-bit-rate video without utilising congestion
management that just a few UDP packets would successfully traverse the source-to-
destination channel.

si
As a result of the lack of congestion management in UDP, large loss rates between
sender and receiver might occur, as well as the crowding out of TCP sessions - a major
concern. Many academics have suggested novel ways to require adaptive congestion
control from all sources, including UDP providers. r
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Before we wrap up this article, we’d like to point you that while utilising UDP, an
application can have dependable data transfer. This is possible if the application’s
dependability is built in (for example, b adding acknowledgement and retransmission
mechanisms). However, this is a difficult process that would keep an application
ni

developer occupied for a long time troubleshooting.

Nonetheless, incorporating dependability within the programme allows it to “eat its

cake and have it too.” That is, application processes can interact consistently without
U

being constrained by TCP’s congestion-control mechanism’s transmission-rate limits.

3.2.6 Connection Less Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

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If a process on Host A with port 19157 wants to send data to a process on Host B
with UDP port 46428, the transport layer in Host A creates a segment with source port,
destination port, and data, and sends it to the network layer in Host A, the transport
layer in Host B examines the destination port number and delivers the segment to the
m

socket identified by port 46428.

A UDP socket is completely identifiable by a two-tuple consisting of a destination IP

address and a destination port number; the source port number from Host A is utilised
)A

as “return address” at Host B:

(c

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Notes

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ty
3.2.7 Connection Oriented Protocol-TCP
Communications protocols may be described using a variety of attributes. The

si
contrast between connection-oriented transport services (COTS) and connectionless
transport services is the most essential (CLTS).

r
Protocols with a Connection-Oriented Protocol
ve
A connection-oriented protocol such as TCP is an example. Before data can be
shared, a logical link between the two processes must be created. The connection must
be maintained for the duration of the communication and then released afterwards.
Before the message can be sent, a virtual circuit must be established—the caller must
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know the person’s phone number and the phone must be answered—much like a
phone call.

Telnet, rlogin, and ftp are examples of services that leverage connection-oriented
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transport services.

Connectionless Protocols
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In contrast, connectionless protocols allow data to be transmitted without

establishing a link between processes. Each unit of data, which has all of the
information required to route it to its intended destination, is transported independently
of other data packets and can travel along a variety of pathways to reach its final
destination. Some data packets may be lost or arrive out of order with other data
m

packets during transmission.

UDP is a protocol that does not require a connection. It’s called a datagram
protocol since it’s similar to sending a letter and not acknowledging receipt.
)A

TCP/IP is also a connection-oriented transport that releases data in an orderly

manner. Any data left in the buffer is transferred before the connection is closed with
orderly release. A three-way handshake between client and server processes is used
to complete the release. The OSI protocol suite’s connection-oriented protocols, on the
(c

other hand, do not enable orderly release. Any handshake required by the application to
ensure orderly release is performed.

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Broadcasting and tftp are two applications that leverage connectionless transport
Notes

e
services. Early NFS implementations used UDP, whereas current NFS implementations
favour TCP.

in
3.2.8 TCP Congestion Control
TCP avoids congestion by using a congestion window and a congestion strategy.

nl
Previously, we thought that the sender’s window size was determined only by the
recipient. Another element here, the network, went unnoticed. If the network cannot
convey the data as quickly as the sender creates it, the sender must be told to slow

O
down. To put it another way, the network, in addition to the receiver, determines the size
of the sender’s window.

TCP congestion policy –

ty
Slow Start Phase: starts slowly and increases exponentially until the threshold is
reached.

Phase of Congestion Avoidance: After exceeding the threshold, the increment is

si
increased by one.

Phase of Congestion Detection: Sender returns to the Slow Start or Congestion

Avoidance phase.
r
ve
Slow Start Phase: Exponential Increment — In this phase, the congestion window
size grows exponentially after each RTT.

Congestion Avoidance Phase: Additive Increment — After the threshold value, also
known as ssthresh, this phase begins. The cwnd(congestion window) grows in size
ni

additively. cwnd = cwnd + 1 after each RTT

Phase of congestion detection: multiplicative decrement - If congestion occurs, the

size of the congestion window is reduced. Only the requirement to retransmit a segment
U

can lead a sender to believe that congestion has occurred. To recover a lost packet
that is thought to have been dropped by a router owing to congestion, retransmission
is required. When the RTO timer expires or three duplicate ACKs are received,
ity

retransmission occurs in one of two ways.

Situation 1: Retransmission due to Timeout — The likelihood of congestion is

considerable in this case.

(a) The size of ssthresh is lowered to half that of the current window.
m

(b) Change cwnd to 1 (c) Restart the slow start phase.

Situation 2: Retransmission owing to three Acknowledgement Duplicates —
)A

Congestion is less likely in this case.

(a) The ssthresh value is reduced to half the size of the current window.
(b) set cwnd=ssthresh (c) begin the congestion avoidance phase.
Consider the case of a TCP protocol that exhibits sluggish start behaviour. With
(c

a threshold (ssthresh) value of 32, the 5th transmission round enters the congestion
avoidance phase, which lasts until the 10th transmission.

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Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
si
3.2.9 Issues in Transport Layer Protocol
Ad hoc wireless networks, unlike wired networks, use multi-hop radio relaying
r
to create induced traffic. The neighbour nodes of both the sender and receiver of the
ve
connection are affected by a link-level transmission. Transmission at a single link
impacts one upstream and one downstream link in a route with several connections.
Induced traffic is traffic that is generated at a specific link (or path) as a result of
traffic generated at nearby connections (or pathways). This is owing to the channel’s
ni

broadcast nature and the channel’s location-dependent contention. This generated

traffic has an impact on the transport layer protocol’s throughput.

Throughput unfairness induced at the transport layer: This refers to throughput

U

unfairness at the transport layer as a result of throughput/delay unfairness at lower

levels such as the network and MAC layers. For example, throughput unfairness at the
transport layer may occur in an ad hoc wireless network using IEEE 802.11 DCF as
the MAC protocol. In order to give a fair share of throughput among competing flows, a
ity

transport layer protocol should take these into account.

Congestion control, reliability, and flow control are all separated: When end-to-
end dependability, flow management, and congestion control are handled individually,
a transport layer protocol can give greater performance. Congestion can sometimes
m

be a local activity, but reliability and flow control are end-to-end activities. When only
one intermediate connection is congested, the transport layer flow might become
congested. As a result, in networks like ad hoc wireless networks, the transport layer
)A

performance may be enhanced if these are handled independently. When separating

them, the most important goal to keep in mind is to minimise the additional control
overhead they cause.

Constraints on power and bandwidth: The two most essential resources in ad hoc
(c

wireless networks are I power and (ii) bandwidth, and nodes in these networks confront
resource limits. These limitations have a substantial impact on the performance of a
transport layer protocol.

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Congestion misinterpretation: Traditional network congestion detection strategies,

Notes

e
such as packet loss and retransmission timeout, are ineffective in detecting network
congestion in ad hoc wireless networks. This is because packet loss in ad hoc wireless
networks can be caused by high wireless channel error rates, location-dependent

in
congestion, hidden terminal issue, packet collisions in the network, route breaks owing
to node mobility, and node failure due to a depleted battery.

nl
As a result, the usual concept of network congestion does not apply to ad hoc
wireless networks.

Completely decoupled transport layer: Interaction with lower levels is another

O
problem that a transport layer protocol face. The bottom tiers of wired network transport
layer protocols are almost totally separated. For the transport layer to adapt to the
changing network environment in ad hoc wireless networks, cross-layer interaction with
lower levels such as the network layer and the MAC layer is critical.

ty
Due to the mobility of nodes, several deployment scenarios of ad hoc wireless
networks undergo rapidly changing network topologies. This can result in frequent
path breakage, network segmentation and remerging, and a long time for paths to be

si
reestablished. As a result, fast changes in network topology have a major impact on the
performance of a transport layer protocol.

3.2.10 Addressing r
ve
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Addressing
TCP/IP contains an Internet addressing scheme that allows users and programmes
to locate and connect with a specified network or host. An Internet address functions
ni

similarly to a postal address in that it allows data to be routed to the desired location.
TCP/IP specifies address assignment for networks, subnetworks, hosts, and sockets,
as well as the use of specific addresses for broadcasts and local loopback.
U

A network address plus a host (or local) address makes up an Internet address.
A sender can indicate the network as well as a specific host on the network using this
two-part address.
ity

When a network connects to other Internet networks, it is given a unique, official

network address. If a local network will not link to other Internet networks, it can be
given any network address that is appropriate for local usage.

Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, as well as two special instances of IP addresses:

m

broadcast addresses and loopback addresses, make up the Internet addressing

scheme.
)A

Internet Protocol Addresses

A 32-bit, two-part address field is used by the Internet Protocol (IP). The following
is how the 32 bits are separated into four octets:

01111101 00001101 01001001 00001111

(c

These binary numbers are equivalent to:

125 13 73 15

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The network address and the host address are the two components of an Internet
Notes

e
address. When transferring information, a remote host might provide both the remote
network and the remote network host. A host number of 0 (zero) is used to refer to the
network itself as a matter of convention.

in
There are three types of Internet addresses supported by TCP/IP: Class A, Class
B, and Class C. The allocation of the 32 bits of the address determines the distinct

nl
types of Internet addresses. The address class to which a network is assigned is
determined by the network’s size.

Class A Addresses

O
An 8-bit network address and a 24-bit local or host address make up a Class A
address. The network address’s first bit is used to indicate the network class, leaving 7
bits for the actual network address. There are 128 potential Class A network addresses

ty
since 7 bits may indicate the greatest number in binary.

Two network addresses out of 128 are allocated for specific cases: 127 is
designated for local loopback addresses, and a network address of all ones denotes a

si
broadcast address.

As a result, there are 126 Class A network addresses and 16,777,216 local host
addresses to choose from. The highest order bit in a Class A address (see picture) is
set to 0. r
ve
In other words, a Class A address’s first octet is in the range 1 to 126.

Class B Addresses
ni

A 16-bit network address plus a 16-bit local or host address make up a Class B
address. The network address’s first two bits are used to indicate the network class,
leaving 14 bits for the actual network address.
U

As a result, there are 16,384 network addresses and 65,536 local host addresses
to choose from. The highest order bits in a Class B address (see picture) are set to 1
and 0.
ity

In other words, a Class B address’s first octet is in the range 128 to 191.

Class C Addresses
A 24-bit network address with an 8-bit local host address make up a Class C
address. The network address’s first two bits are used to indicate the network class,
m

leaving 22 bits for the actual network address. As a result, there are 2,097,152 network
addresses and 256 local host addresses to choose from. The highest order bits in a
Class C address are set to 1 and 1.
)A

In other words, a Class C address’s first octet is in the range 192 to 223.

Consider how many local hosts will be on the network and how many subnetworks
will be in the organisation when determining which network address class to utilise.
A Class C address is likely suitable if the business is small and the network will have
(c

fewer than 256 hosts. A Class B or Class A address may be more suited if the company
is significant.

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Note: Multicast addresses are provided via Class D (1-1-1-0 in the highest order
Notes

e
bits) addresses, which are supported by UDP/IP under AIX.

Zeros in Internet Addresses

in
TCP/IP delivers a wildcard address over the network when the host address
section of a C class Internet address contains a 0 (for example, 192.9.200.0). This
implies that any computer with the Class C address 192.9.200.X (where X is a number

nl
between 0 and 254) should be able to reply to the request. As a result, the network is
swamped with requests for computers that do not exist.

O
Class B addresses, such as 129.5.0.0, have similar issues. All computers have
a Class B address of 129.5.X.X.X. As Class B addresses are associated with larger
networks than Class C addresses, the network gets swamped with much more requests
in this situation.

ty
Subnet Addresses
Subnet addressing allows many networks to share the same Internet address in a

si
self-contained system. TCP/subnetwork IP’s functionality also allows a single network
to be divided into numerous logical networks (subnets). For example, a company can
have a single Internet network address that is visible to people outside the company
r
yet divide its network into departmental subnets within. In either instance, fewer Internet
network addresses are needed, and local routing capabilities are improved.
ve
A network address and a local address are the two portions of a conventional
Internet Protocol address field.
ni

Comparison of Addresses
On the source host’s subnet mask, the destination address and the local network
address are compared using logical AND and exclusive OR.
U

The following is a breakdown of the comparison procedure:

Combine the destination address with the mask of the local subnet address using a
logical AND.
ity

Perform an exclusive OR on the preceding operation’s result and the local

interface’s local net address.

The target is presumed to be available directly through one of the local interfaces if
the result is all zeros.
m

The comparison step is performed for each local interface if an autonomous

system has more than one interface (and hence more than one Internet address).
)A

Broadcast Addresses
TCP/IP can transfer data to all hosts on a local network or all hosts on all networks
that are directly linked. Broadcast messages are the term for such communications.
The routed routing daemon, for example, queries and responds to routing inquiries via
(c

broadcast messages.

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are used to transfer data
Notes

e
to all hosts on all immediately linked networks, and the host destination address in the
IP header has all bits set to 1. All the bits in the local address component of the IP
address are set to 0 for data to be broadcast to all hosts on a specified network.

in
Although such instructions or programmes can be built, there are no user
commands that employ the broadcast capabilities.

nl
The broadcast address can be temporarily altered using the ifconfig command’s
broadcast argument. Using the Web-based System Manager fast path, wsm network,
or the SMIT fast path, smit chinet, you can change the broadcast address permanently.

O
If you need to be compatible with earlier versions of applications that utilise a different
broadcast address, changing the broadcast address may be advantageous; for
example, the host IDs are all set to 0.

ty
Local Loopback Addresses (Local Loopback Addresses)

The unusual network address 127.0.0.1 is referred to as a local loopback address

in the Internet Protocol. Local loopback addresses are used by hosts to send messages

si
to themselves. During the system starting procedure, the configuration manager sets
the local loopback address. The ifconfig command may also be used to set local
loopback, which is implemented in the kernel. When the system is started, loopback is
called.
r
ve
Obtaining an Official Internet Address
The Internet Registry (IR) is the body in charge of assigning identifiers to networks,
such as IP network numbers and autonomous system IDs. Currently, the IR is the
Defense Data Network Network Information Center (DDN NIC). Contact the NIC at
ni

[email protected] or 1-800-444-4345 to get an official Internet address.

3.2.11 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

U

Extending the network layer’s host-to-host delivery service to a process-to-process

delivery service.
ity

Assume you’re sitting in front of your computer, downloading web pages while
simultaneously operating two FTP sessions and two telnet sessions. As a result, four
network application processes are active. When your computer’s transport layer gets
data from the network layer below, it must route the data to one of these four processes.
m

A process can have one or more sockets, which are doors that allow data to flow
from the network to the process and from the process to the network.

The data is delivered to an intermediate socket by the receiving host’s transport

)A

layer, rather than directly to a process. Each socket has its own identification (format
varies depending on TCP or UDP). Each transport-layer segment has its own set of
fields. The transport layer evaluates these fields at the receiving end to identify the
receiving socket and then routes the segment to that socket.

Demultiplexing is the process of transmitting data from a transport-layer segment to

(c

the right socket.

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The task of collecting data chunks from various sockets at the source host,
Notes

e
encapsulating each data chunk with header information to produce segments, and
sending the segments to the network layer is called multiplexing.

in
The source port number field and the destination port number field are special
fields in the header. A 16-bit number is assigned to each port (0-65535).

Well-known port numbers range from 0 to 1023 and are restricted/reserved for

nl
usage by well-known application protocols such as HTTP (80) and FTP (21)

Multiplexing and demultiplexing without connections:

O
A port number is allocated to a UDP socket when it is created, but you can
afterwards bind it to a specific port.

Let’s have a look at how UDP multiplexing and demultiplexing work:

ty
Let’s say a process on Host A uses UDP port 19157 to deliver a piece of
application data to a process on Host B that uses UDP port 46428.

In Host A, the transport layer constructs a transport-layer segment that contains

si
the application data, the source port, the destination port number, and two additional
values.

r
The transport layer then sends the generated segment to the network layer, which
wraps it in an IP datagram and sends it out using the best available technology.
ve
If the segment arrives at receiving host B, the receiving host’s transport layer
evaluates the segment’s target port number and sends the segment to the socket
designated by port 46428.
ni

It’s worth noting that Host B may be hosting several processes, each with its
own UDP socket and port number. As UDP segments come from the network, host B
examines the segment’s target port number and routes (demultiplexes) each segment
U

to the proper socket.

Both segments will travel to the same socket if they have distinct source IP
addresses and/or source ports but the same destination IP address and port.
ity

If the server sends/responds back to the client, the source port and IP address is
utilised as a return address.

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing Based on Connections:

m

A four-touple identifies the TCP socket:

1. IP address of the source

2. Number of the source port
)A

3. IP address and
4. port number of the destination
Two incoming segments will be forwarded to two distinct sockets, each with a
(c

different source IP address or source port number.

To illustrate how it works, look at the example where we coded a TCP socket.

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A connection-established request is a TCP segment with the destination port

Notes

e
number and a connection-establishment bit set in the TCP header (it also contains the
source port number)

in
Consider a host that runs a Web server on port 80, such as an apache Web server.
When clients send segments to the server, all of them will have the port 80 as their
destination.

nl
The initial connection formation segments, as well as the segments delivering
HTTP request messages, will all use port 80 as their destination. The server uses
source IP addresses and source port numbers to differentiate segments from distinct

O
clients, as we just saw.

The relationship between connection sockets and processes is not necessarily

one-to-one. Today’s web servers frequently use only one process and construct a new

ty
thread with a new connection socket for each new client connection.

If the server connection is persistent, the same socket is used throughout the
connection. For each request/response, a new TCP connection is made and terminated

si
if it is a non-persistent connection.

3.2.12 Flow Control

r
When two hosts communicate, one transmits packets while the other receives
ve
them. It’s possible that the hosting hardware, programme design, and processing speed
are all different. All is OK when the receiver can analyse a message from the sender
before receiving the next. What happens, though, if the transmitter is sluggish and the
recipient is fast? The messages will continue to be added to the recipient’s queue.
ni

Messages will begin to drop after a while. A flow control approach is used in computer
networks to address the dilemma of a rapid transmitter and a sluggish receiver.
U
ity

Figure: TCP Flow Control

m

We can see an example of a slow receiver and a rapid transmitter in the diagram
above. We’ll witness how the messages will overflow in this section. The transmitter
is sending messages at a pace of 10 per second, while the receiver is receiving
)A

messages at a rate of 5 per second. The network enqueues messages in the receiver
queue when a sender transmits a message. Once the user application has read the
message. The message is obvious from the line, and one buffer space has been added
to the open space once more.

What is the need for TCP flow control?

(c

In the OSI Model, TCP is an example of a transport layer protocol. It ensures that
communications are delivered in a consistent and orderly manner. TCP retries to send a
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lost segment if a packet is dropped owing to a sluggish receiver because of dependable

Notes

e
delivery. TCP will keep resending if there is no flow control, and the situation on the
computer network will deteriorate.

in
During communication, the TCP receiver sends the available space capacity for
incoming messages for flow control. The information on the recipient side is updated,
and the message sending rate is reduced. Flow control in TCP?

nl
Before delivering messages via TCP, the sender needs know how much free space
is available on the receiving side.

The window size is one of the parameters. Both endpoints of each TCP segment

O
provide the window size in the header.

The window size is set to the maximum size at the time of connection setup. The
window size changes as packets are transferred. The window size hits 0 when a TCP

ty
end can no longer accept any more messages. The recipient of a message with window
size zero should refrain from sending any more messages. Until it receives another
message with a nonzero window size.

si
Flow control and TCP users: Until now, the TCP layer has been the focus of all
debate. The traffic source for TCP, which is the layer’s user, will be discussed here.

r
Difference Flow Control vs. Congestion Control: What’s the Difference?
ve
The flow regulation is done from beginning to conclusion. Congestion control,
on the other hand, is a node that connects two nodes. A router between two
communicating nodes, for example, may get crowded.

When a TCP programme is running, how does it know when to stop?

ni

Flow control is used to inform the sender that the receiver is slower. In order to do
this, a sender programme should be notified in the event of a sluggish receiver. When
sending data, the TCP module usually tells the sender.
U

3.2.13 Transport Layer Service and Protocols

A major aspect of the layered network design is the transport layer, which sits
ity

between the application layer and the network layer. It plays a crucial role in delivering
direct communication services to application processes running on multiple hosts.

Protocols for Transport Layer Communication

m

The application layer has access to two different transport layer protocols through
the internet:

1. UDP
)A

2. TCP
The calling programme finds TCP UDP, which stands for User Datagram Protocol,
to be an unstable connectionless service. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) offers
the calling programme with a dependable, connection-oriented service. The application
(c

developer must choose one of these two transport protocols when creating a network
application.

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In an internet environment, the transport packet is referred to as a segment to

Notes

e
simplify nomenclature. However, the internet literature (for example, the RFCs) refers
to the transport-layer packet for TCP as a segment, but the packet for UDP is frequently
referred to as a datagram. However, the network-layer packet is referred to as a

in
datagram in the same internet literature! Before we begin our introduction to UDP and
TCP, it will be helpful to have a basic understanding of the internet’s network layer.

nl
IP, or Internet Protocol, is the name of the internet’s network-layer protocol. IP
allows hosts to communicate logically. The IP service concept is based on providing the
best possible service. This indicates that IP will make its “best effort” to send segments
between communication hosts, but no assurances are made. It does not, for example,

O
ensure segment delivery, orderly segment distribution, or the integrity of the data in the
segments. As a result, IP is considered an unreliable service.

We should also point out that each host has at least one network-layer address,

ty
commonly known as an IP address. In Module 4, we’ll go over IP addressing in greater
depth; for now, all we need to remember is that each host has an IP address.

TLS stands for Transport Layer Services.

si
Let’s recap the service models supplied by UDP and TCP now that we’ve looked at
the IP service model. UDP and TCP’s most basic task is to expand IP’s delivery service

r
between two end systems to a delivery service between two processes executing on
those end systems. Transport-layer multiplexing and demultiplexing is the process of
ve
extending host-to-host delivery to process-to-process delivery. Integrity checking is also
provided by UDP and TCP, which include error detection fields in the segment headers.
UDP only provides two transport-layer services: process-to-process data transfer and
error checking. UDP, like IP, is an unreliable service in that it cannot ensure that data
ni

supplied by one process will reach the target process intact.

TCP, on the other hand, provides programmes with a number of extra services.
First and foremost, it ensures that data is sent in a secure manner. TCP guarantees that
U

data is transmitted accurately and in order from the sending process to the receiving
process by using flow control, sequence numbers, acknowledgements, and timers.

Congestion control is also provided via TCP. Congestion control is more of a

ity

service offered to the invoking application than a service provided to the internet as a
whole, a service for the common good. TCP congestion control, to put it another way,
prevents a single TCP connection from flooding the connections and routers between
communicating hosts with traffic. TCP tries to allocate an equal amount of bandwidth
m

to each connection crossing a congested network. This is accomplished by limiting the

pace at which TCP connections’ sending sides can transfer data into the network. On
the other hand, UDP traffic is uncontrolled.
)A
(c

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 Network Basics 189

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
r si
ve
ni
U
ity

Figure: Transport layer protocols

Functions of the Transport Layer

A transport-layer protocol allows application processes on various hosts to
m

communicate logically. By logical communication, we mean that from the perspective

of an application, the hosts executing the processes appear to be directly connected;
in fact, the hosts may be on different sides of the world, connected via a variety of
routers and link types. Application processes transmit messages to one other using the
)A

logical communication offered by the transport layer, without having to worry about the
intricacies of the physical infrastructure used to deliver these messages. The diagram
below depicts the concept of rational communication.

Transport layer protocols are implemented in end systems but not in network
(c

routers, as seen in the diagram above. The transport layer translates application-layer
messages received from a sending application process into transport-layer packets,
also known as transport-layer segments in internet parlance, on the sending side.
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 190 Network Basics

To generate the transport layer segment, divide the application messages into smaller
Notes

e
chunks and add a transport-header to each chunk. At the transmitting end system, the
transport layer passes the segment to the network, where it is encased in a network-layer
packet (a datagram) and delivered to the destination. It’s worth noting that network routers

in
only affect the network-layer section enclosed in the datagram. The network layer takes the
transport-layer segment from the datagram and transfers it up to the transport layer on the
receiving side. The received segment is next processed by the transport layer, which makes

nl
the data in the segment available to the receiving application.

3.2.14 Error Control

O
The Transport Control Protocol (TCP) is a dependable transport layer protocol.

This implies that if an application software sends a stream of data to TCP, TCP
must transmit the whole stream to the application programme on the other end in

ty
sequence, without errors, and without any parts being lost or duplicated.

Error control is used by TCP to enhance dependability. Corrupted segments,

missing segments, out-of-order segments, and duplicated segments are all detected

si
via error control systems. A technique for fixing mistakes after they have been noticed
is included in error control. In TCP, error detection and repair are accomplished using
three basic tools: checksum, acknowledgement, and time-out.
r
Checksum: Each segment has a checksum field that is used to detect whether it is
ve
corrupted. If the segment is corrupted, the destination TCP discards it and considers it
lost. In every segment of TCP, a 16-bit checksum is required.

TCP employs acknowledgments to ensure that data segments have been

ni

received. Control segments with no data but that consume a sequence number are also
recognised. The existence of ACK segments is never recognised. The retransmission of
segments lies at the heart of the error control system. A segment is retransmitted if it is
damaged, lost, or delayed.
U

A segment is retransmitted in current implementations on one of two occasions:

when the retransmission timer expires or when the sender gets three duplicate ACKs.
It’s worth noting that segments that don’t use sequence numbers, such as ACKs, don’t
ity

get retransmitted. Retransmission Following an RTO (retransmission time-out): For

all outstanding (transmitted but not acknowledged) segments, a contemporary TCP
implementation retains a single retransmission time-out (RTO) timer.

Even though the lack of a received ACK might be due to a delayed segment, a
m

delayed ACK, or a lost acknowledgement, when the timer matures, the earliest
outstanding segment is retransmitted. It’s worth noting that a section with merely an a
doesn’t have a timer set.
)A

Out-of-Order Segments: When a segment is lost, abandoned, or delayed, the

segments that follow it arrive out of order. TCP was designed to reject all out-of-order
segments, causing the missing segment and subsequent parts to be retransmitted.

The out-of-order parts are not usually discarded in today’s implementations. They
(c

temporarily store them and mark them as out-of-order segments until the missing
segment is delivered. The out-of-order portions, on the other hand, are not given to the
process. TCP ensures that data is provided to the process in the correct sequence.
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 Network Basics 191

Check your Understanding

Notes

e
Fill in the blanks:

1. A _____ is a TCP name for a transport service access point.

in
2. Socket-style API for windows is called ___________.
3. Transmission control protocol is _______protocol.

nl
4. Transport layer aggregates data from different applications into a single stream
before passing it to ________
5. An endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer network is

O
called ___________.

Summary

ty
●● The transport layer is a component of the TCP/IP networking paradigm, often
known as the networking architecture. It includes a complete set of documents that
detail everything needed to run a computer network.
●● The transport layer is in charge of logical communication between applications

si
operating on separate hosts, as well as delivering services to application layer
protocols on a higher tier of the TCP/IP network paradigm.
●●
r
Despite the fact that there are several transport layer protocols, the two most
often used protocols are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User
ve
Datagram Protocol (UDP) (UDP).
●● These protocols offer a variety of features to meet the needs of various
applications.The following are a handful of the most essential features:
ni

◌◌ Individual conversation tracking.

◌◌ Data transmission and data segmentation must be done in a certain order.
◌◌ Using port numbers to multiplex a chat.
U

◌◌ Individual dialogue tracking

◌◌ A conversation is defined as data moving from one application to another.
◌◌ A host can support numerous apps that communicate with one another across
ity

a local or distant network. The transport layer includes a system that allows
any programme on a host to connect with another application on a different
host, either locally or remotely.
◌◌ According to Cisco, this system assigns an identification known as a port
number to each programme, ensuring that each software process that
m

requires network access has a unique identity.

◌◌ The transport layer services divide an ordered data transfer continuous
stream of bytes into segments for transmission and delivery.
)A

◌◌ Most networks, according to this page, have a restriction on the amount of

data that a single packet may include.
◌◌ As a result, the transmitting device transport layer divides the data into
segments.
(c

◌◌ Similarly, the transport layer of the receiving device gets these segments
and utilises the header to rebuild them into full data. Using port numbers to
multiplex conversation.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 192 Network Basics

◌◌ When utilising an application, the data or services given typically seem like a
Notes

e
continuous stream of data.
◌◌ However, delivering data (for example, video) through a network in a

in
continuous stream might take all of the available network capacity. This
prevents other services from using the medium, such as email, and makes
error recovery and retransmission of damaged data more difficult.

nl
◌◌ The multiplexing method divides TCP and UDP data into little bits, allowing
various users’ communications to coexist on the same network. This
technique is based on the notion of a socket.

O
Activity
●● Draw different types of Transport layer protocols.
●● Make a schematic representation of Transport Protocols

ty
Question and Answers
1. Which layer is responsible to deliver data from one station to another?

si
2. What is multiplexing in a transport layer?
3. What is the difference between physical layer and data link layer?
4. r
What is fragmentation and re assembly in transport layer?
ve
Glossary
●● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP stands for file transfer protocol. It is the protocol
that allows us to send and receive files. This may be done between any two
ni

machines that use it. FTP, on the other hand, is both a protocol and an application.
FTP allows users to share files with others over the internet using a secure and
efficient data transfer protocol. For FTP, the data port is 20 and the control port is
21.
U

●● TFTP: The Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a stripped-down, stock version
of FTP that you should use if you know exactly what you’re looking for and where
to get it. It’s a simpler form of FTP that allows you to transfer data across network
ity

devices. The TFTP port number is 69.

●● NFS (Network File System): This stands for a network file system. It allows remote
computers to mount file systems across a network and interact with them as if they
were locally mounted. This allows system administrators to concentrate resources
m

on the network’s centralised servers. The NFS port number is 2049.

●● SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol includes it. SMTP transmits your email on and
)A

across networks via a procedure known as “store and forward.” It collaborates with
the Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) to deliver your message to the correct computer
and email mailbox. The SMTP port number is 25.
●● Connection-oriented communication: It is normally easier for an application
(c

to interpret a connection as a data stream rather than having to deal with the
underlying connection-less models, such as the datagram model of the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) and of the Internet Protocol (IP).

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 Network Basics 193

●● Same order delivery: The network layer doesn’t generally guarantee that packets
Notes

e
of data will arrive in the same order that they were sent, but often this is a
desirable feature. This is usually done through the use of segment numbering, with
the receiver passing them to the application in order. This can cause head-of-line

in
blocking.
●● Reliability: Packets may be lost during transport due to network congestion and

nl
errors. By means of an error detection code, such as a checksum, the transport
protocol may check that the data is not corrupted, and verify correct receipt by
sending an ACK or NACK message to the sender. Automatic repeat request
schemes may be used to retransmit lost or corrupted data.

O
●● Flow control: The rate of data transmission between two nodes must sometimes
be managed to prevent a fast sender from transmitting more data than can be
supported by the receiving data buffer, causing a buffer overrun. This can also be

ty
used to improve efficiency by reducing buffer underrun.
●● Congestion avoidance: Congestion control can control traffic entry into a
telecommunications network, so as to avoid congestive collapse by attempting

si
to avoid oversubscription of any of the processing or link capabilities of the
intermediate nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps, such as
reducing the rate of sending packets. For example, automatic repeat requests may
r
keep the network in a congested state; this situation can be avoided by adding
congestion avoidance to the flow control, including slow-start. This keeps the
ve
bandwidth consumption at a low level in the beginning of the transmission, or after
packet retransmission.
●● Multiplexing: Ports can provide multiple endpoints on a single node. For example,
ni

the name on a postal address is a kind of multiplexing, and distinguishes between

different recipients of the same location. Computer applications will each listen for
information on their own ports, which enables the use of more than one network
service at the same time. It is part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model, but
U

of the session layer in the OSI model.

Further Readings:
ity

1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tannenbaum, PHI, New Delhi.
3. Data and Computer Communication, William Stalling, PHI, New Delhi
m

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
1. port
)A

2. winsock
3. connection oriented
4. network layer
(c

5. socket

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 194 Network Basics

Module - IV: Network Layer, IP Addressing and

Notes

e
Subnetting

in
Structure:
4.1 Network Layer Design Issues
4.1.1 Introduction: Network Layer

nl
4.1.2 Service Provided to the Transport Layer
4.1.3 Implementation of Connection Less Service
4.1.4 Implementation of Connection Oriented Service

O
4.1.5 Comparision of Virtual Circuit and Datagram Network
4.2 Routing Algorithms
4.2.1 Introduction to Routers

ty
4.2.2 The optimility principle
4.2.3 Shortest Path Algorithm
4.2.4 Flooding

si
4.2.5 Distance Vector Algorithm
4.2.6 Hierarichical Algirithm
4.2.7 r
Router Configuration
ve
4.3 Congestion Control
4.3.1 Approaches to Congestion Control
4.3.2 Traffic-aware Routing
4.3.3 Admission Control
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4.3.4 Load Shedding

4.4 Internetworking and Internet Protocol
4.4.1 How Network Connected
U

4.4.2 Tunneling
4.4.3 Internetwork Routing
4.4.4 Packet Fragmentation
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4.4.5 IP Version 4 Protocol

4.4.6 IPV4 Network Addesses
4.4.7 IP Version 6 Protocol
m

4.4.8 IPV6 Network Addesses

4.4.9 Intrenet Control Protocols
4.4.10 Internet Multicasting
)A

4.5 Subnetting
4.5.1 Subnetting IP Networks
4.5.2 Subnetting an IPv4 Network
4.5.3 Addressing Schemes
(c

4.5.4 Design Considerations for IPv6

4.5.5 Subnetting an IPv6 Network

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 Network Basics 195

Unit 4.1 : Network Layer Design Issues

Notes

e
Objectives

in
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Define basic functions of the network layer

nl
●● Differentiate between connection oriented and connection less services
●● Define the concept of addressing in networking

O
●● Define congestion in the network layer
●● Explain the concept of routing
●● Explain the concept of pocket switching

ty
●● Define packet switching network.

Introduction

si
The network layer was created with the following purposes in mind: The services
offered should be decoupled from the underlying technology. It is not necessary for service
consumers to understand the network’s physical implementation. Given the variety of
r
networks in use, this design aim is even more important. In the domain of public networks,
ve
technological knowledge is lacking in developing nations. The architecture of the layer should
allow it to connect to networks of various technologies. The transport layer (host computer)
should be protected against the number, type, and topologies of subnets that are used.
ni

4.1.1 Introduction: Network Layer

The Network layer is the third layer in the OSI model. The network layer controls
host and network addressing, sub-network management, and internetworking.
U

The network layer is in charge of routing packets from a source to a destination

inside or outside of a subnet. Different addressing schemes or non-compatible
addressing types may exist between two subnets. In the same way, two separate
ity

subnets may use different protocols that are incompatible with one another. The
network layer is in charge of routing packets from source to destination while mapping
various addressing schemes and protocols.

Features of the Network Layer

m

Layer 3 may provide a variety of capabilities with its conventional functionalities,

including:
)A

1. Management of service quality

2. Link management and load balancing
3. Security
4. Different protocols and subnets with different schemas interact.
(c

5. A logical network architecture differs from a physical network design.

6. End-to-end dedicated connectivity may be provided using L3 VPN and tunnels.
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 196 Network Basics

The Internet Protocol is a well-known and commonly used Network Layer protocol
Notes

e
that allows end-to-end devices to interact across the internet. It’s available in two
varieties. IPv4, which has dominated the internet for decades, is running out of address
space. IPv6 was intended to replace IPv4 and, perhaps, to alleviate IPv4’s restrictions

in
as well.

4.1.2 Service Provided to the Transport Layer

nl
The transport layer’s services are described further below.

Addresses Mapping

O
It refers to the transformation of a transport address into a network address. When
a session entity delivers a transport service data unit (TSDU) to another session entity,
it uses its transport service access point address to identify itself. The network service

ty
access point (NSAP) address is then determined by the transport entity. Address
mapping is the term for this.

si
Network Connection Assignment
A network connection is assigned by the transport entity to convey the transport
protocol data units (TPDUs). This allocated network connection is established by the
r
transport entity. Recovery after network disconnection is possible in several transport
protocols. When a disconnection occurs in such protocols, the transport entity reassigns
ve
TPDU transport to a separate network connection.

Transport Connections Multiplexing

ni

Multiplexing allows the transport entity to make several end-to-end transport

connections to the network connection for optimal network link utilisation.

The receiving transport entity uses the transport connection endpoint identifier
U

(TCEPI), which is connected to each TSDU by the transmitting transport entity, to

identify the numerous TSDUs (multiplexed).

As indicated in the diagram below, the TCEP identification is unique for each
ity

connection.
m
)A

Figure: TCEP identification

As indicated in the diagram below, the TCEP identification is unique for each
(c

connection.

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 Network Basics 197

Transport Connections Splitting

Notes

e
When the network provider’s quality of service is less than the desired quality
of service, or when higher resilience against network connection failures is required,

in
the transport entity splits the data. Splitting refers to the sending of TPDUs from one
transport connection via several network connections.

Splitting necessitates re-sequencing since it causes TSDUs to be reordered, as

nl
indicated in the diagram below.

O
ty
si
Figure: Reordering of TSDUs
r
ve
Establishment of Transport Connection
By sending a request, the transport layer creates the transport connection. It
uses the T-CONNECT service primitives to establish a link. The transportation entity is
responsible for the service quality, requirements, and collection of addresses.
ni

Data Transfer
The transport layer supports two forms of data transfer: normal data transfer and
U

accelerated data transfer. In a standard data transmission, the user can request that
user data be transferred in any integral number of octets.

This transfer is transparent, meaning that user data boundaries are kept and there
ity

are no restrictions on the content or amount of octets.

Data can be sent in two directions at the same time. The accelerated data transfer
has its own control flow, and it may provide all of the data queues with the highest
priority. It’s a user-selectable or provider-selectable service. The amount of octets of
m

user data is limited to 16.

TPDU Segmentation and Concatenation

)A

The transport entity splits the transport service data unit into numerous transport
protocol data units, each with its own header including a PCI identifier (Protocol Control
Identifier). Segments is the name for this function.

When the network service cannot accommodate the size of a transport protocol
(c

data unit including an unsegmented TSDU, this segmenting function is invoked.

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 198 Network Basics

Notes

e
in
nl
Figure: Segmentation and concatenation of TSDU

O
Concatenation is the function of segments in reverse. The concatenation allows
several TPDUs to be mapped to a single NSDU. These TPUs may be associated with
one or more transport links. If they are connected by various modes of transportation,

ty
they must be travelling in the same direction. The transport entity performs a separation
function at the receiving end.

Different TPDUs’ boundaries are identified by the transport entity. Concatenation is

si
used to increase the efficiency of network service consumption.

There are some limitations on which types of TPDUs can be concatenated, and the
borders of those TPDUs must be established by the transport entity.
r
ve
ni
U

Figure: Identified by the transport entity identified by boundaries

ity

Flow Control
For flow control, the transport entity employs a modified version of the sliding
window protocol. As the transport layer may receive back pressure from the network
layer, this flow control is essential.
m

The window size is flexible and regulated by the receiver in the mechanism.
A credit is assigned to the sender of the receiver, indicating how many TPDUs it can
receive.
)A

Error Recovery
TPDU faults, protocol problems, or signal failure circumstances of network
connections, such as reset or release of network connections, can all cause errors at
this level. Such mistakes are communicated to the transport layer when they occur at
(c

layer 3.

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 Network Basics 199

TPDU faults can take the form of missing TPDUs, duplicated TPDUs, sequence
Notes

e
reordering, or content issues.

Duplicate TPDUs are deleted, and lost TPDUs are recognised with a request to

in
resend. They are re-sequenced in the recording, and content faults are recognised by
the transport entity inserting error detection bytes in TPDUs.

Content-error TPDUs are discarded and considered as lost, thus they are also

nl
acknowledged. When there are protocol failures, the connection is relinquished, and when
there are signal failure faults, the network connection is reassigned and resynchronized.

O
Sequence Numbering
In normal operations mode, a transport entity of seven bits assigns a sequence
number to each TPDU. This sequence numbering is used to manage flow and recover
from errors. The sequence number in extended mode can be up to 31 bits long.

ty
4.1.3 Implementation of Connection Less Service

si
As individual packets are injected into the network and routed separately when
connectionless service is provided, packets are commonly referred to as Datagrams
(much like telegrams).

r
There is no need to prepare ahead of time. Datagram subnets are a type of subnet.
ve
When a connection-oriented service is given, a path from the source router to the
destination router is created before any packet is transmitted. Virtual Circuit is the name
of the connection, while Virtual Circuit subnet is the name of the subnet.

The following diagram depicts the construction of a connectionless service:

ni
U
ity
m

Figure: Connectionless service implementation

)A

Datagrams Network
Let’s take a step-by-step look at how a datagram network operates.

Step 1 Assume there is a process P1 on host H1 that needs to convey a message

(c

to P2 on host H2. P1 gives the message to the transport layer, along with instructions
for P2 to receive it on H2.

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 200 Network Basics

Step 2: On H1 and within the operating system, Transport Layer code is executing.
Notes

e
The message is prepended with a transport header, and the ultimate result is sent to
the network layer.

in
Step 3: Assume a packet that is four times larger than the maximum size of the
packet; the packet is then divided into four smaller packets, each of which is transmitted
to the router A using the point-to-point protocol, and career takes over from there.

nl
Step 4: Each router has an internal table that specifies where packets should be
transmitted. Every table entry is a pair that includes a destination and an outgoing line
for that destination. Only lines that are directly linked can be used.

O
Step 5: As A only has two outgoing connections to B and C, every incoming packet
must be routed through one of these routers, even if the final destination is another
router.

ty
Step 6: When the packets arrived at A, they were separated into three groups: 1,
2, 3, and 4. Then, according to A’s table, each packet is transported to C. Packet 1 is
transmitted to E, after which it is forwarded to F. When packet 1 reaches F, it is wrapped

si
in a data link layer and transmitted to H2 through the LAN. Packets 2 and 3 will go the
same path.

Step 7: When packet 4 arrives at A, it is forwarded to router B, even if the

r
destination is F. A chose to deliver packet 4 through a different route for whatever
ve
reason. The routing table was changed due to the traffic bottleneck on the ACE path.
The Routing Algorithm determines routes, makes routing choices, and keeps track of
routing tables.
ni

4.1.4 Implementation of Connection Oriented Service

Before data transmission begins, a connection-oriented service establishes a
dedicated connection between the communicating entities. It’s designed to seem like a
U

telephone system. The user creates a connection, utilises it, and then releases it to use
a connection-oriented service. The data streams/packets are sent to the recipient in the
same sequence as they were sent by the sender in connection-oriented services.
ity

Connection-oriented services can be provided in one of two ways. −

Connection with a circuit-switched connection: A dedicated physical channel or

circuit is formed between the communication nodes in circuit switching, and then the
data stream is transmitted.
m

Virtual circuit-switched connection: In this case, the data stream is sent through a
packet switched network, giving the user the impression that the sender and receiver
are on a dedicated channel. Here, a virtual route is built. Other connections, however,
)A

might be utilising this way as well.

The following are examples of connection-oriented services: −

1. Reliable Message Stream: for example, a page sequence

(c

2. Song download, for example, is an example of a dependable byte stream.

3. VoIP, for example, has an unreliable connection (Voice over Internet Protocol)

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 Network Basics 201

Connection-Oriented Services’ Benefits

Notes

e
1. This is a dependable connection for the most part.
2. There are less traffic jams.

in
3. Data packets are guaranteed to be in the correct order.
4. Duplicate data packet issues are no longer an issue.

nl
5. It’s ideal for long-distance connections.

Connection-Oriented Services’ Drawbacks

O
1. Prior to communication, resource allocation is required. As a result, network
resources are frequently underutilised.
2. The slower connection speed is caused by the time it takes to create and release the

ty
connection.
3. There are no other options for communicating in the event of router failures or
network congestion.

si
4.1.5 Comparison of Virtual Circuit and Datagram Network
Packet switching networks are classified as virtual – circuit and datagram
r
networks. A virtual path between the source and destination systems is constructed in
ve
virtual circuits, and data packets are transported from the source to the destination. In
datagram networks, on the other hand, each data packet, known as a datagram, has
sufficient header information to allow it to be independently routed to the destination by
all intermediary network switching devices.
ni

Connectivity Connection-oriented networks Datagram networks do not have

are virtual – circuits. any connections.
Resource Before the transmission, all Before the transmission begins,
U

Allocation resources such as buffers, there is no previous resource

processors, and bandwidth allocation for the individual packets.
are reserved. All data packets When a packet arrives at a router,
require the same resources, resources are assigned on a first-
ity

which are only released after come, first-served (FCFS) basis.

the transmission is complete.
Path The path between the source There is no specialised data
and destination nodes that transfer channel since datagrams
m

is followed by the initial data are viewed as independent entities.

packet is assigned in these The intermediate routers use
networks. The same path will dynamically updating routing tables
)A

be used for all additional data to route each datagram. As a result,

packets sent between them. two consecutive packets from the
source may take totally different
paths to their destination.
Communication Setup, data transfer, and There are no such communication
(c

Phases teardown are the three stages steps.

of transmission.

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 202 Network Basics

Addressing During the setup step, the The entire source and destination
Notes

e
addressing and route are addresses are included in each
decided. As a result, each datagram packet.

in
packet just includes the VC
number.
Header As all packets in a message Even if the separate datagram

nl
belong to the same virtual packets are part of the same
circuit, they all have the same message, the header information is
header information. distinct.
Cost Virtual circuits are more Datagram networks are much

O
expensive in terms of cheaper to install and maintain.
installation and maintenance.
Application Virtual Circuits are User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is

ty
Areas implemented in networks using a protocol that governs datagram
Asynchronous Transfer Mode communication (UDP). They're
(ATM) communications, as in used in an IP network.
making telephone calls.

si
Reliability and They provide greater reliability They require more complex logic.
Complexity and less complexity owing Also, they are less reliable than
to fixed paths and fixed virtual circuits due to error-prone
r
resources. dynamic resource allocation
ve
techniques.
Figure
ni
U

Check your Understanding

ity

Fill in the blanks:

1. Connection-less service is sometimes known as “___________” network service.

2. ____________ addresses are used to identify network entities in LANs.
m

3. A _____ is a TCP name for a transport service access point.

4. Socket-style API for windows is called ___________.
5. Transmission control protocol is _______protocol.
)A

Summary
●● The network layer was created with the following purposes in mind: The services
offered should be decoupled from the underlying technology. It is not necessary for
(c

service consumers to understand the network’s physical implementation.

●● The Network layer is the third layer in the OSI model. The network layer controls
host and network addressing, sub-network management, and internetworking.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 203

●● The Internet Protocol is a well-known and commonly used Network Layer protocol
Notes

e
that allows end-to-end devices to interact across the internet. It’s available in two
varieties-IPv4 and IPv6.

in
●● The receiving transport entity uses the transport connection endpoint identifier
(TCEPI), which is connected to each TSDU by the transmitting transport entity, to
identify the numerous TSDUs (multiplexed).

nl
●● When the network provider’s quality of service is less than the desired quality of
service, or when higher resilience against network connection failures is required,
the transport entity splits the data.

O
●● Data can be sent in two directions at the same time. The accelerated data transfer
has its own control flow, and it may provide all of the data queues with the highest
priority.

ty
●● For flow control, the transport entity employs a modified version of the sliding
window protocol. As the transport layer may receive back pressure from the
network layer, this flow control is essential.

si
●● Error Recovery: TPDU faults, protocol problems, or signal failure circumstances
of network connections, such as reset or release of network connections, can all
cause errors at this level. Such mistakes are communicated to the transport layer
when they occur at layer 3.
r
ve
●● Connection with a circuit-switched connection: A dedicated physical channel or
circuit is formed between the communication nodes in circuit switching, and then
the data stream is transmitted.
●● Packet switching networks are classified as virtual – circuit and datagram
ni

networks. A virtual path between the source and destination systems is

constructed in virtual circuits, and data packets are transported from the source to
the destination.
U

Activity
1. Draw various congestion control systems.
2. Make an algorithm on concepts of congestion in network.
ity

Question and Answers

1. What is congestion in the network? Explain in brief.
m

2. Explain various congestion control schemes.

3. What is routing? What are various activities performed by a router?
4. Differentiate between adaptive and non-adaptive routing.
)A

Glossary
1. Addresses Mapping: It refers to the transformation of a transport address into a
network address.
(c

2. Splitting: It refers to the sending of TPDUs from one transport connection via several
network connections.

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 204 Network Basics

3. Multiplexing: It allows the transport entity to make several end-to-end transport

Notes

e
connections to the network connection for optimal network link utilisation.
Connection-oriented communication: It is normally easier for an application to
interpret a connection as a data stream rather than having to deal with the underlying

in
connection-less models, such as the datagram model of the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) and of the Internet Protocol (IP).

nl
4. Same order delivery: The network layer doesn’t generally guarantee that packets
of data will arrive in the same order that they were sent, but often this is a desirable
feature. This is usually done through the use of segment numbering, with the receiver
passing them to the application in order. This can cause head-of-line blocking.

O
5. Reliability: Packets may be lost during transport due to network congestion and errors.
By means of an error detection code, such as a checksum, the transport protocol
may check that the data is not corrupted, and verify correct receipt by sending an

ty
ACK or NACK message to the sender. Automatic repeat request schemes may be
used to retransmit lost or corrupted data.
6. Flow control: The rate of data transmission between two nodes must sometimes be

si
managed to prevent a fast sender from transmitting more data than can be supported
by the receiving data buffer, causing a buffer overrun. This can also be used to
improve efficiency by reducing buffer underrun.
7. r
Congestion avoidance: Congestion control can control traffic entry into a
ve
telecommunications network, so as to avoid congestive collapse by attempting to
avoid oversubscription of any of the processing or link capabilities of the intermediate
nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps, such as reducing the rate
of sending packets. For example, automatic repeat requests may keep the network
ni

in a congested state; this situation can be avoided by adding congestion avoidance

to the flow control, including slow start. This keeps the bandwidth consumption at a
low level in the beginning of the transmission, or after packet retransmission.
U

Further Readings:
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
ity

Delhi, 2002.
3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.
m

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
1. unreliable
)A

2. Media Access Control (MAC)

3. port
4. winsock
(c

5. connection oriented

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 Network Basics 205

Unit - 4.2 : Routing Algorithms

Notes

e
Objectives

in
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

●● Understand how the shortest path routing algorithm works

nl
●● Draw a spanning tree
●● Understand the functioning of distance vector routing and link state routing

O
●● Understand and implement multicast routing

Introduction
The network layer must find the optimum path by which packets may be

ty
transmitted in order to send packets from source to destination.

The basic goal of the network layer, whether it provides datagram service or virtual

si
circuit service, is to provide the optimum path. This is handled by the routing protocol.

The routing protocol is a routing technique that finds the shortest route from one
point to another. The “least-cost path” from source to destination is the optimum way.
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Routing is the act of moving packets from a source to a destination, but the routing
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algorithm determines the optimum path to take.

4.2.1 Introduction to Routers

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A router is a networking device that sends data packets from one computer
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network to another.

Let us take an example: if you search for www.google.com in your web browser,
this is a request that will be sent from your system to the google’s server to serve that
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webpage; however, your request, which is nothing more than a stream of packets, does
not go straight to the google’s server; instead, it passes through a series of networking
devices known as a router, which accepts these packets and forwards them to the
correct path, and thus it reaches the google
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Notes

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Figure: Modem and Router Diagram

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A router has several interfaces via which it may communicate with a variety of host
systems.

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A router’s functions are as follows:

The router essentially serves two purposes:

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Forwarding - The router takes packets from its input ports, verifies their headers,
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does some basic duties such as verifying checksums, and then looks up in the routing
table to identify the proper output port to dump the packets into, and then passes the
packets to that output port.

Routing - Routing is the process by which a router determines the optimal path for
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a packet to take to reach its destination. It does so by maintaining a routing table that is
created only by the router using various methods.

A router’s architecture is as follows:

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The following components make up a generic router:

Input Port – This is the interface through which packets are admitted into the
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router; it performs several key functions, including terminating the physical link at
the router (the leftmost part in the diagram below), interoperating with the link-layer
(decapsulation), and looking up the forwarding table to determine the appropriate output
port based on the destination address (the last part of the input port).
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Switching Fabric — This is the router’s brain, and it links the input and output ports.
It’s a form of network within a network.

There are several approaches to implement the switching fabric. Among the most
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notable are:

Switching through memory: This method uses a CPU to copy packets from input
ports and transmit them to the appropriate output port. It functions as a standard CPU,
with input and output ports that serve as input and output devices.
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Changing modes via bus: We have a bus in this implementation that links all of the
input ports to all of the output ports. The input port places a specific token on the packet and
transfers it to the bus after receiving it and deciding which output port it should be given to.
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The packets are visible to all output ports, however they will be sent to the output
Notes

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port with the token, which is scraped off by that output port and the packet is forwarded.

Interconnection network switching: Instead of using a single bus, we utilise a 2N

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bus to connect n input ports to n output ports in this more advanced network.

Output Port - This is the section of the router from which packets are sent out. The
output port examines its queuing buffers (queuing buffers are generated when several

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packets must be communicated over the same output port) and accepts packets,
performs link layer tasks, and ultimately transmits the packets to an outgoing link.

Routing Processor — This component executes routing protocols and functions

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similarly to a standard CPU. It uses a variety of routing methods, such as the link-state
algorithm and the distance-vector algorithm, to create a forwarding table that is used to
identify the route and output port.

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4.2.2 The Optimality Principle

Introduction

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Without respect to network structure or traffic, a general assertion regarding
best routes is made. The optimality principle is the name given to this assertion
(Bellman,1975).
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The optimality principle is stated as follows:

It asserts that if router J is on the best path from router I to router K, then the best
way from J to K is likewise on the best path. The path from I to J is referred to as r1,
whereas the rest of the trip is referred to as r2. It might be used with r1 to enhance the
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route from I to K, contradicting our claim that r1r2 is optimum only if there is a better
route from J to K than r2.
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Example
Consider the following network of routers: G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N in the diagram.
Let’s say the best way to get from I to K is to take the green path, which is I-G-J-L-K.
The ideal path from J to K, according to the optimality principle, will be along the same
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path, i.e. J-L-K.

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Let’s imagine we discover a better path from J to K, such as via J-M-N-K. As a

result, the ideal route from I to K will need to be updated to I-GJ- M-N-K, as the prior
path is no longer optimal in this circumstance. In the diagram below, the new optimum
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path is displayed as a series of orange lines.

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Notes

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The collection of optimum routes from all sources to a particular destination may
be seen as a directed consequence of the optimality principle from a tree rooted at the
destination. This tree is known as a sink tree, and it is seen in figure.

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Figure description:

The number of hops is used as the distance measure in the diagram. As a result,

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all routing algorithms have the same goal: to find and employ sink trees for all routers.

Other trees with similar route lengths may exist beside the sink tree. If we
allow all potential pathways to be taken, the tree becomes a DAG, which is a more

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comprehensive structure (Directed Acyclic Graph). There are no loops in DAGs.

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Figure: Sink tree

Notes

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For both scenarios, we’ll utilise sink trees as a useful shortcut. For both scenarios,
we’ll make the technical assumption that the pathways don’t interact with one another,

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so a traffic bottleneck on one path won’t force another to detour.

Conclusion: As there are no loops in the sink tree, each packet will arrive in a
finite and bounded number of hops. Life isn’t always easy in practise. Due to the fact

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that links and routers might fall down and back up during operation, various routers
may have different views of the present topology. We also discovered the question
of whether each router must obtain the information on which to base its sink tree

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computation independently or whether this information is gathered through other
sources. The optimality principle and the sink tree provide a baseline against which
other routing algorithms can be compared.

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4.2.3 Shortest Path Algorithm
In computer networks, shortest path algorithms seek to identify the shortest
pathways between network nodes in order to reduce routing costs. They are

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straightforward implementations of graph theory’s suggested shortest route algorithms.

Explanation
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Consider a network with N vertices (nodes or network devices) and M edges
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connecting them (transmission lines). Each edge has a weight connected with it, which
represents the transmission line’s physical distance or transmission delay. The goal of
shortest path algorithms is to discover a path between any two vertices along the edges
with the least number of weights.
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Algorithms for Finding the Shortest Path

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Bellman Ford’s Algorithm is a well-known shortest route algorithm.

The Algorithm of Dijkstra

The Algorithm of Floyd Warshall
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Each of these algorithms is described in the sections below.

Algorithm of Bellman and Ford

Input: A network graph with a source node, s. Output: The shortest path from s to
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all other nodes.

Set the distances from s to all nodes to infinity (); the distance to itself to 0; and an
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array dist[] of size |V| (number of nodes) with all values except dist[s].

Iteratively calculate the shortest distances. For each node except s, repeat |V|- 1
times.

For each edge linking the vertices u and v, repeat the process.
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If dist[v] is greater than (dist[u] + edge u-weight), v’s then update dist[v] to dist[u] +
edge u-weight. v’s

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The shortest path from s to every other node is stored in the array dist[].
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The Algorithm of Dijkstra

A network graph and a source node, s, are required inputs.

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A shortest route tree, spt[, with s as the root node, is returned.

The initializations

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An array of distances dist[] of size |V| (number of nodes), where dist[s] = 0 and
dist[u] = (infinite), where u represents any node except s in the graph.

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Q is an array that contains all of the graph’s nodes. Q will become empty when the
algorithm reaches its conclusion.

The visited nodes will be added to an empty set, S. When the process is finished, S

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will include all of the graph’s nodes.

Continue till Q is not empty.

Add u to S and designate u as a visitor.

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Update dist[v] as for each node v that is near to u.

Update dist[v] = dist[u] + weight of edge u-v if (dist[u] + weight of edge u-v) =
dist[v]. r
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The shortest path from s to every other node is stored in the array dist[].

Algorithm of Floyd Warshall

The pathways between the nodes in the network are represented by a cost
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adjacency matrix, adj[][].

Output a shortest path cost matrix, cost[][, displaying the cheapest pathways
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between each pair of nodes in the network in terms of cost.

Fill in the cost[][] fields as follows:

If adj[][] is not present, cost[][] = (infinite)

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Otherwise, cost[][] = adj[][] N = |V|, where V is the network’s node set.

Repeat for k = 1 to N times,

Then for i= 1 to N times,

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Then for j = 1 to N times.

If cost[i][k] + cost[k][j] = cost[i][j], then cost[i][j] After that,

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change cost[i][j] to cost[i][k] + cost[k][j].

The shortest cost from each node, I to every other node, j, is included in the matrix
cost[][].
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4.2.4 Flooding
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Flooding is a non-adaptive routing strategy that works on the following principle:
when a data packet arrives at a router, it is delivered to all outbound lines except the

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one on which it arrived.

Consider the network shown in the diagram, which consists of six routers
connected by transmission lines.

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Using the flooding method When a packet arrives at A, it is sent to B, C, and D.

C and E will receive the parcel from B.

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B, D, and F will get the packet from C.

C and F will get the parcel from D.

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The parcel will be sent to F via E.

C and E will get the parcel from F.

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Various types of flooding
There are three forms of flooding.

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Uncontrolled flooding occurs when each router sends all incoming data packets to
all of its neighbours without fail.
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They employ several strategies to regulate the delivery of packets to neighbouring
nodes, which is known as controlled flooding. Sequence Number Controlled Flooding
(SNCF) and Reverse Path Forwarding are two prominent methods for controlled
flooding (RPF).
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Selective flooding is when routers broadcast incoming packets just along pathways
that are roughly in the appropriate direction, rather than all available paths.
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Benefits of Flooding
●● As a router may simply know its neighbours, it is incredibly simple to set up and
deploy.
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●● It’s highly durable. Even if a high number of routers fail, the packets find a way to
get to their destination.
●● All nodes that are related to each other, whether directly or indirectly, are visited.
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As a result, there is no way for any node to be missed. In the case of broadcast
messages, this is an important criterion.
●● Flooding always chooses the quickest path.
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Flooding Constraints
●● Unless certain efforts are taken to damp packet creation, flooding tends to produce
an unlimited number of duplicate data packets.
●● If just one destination requires the packet, it is inefficient since it sends the data
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packet to all nodes, regardless of the destination.

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●● Unwanted and duplicate data packets might jam the network. Other data packets
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may be hampered as a result.

4.2.5 Distance Vector Algorithm

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The Distance vector algorithm is distributed, iterative, and asynchronous.

It is distributed in the sense that each node gets data from one or more of its

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directly associated neighbours, conducts calculations, and then distributes the results to
the rest of the network.

Iterative: The procedure is iterative because it continues until no more information

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can be transferred between neighbours.

It is asynchronous in that it does not require all of its nodes to function in lockstep
with one another.

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A dynamic algorithm is the Distance Vector Algorithm.

ARPANET and RIP are two of the most common applications.

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Vector is a distance database that is maintained by each router.

The following are three keys to understanding how the Distance Vector Routing
Algorithm works:
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Understanding of the entire network: Each router communicates its information with
the rest of the network. The Router shares the information it has gathered about the
network with its neighbours.

Only route to neighbours: Only those routers with direct connectivity to the router
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receive the router’s network information. Through the ports, the router communicates
any information it has about the network. The router receives the data and utilises it to
update its own routing table.
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Sharing information on a regular basis: The router relays the information to the
nearby routers in 30 seconds.

Algorithm for Distance Vector Routing

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Let dx(y) be the cost of the shortest path between nodes x and y. The Bellman-
Ford equation, dx(y) = minvc(x,v) + dv(y), relates the lowest costs.

Where minv is the average of all x neighbours’ equations. If we analyse the least-
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cost way from v to y after going from x to v, the path cost will be c(x,v)+dv (y). The
cheapest route from x to y is c(x,v)+dv(y) divided by all neighbours.

The node x carries the following routing information when using the Distance
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Vector Routing algorithm:

The cost c(x,v) is the route cost from x to a directly related neighbour, v, for each v.

The cost of all destinations, y, in N, is contained in the distance vector x, i.e., Dx =

[Dx(y): y in N].
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Dv = [Dv(y): y in N] for each of x’s neighbours, i.e., Dv = [Dv(y): y in N] for each of

x’s neighbours v.

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Node x delivers a copy of its distance vector to all of its neighbours via an
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asynchronous process known as distance vector routing. When node x gets a new
distance vector from one of its neighbours, v, it records v’s distance vector and updates
its own distance vector using the Bellman-Ford equation. The following is the equation:

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For each node y in N, dx(y) = minv c(x,v) + dv(y)

Using the above equation, node x updates its own distance vector database and

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transmits it to all of its neighbours so that they can update their own distance vectors.

Algorithm

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Initialization for all destinations y in N at each node x:

Dx(y) = c(x,y) = Dx(y) = Dx(y) = Dx(y) = Dx( If y is not a neighbour, then c(x,y) =
and w Dw(y) = for each neighbour. for every y in N destinations

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Send the distance vector Dx = [Dx(y) : y in N] to each of your neighbours. for each
y in N: to w loop wait(until I receive any distance vector from any neighbour w)

Dx(y) = Dv(y) + minvc(x,v)

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If Dx(y) is altered for any destination, y will change as well.

To all neighbours, send the distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y in N] indefinitely.

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Figure: Information sharing

Each cloud in the above diagram represents a network, and the number within
each cloud is the network ID.
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Routers link all of the LANs, which are represented by boxes designated A, B, C,
D, E, and F.
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By assuming that the cost of each link is one unit, the distance vector routing
method streamlines the routing process. As a result, the number of connections
required to reach the destination may be used to gauge transmission efficiency.

The cost of distance vector routing is determined by the number of hops.

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Notes

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Figure: Router sends the knowledge

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The router delivers the knowledge to the immediate neighbours, as seen in the
diagram above. The neighbours combine this information with their own and transmit

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the updated table to their respective neighbours. As a result, routers receive both their
own information and fresh information about their neighbours.
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4.2.6 Hierarchical Algorithm

Hierarchical Clustering: An Overview

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Another unsupervised learning approach, hierarchical clustering, is used to group

together unlabeled data points with comparable features. The two types of hierarchical
clustering methods are as follows.
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Each data point is considered as a separate cluster in agglomerative hierarchical

algorithms, which subsequently combine or agglomerate the pairings of clusters in a
bottom-up fashion. A dendrogram or tree structure is used to illustrate the cluster
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hierarchy.

In divisive hierarchical algorithms, on the other hand, all the data points are viewed
as one big cluster, and the clustering process entails splitting (Top-down method) the
one big cluster into several tiny clusters.
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Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering: A Step-by-Step Guide

We’ll go through the most common and significant type of hierarchical clustering,
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agglomerative clustering. The following are the actions to take in order to do this:

First, treat each data point as if it were a single cluster. As a result, we’ll have, say,
K clusters to begin with. At the start, the amount of data points will also be K.

Phase 2: In this step, we’ll link two closet datapoints to build a large cluster. As a
(c

result, there will be a total of K-1 clusters.

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Step 3: Now we need to link two closet clusters together to make additional
Notes

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clusters. As a result, there will be a total of K-2 clusters.

Step 4: To construct a single large cluster, repeat the previous three stages until K

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equals 0, i.e. there are no more data points to combine.

Step 5: Finally, after creating a single large cluster, dendrograms will be utilised to
divide the cluster into numerous clusters based on the problem.

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Dendrograms’ Contribution to Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering

The job of the dendrogram begins after the huge cluster is established, as we

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explained in the previous stage.

Depending on our situation, a dendrogram will be employed to break the clusters

into various clusters of similar data points. The following example can help you

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understand it.

Let us go on to an example in which we use hierarchical clustering to create groups

of data points in the Pima Indian Diabetes Dataset, now that we understand the notion

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of dendrograms from the simple example given before.

“import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import pandas as pd
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%matplotlib inline

import numpy as np

from pandas import read_csv

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path = r”C:\pima-indians-diabetes.csv”

headernames = [‘preg’, ‘plas’, ‘pres’, ‘skin’, ‘test’, ‘mass’, ‘pedi’, ‘age’, ‘class’]
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data = read_csv(path, names = headernames)

array = data.values

X = array[:,0:8]
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Y = array[:,8]

data.shape

(768, 9)
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data.head()”
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Notes

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4.2.7 Router Configuration

When we initially turn on our Router, it always has some default settings.

The show running-config command displays the router’s initial settings.

The details are extensive. With the assistance of two screenshots, I’ve displayed
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an example of a few of the significant lines shown by the router when we type the show
running-config command into the router.

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Router# show running-config

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Figure: Router configuration output 1

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Figure: Router configuration output 2

All of the interfaces are down, and no IP addresses or routes are assigned to any
of the router’s ports or interfaces, as shown in the above default setup settings.
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#1) Now we must setup the router with some fundamental characteristics, such as
activating the hostname, password, and the configuration terminal.

#2) The configure terminal mode must be enabled in order to configure the router
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from the remote end using the console port.

#3) We can log into the router with the username and password from the remote
end machine by using telnet.
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 218 Network Basics

IP address or telnet router name

Notes

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Telnet 10.180.196.42 is an example.

Router1 is the username and password for logging in (specify login id, here login id

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is Router1)

******** Password:

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enable Router>

#4) With the aid of the following, you will have a better understanding.

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Router> enable is an example.

Router# terminal configuration

—— Router(config)# The router has now entered configuration mode. It is possible

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to configure the system.

#5) The hostname (router name) and password must now be defined.

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# hostname Router(config) Router X Router(config)# exit

#6) We use the “Ping” command to determine if the router’s, switch’s, or any other
host’s far end IP is reachable or not from the remote end. It’s an important command
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that may also be used locally on your PC to assess IP reachability.
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Ping Command Output from RouterX# ping 10.10.100.1
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Figure: Ping Output

The above result indicates that the ping was successful, and that the IP address
may be reached. It’s also used to make if the loopback interface is working.
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If we do not receive a response, it signifies that we are unable to contact the IP for
whatever reason.
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Check your Understanding

Fill in the blanks:

1. In order to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the network layer
must determine the best route through which _________ can be transmitted.
(c

2. In case of random walks, a packet sent by the node to one of its __________
randomly.

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3. An ___________ algorithm is also known as dynamic routing algorithm.

Notes

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4. ___________ routing algorithm is also known as a static routing algorithm.
5. In case of flooding, every incoming packet is sent to all the _________ except the

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one from it has been reached.

Summary

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●● The network layer must find the optimum path by which packets may be
transmitted in order to send packets from source to destination.
●● In this section, we first looked at several routing strategies. First, we looked at how

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to identify the best route between two routers. On the graph, the algorithm finds
the shortest path between them. There are several techniques for determining the
shortest path between two nodes in a graph.

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●● Then we looked at floods. Every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing
line except the one from whence it arrived in flooding. Although this approach
is fairly simple to construct, it creates a large number of redundant packets. It
identifies all paths, including the ideal one, thus it is resilient and performs well.

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●● Following that, we investigated the Belman-Ford routing method. Each host in this
algorithm keeps a routing table. Every other router in the subnet has an entry in
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this routing table. These tables are kept up to date by exchanging information with
neighbours.
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●● Following that, we looked at the link state routing method. In computer networks,
shortest path algorithms seek to identify the shortest pathways between network
nodes in order to reduce routing costs. They are straightforward implementations
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of graph theory’s suggested shortest route algorithms.

Activity
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1. Alice and Bob are responsible for implementing Dijkstra’s algorithm at the nodes in
a network running a link-state protocol. On her nodes, Alice implements a minimum-
cost algorithm. On his nodes, Bob implements a “shortest number of hops” algorithm.
Give an example of a network topology with 4 or more nodes in which a routing loop
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occurs with Alice and Bob’s implementations running simultaneously in the same
network. Assume that there are no failures.

Question and Answers

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1. Explain reverse path forwarding in brief.

2. What is Pruning?
3. Write short note on shortest path algorithm.
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4. Define flooding with an example.

Glossary
●● Forwarding: The router takes packets from its input ports, verifies their headers,
(c

does some basic duties such as verifying checksums, and then looks up in the
routing table to identify the proper output port to dump the packets into, and then
passes the packets to that output port.

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 220 Network Basics

●● Routing: Routing is the process by which a router determines the optimal path for
Notes

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a packet to take to reach its destination. It does so by maintaining a routing table
that is created only by the router using various methods.

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●● Input Port: This is the interface through which packets are admitted into the router;
it performs several key functions, including terminating the physical link at the
router (the leftmost part in the diagram below), interoperating with the link-layer

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(decapsulation), and looking up the forwarding table to determine the appropriate
output port based on the destination address (the last part of the input port).
●● Switching Fabric: This is the router’s brain, and it links the input and output ports.

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It’s a form of network within a network.
●● Output Port: This is the section of the router from which packets are sent out. The
output port examines its queuing buffers (queuing buffers are generated when
several packets must be communicated over the same output port) and accepts

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packets, performs link layer tasks, and ultimately transmits the packets to an
outgoing link.
●● Routing Processor: This component executes routing protocols and functions

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similarly to a standard CPU. It uses a variety of routing methods, such as the link-
state algorithm and the distance-vector algorithm, to create a forwarding table that
is used to identify the route and output port.
●●
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Input: A network graph with a source node.
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●● Output: The shortest path from s to all other nodes.

Further Readings:
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1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 2002.
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3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.

Check your Understanding-Answers

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Fill in the blanks:

1. packet
2. adaptive routing
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3. Non-adaptive
4. outgoing links
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5. neighbors
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Unit - 4.3 : Congestion Control

Notes

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Objectives

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to

●● Define congestion

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●● List the factors for the occurrence of congestion in the Network
●● Differentiate between congestion control and flow control

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●● Outline the general principles of congestion Control
●● Discuss congestion prevention mechanism.

Introduction

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Congestion control refers to the methods used to reduce or eliminate traffic
congestion. Techniques for reducing traffic congestion can be divided into two groups:
Congestion control rules with an open loop are used to prevent congestion before it

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occurs. The source or the destination is in charge of congestion control.

4.3.1 Approaches to Congestion Control

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Congestion occurs when the load is higher than the network’s available resources
can handle. In most cases, we will try to alleviate congestion by increasing resources or
decreasing load, but this is not always a smart idea.
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Figure: Congestion Control Approaches

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There are several ways for network congestion control that are often used on
various time scales to either avoid or respond to congestion after it has happened.

Let’s take a look at these techniques one by one, as listed below.

Step 1: The most fundamental method of avoiding congestion is to design a

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network that is well suited to the traffic it transports. When more traffic is aimed but only
a low-bandwidth link is available, congestion is inevitable.

Step 2 When there is severe congestion, resources like as routers and connections
)A

can be added dynamically. This is referred to as provisioning, and it takes place over a
period of months and is influenced by long-term patterns.

Step 3: To make the most of current network capacity, routers may be configured
to follow traffic patterns, allowing them to be active throughout the day when network
(c

users are consuming more and sleeping in various time zones.

Step 4: Some local radio stations have helicopters flying around their cities

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 222 Network Basics

reporting on traffic congestion so that their mobile listeners may route their packages
Notes

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(cars) avoid congested areas. This type of routing is known as traffic aware routing.

Step 5: Increasing capacity is not always possible. Only by reducing the load

in
can congestion be alleviated. New connections can be rejected in a virtual circuit
network if they would cause the network to become overcrowded. This is referred to as
admissions control.

nl
Step 6. Routers can monitor average load, queueing latency, and packet loss. In
all of these circumstances, an increase in the number implies increased congestion.
Packets that the network cannot deliver are forced to be discarded. Load shedding is

O
the usual term for this. Congestion collapse can be avoided with a better method for
selecting which packets to reject.

4.3.2 Traffic-aware Routing

ty
The first method we’ll look at is traffic aware routing. Changes in topology were
accommodated by these methods, but not changes in load. Routing can be customised
to traffic patterns that change during the day as network users rise and sleep in various

si
zones, with the objective of making the most of current network capacity.

By altering the shortest path weight, routes may be altered to divert traffic away
r
from congested areas. Some radio stations employ helicopters that hover about their
cities reporting on traffic congestion so that their mobile attendants may route their
ve
packets around the hotspot. Traffic-aware routing is the term for this. It’s a good idea to
split traffic up into several paths. According to this approach, it was utilised on the early
internet.
ni

Diagram description:
Consider the figure’s network, which is divided into two halves, east and west, and
is connected by two connections, CF and EL.
U

Assume that the majority of traffic flows between east and west via connection CF,
resulting in a severely congested connection with a considerable latency.
ity

EL will be more appealing if queuing is included in the weight used for short path
computation.

New routing tables have been installed, and the majority of east-west traffic will be
routed through EL, making CF seem to be the quickest option.
m
)A
(c

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As a result, it may swing considerably, resulting in unpredictable routing and a slew

Notes

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of other issues. This does not happen if the load is disregarded and just bandwidth
and propagation delay are evaluated. Attempt to incorporate load, however changing
weights over a wide range will simply slow down routing oscillations. A successful

in
solution can be achieved using two strategies. In the initial multipath routing, many
pathways from source to destination are possible.

nl
It has the following characteristics:

●● It is a congestion method.
●● As traffic patterns fluctuate during the day, these roots may be adjusted according

O
to traffic patterns. As network users, we can sleep in various time zones.
●● As there are highly used pathways, roots can be altered to redirect traffic.
●● Multiple pathways can be used to separate traffic.

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4.3.3 Admission Control
Congestion control refers to the methods used to reduce or eliminate traffic

si
congestion. Techniques for reducing traffic congestion can be divided into two groups:

r
ve
ni

Controlling Congestion in an Open Loop

Congestion control rules with an open loop are used to prevent congestion before it
U

occurs. The source or the destination is in charge of congestion control.

Open loop congestion control policies are as follows: Retransmission Policy:

It is the policy that handles packet retransmission. If the sender believes a packet
ity

has been lost or damaged, the packet must be resent. The network may become more
congested as a result of this broadcast.

Retransmission times must be designed to avoid congestion while still being able
to maximise efficiency.
m

The sort of window on the sender’s side may also have an impact on the
congestion. Although some packets may be successfully received at the recipient side,
some packets in the Go-back-n timeframe are re-sent. This duplication has the potential
)A

to exacerbate network congestion.

As a result, the Selective Repeat Window should be used since it transmits the
precise packet that was missed.
(c

Disposal Policy: A good discarding strategy chosen by routers is that it allows them
to avoid congestion while also partially rejecting corrupted or less sensitive packages
while maintaining message quality.

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When transmitting audio files, routers might reject less sensitive packets to save
Notes

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congestion while maintaining the audio file’s quality.

Acknowledgment Policy :

in
As acknowledgements are part of the network’s load, the acknowledgment policy
enforced by the receiver may have an impact on congestion. Congestion caused by
acknowledgement can be avoided using a variety of methods.

nl
Rather than sending acknowledgement for a single packet, the receiver should
send acknowledgement for N packets. Only when a packet must be sent, or a timer
expires should the recipient provide an acknowledgement.

O
Admission Policy: A technique should be employed in admission policy to reduce
congestion. Before transmitting a network flow farther, switches in a flow should assess
its resource requirements. To avoid further congestion, the router should prohibit

ty
creating a virtual network connection if there is a probability of congestion or if the
network is already congested. All of the measures listed above are implemented to
prevent network congestion before it occurs.

si
After congestion has occurred, closed loop congestion control techniques are employed
to cure or alleviate it. Different protocols employ a variety of strategies, including the following:

r
Backpressure: Backpressure is a mechanism in which a crowded node prevents
packets from reaching it from upstream nodes. This might lead the upstream node
ve
or nodes to become overburdened and refuse to accept data from the nodes above.
Backpressure is a congestion control strategy that spreads in the reverse direction of
data flow from node to node. The backpressure approach can only be used on virtual
circuits in which each node knows knowledge about the node above it.
ni

Choke Packet Technique: The choke packet technique may be used on both virtual
and datagram subnets. A choke packet is a message delivered by a node to the source
informing it that the network is congested. Each router keeps track of its resources and
U

how much each of its output lines is being used. The router sends a choke packet to
the source if resource use exceeds the threshold value defined by the administrator,
providing it feedback to minimise traffic. Congestion is not reported to the intermediate
ity

nodes via which the packets passed.

Implicit Signaling: There is no communication between the congested nodes and

the source in implicit signalling. The source speculates that a network is congested.
When a sender transmits multiple packets and does not receive an acknowledgement
m

for a long period of time, one assumption is that there is congestion.

Explicit Signaling: If a node encounters congestion, it can send a packet to the source
or destination to tell the source or destination about the congestion. The difference between
)A

choke packet and explicit signalling is that with explicit signalling, the signal is contained in
the data packets rather than producing a separate packet as in choke packet.

4.3.4 Load Shedding

(c

Congestion management strategies include admission control, choke packets, and

fair queuing. However, if these efforts fail to alleviate the congestion, load shedding will
be implemented.

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The load shedding concept asserts that when a router is swamped with packets
Notes

e
that it can’t handle, it should simply throw them away.

A router that is overburdened with packets can drop any packet at any time. There

in
are, however, better ways to accomplish this.

The policy for discarding a packet is determined by its category. An old packet is
more crucial than a new packet for file transmission. In the case of multimedia, on the

nl
other hand, a fresh packet is more significant than an old one. So, the file transfer policy
is named wine (old is better than new) and the multimedia policy is called milk (new is
better than old).

O
Depending on the applications, an intelligent discard policy can be chosen. The
sender’s cooperation is required to execute such an intelligent discard policy.

The application should provide priority classes to their packets to signify their

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importance.

If this is done, the routers can drop packets from the lowest class first when
discarding packets (i.e., the packets which are least important). The routers will

si
then ignore packets from the following lower class, and so on. To set the priority for
determining a packet’s class, one or more header bits are necessary. In the header of
every ATM cell, one bit is set aside to indicate the priority. Every ATM cell is categorised
as either low or high priority. r
ve
Check your Understanding
Fill in the blanks:

1. Congestion is a state in the network layer that may occur in contrast to the packet
ni

switching technique of________.

2. There are _______techniques used for congestion control.
U

3. In order to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the network layer
must determine the best route through which _________ can be transmitted.
4. In case of random walks, a packet sent by the node to one of its __________
randomly.
ity

5. An ___________ algorithm is also known as dynamic routing algorithm.

Summary
m

●● Congestion occurs when the load is higher than the network’s available resources
can handle. In most cases, we will try to alleviate congestion by increasing
resources or decreasing load, but this is not always a smart idea.
)A

●● To make the most of current network capacity, routers may be configured to follow
traffic patterns, allowing them to be active throughout the day when network users
are consuming more and sleeping in various time zones.
●● Routing can be customised to traffic patterns that change during the day as
network users rise and sleep in various zones, with the objective of making the
(c

most of current network capacity.

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 226 Network Basics

●● This mechanism is different from a leaky bucket algorithm which was used in
Notes

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traffic policing.
●● The bucket in traffic policing is just a counter whereas, a bucket is traffic shaper is

in
a buffer that stores the packets.
●● Then, we gave two broad classification of congestion control; open loop and
closed loop. At the end, we touched upon issues related to congestion control in

nl
packet switched network.

Activity

O
1. Consider an example, where a host is generating data at 30 kbps, which, it can
transmit to the network in several ways Now draw the implementation under two
mechanism: Leaky bucket traffic Shaper and Token bucket traffic Shaper

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Question and Answers
1. Write the differences between Congestion Control vs. Flow Control.
2. What is the difference between leaky bucket traffic shaper and token bucket traffic

si
shaper?
3. What are the different approaches to open loop control?
4. r
Explain in detail on the congestion prevention mechanism.
ve
Glossary
●● Retransmission Policy: As per this policy, if the sender feels that the message
that was sent by him was either lost or corrupted, then the retransmission of the
ni

message occurs. However, retransmission may further lead to congestion but

for this retransmission timer must be designed to avoid congestion and provide
optimal efficiency.
U

●● Acknowledgement policy: Choosing the best acknowledgement policy will control

congestion. Although acknowledgement is also a part of the load in the network
so it will be good for the receiver to send an acknowledgement for the n-packet
after every timer expires rather than to send the acknowledgement for each packet
ity

individually.
●● Admission Policy: In admission policy, the availability of the resources for the
transmission is checked by the switches. If there is a congestion or even a chance
for the same to occur then the router will deny to establish the virtual network
m

connection.
●● Window Policy: There are two window policies being used at the sender side to
control the congestion.
)A

●● Go-Back-N Window: This policy retransmits the entire packet even if the single-
packet lost or corrupt while transmitting. So, this window policy may become the
cause of duplication and will increase the congestion in the network.
●● Selective Repeat Window: This window policy should be a better choice for
(c

congestion control as it retransmits only the selective lost or corrupted data.

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●● Discarding Policy: In the discarding policy, the packet containing less sensitive
Notes

e
data or corrupted data is discarded and keeping the quality of the message
unaffected.

in
●● Closed Loop Congestion Control: This technique is used to remove the congestion
if congestion has already occurred in the network. We have further few techniques
inside closed loop to deal with the connection that already occurred.

nl
Further Readings:
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print

O
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 2002.
3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice

ty
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:

si
1. data transmission
2. two
3. packet r
ve
4. adaptive routing
5. Non-adaptive
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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Unit - 4.4: Internetworking and Internet Protocol

Notes

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Objectives

in
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Define packet switching concept

nl
●● Differentiate between virtual circuit & datagram
●● Understand the functioning of a large number of protocols

O
Introduction
Using a standard data communication protocol and the Internet Routing Protocol,
internetworking facilitates data connectivity between networks owned and controlled by

ty
various businesses. The Internet is the world’s greatest collection of networks, but they
all use the same protocol stack, TCP/IP, to communicate with one another.

si
4.4.1 How Network Connected
A network is made up of two or more computers that are linked together to share
resources (such printers and CDs), exchange files, and allow electronic communication.
r
A network’s computers can be connected by cables, phone lines, radio waves,
ve
satellites, or infrared laser beams.

There are two types of networks that are commonly used:

Wide Area Network (WAN) and Local Area Network (LAN)

ni

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), a Wireless LAN (WLAN), or a Wireless WAN

may also be mentioned (WWAN).

The Local Area Network (LAN)

U

How to connect a Windows machine to the internet? You may accomplish this
using a wireless network by utilising your computer’s Wi-Fi menu, or you can use an
Ethernet connection to connect the computer directly to the Internet source. Remember
ity

that connecting to a network differs from setting up a wired computer network, such as
one found in an office.

Let’s follow simple steps:

m

Method 1: Using Wi-Fi

Check to see if your network is up and working. The network’s modem must
be linked to an Internet output (e.g., a cable outlet), the network’s router must be
)A

connected to the modem, and both the router and the modem must be switched on in
order to connect to an Internet network.

A built-in router is available on some modems.

The status lights on the modem and/or router may be used to check the status
(c

of your Internet connection. If your Internet connection appears to be shaky, consider

switching to Ethernet rather than Wi-Fi.

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Click the icon labelled “Wi-Fi.” It’s on the right side of the taskbar, near the
Notes

e
bottom-right corner of the screen. A pop-up menu with a list of accessible networks
appears when you click the Wi-Fi symbol.

in
To see the Wi-Fi symbol, first click Image labelled in the lower-right corner of the
screen.

If required, turn on Wi-Fi. If a notice appears at the top of the pop-up menu that

nl
says “Wi-Fi Turned off,” click the Wi-Fi box in the bottom-left corner of the pop-up menu
before proceeding.

Choose the name of your wireless network. To connect to a wireless network, click

O
the name of the network. The name of the network will change.

You may need to go closer to your router/modem if you don’t see your network’s
name.

ty
If the network hasn’t been set up previously, the name of your router/modem,
model number, and/or manufacturer will most likely be in the title.

si
Connect by clicking the Connect button. In the pop-up menu, it’s below the
network’s extended name.

Enter the password for the network. Fill in the password you used to log onto your
network in the text box that opens. r
ve
The password may normally be found on a sticker on the bottom or back of the
router (or modem/router combo) if you haven’t changed the network’s password from
the factory default.
ni

If the network doesn’t have a password, you can connect to it by clicking Connect
in the previous step.

Next should be selected. It’s located beneath the password input form. This will
U

prompt you to enter your password and connect your computer to the network.

Wait for the network to establish a connection. When your computer has completed
its connection to the network, the term “Connected” should show underneath the
ity

network’s name. At this moment, you may start utilising the Internet on your computer.

Method 2: Using Ethernet

Check to see if your network is up and working. The network’s modem must be
linked to an Internet output (e.g., a cable outlet) and your router must be connected
m

to the modem in order to connect to an Internet network. Both of the units must be
switched on.
)A

A built-in router is available on some modems.

You can connect your computer directly to the modem instead of using the router
if you don’t require the Internet to be available to wireless objects or users on your
network.
(c

If you don’t already have one, get one. Ethernet cables link networked devices
(such as your computer or router) to a modem or a connected router. Ethernet cables
are available at most electronics retailers, as well as at online sites.

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If you can’t move your computer, make sure the Ethernet cable you buy is long
Notes

e
enough to reach from your router or modem to your computer.

Your Ethernet cable should not exceed 100 metres in length, with 90 metres being

in
the most typical effective length.

On your router or modem, look for an open Ethernet port. The Ethernet ports
on the back of your router and modem are square holes. “Internet” or “Ethernet” is

nl
frequently posted above or next to the Ethernet port on your router that you may utilise.
It’s possible that your router has numerous ports.

Most modems have only one “Internet” port, which is used to connect the modem

O
to the router.

Before proceeding, disconnect the router from the modem’s Ethernet connection
if you’re connecting your computer directly to the modem on a network that utilises a

ty
separate router.

Find the Ethernet port on your computer. On your PC, look for the square Ethernet
port. If your computer has an Ethernet port, it’s most likely on one of the laptop’s sides

si
or on the back of the tower (desktop).

If your computer is missing an Ethernet port, you’ll need to purchase a USB-to-

Ethernet adapter.
r
ve
Connect your computer to your modem or router. Connect one end of the Ethernet
cable to a free port on your router or modem, then the other end to an Ethernet port on
your computer.

As the ends of Ethernet cables are interchangeable, it doesn’t matter which end
ni

goes into the computer or router.

Before connecting your computer to the router or modem, plug the USB end of the
Ethernet adapter you bought into one of your computer’s USB ports if your PC doesn’t
U

have one.

Allow your computer to connect to the Internet while you wait. Your computer
will connect to the network after it detects the Ethernet connection; you should see a
ity

computer monitor-shaped icon appear on the right side of the taskbar where the “Wi-Fi”
Image symbol appear. You may now use your computer to access the Internet.

4.4.2 Tunnelling
m

When source and destination networks of the same kind must be linked through
a network of a different type, a technique known as tunnelling is utilised. Consider an
Ethernet that is connected to another Ethernet over a WAN as follows:
)A

The job is transmitted across a WAN from host A of Ethernet-1 to host B of

Ethernet-2.
(c

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Notes

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in
nl
O
ty
The following is the sequence of events:

Host A creates a packet that includes Host B’s IP address.

si
The IP packet is subsequently inserted into an Ethernet frame, which is directed to
the multiprotocol router M1.

The frame is then sent across Ethernet by Host A.

r
When M1 gets this frame, it discards the IP packet and replaces it with the payload
ve
packet of the WAN network layer packet, which it addresses to M2. The IP packet is
removed by the multiprotocol router M2 and sent to host B in an Ethernet frame.

What is the meaning of the term “Tunnelling”?

ni

The IP packet in this scenario does not have to deal with the WAN, and neither do
the hosts A and B. IP and WAN packets will be understood by the multiprotocol routers
M1 and M2. As a result, the WAN may be compared to a large tunnel connecting
U

multiprotocol routers M1 and M2, and the process is known as Tunnelling.

Tunnelling makes use of a layered protocol paradigm like the OSI or TCP/IP
protocol suite. In other words, when data travels from host A to host B, it traverses
ity

all layers of the specified protocol (OSI, TCP/IP, and so on), and data conversion
(encapsulation) to fit different interfaces of the particular layer is referred to as
tunnelling.

4.4.3 Packet Fragmentation

m

Fragmentation is an essential network layer function. Gateways use this approach

to split up or divide big packets into smaller fragments. After then, each fragment is
)A

delivered as its own internal packet. There is a different header and trailer for each
segment.

When a fragmented datagram encounters a network that handles smaller

fragments, it may become fragmented again. As a result, a datagram may be
fragmented many times before arriving at its final destination. It is difficult to reverse
(c

the fragmentation process. As each fragment has become an individual datagram,

reassembling pieces is normally done by the destination host.

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 232 Network Basics

Transparent Fragmentation and Non-Transparent Fragmentation are two

Notes

e
alternative methodologies for recombination or reassembly of fragments.

Fragmentation that is transparent:

in
This fragmentation is carried out by one network and is invisible to all subsequent
networks through which packets traverse. Whenever a big packet arrives at a gateway,
it is broken down into smaller fragments, as seen in the accompanying image.

nl
Following that, each fragment will target the same exit gateway. Existing network
gateways reconstruct or recombine all fragments. For example, in the accompanying
diagram, network 1’s G2 recombines all fragments formed by G1 before delivering them

O
to network 2. As a result, the subsequent network is unaware of the fragmentation.
ATM networks employ this sort of technique. These networks make use of specific
technology that allows packet fragmentation to be done invisibly.

ty
r si
ve
Figure: Transparent fragmentation

The following are some of the drawbacks of the transparency strategy:

When a network’s exit fragment recombines fragments, it must know when it has
ni

received all fragments.

Some pieces use distinct exit gates, resulting in poor performance.

U

It adds a significant amount of overhead to continually fragment and reassemble

huge packets.

Non-Transparent Fragmentation: When a packet is fragmented, it is not

ity

transparent to the successive networks through which it goes. As demonstrated in the

diagram below, packets fragmented by a network gateway are not recombined by a
network’s exit gateway.

Each fragment of a packet is considered as the original packet once it has been
m

fractured. All pieces of a packet are sent through the exit gateway, where they are
recombined at the destination host.
)A
(c

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 Network Basics 233

Non-transparent fragmentation
Notes

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The following are some of the disadvantages of non-transparent fragmentation:

●● Every host has the potential to reconstruct fragments.

in
●● When a packet is fragmented, the pieces should be numbered in order to
reassemble the original data stream.

nl
●● As each fragment must have its own header, total overhead rises as a result of
fragmentation.

O
4.4.5 IP Version 4 Protocol
IP stands for Internet Protocol, while v4 refers to the fourth version of the protocol
(IPv4). In 1983, the ARPANET’s major version, IPv4, was put into use for production.

ty
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that are written in decimal format.

An IPv4 address, for example, may be 192.0.2.126.

si
IPv4’s components
Part of the network: IP stands for Internet Protocol, while v4 refers to the fourth
version of the protocol (IPv4). In 1983, the ARPANET’s major version, IPv4, was put
into use for production. r
ve
IPv4 addresses are 32-bit integers that are written in decimal format.

An IPv4 address, for example, may be 192.0.2.126.

ni

IPv4’s components
Part of the network: The network component specifies the distinct variation
assigned to the network. The network portion also identifies the network category that
U

has been assigned.

Host Component: The host part identifies the computer on your network in a unique
way. Every host is given this portion of the IPv4 address. The network component
ity

specifies the distinct variation assigned to the network. The network portion also
identifies the network category that has been assigned. The host part identifies the
computer on your network in a unique way. Every host is given this portion of the IPv4
address.
m

The network component of each host on the network is the same, but the host half
must differ. The non-obligatory portion of IPv4 is the subnet number. Local networks
with a large number of hosts are separated into subnets, each with its own subnet
number.
)A

IPv4 Characteristics
●● IPv4 addresses can be 32 bits long.
●● IPv4 can be a numeric address with a dot separating the bits.
(c

●● There are twelve header fields, each of which is twenty characters long.
●● Unicast, broadcast, and multicast addresses are available.
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 234 Network Basics

●● VLSM is supported by IPv4 (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).

Notes

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●● The Post Address Resolution Protocol is used by IPv4 to map to the MAC address.
●● The routed daemon may support RIP as a routing protocol.

in
●● Networks should be designed manually or via DHCP.
●● Packet fragmentation is allowed by routers and causes host problems.

nl
IPv4’s Advantages
●● Encryption is possible with IPv4 security to maintain privacy and security.

O
●● The IPV4 network allotment is considerable, with over 85000 operational routers
now.
●● It becomes simple to connect several devices over a large network without using

ty
NAT.
●● This is a communication paradigm that delivers both excellent service and cost-
effective knowledge transfer.

si
●● IPV4 addresses have been renamed to allow for perfect encoding.
●● Routing is more scalable and cost-effective since addressing is done more
efficiently.
●●
r
In multicast organisations, data transfer across the network becomes much more
ve
specialised.

Disadvantages
●● Existing users’ net growth is limited, while new users’ use of the internet is
ni

hampered.
●● In IPv4, internet routing is inefficient.
U

●● IPv4’s System Management costs are expensive, and it’s labor-intensive,

complicated, unreliable, and prone to mistakes.
●● Security elements are optional.
ity

●● It’s difficult to include future wishes as a result of the high overhead of putting it on
since it limits the ability to connect things through IP.

4.4.6 IPV4 Network Addresses

m

The Internet Protocol hierarchy has different kinds of IP Addresses that may
be utilised effectively in a variety of contexts depending on the needs of hosts on a
network. The IPv4 Addressing System is separated into five types of IP Addresses in
)A

general. The first byte of an IP address identifies all five types.

IP addresses are assigned by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN).

The leftmost octet is the first one mentioned here. The dotted decimal notation of
(c

IP Address is represented by the octets numbers as follows:

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Notes

e
in
This formula may be used to calculate the number of networks and hosts per class.

nl
Number of networks = 2^network_bits

Number of hosts/network = 2^host_bits-2

O
Two IP addresses are reduced when computing hosts’ IP addresses since they
cannot be given to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network number and the last IP
is reserved for Broadcast IP.

ty
Addresses in Class A
The first octet’s first bit is always set to zero (zero). As a result, the first byte runs
from 1 to 127, indicating that Class A addresses only comprise IP addresses ranging

si
from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x. Loopback IP addresses are assigned to the 127.x.x.x IP range.

00000001 - 01111111

1 - 127 r
ve
Class A IP addresses have a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0, which means that
there can be 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2).

The format of a Class A IP address is as follows: 0 NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.

HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
ni

Address for Class B

U

The first two bits of the first octet of a class B IP address are set to 10, i.e. Class B
Addresses

Class B IP addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. 255.255.x.x is the

default subnet mask for Class B.
ity

10000000 - 10111111

128 - 191

16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses make up Class
m

B.

The following is the format for a Class B IP address: 10 NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.

)A

HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Addresses of Class C
The first three bits of a Class C IP address are set to 110, which means
(c

The range of Class C IP addresses is 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. 255.255.255.x is

the default subnet mask for Class C.

11000000 - 11011111
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 236 Network Basics

192 - 223
Notes

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The range of Class C IP addresses is 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. 255.255.255.x is
the default subnet mask for Class C.

in
2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses are assigned to
Class C.

nl
110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH

Address Type D

O
In Class D IP addresses, the first four bits of the first octet are set to 1110, resulting
in a range of

11100000 - 11101111

ty
224 - 239

Addresses in Class D

si
The IP address range for Class D is 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Multicasting is
assigned to Class D. As data in multicasting is not intended for a specific host, there is
no need to extract the host address from the IP address, thus Class D has no subnet
mask. r
ve
Addresses in Class E
This IP Class is exclusively for research and development (R&D) or study
purposes. The range of IP addresses in this class is 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. This
ni

class, like Class D, is also devoid of a subnet mask.

IP Version 6 Protocol
U

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) created IP v6 to address the issue
of IP v4 depletion. IPv6 is a 128-bit address with a 228-bit address space, which is
significantly larger than IPv4. We utilise Colon-Hexa representation in IPv6. There are
eight groups, each of which represents two bytes.
ity

We have three addressing ways in IPv6 representation:

m

●● Unicast
●● Multicast
)A

●● Anycast
1. Unicast Address - A single network interface is identified by a Unicast Address. A
packet submitted to a unicast address is delivered to the interface that address
identifies.
(c

2. Multicast Address - A multicast destination address is acquired by a group of

computers known as a multicast address. These hosts do not have to be in the same

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 Network Basics 237

location. If you send a packet to this multicast address, it will be disseminated to all
Notes

e
interfaces that match that multicast address.

Prefix Allocation Fraction of Address Space

in
0000 0000 Reserved 1/256
0000 0001 Unassigned (UA) 1/256
0000 001 Reserved for NSAP 1/128

nl
0000 01 UA 1/64
0000 1 UA 1/32
0001 UA 1/16

O
001 Global Unicast 1/8
010 UA 1/8
011 UA 1/8

ty
100 UA 1/8
101 UA 1/8
110 UA 1/8
1110 UA 1/16

si
1111 0 UA 1/32
1111 10 UA 1/64
1111 110
1111 1110 0
UA
UA
r 1/128
1/512
ve
1111 1111 10 Link-Local Unicast Addresses 1/1024
1111 1110 11 Site-Local Unicast Addresses 1/1024
1111 1111 Multicast Address 1/256
ni

3. Anycast Address - An Anycast Address is a number that is assigned to a collection

of interfaces. Only one member interface will receive any packet sent to an anycast
address (mostly nearest host possible).
U

Note that with IPv6, the term “broadcast” is not defined.

IPv6 address types include:

We have 128 bits in an IPv6 address, but we can tell what sort of address it is
ity

simply looking at the first few bits.

Note: In IPv6, all 0s and 1s can be assigned to any host; unlike IPv4, there are no
restrictions.
m

Unicast addresses based on the provider: These are used for worldwide
communication.

This kind is identified by the first three bits.

)A

The Registry Id (5-bit) specifies the area to which it belongs. Only four registry IDs
are utilised out of 32 (i.e. 25).

Provider Id: The number of service providers operating in an area determines how
many bits are assigned to the Provider Id field. This field isn’t required to be corrected.
(c

If the Subscriber Id is 56 – 10 = 46 bits, the Provider Id is 10 bits.

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 238 Network Basics

After the Provider Id has been adjusted, the remaining portion can be utilised by
Notes

e
the ISP as a regular IP address.

Unicast addresses based on the provider: These are used for worldwide

in
communication.

This kind is identified by the first three bits.

nl
O
The Registry Id (5-bit) specifies the area to which it belongs. Only four registry IDs
are utilised out of 32 (i.e. 25).

Provider Id: The number of service providers operating in an area determines how

ty
many bits are assigned to the Provider Id field. This field isn’t required to be corrected.
If the Subscriber Id is 56 – 10 = 46 bits, the Provider Id is 10 bits.

After the Provider Id has been adjusted, the remaining portion can be utilised by

si
the ISP as a regular IP address.

Registry Id Registry
10000 Multi Regional (IANA)
r
01000 RIPE NCC
ve
11000 INTER NIC
00100 APNIC
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The global routing prefix comprises all of the information about latitude and
U

longitude. It is not in use at the moment. Unicast address routing will be based on
geography in Geography-based Unicast.

Interface Id: In IPv6, we use the term Interface Id instead of Host Id.
ity

Here are a few special addresses:

— Unspecified
m

Local Unicast Addresses: Local Unicast addresses are divided into two categories:
)A

link-local and site-local.

(c

A link-local address is a type of address that is used to address a single link. It

can also talk with other nodes on the same connection. 1111111010 is always the first

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 Network Basics 239

number in the link-local address (i.e. FE80). Any packet having a Link-local address will
Notes

e
be dropped by the router.

in
Site local address: In IPv4, a site local address is the same as a private IP address.

nl
It’s likely that certain address space has been set aside that can only be routed within
a company. As the first ten bits are set to 1111111011, Site local addresses always start
with FEC0.

O
ty
4.4.8 IPV6 Network Addresses
IPv6 operates with addresses in the same way as IPv4 did. However, an IPv4

si
address is 32 bits long, and an IPv6 address is 128 bits long. This implies we have
a total of 2128 addresses to choose from (the number is 340,282,366,920,938,463,46
3,374,607,431,768,211,456 and reads as 340 undecillion). This is a massive number,
r
and writing it in dotted notation would be lengthy and difficult to read: instead of four
numbers, we’d have 16 in dotted notation. As a result, we altered the way the address
ve
is shown.

A block of four hexadecimal digits is used to represent an IPv6 address, with

columns separating each block from the next. Each block will represent two bytes
ni

because a single hexadecimal digit may represent four bits (16 bits). We were able to
cut the number of blocks from 16 to 8, but there is still room for improvement. As the
addressing space is much larger than the one, we require today, it’s extremely possible
that you’ll discover numerous zeroes in IPv6 addresses. As a result, you’ll be writing
U

entire blocks of zeroes. Fortunately, each block’s preceding zeroes may be ignored. We
have a rather compact address this way, but we can do a lot better.
ity
m
)A

If you have a series of zero-valued blocks, you can express them as a single empty
block (two consecutive columns). This can clearly only be done once, because if you
do it twice in the same address, you’ll have no idea how to get the address back to its
(c

“regular” condition. As a result, we now have a very short address: take a look at the
image below.

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 240 Network Basics

Notes

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in
By eliminating some zeroes, an IPv6 address can be rendered in a compact

nl
manner, as stated.

It’s vital to realise that while we can decrease and compress the way we represent
an IPv6 address for readability, we can’t reduce the way it’s kept in the computer’s

O
memory: it’ll always take up 128 bits and be considered as a 128-bit number. With that
in mind, we can see how IPv4 addresses may be broken down into three parts: the
major, the Subnet ID, and the Host ID. As we no longer have majors, IPv6 is a little
different.

ty
In the same way that the IPv4 Subnet ID represents a group of IPv4 addresses, the
network prefix represents a group of IPv6 addresses. The Interface ID is quite similar
to the IPv4 Host ID, however the principle is slightly different. We were accustomed

si
to thinking of IP addresses as being tied to hosts in version 4, but the truth is that an
IP address is related to the network interface (NIC), and a host can have numerous
addresses if it has several NICs. IPv6 was also used to fix this aesthetic flaw.
r
Furthermore, with IPv6, there are no subnet masks; instead, a CIDR-like notation (slash
ve
notation) is used to indicate how long the network prefix is, which is typically /64.

You can assume that your Internet Provider is the one that assigns you an IP
address, in this case an IPv6 address. This is entirely true, but whence do providers
get their addresses? Let’s take a different approach and start from the top instead
ni

of the bottom. The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) and the Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) design the Internet, which subsequently
delegate address distribution to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
U

IANA, on the other hand, does not assign addresses to providers directly, but rather
to the five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs). Each RIR is in charge of assigning IP
addresses to a region: AfriNIC is responsible for Africa, APNIC for Asia-Pacific, ARNIC
for North America, LACNIC for Latin America and the Caribbean, and RIPE NNC for
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Europe. They are the ones who issue addresses to Internet Service Providers (or large
businesses), whereas ISPs are the ones that offer addresses to end users. Remember
that you can only get your own address from a RIR, because you can only borrow an
address from the ISP’s addressing space from a provider. As a result, for IPv6, IANA
assigns network prefixes ranging in size from /19 to /32 to RIRs, who subsequently
m

provide addressing space to ISPs in blocks of /48 to /56.

Although the end-user should receive a /64 prefix, this is not always the case, and
)A

even smaller prefixes may be allocated to the end-user. IANA assigns addresses to
RIRs, which subsequently allocate them to ISPs, who lend them to clients. Only /64
network prefixes should be borrowed by final consumers.

IPv6 network prefixes are given exclusively based on geographic location.

This concept was also used in IPv4 and at the start of IPv6, although not as a hard
(c

requirement. Now, because we have a large number of addresses with IPv6, a router
cannot remember a distinct route for each prefix; instead, it should just know how

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 Network Basics 241

to reach Asian prefixes, American prefixes, and so on, saving a lot of memory and
Notes

e
processing resources on the router. Later in the CCNA course, we’ll go over the notion of
summarization.

in
nl
O
The size of the source and destination addresses, which are each 128 bits, is the
first thing you notice when glancing at the header of an IPv6 packet. Other fields are

ty
included to enable for better content delivery management. The following list contains
all of the pertinent information.

si
Version — Indicates the IP protocol version, which is always 6 for IPv6 (the binary
value is 0110).

Despite being shown as a single field, traffic class is really the combination of
r
two smaller elements that determine traffic significance, allowing routers to prioritise
ve
essential traffic above routine traffic. Differentiated services - the first six bits of the
traffic class field are used to indicate the current packet’s importance/priority.

Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) - the final two bits of the traffic class field are
utilised by communicating devices to alert one another about network congestion.
ni

Flow label – this is an identifier for the traffic flow in which this packet is contained;
we almost never send a single IP packet, but rather a series of them; this identifies the
group of packets to which the current packet belongs so that the routers in the path can
U

have a hint and send all packets from the same flow on the same path, ensuring that
they arrive in the correct order at the destination.

The sender’s IPv6 address is the source address.

ity

The receiver’s IPv6 address is the destination address.

m
)A

Figure: IANA assign addresses to RIRs

(c

IPv6’s developers performed an excellent job with the next header field. The
Transport Layer header is the next header we’ll encounter if we utilise a standard IPv6

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 242 Network Basics

header without any extensions. However, if we wish to add any options to the IPv6
Notes

e
header, the next header we’ll meet is an IPv6 header extension, indicating that we
don’t yet have the payload beyond the destination address. The Next Header field is
repeated at the conclusion of each header extension, allowing you to follow numerous

in
extensions one after the other until you reach the finish.

Methods of IPv6 addressing

nl
Unicast, multicast, and broadcast were the three basic forms of addresses
(officially known as addressing techniques) in IPv4. This drastically changes in IPv6:
only unicast and multicast are preserved, while broadcast is removed. We then add

O
link-local and anycast addresses to the mix. You’ll have an entirely different perspective
on IP addressing once you comprehend these new address types.

Link-local

ty
A link-local IPv6 address is one that is only valid within the broadcast domain (it is
local to it). This address is not routable, which means no router can route it because it
must be physically linked, however it may be compared to a Layer 2 address because

si
it functions similarly. In IPv4, we had the APIPA address (169.254.0.0/16), which was
only usable inside the same network segment. However, the aim of this is revolutionary,
as we will see when discussing neighbour detection. Since the link-local address is
r
only valid inside the broadcast domain, another device may have your address in a
ve
separate broadcast domain, or even the same device could have the same link-local
address on each NIC on multiple broadcast domains. The full fe80::/10 network prefix
is reserved for link-local addresses, although only fe80::/64 can be given to interfaces.
In general, the Interface ID component of a link-local address is formed automatically
ni

(unless specifically defined) using the EUI-64 technique: the NIC’s MAC address
is separated into two parts (OUI on the left, NIC specific on the right), then FFFE is
put in between the two. A NIC with a MAC address of 00:19:80:fd:48:de, for example,
will have an EUI-64 of 001980FFFEfd48de, resulting in an IPv6 link-local address of
U

fe80::0019:80ff:fefd:48:de/64.
ity
m
)A
(c

Figure: Representing IPv6 link local addresses

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 Network Basics 243

Multicast
Notes

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If the link-local address was introduced with IPv6, the broadcast addresses were
also removed: both the directed broadcast address and the regular broadcast address.

in
We can’t just do away of the broadcast since we still need a mechanism to convey
information to all nodes on the segment. Instead, we’ll have to come up with new ways
to do what broadcast accomplished. We also totally replaced broadcasts by utilising the

nl
multicast address idea. A multicast address, like IPv4, is an address that is “subscribed”
by several nodes: these nodes will listen to that address. In IPv6, the ff00::/8 prefix is
used for all multicast addresses.

O
Anycast
Since IPv4 does not allow the idea of anycast addresses by default, we must
break the protocol’s specifications in order to implement it. This isn’t the case with IPv6,

ty
because anycast is built-in. Anycast addresses are a hybrid of multicast and unicast
addresses. To be more precise, it’s a unicast address that’s been allocated to a number
of devices all around the world, and instead of identifying the device, it identifies the
services it provides. This allows other devices to point to that service and contact the

si
nearest device that provides that service without having to know what device is closest.

Unicast addresses
r
Unicast addresses are addresses that are only used once. Unicast addresses
ve
are similar to IPv4 addresses in that they are issued to a single interface and used to
identify it over the Internet. Even if IPv6 site-local unicast addresses still behave like
private IPv4 addresses, there is no need to conserve space by multiplexing many
private addresses onto a single public address: each device may be issued its own
ni

public address, and there are enough of them. In this method, rather of using private
addresses, an enterprise’s addressing strategy may be built directly using public
addresses.
U

4.4.9 Internet Control Protocols

Since IP lacks a built-in method for transmitting error and control messages, Error
ity

control is provided through the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). It’s utilised
for mistake reporting and management inquiries. It is a supporting protocol that is
used by network devices such as routers to deliver error messages and operational
information, such as when a requested service is unavailable, or a host or router cannot
be accessed.
m

Type (8 bit) Code (8 bit) Check Sum (16 bit)

Extended Header (32 bit)
)A

Data/Payload/Variable Length)

Source quench message: A source quench message requests a reduction in

the pace at which messages are sent to the host (destination). When a receiving site
detects that the rate at which packets are sent to it (traffic rate) is too rapid, it sends a
(c

source quench message to the source, telling it to slow down so that no packets are
lost.

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 244 Network Basics

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ICMP extracts the source IP from the rejected packet and sends a source quench

ty
message to the source.

The source will then limit the transmission speed so that the router is not clogged.

r si
ve
ni

When the congestion router is far away from the source, ICMP sends a hop-by-hop
source quench message to each router, slowing down the transmission speed.
U

When packets arrive at the router, the computed header checksum must match the
received header checksum, and only then will the packet be allowed by the router.
ity
m
)A

The router will discard packets if there is a mismatch.

(c

ICMP extracts the source IP from the rejected packet and sends a parameter
problem message to the source.

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 Network Basics 245

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
si
When some fragments are lost in a network, the router drops the holding fragment,
r
and ICMP extracts the source IP from the discarded packet and sends a time exceeded
ve
message to the source of the discarded datagram since the time to live field has
reached zero.

Destination un-reachable: The host or its inbound gateway generates this message
to warn the client that the destination is unavailable for whatever reason.
ni
U
ity
m

There is no need that just the router transmits an ICMP error message; sometimes
the destination host sends an ICMP error message when the network experiences any
form of failure (link failure, hardware failure, port failure, etc.).
)A

Redirect message: Redirect requests that data packets be transmitted over a

different path. The message instructs the recipient to change their routing information
(to send packets on an alternate route). For example, if the host attempts to transmit
data through a router R1, and R1 sends data to a router R2, and there is a direct path
from the host to R2, Then R1 will send a redirect message to the host, informing it that
(c

the best path to the destination is to go directly through R2. The host then transmits
data packets to R2 for the destination.

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 246 Network Basics

The original datagram will be sent to the desired destination via router R2.
Notes

e
However, if the datagram contains routing information, even if a better route is
available, this message will not be delivered since redirects should only be issued by

in
gateways and not by Internet hosts.

nl
O
ty
si
When a packet is transmitted in the wrong direction and subsequently redirected in
the correct direction, an ICMP re-directed message is sent.
r
4.4.10 Internet Multicasting
ve
What is Internet multicasting, and How does it Work?

Internet multicasting is an IP-based networking technology that allows a single

source to broadcast several media formats to many endpoints. Multicasting, unlike
ni

traditional peer-to-peer internetworking, which takes a lot of bandwidth, makes effective

use of bandwidth since it uses an asynchronous, one-to-many networking approach, as
seen above.
U
ity
m
)A

Figure: Internet multicasting

The above figure shows the following:

(c

1. Multicast in hosts, for starters. 2. Multicast at the link level 3. The protocol for
connecting a host to a router, also known as the host-to-router protocol. 4. Multicast
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 247

routing within a domain 5. Multicast Routing Between Domains

Notes

e
Multicasting via the Internet protocol (IP) is a variant on network multicasting.
Unlike traditional Internet traffic, where each source-destination pair has its own

in
connection, IP multicasting allows many recipients to share the same source. This
implies that for all destinations, just one set of data packets is sent. IP multicasting is
thus more efficient than standard Internet transmissions for huge volumes of data since

nl
the server may send a message to several recipients at the same time.

Multicasting over a TCP/IP network, such as the Internet, is being developed as

a standard. These standards will make it simple for users to join multicast groups.

O
Multicasting servers are available from a variety of companies. Before choosing on a
product, thoroughly consider your demands and evaluate their offerings.

●● Multicasting that is dependable

ty
●● There is no such thing as multicast-TCP. Why?
●● The issue is how to handle all acknowledgements: ACK-implosions would be
caused by TCP-like ACKs.

si
Ideas:
●● Keep copies of data for retransmission scenarios at acknowledgement
aggregation sites. r
ve
●● Make use of NACKS (Negative acknowledgements)
●● Use forward error correcting codes to send redundant information so that lost
information may be recomputed from the data received (FEC)
ni

●● For the Internet, there is no general-purpose, reliable multicast protocol: Only

application-specific information
●● Video streaming, radio simulation, and Webcasts are all supported through
U

multicasting. Multicasting is also used in teleconferencing and videoconferencing;

however, it requires more robust protocols and a bigger bandwidth.

Applications that use IP Multicast

ity

●● Unicast is a type of point-to-point communication.

●● However, many applications send the same information to many people.
●● Radio, television, teleconferencing, control information distribution, and distributed
m

gaming are just a few examples.

●● However, except for control and IPTV, few people currently utilise native
multicasting.
)A

Check your Understanding

Fill in the blanks:

1. Network management system contains two primary elements: ______ and agents.
(c

2. A fundamental property of the DNS is _______.

3. The Web is a distributed hypertext system, which is implemented as a _______.

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 248 Network Basics

4. __________are server programs, which hold information about the domain tree’s
Notes

e
structure and set information.
5. The next layer, UDP, allows _______ hosts to communicate with one another.

in
Summary
●● A network is made up of two or more computers that are linked together to

nl
share resources (such printers and CDs), exchange files, and allow electronic
communication.
●● You may accomplish this using a wireless network by utilising your computer’s Wi-

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Fi menu, or you can use an Ethernet connection to connect the computer directly
to the Internet source.
●● Internetworking is a very graphically oriented subject, and icons are commonly

ty
used to represent networking devices. These include various types of computers
(a PC and laptop icon are shown), servers, and IP phones. On local area networks
these devices are typically connected by LAN media (wired or wireless).
●● For a network to function, the devices must be interconnected. Network

si
connections can be wired or wireless. In wired connections, the medium is either
copper, which carries electrical signals, or optical fiber, which carries light signals.
●● r
In the first step of its journey from the computer to its destination, our instant
message gets converted into a format that can be transmitted on the network. All
ve
types of messages must be converted to bits, binary coded digital signals, before
being sent to their destinations.
●● The expectation that the Internet is always available to the millions of users who
ni

rely on it requires a network architecture that is designed and built to be fault

tolerant. A fault tolerant network is one that limits the impact of a hardware or
software failure and can recover quickly when such a failure occurs.
U

●● The Internet is currently providing an acceptable level of fault tolerance and

scalability for its users. But new applications available to users over internetworks
create higher expectations for the quality of the delivered services. Voice and live
video transmissions require a level of consistent quality and uninterrupted delivery
ity

that was not necessary for traditional computer applications.

Activity
1. Gather different computer data network symbols.
m

Question and Answers

1. What is Internetworking?
)A

2. Explain what is a web browser and web server?

3. What are the different approaches to open loop control?
4. What is the meaning of the term “Tunnelling”?
(c

Glossary
●● Switch: Switch is the most common device for interconnecting local area networks.

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 Network Basics 249

●● Firewall: It provides security to networks.

Notes

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●● Router: Router helps direct messages as they travel across a network.
●● Wireless Router: It is a specific type of router often found in home networks.

in
●● Cloud: Cloud is used to summarize a group of networking devices, the details of
which may be unimportant to the discussion at hand.

nl
●● Serial Link: It is one form of WAN interconnection, represented by the lightning
bolt-shaped line.
●● Network Interface Card - A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides the physical connection

O
to the network at the PC or other host device. The media connecting the PC to the
networking device plugs directly into the NIC.
●● Physical Port - A connector or outlet on an internetworking device where the media

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is connected to a host or other networking device.
●● Interface - Specialized ports on an internetworking device that connect to
individual networks. Because routers are used to interconnect networks, the ports
on a router are referred to network interfaces.

si
Further Readings:
1.
r
Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
ve
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 2002.
3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.
ni

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
U

1. a manager
2. caching
3. client-server application
ity

4. name servers
5. two
m
)A
(c

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 250 Network Basics

Unit - 4.5 : Subnetting

Notes

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Objectives

in
At the end of this unit, you will be able to

●● Learn subnetting IP networks

nl
●● Describe Block Dimensions
●● Differentiate subnetting as an IPv4 Network

O
●● Understand Addressing Schemes

Introduction
The purpose of subnetting is to establish a computer network that is quick,

ty
efficient, and robust. As networks grow in size and complexity, traffic must find more
efficient paths across them. Bottlenecks and congestion would arise if all network traffic
travelled across the system at the same time, utilising the same path, resulting in slow

si
and wasteful backlogs.

You may limit the number of routers that network traffic must transit through by
creating a subnet. To allow traffic to go the shortest distance feasible, an engineer will
r
effectively establish smaller mini-routes within a larger network.
ve
4.5.1 Subnetting IP Networks
IP Subnetting is the process of breaking up a big IP network into smaller ones.
ni

Subnetting divides a single huge IP network into numerous tiny manageable networks.

Let’s have a look at an example.

U

If we place more than 16000000 hosts in a single network to best use available
addresses, that network would never run owing to broadcast and collision. The
remaining addresses will be squandered if we set fewer hosts.

Subnetting is a more effective technique to handle this scenario. Subnetting allows

ity

us to break up a huge network into smaller networks that not only meet our hosts’
needs but also provide additional networking benefits.

The first step in Subnetting is to identify the network and host portions of an IP
address. Only the host section can be subnetted. In an IP address, the subnet mask is
m

used to separate the network and host portions.

An IP address and a subnet mask work together to give an interface a numeric

)A

identification. Both addresses are always used in the same sentence. An IP address is
unclear without a subnet mask, and a subnet mask is merely a number without an IP
address.

Both addresses have a length of 32 bits. There are four sections to these pieces.
Each portion is referred to as an octet and includes eight bits. Periods separate octets,
(c

which are then written in order.

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 Network Basics 251

Notes

e
in
nl
Each bit of an IP address is assigned a unique bit by the subnet mask. The
allocated subnet mask bit will be turned on if the IP bit belongs to the network portion. If
the IP bit corresponds to the host portion, the assigned subnet mask bit is disabled.

O
The IP address and Subnet mask are commonly written in one of two ways:
decimal notation or binary notation.

ty
A number in the range of 1 to 255 indicates a turned on bit, whereas 0 (zero)
represents a turned off bit in decimal notation.

IP Address: 10.10.10.10

si
Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0

IP Address: 172.168.10.1

Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0 r

ve
IP Address: 192.168.1.1

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

A turned-on bit is represented by 1 (one) in binary notation, whereas a turned off bit
ni

is represented by 0 (zero).
U
ity
m
)A

Subnet
(c

A subnet is a tiny network that has been built from a larger network. Subnetting is
the process of dividing a single big network into many smaller networks. Subnets are
the name for these networks.

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 252 Network Basics

Broadcast address and network address

Notes

e
There are two types of special addresses in each network: network address and
broadcast address. The network address represents the network as a whole, whereas

in
the broadcast address represents all of the network’s hosts. These two addresses can’t
be allocated to a single network host. These two addresses are also used since each
subnet represents a separate network.

nl
The terms Network ID and broadcast ID are used to refer to the network address
and broadcast address, respectively.

O
Valid addresses for hosts
Valid host addresses are any addresses between the Network address and the
Broadcast address. A network’s devices can only be issued legitimate host addresses.
End-user devices such as computers, laptops, tablets, smartphones, IP phones,

ty
servers, printers, terminals, IP cameras, and networking equipment such as switches,
routers, firewalls, and proxy servers are examples of these devices. In summary, each
device that sends data using the IP protocol requires a valid host address.

si
Block Dimensions
The sum of the network address, valid host addresses, and broadcast address
r
determines the block size. For example, if a network has six legitimate hosts, the
ve
network’s block size is eight (1 network address + six valid hosts + one broadcast
address).

The different combinations of IP bits are used to create an IP address. The second
crucial stage in Subnetting is to figure out how many possibilities a given number of bits
ni

delivers or how many combinations we require.

A unique IP address is made up of all 32 numbers.

U

The number of networks or subnets is represented by a combination of network

bits in an IP address.

The number of total hosts is represented by a combination of host bits in an IP

ity

address.

Directions for Subnetting

Subnetting always runs in a single direction (from left to right) with no gaps. This
basic rule tells us where Subnetting bits are in an address space. Let’s have a look at
m

an example.

Four subnets make up a class C network. Determine the amount of host bits
)A

utilised in Subnetting and their address space placement.

2 (22 = 4) Subnetting eligible host bits is required to generate 4 subnets.

The bits utilised in this network are 25 and 26 because Subnetting eligible bits start
at 25 in class C network space and Subnetting always runs from left to right without
(c

missing any bits.

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 Network Basics 253

4.5.2 Subnetting an IPv4 Network

Notes

e
Each IP class has its own default subnet mask, which limits the number of
Networks and Hosts per network to a certain amount. Classful IP addressing does not

in
allow for a reduction in the number of hosts per network or an increase in the number of
networks per IP class.

CIDR, or Classless Inter Domain Routing, allows you to borrow pieces of the

nl
IP address’s Host component and use them as a Network in Network, or Subnet.
Subnetting allows a single Class A IP address to be utilised to create smaller sub-
networks, allowing for improved network administration.

O
Subnets of Class A
Only the first octet is used as a Network identification in Class A, while the
remaining three octets are used to allocate Hosts (i.e. 16777214 Hosts per Network).

ty
Bits from the Host portion are borrowed and the subnet mask is altered to form extra
subnets in Class A.

si
If one MSB (Most Significant Bit) is borrowed from the host bits of the second octet
and appended to the Network address, two Subnets (21=2) are created, each having
(223-2) 8388606 hosts.

r
Subnetting is reflected by changing the Subnet mask. A list of all conceivable Class
ve
A subnet combinations is shown below.

Subnetting is the process of dividing a large network into smaller ones. Subnets
are the technical term for this. This procedure is commonly used to free up more
public IPv4 addresses and to divide networks for better administration and security. To
ni

completely comprehend what subnetting entails, you must first comprehend the binary
and decimal structure of an IP address.

We’ll start with the basics to make things clearer. The IP address is similar to this:
U

194.168.1.28. It is vital to note that the IPv4 address is a 32-bit number that is further
divided into four 8-bit integers, also known as octets, to make it more uniform.

Network Bits Subnet Mask Bits Borrowed Subnets Hosts/Subnet

ity

8 255.0.0.0 0 1 16777214
9 255.128.0.0 1 2 8388606
10 255.192.0.0 2 4 4194302
m

11 255.224.0.0 3 8 2097150
12 255.240.0.0 4 16 1048574
13 255.248.0.0 5 32 524286
)A

14 255.252.0.0 6 64 262142
15 255.254.0.0 7 128 131070
16 255.255.0.0 8 256 65534
17 255.255.128.0 9 512 32766
(c

18 255.255.192.0 10 1024 16382

19 255.255.224.0 11 2048 8190

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 254 Network Basics

20 255.255.240.0 12 4096 4094

Notes

e
21 255.255.248.0 13 8192 2046
22 255.255.252.0 14 16384 1022

in
23 255.255.254.0 15 32768 510
24 255.255.255.0 16 65536 254

nl
25 255.255.255.128 17 131072 126
26 255.255.255.192 18 262144 62
27 255.255.255.224 19 524288 30

O
28 255.255.255.240 20 1048576 14
29 255.255.255.248 21 2097152 6
30 255.255.255.252 22 4194304 2

ty
The first and last IP addresses of each subnet are used for Subnet Number and
Subnet Broadcast IP address, respectively, in subnetting. Sub-netting cannot be
accomplished using more than 30 bits as Network Bits since these two IP addresses

si
cannot be given to hosts, resulting in fewer than two hosts per subnet.

Subnets of Class B
r
By default, 14 bits are utilised as Network bits in Classful Networking, resulting
ve
in (214) 16384 Networks and (216-2) 65534 Hosts. Class B IP addresses, like Class
A addresses, can be subnetted by borrowing bits from the host bits. All potential
combinations of Class B subnetting are shown here.

Network Bits Subnet Mask Bits Borrowed Subnets Hosts/Subnet

ni

16 255.255.0.0 0 0 65534
17 255.255.128.0 1 2 32766
U

18 255.255.192.0 2 4 16382
19 255.255.224.0 3 8 8190
20 255.255.240.0 4 16 4094
ity

21 255.255.248.0 5 32 2046
22 255.255.252.0 6 64 1022
23 255.255.254.0 7 128 510
24 255.255.255.0 8 256 254
m

25 255.255.255.128 9 512 126

26 255.255.255.192 10 1024 62
27 255.255.255.224 11 2048 30
)A

28 255.255.255.240 12 4096 14
29 255.255.255.248 13 8192 6
30 255.255.255.242 14 16384 2
(c

Subnets of Class C
As a network can only have 254 hosts, Class C IP addresses are typically issued

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 Network Basics 255

to small networks. A list of all possible subnetted Class B IP address combinations is

Notes

e
provided below.

in
Network Bits Subnet Mask Bits Borrowed Subnets Hosts/Subnet
24 255.255.255.0 0 1 254
25 255.255.255.128 1 2 126

nl
26 255.255.255.192 2 4 62
27 255.255.255.224 3 8 30

O
28 255.255.255.240 4 16 14
29 255.255.255.248 5 32 6
30 255.255.255.252 6 64 2

ty
Subnet is a term used to describe a network.

The number of bits utilised for the network component of a 32-bit address is
referred to as a subnet. Additionally, the subnet masks may be specified using the slash

si
notation, often known as CIDR notation. To demonstrate how this works, consider the
following example. The following table shows how bits are used in the network.

It’s important to remember that the mask 255.255.255.0 may be written as /28. This
r
is due to the fact that it keeps 8-bits in parts of the total 32-bits needed to describe the
ve
IPv4 address in the network component.

Let’s take a look at another scenario. Consider the following scenario: You have a
network with the following IP addresses:
ni

175.16.56.40 (Computer 1)

175.16.56.50 (Computer 2)
U

175.16.56.0 is the IP address of the network.

175.16.56.101 (first printer)

The network in the case above employs three octets, or 24-bits. It’s also worth
ity

noting that the first three octets of each of the network’s host devices are identical. The
network component of an IP address with a /24 mask is referred to as this.

The IP address is 175.16.56.40, the mask is 255.255.255.0, and the binary mask is
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000. The host part of the IP address is represented
m

by the final octet in the formula. You can assign your own gadgets in this section. This
implies that you can have up to 254 hosts running at the same time.

If it was /16, the network portion would be the first two octets in the formation, while
)A

the host portion would be the final two sets of octets in the formation. That is, it will
resemble the following: /16 – 255.255.0.0 – 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

Furthermore, if the network had /8 bits, the first octet would be the sole network
piece. It will take the following shape: /8 – 255.0.0.0 – 11111111.00000000.00000000.00
(c

000000

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 256 Network Basics

It’s important to note that the sorts of masks listed above are the most frequent and
Notes

e
straightforward. When you need more than one network, though, you’ll need to subnet.

In IPv4, how do you Subnet?

in
It’s time to look at a subnet now that you’ve got a fundamental grasp of subnets,
binary, and classes. We’ll use an IP address like 43.17.255.71/27 for this portion. The
binary will look like this for this IP address: 00101011.000100011.111111.01000111.

nl
There are basically two conclusions to be drawn from this:

This is an IP address of type A.

O
A minimum of 8 bits must be present in the network.

We’ll give it 27 bits, though. The network component of the subnet will now look
like this: /27 – 255.255.224 – 11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000.

ty
4.5.3 Addressing Schemes
This explains how to configure your router to route IP traffic, including how

si
addresses are split down and how subnetting works. You’ll learn how to provide each
router interface its own IP address and subnet. Examples have been supplied to help
bring things together.
r
To remedy the inadequacies of IP addressing, the notion of subnetting was
ve
established. Managing a big group of hosts is a huge undertaking. A corporation using
a class B addressing system, for example, may accommodate up to 65,535 hosts on a
single network. A multiple-network address scheme, or subnet scheme, is employed if
the firm has more than one network. The original IP address’s host ID is partitioned into
ni

subnet ID and host ID in this method, as illustrated in Figure.

U
ity

In class B addressing, a subnet ID and a host ID are used.

Different subnet ID and host ID values can be used depending on the network
size. As a result, the outside world would not be plagued by a lack of fresh network
m

addresses. A subnet mask—logic AND function—is used to calculate the subnetting

number. A field of all 0s for the host ID and a field of all 1s for the remaining field make
up the subnet mask.
)A

Example. Determine the maximum number of hosts per subnet given an IP

address of 150.100.14.163 and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.128.

Solution. The solution is depicted in detail in Figure. When the IP address is

masked by 255.255.255.128, the result is 150.100.14.128.
(c

The original “classful” IP addressing method separates a large internetwork into a

simple two-level hierarchy: several networks of various sizes, each with a number of
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 257

hosts. Smaller businesses might benefit from the system since it allows them to link all
Notes

e
of their devices to a single network. Large businesses, on the other hand, with several
subnetworks or subnets, may find it lacking in flexibility. The “classful” IP addressing
scheme was modified by a method known as subnet addressing, or simply subnetting,

in
to better satisfy the administrative and technical requirements of bigger enterprises.

Subnetting is the division of a big block of addresses into many contiguous sub-

nl
blocks and the assignment of these sub-blocks to several smaller networks. When
classless addressing is utilised, this is a common practise.

Addressing Without Class

O
Sub-netting is a technique for reducing IP address waste in a block. We utilise
the host id bits of a classful IP address as the net id bits. We specify the IP address
and the amount of bits for the mask (typically preceded by a ‘/’ symbol), for example,

ty
192.168.1.1/28.

The subnet mask is obtained by setting the specified number of bits out of 32 to 1,
for example, in the provided address, we need to set 28 out of 32 bits to 1 and the rest

si
to 0, resulting in 255.255.255.240 as the subnet mask.

The following are some subnetting values:

1. r
Number of subnets: given bits for mask – default mask bit count
ve
2. Subnet address: the result of the subnet mask AND the IP address supplied
3. Address for broadcasting: By setting the host bits to 1 and leaving the network bits
alone, the IP address may be created.
ni

4. Total number of hosts per subnet: 2(32 – mask bits) – 2

5. Subnet address + 1 for the first host ID (adding one to the binary representation of
the subnet address)
U

6. Subnet address + Number of Hosts = Last Host ID.

4.5.4 Design Considerations for IPv6

ity

This sub-unit contains a list of particular design options that a network designer
must make when constructing an IPv6-only or dual-stack network, as well as
recommendations and suggestions for the designer.

On the Same Link, Use IPv4 and IPv6?

m

Should IPv4 and IPv6 traffic on a connection be logically separated? That is, you
can either mix IPv4 and IPv6 data on the same layer 2 connection, or you can do both.
)A

Use distinct physical or logical links to segregate IPv4 and IPv6 (e.g., two physical
lines or two VLANs on the same link)?

Option (a) assumes a single layer 3 interface with both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses at
either end, whereas option (b) assumes two layer 3 interfaces, one with IPv4 addresses
and the other with IPv6 addresses.
(c

Option (a) has the following advantages:

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 258 Network Basics

Option (a) requires half as many layer 3 interfaces as option (b), allowing for easier
Notes

e
scaling.

May necessitate fewer physical ports, resulting in cost savings;

in
Rate-limiting combined IPv4 and IPv6 traffic to or from a client, for example, can
make QoS implementation considerably easier.

nl
Provides improved support for the predicted future of rising IPv6 traffic and
decreasing IPv4 traffic, as well as being more conceptually straightforward.

For these reasons, the operator community has come to the conclusion that option

O
(a) is the better alternative.

Alternative (b) may, nevertheless, be the most practical option at times. Option (b)
is most typically utilised to work around network equipment constraints. When option

ty
(a) is chosen, one major example is the current lack of support for specific statistics
on IPv4 vs IPv6 traffic. There are also device-specific constraints. As IPv6 support
advances, these constraints are projected to disappear, making option (b) less and less
appealing until IPv4 is completely phased out.

si
Whenever possible, most networks nowadays employ option (a).

Only Link-Local Addresses in Links?

r
Should the link: (a) just use link-local addresses (“unnumbered”), or (b) use both?
ve
Have you assigned global or unique-local addresses in addition to link-local
addresses?

There are two benefits to using unnumbered connections. The first benefit is that it
ni

is simple to set up.

In a network with several unnumbered links, the operator can simply enable an
IGP on each router to avoid the time-consuming procedure of assigning and tracking
U

addresses for each link. The second benefit is safety. As link-local addresses are
unrouteable, an off-link device cannot target the associated interfaces. This means that
security ACLs will require less work to maintain.
ity

Unnumbered connections in IPv6 have a variety of drawbacks that counteract this

advantage:

Pinging an interface with merely a link-local address from a device that is not
physically connected to the connection is not feasible.
m

To debug, log onto a device that is directly connected to the device in question and
run the ping command from there.
)A

Instead of the address of the interface, a traceroute across the unnumbered

connection will return the router’s loopback or system address.

The link-layer address of the interface is obtained by default on some devices from
the MAC address assigned to the interface. The link-layer address will change if the
(c

interface hardware (e.g. interface card) is swapped out after this is done. This may
necessitate extra adjustments in some circumstances (peering configuration, ACLs, and
so on).

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 Network Basics 259

Many devices, on the other hand, enable the link-layer address of an interface to
Notes

e
be manually specified, avoiding this problem.

When utilising LLAs alone, identifying router interfaces with DNS names is

in
challenging to impossible.

By just providing its address, it is not feasible to identify the interface or connection
(in a database, email, etc.).

nl
In a Static Route, Can You Do a Link-Local Next-Hop?

In a static route, what type of next-hop address should be used?

O
Use the link-local address of the far-end as the next-hop address, OR

Use the GUA/ULA address of the far-end as the next-hop address?

ty
Remember that the IPv6 specifications for OSPF [RFC5340] and ISIS [RFC5308]
require that link-locals be used for next-hop addresses at all times. A router MUST be
able to detect the link-local address for each of its surrounding routers in order to verify
that the target address in a Redirect message identifies the neighbour router by its link-

si
local address, according to [RFC4861].

This means that if a GUA or ULA is used as the next hop, a router will not issue

r
Redirect signals to packets that “hit” this static route. All of this suggests that a link-local
address should be used as the next-hop address in a static route.
ve
However, there are two situations in which utilising a link-local address as the
next-hop is manifestly ineffective. The first is when the static route is indirect (or multi-
hop). The static route is redistributed into another routing protocol in the second case.
ni

Regardless of the preceding statement from RFC 4861, a GUA or ULA must be used in
these circumstances.

eBGP Sessions: Separate or Combined?

U

When using eBGP as the routing protocol for a dual-stack peering connection, one
can either: Use one BGP session to convey both IPv4 and IPv6 routes, OR

Use two BGP sessions: one over IPv4 that carries IPv4 routes and another over
ity

IPv6 that carries IPv6 routes.

The key benefit of (a) is that it reduces the number of BGP sessions when
compared to (b) (b).
m

Option (a) does, however, raise a number of issues:

Adding or deleting an address family from an established BGP connection will force
the router to tear down and re-establish the session in most present implementations.
)A

This issue will endure until something like [I-D.ietf-idr-dynamic-cap] or [I-D.ietf-idr-

bgp-multisession] becomes widely used.

Whatever transport protocol you use (v4 or v6), it will almost certainly look
ridiculous at some point. Both now and in the future, using two sessions is a good idea.
(c

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 260 Network Basics

Carrying IPv6 routes over IPv4 implies that route information is sent over a different
Notes

e
transport plane than data packets. If v6 connection fails locally without v4 connectivity
failing as well, v6 routes will continue to be exchanged, resulting in a blackhole.

in
Global or Link-Local Addresses for eBGP Endpoints?

There are two alternatives for the addresses to use at each end of the eBGP
session (or, more accurately, the underlying TCP session) when running eBGP over

nl
IPv6:

For the eBGP session, use link-local addresses OR use global addresses.

O
The decision here is whether to utilise global (or unique-local) addresses for the
eBGP sessions, not whether the connection itself contains global (or unique-local)
addresses. Even though the connection contains global addresses, it is entirely
conceivable for the eBGP session to use link-local addresses.

ty
Option (a) has a huge advantage in terms of security: an eBGP session employing
link-local addresses is hard to attack from off-link. This provides excellent defence
against TCP RST and other related attacks. While there are alternative ways to achieve

si
a comparable degree of security (e.g., GTSM [RFC5082], MD5 [RFC5925], or ACLs),
these other methods need extra setup that might be overlooked or misconfigured.

r
There are, however, a few minor drawbacks to utilising link-local addresses:
ve
It is only possible to use link-local addresses for single-hop eBGP sessions; it is not
possible to use link-local addresses for multi-hop eBGP sessions.

Redistributing routes learned using eBGP into iBGP will not function unless both
endpoints utilise “next-hop self.” (In this circumstance, some devices activate “next-hop
ni

self” automatically.)

Operators and tools are accustomed to referring to eBGP sessions just by address,
which is not feasible with link-local addresses.
U

When creating parallel eBGP sessions for IPv4 and IPv6 routes, utilising link-local
addresses for the IPv6 session adds an additional distinction between the two sessions.
ity

An eBGP session with a link-local address is more difficult to configure on some

products than a session with a global address.

If the cable is moved to a different local interface due to hardware or other issues,
both ends must be reconfigured: the local end because the interface has changed
m

(and with link-local addresses, the interface must always be specified along with the
address), and the remote end because the link-local address has likely changed.
(Compare this to utilising global addresses, which need less re-configuration on the
local end and no re-configuration on the distant end.)
)A

IGP Option
The choice of IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol) within the network is one of the most
important options for an IPv6 implementor. The IETF protocols RIP [RFC2080], OSPF
(c

[RFC2328] [RFC5340], and IS-IS [RFC5120] [RFC5308] are the most popular, while
some operators may choose non-IETF protocols. We’ll focus on the advantages and
disadvantages of OSPF vs. IS-IS in this section.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 261

When it comes to OSPF vs. IS-IS, the choices are: Use OSPFv2 for IPv4 and
Notes

e
OSPFv3 for IPv6.

The operator’s present protocol for routing IPv4 is a key element in the decision.

in
Option (e) is unlikely to be a good decision for an operator using OSPF for IPv4 routing,
while option (a) is equally unlikely to be a good choice for an operator using IS-IS.

Option (a), (c), and (e), which employ two routing protocols, have the advantage of

nl
providing a clear distinction between IPv4 and IPv6 routing. As a result, an issue with
one protocol or set of routes is unlikely to have an impact on the other.

Option (a), (c), and (d) all have two drawbacks (e). One disadvantage is that all

O
protocol mechanisms must be maintained in two sets. This is unlikely to be a problem
on a bigger contemporary router, but it might be a problem on some edge devices.
The second disadvantage is that both protocols must be known by certain operational

ty
personnel. Although the protocols are sufficiently similar for many routing difficulties to be
regarded equivalent, other problems need a thorough understanding of the differences.

Option (b) necessitates the introduction of new protocol extensions that enable OSPFv3

si
to route IPv4 traffic as well. These additions are still very recent at the time of writing.

Subnetting an IPv6 Network

r
Subnetting IPv6 is simpler than IPv4. It’s also distinctive. Do you want to split or
ve
join a subnet? It’s as simple as adding or subtracting digits and adjusting the prefix
length by a multiple of four. Calculating subnet start/end addresses, usable addresses,
the null route, or the broadcast address is no longer necessary.

Subnet masking (dotted quad notation) was used in IPv4 before being superseded
ni

by CIDR masking. Instead of a subnet mask, IPv6 calls it a Prefix Length, which is
sometimes abbreviated as “Prefix.” Prefix length and CIDR masking both function in the
same way. The length of the prefix specifies how many bits of the address are used to
U

define the network in which it occurs. Prefixes for IPv6 are typically multiples of four, as
shown in Table IPv6 Subnet Table, but they can be any number between zero and 128.

Humans can differentiate IPv6 subnets more easily when prefix lengths are
multiples of four. To create a bigger or smaller subnet, just multiply the prefix by a
ity

multiple of four. See Table IPv6 Subnet Table for a list of available IPv6 addresses as
well as the number of IP addresses contained inside each subnet.

IPv6 Subnet Table

m

Prefix Subnet Example Total IP Addresses # of /64

4 x:: 2 124 2 60
8 xx:: 2 120 2 56
)A

12 xxx:: 2 116 2 52
16 xxxx:: 2 112 2 48
20 xxxxx:: 2 108 2 44
24 xxxxxx:: 2 104 2 40
(c

28 xxxxxxx:: 2 100 2 36
32 xxxxxxxx:: 2 96 4,294,967

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 262 Network Basics

36 xxxxxxxxx:: 2 92 268,435,4
Notes

e
40 xxxxxxxxxx:: 2 88 16,777,21
44 xxxxxxxxxxx:: 2 84 1,048,576

in
48 xxxxxxxxxxxx:: 2 80
65,536
52 xxxxxxxxxxxx:: 2 76 4,096

nl
56 xxxxxxxxxxxxx:: 2 72 256
60 xxxxxxxxxxxxxx:: 2 68
16

O
The IETF defines a /64 as a common size IPv6 subnet. If auto configuration is
desired, it is the lowest subnet that may be utilised locally.

To provide WAN service, an ISP often assigns a /64 or smaller subnet. For LAN
usage, an extra network is routed. The amount of the allotment is determined by the

ty
ISP, however it’s very unusual for end consumers to receive a /64 or even a /48.

A tunnel service provider, such as Hurricane Electric’s tunnelbroker.net, will assign

a /48 as well as a routed /64 subnet and a /64 connection.

si
In assignments bigger than /64, the first /64 is normally used for LAN, while the rest
is subdivided for things like a VPN tunnel, DMZ, or a guest network.
r
In IPv6, special purpose networks are reserved. IPv6 Special Networks and
ve
Addresses shows six examples of IPv6 special networks and their addresses.

Finding a Neighbour
IPv4 hosts use ARP broadcast messages to discover each other on a local
ni

segment, whereas IPv6 hosts use Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) messages. NDP,
like ARP, searches inside a broadcast domain for other hosts within a specified subnet.

Similar to IPv4’s ICMP redirects, NDP performs neighbour discovery, router

U

solicitations, and route redirection by sending specific ICMPv6 packets to reserved

multicast addresses.

Advertisements on Routers
ity

Instead of DHCP, Router Advertisement (RA) messages are used to locate IPv6
routers. Clients should anticipate IPv6-enabled routers that allow dynamic address
assignment to declare themselves on the network and react to router solicitations.
pfSense takes RA messages from upstream routers when serving as a client (WAN
m

interfaces).

Allocation of Addresses
)A

Static addressing, such as SLAAC (Router Advertisements (Or: “Where is the

DHCPv6 gateway option”), DHCP6 (IPv6 Router Advertisements), or other tunnelling
techniques like OpenVPN, can be used to provide client addresses.

Delegation of DHCP6 Prefixes

(c

Prefix DHCP6 A routed IPv6 subnet is sent to a DHCP6 client via delegation. A
WAN interface can be configured to accept a DHCP6 prefix (DHCP6, Track Interface).
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 Network Basics 263

Prefix delegation can be provided by a router at the edge of a large network to other
Notes

e
routers inside the network.

Check your Understanding

in
Fill in the blanks:

1. IP Subnetting is the process of breaking up a ___________into smaller ones.

nl
2. A fundamental property of the DNS is _______.
3. Sub-netting is a technique for reducing ___________in a block.

O
4. __________are server programs, which hold information about the domain tree’s
structure and set information.
5. The choice of IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol) within the network is one of the most
important options for an_________.

ty
Summary
●● IP Subnetting is the process of breaking up a big IP network into smaller ones.

si
Subnetting divides a single huge IP network into numerous tiny manageable
networks.
●● Subnetting is a more effective technique to handle this scenario. Subnetting allows
r
us to break up a huge network into smaller networks that not only meet our hosts’
ve
needs but also provide additional networking benefits.
●● Each bit of an IP address is assigned a unique bit by the subnet mask. The
allocated subnet mask bit will be turned on if the IP bit belongs to the network
portion. If the IP bit corresponds to the host portion, the assigned subnet mask bit
ni

is disabled.
●● Addressing schemes explains how to configure your router to route IP traffic,
including how addresses are split down and how subnetting works.
U

●● Sub-netting is a technique for reducing IP address waste in a block. We utilise the

host id bits of a classful IP address as the net id bits.
●● Provides improved support for the predicted future of rising IPv6 traffic and
ity

decreasing IPv4 traffic, as well as being more conceptually straightforward.

●● When creating parallel eBGP sessions for IPv4 and IPv6 routes, utilising link-local
addresses for the IPv6 session adds an additional distinction between the two
sessions.
m

Activity
1. Draw the steps to configure a WAN service.
)A

Question and Answers

1. What is Address scheming?
2. Explain what is a subnetting with examples?
(c

3. What are the different classes of addressing?

4. What is IPv6 Network?

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Glossary
Notes

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1. Subnet: A subnet is a tiny network that has been built from a larger network. Subnetting
is the process of dividing a single big network into many smaller networks. Subnets

in
are the name for these networks.
2. Valid host addresses: Valid host addresses are any addresses between the Network
address and the Broadcast address.

nl
3. Router: Router helps direct messages as they travel across a network.
4. Wireless Router: It is a specific type of router often found in home networks.

O
5. Cloud: Cloud is used to summarize a group of networking devices, the details of
which may be unimportant to the discussion at hand.
6. Serial Link: It is one form of WAN interconnection, represented by the lightning bolt-

ty
shaped line.
7. Interface - Specialized ports on an internetworking device that connect to individual
networks. Because routers are used to interconnect networks, the ports on a router
are referred to network interfaces.

si
Further Readings:
1.
r
Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
ve
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 2002.
3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.
ni

Check your Understanding-Answers

Fill in the blanks:
U

1. big IP network
2. caching
3. IP address waste
ity

4. name servers
5. IPv6 implementor
m
)A
(c

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Module - V: Network Access and Ethernet Technology

Notes

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Structure:

in
5.1 Data Link Layer Design Issues
5.1.1 Intoduction : Data Link Layer
5.1.2 Service Provided to the Network Layer

nl
5.1.3 Framing
5.1.4 Error Control
5.1.5 Flow Control

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5.1.6 Error Correctind Code
5.1.7 Error Detecting Code
5.2 Data Link Protocols

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5.2.1 Link Layer Addressing
5.2.2 Stop-Wait Protocol
5.2.3 Sliding Window Protocol

si
5.2.4 Packet over SONET Protocol
5.2.5 ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop)
5.2.6 Channel Allocation Problem
5.2.7 Multiple Access Protocols r
ve
5.2.8 ALOHA
5.2.9 Collision Free Protocol
5.2.10 Wireless LAN Protocol
5.3 Physical Layer
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5.3.1 Ethernet Physical Layer

5.3.2 Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol
U

5.3.3 Ethernet Performance

5.3.4 Address Resolution Protocol
5.3.5 LAN Topologies
5.4 Data Link Layer Switiches
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5.4.1 Bridges
5.4.2 Routers and Switches
5.4.3 Gateways
5.4.4 Repeaters
m

5.4.5 Hubs
5.4.6 Virtual LAN
)A

5.5 Network Expension and Security

5.5.1 Creation and Grow of Network
5.5.2 Devices in a Small Network
5.5.3 Network Security
5.5.4 Network Performance
(c

5.5.5 Managing IOS Configuration Files

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 266 Network Basics

Unit - 5.1 : Data Link Layer Design Issues

Notes

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Objectives

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Define basic functions of the network layer

nl
●● Differentiate between connection oriented and connection less services
●● Define the concept of addressing in networking

O
●● Understand design issues

Introduction
The following are design difficulties with the data connection layer:

ty
The data link layer acts as a service interface to the network layer, providing
services to it. The main service is data transmission from the transmitting machine’s

si
network layer to the receiving machine’s network layer. DLL is used for this transfer as
well (Dynamic Link Library).

Frame synchronisation - The source computer transfers data to the destination

r
machine in the form of chunks called frames. Each frame’s beginning and end should
ve
be indicated so that the destination machine can recognise the frame.

Flow control - Flow control is used to stop data frames from flowing at the receiver
end. The source machine cannot deliver data frames faster than the destination
machine’s capacity to take them.
ni

Error control - Error control is used to avoid frame duplication. At the destination
machine, mistakes produced during transmission from source to destination machines
must be discovered and repaired.
U

5.1.1 Introduction: Data Link Layer

The OSI Layered Model’s Data Link Layer is the second layer. This layer is one of
ity

the most difficult to understand, with several functionality and risks. The data connection
layer hides the underlying hardware features and portrays itself to the top layer as a
communication medium.

The data link layer connects two hosts that are in some way directly connected.
m

This direct link might be a point-to-point or a broadcast connection. On a broadcast

network, systems are said to be on the same connection. When dealing with several
hosts on a single collision domain, the data connection layer’s job becomes more
)A

complicated.

The data connection layer is in charge of bit-by-bit transforming data streams to

signals and sending them via the underlying hardware. The Data Link Layer receives
data from hardware in the form of electrical impulses, assembles it into a recognised
frame format, and passes it on to the top layer.
(c

There are two sub-layers in the data connection layer:

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Protocols, flow control, and error control are all covered under logical link control.
Notes

e
Media Access Control is concerned with the real management of media.

in
Data-link Layer Functionality
Many functions are performed by the data connection layer on behalf of the top
layer. These are the following:

nl
Framing Data-link layer encapsulates packets from the Network Layer into Frames.

Then it transmits each frame to the hardware bit by bit. The data connection layer

O
at the receiver’s end collects signals from hardware and assembles them into frames.

Layer-2 hardware addressing is provided by the data-link layer. On the connection,

the hardware address is presumed to be unique. At the moment of manufacture, it is
programmed into hardware.

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Synchronization: In order for data frames to be sent across the network, both
machines must be synced.

si
Error Control: Signals may occasionally experience problems during transition,
causing the bits to be flipped. These faults are recognised, and genuine data bits are
attempted to be recovered. It also provides a means for the sender to report errors.
r
On the same connection, multiple Flow Control Stations may have varying speeds
ve
or capacities. The data-link layer provides flow control, allowing two machines to
communicate data at the same time.

Multi-Access: When a host on a shared link tries to send data, there’s a good
chance they’ll collide. The data-link layer offers mechanisms such as CSMA/CD that
ni

enable many systems to access a shared medium.

5.1.2 Service Provided to the Network Layer

U

The packets are forwarded via the network layer by a router. A forwarding table is
included on every router. A router forwards a packet by first looking at the header field
and then indexing into the forwarding table using the header field value. The outgoing
ity

interface link to which the packet is to be sent is indicated by the value entered in the
forwarding table corresponding to the header field value.

For example, if a router comes with a header field value of 0111, the router indexes
this value into the forwarding table, which determines that the output link interface is 2.
m

The packet is forwarded to interface 2 by the router. The values that are entered into
the forwarding table are determined by the routing algorithm. It is possible to have a
centralised or decentralised routing algorithm.
)A
(c

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 268 Network Basics

Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
r si
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The Network Layer Provides Services

Guaranteed delivery: This layer offers a service that ensures the packet arrives at
its intended location.
ni

Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay: This service ensures that the packet
arrives within a defined host-to-host delay bound.

Packets for Pre-Order: This service guarantees that the packets arrive at their
U

destination in the same sequence as they were despatched.

Guaranteed maximum jitter: With this service, the time between two consecutive
transmissions at the sender is the same as the time between their receipt at the
ity

destination.

Security services are provided by the network layer, which uses a session key
to secure communication between the source and destination hosts. The payloads of
datagrams delivered to the destination host are encrypted by the network layer of the
m

source host. The payload would then be decrypted by the network layer on the target
host. The data integrity and source authentication services are maintained by the
network layer in this manner.
)A

5.1.3 Framing
Frames are digital transmission units that are often used in computer networks and
telecommunications. In the case of light energy, frames are analogous to the packets
(c

of energy known as photons. In the Time Division Multiplexing operation, the frame is
constantly employed.

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 Network Basics 269

A point-to-point connection between two computers or devices that consists of a

Notes

e
wire through which data is sent as a stream of bits is known as framing. These bits,
on the other hand, must be organised into identifiable information blocks. The data
connection layer is responsible for framing. It allows a sender to deliver a group of bits

in
to a receiver that are relevant to the recipient.

nl
O
ty
It retrieves the message from the sender and sends it to the receiver by supplying
the sender’s and receiver’s addresses at the data link layer. The benefit of employing

si
frames is that data is divided down into easily recoverable bits that can be verified for
corruption.

Framing Issues - Detecting the Frame’s Beginning: Every station must be able to
r
detect a frame when it is broadcast. Frames are detected by the station by checking
ve
for a particular sequence of bits that indicates the start of the frame, i.e. SFD (Starting
Frame Delimeter).

The station detects a frame in the following way: Through a sequential circuit, each
station listens to the connection for the SFD pattern. If SFD is identified, the sequential
ni

circuit sends out a warning.

Framing styles – Framing may be divided into two categories:

U

1. Fixed size — As the frame is fixed in size, there is no need to give borders; the
frame’s length serves as a delimiter.

Internal fragmentation occurs when the data size is smaller than the frame size.
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Padding is the solution.

2. Variable size - To identify, the conclusion of the frame as well as the beginning of
the following frame must be defined. This can be accomplished in one of two ways:
m

Length field — To show the frame’s length, we may add a length field to the frame.
Ethernet is a network protocol (802.3). The issue with this is that the length field can get
corrupted at any time.
)A

End Delimeter (ED) — To signify the frame’s end, we can use an ED (pattern). In
Token Ring, it’s used. The issue here is that ED can appear in the data. This can be
resolved by using the following methods:

1. Character/Byte Stuffing: When a frame is made up of characters, this method is

(c

used. A byte is crammed into data if it includes ED to distinguish it from ED.

If the data contains a ‘$’ anywhere, the ‘\O’ letter can be used to escape it.

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Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
si
Disadvantage – It is an expensive and out-of-date approach.

2. Stuffing a Bit: If data = 01111

r
–> Sender stuffs a bit to break the pattern, i.e., appends a 0 in data = 011101.
ve
–> The frame is received by the receiver, who eliminates the 0 and reads the data if
the data contains 011101.
ni
U
ity
m
)A

If Data = 011100011110 and ED = 0111, how do you find data after bit stuffing? –>
011010001101100
(c

Find data after bit stuffing if Data > 110001001 and ED > 1000? –> 11001010011

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 Network Basics 271

5.1.4 Error Control

Notes

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The data-link layer employs error-control techniques to assure and validate that all
data frames or packets, i.e., data bit streams, are accurately transported or transferred

in
from source to receiver. At this data connection layer, using or providing error control
is an optimization; it was never a mandate. Error control is the process of detecting,
identifying and re-transmitting data frames that have been lost or damaged during

nl
transmission in the data link layer.

In each of these circumstances, the receiver or destination does not get the correct
data frame, and the sender or source is unaware of any data frame loss. As a result,

O
both the transmitter and the receiver are given with some fundamental protocols that
are necessary to detect or identify such faults as data frame loss.

ty
si
Error Detection: As the name implies, error detection simply refers to the detection

r
or identification of errors. These mistakes can occur as a result of noise or other
communication system impairments during transmission from the transmitter to the
ve
receiver. It’s a type of strategy for detecting jumbled.

Error Correction: As the name implies, error correction simply refers to the
correction, solution, or correcting of mistakes. It basically refers to the error-free
reconstruction and rehabilitation of original data. However, mistake rectification is both
ni

expensive and difficult.

Various Strategies for Error Control: Error control techniques include the following:
U

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ: Another name for Stop-and-Wait ARQ is alternating bit protocol.
It is one of the most basic flow and error control strategies. In telecommunications,
this method is used to send data or information between two linked devices. For
each frame, the receiver merely marks its readiness to receive data. In these, the
ity

transmitter sends data or information to the recipient. The sender then comes to a
halt and awaits the receiver’s acknowledgement. Furthermore, if the ACK does not
come within the specified time limit (time-out), the sender resends the frame and
waits for the ACK.
m

Furthermore, if the ACK does not come within the specified time limit (time-out), the
sender resends the frame and waits for the ACK. If the sender receives an ACK, it
will transmit the next data packet to the receiver and then wait for an ACK from the
)A

recipient. This stop and wait operation continues until the sender has no more data
frames or packets to send.
2. ARQ for Sliding Windows: This method is commonly used to control continuous
transmission error. It is further divided into two groups, as shown below:
(c

Go-Back-N ARQ is a type of ARQ protocol in which the transmission mechanism

continues to send or transmit the set number of frames despite not getting an ACK

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 272 Network Basics

(Acknowledgement). Sliding window flow control technique is used. If there are no

Notes

e
faults, the operation is identical to that of a sliding window.
Selective Repeat ARQ: Selective Repeat ARQ is a type of ARQ protocol that only

in
retransmits suspicious, damaged, or missing data frames. This approach is similar
to Go-Back-N ARQ, but it is significantly more efficient owing to the fact that it
minimises the number of retransmissions. Only frames for which NAK is received

nl
are retransmitted in this case. However, because of the increased complexity at
the sender and receiver, and since each frame must be recognised separately, this
approach is employed less frequently.

O
5.1.5 Flow Control
Flow control is a method of communicating between two stations that operate at
different rates. It’s a collection of controls that limit how much data a sender delivers

ty
so that a fast sender doesn’t overwhelm a sluggish receiver. Flow control in the data
connection layer limits the number of frames a sender may transmit before waiting for a
response from the receiver.

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Flow Control Methodologies
ni

Flow regulation may be divided into two major groups.

Flow Control using Feedback The sender delivers frames after receiving
U

acknowledgements from the user in these protocols. In the data connection layer, this is
utilised.

Flow Control Based on Rate These protocols feature built-in techniques that limit
ity

the rate at which data is sent without needing the receiver’s acknowledgement. This is
utilised at both the network and transport layers.

Data Link Layer Flow Control Techniques

Feedback-based flow control methods are used at the data connection layer. There
m

are two primary approaches.

)A
(c

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 Network Basics 273

Stop and consider your options.

Notes

e
The sender delivers a frame and waits for an acknowledgement in this protocol.

When the receiver gets the frame, it sends the sender an acknowledgement frame.

in
The sender recognises that the receiver is ready to accept the next frame after
receiving the acknowledgement frame. As a result, it sends the next frame in the queue.

nl
Sliding Window
By allowing numerous frames to be delivered before getting an acknowledgement,

O
this protocol enhances the efficiency of the stop and wait protocol.

This protocol’s operating idea is as follows: both the transmitter and the receiver
have finite-sized buffers called windows. Based on the buffer size, the sender and
receiver agree on the number of frames to send.

ty
The sender sends a series of frames without waiting for an acknowledgement. It
waits for acknowledgement when its transmitting window has been full. It advances the

si
window and sends the following frames based on the number of acknowledgements
received.

5.1.6 Error Correcting Code r

ve
The data-link layer employs error-control techniques to guarantee that frames, or
bit streams of data, are accurately sent from the source to the destination.

Errors occur when bits are transferred through a computer network and are
corrupted as a result of interference and network issues. Errors are caused by
ni

corrupted bits, which result in erroneous data being received by the destination.

Techniques for Error Correction

U

Error repair techniques determine the precise number of corrupted bits as well as
their positions. There are two primary approaches.

If the receiver identifies a mistake in the incoming frame, it requests that the sender
ity

retransmit the frame. It’s a straightforward procedure. However, it can only be utilised
effectively if retransmission is not costly, such as in fibre optics, and the retransmission
time is short in comparison to the application’s needs.

If the receiver identifies a mistake in the incoming frame, it performs error-

m

correcting code that creates the real frame. This reduces the amount of bandwidth
needed for retransmission. In real-time systems, it is unavoidable. If there are too many
faults, however, the frames must be resent.
)A

The four most common error correction codes are as follows:

●● Codes of Hamming
●● Reed – Solomon Code
(c

●● Low-Density Parity-Check Code

●● Reed – Solomon Code

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5.1.7 Error Detection Codes

Notes

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There are two methods for controlling errors.

Error detection is the process of determining whether an error has occurred. It

in
makes no difference how many mistake bits there are or what form of error they are.

Error repair entails determining the precise number of bits that have been

nl
corrupted as well as where the affected bits are located.

The sender must send some extra bits in addition to the data bits for both error
detection and repair. Based on the additional redundant bits, the receiver performs

O
appropriate checks. If the data is error-free, the unnecessary bits are removed before
the message is sent to the top levels.

Detecting Errors Techniques

ty
Parity Check, Checksum, and Cyclic Redundancy Check are the three basic
approaches for detecting mistakes in frames (CRC).

si
Parity Check
The parity check is performed by adding an additional bit to the data called the
parity bit, which results in a number of 1s that is either even in even parity or odd in odd
parity. r
ve
The sender counts the amount of 1s in a frame and adds the parity bit in the
following manner.

In the event of a tie: The parity bit value is 0 if the number of 1s is even. The parity
ni

bit value is 1 if the number of 1s is odd.

In the case of odd parity, the parity bit value is 0 if the number of 1s is odd. The
parity bit value is 1 if the number of 1s is even.
U

The receiver counts the amount of 1s in a frame when it receives it. If the count of
1s is even in an even parity check, the frame is approved; otherwise, it is refused. For
odd parity check, a similar approach is used.
ity

The parity check is only good for detecting single bit errors.

Checksum

The following approach is used in this mistake detection scheme:

m

Data is separated into frames or segments of a predetermined size.

To get the total, the sender sums the segments using 1’s complement arithmetic. It
)A

then adds the sums together to generate the checksum, which it sends along with the
data frames.

To get the sum, the receiver adds the incoming segments and the checksum using
1’s complement arithmetic, then complements it.
(c

The received frames are accepted if the result is zero; else, they are discarded.

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Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Notes

e
CRC is a binary division of the data bits being communicated by a specified divisor
agreed upon by the communication system. Polynomials are used to create the divisor.

in
Here, the sender divides the data segment by the divisor in binary. The remaining
CRC bits are then appended to the end of the data segment. As a consequence, the
generated data unit is divided by the divisor precisely.

nl
The divisor is used by the receiver to divide the incoming data unit. The data unit
is presumed to be correct and accepted if there is no residual. Otherwise, it’s assumed
that the data is tainted and will be discarded.

O
Check your Understanding
Fill in the blanks:

ty
1. __________, finite data rate and propagation delay have important implications for
the efficiency of the data transfer.
2. The _________ used for communications must take all these factors into

si
consideration.
3. The first framing method, __________ count, uses a field in the header to specify the
number of characters in the frame.
r
ve
Summary
●● The data connection layer is further subdivided into two layers:
●● Logical Link Control Sub-layer (LLC) — Provides the logic for the data link,
ni

controlling the data link layer’s synchronisation, flow control, and error checking
capabilities.
(i) Error Recovery is one of the functions.
U

(ii) It controls the flow of the fluid.

(iii) User identification.
●● The second sub-layer of the data-link layer is the Media Access Control Sub-layer
ity

(MAC). It is in charge of the flow and multiplexing of the transmission medium.

This layer is in charge of data packet transmission. This layer is in charge of
transferring data across the network interface card.

Functions include: I controlling access to media.

m

(ii) It assigns unique addressing to stations that are directly linked to the LAN.
(iii) Error detection.
)A

●● The following are design difficulties with the data connection layer:
●● Providing network layer services –
●● The data link layer serves as a service interface between the network layer and
the data link layer. The primary service is data transport from the network layer on
(c

the sending machine to the network layer on the destination machine. This transfer
is also accomplished by DLL (Dynamic Link Library).

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 276 Network Basics

●● Frame synchronisation occurs when the source computer delivers data to

Notes

e
the destination machine in the form of blocks known as frames. Each frame’s
beginning and ending points should be defined so that the frame may be
recognised by the destination computer.

in
●● Flow control - Flow control is used to prevent data frames from flowing at the
receiver end. The source machine must not deliver data frames at a quicker pace

nl
than the destination machine’s capacity to take them.
●● Error control - Error control is used to avoid frame duplication. The faults created
during transmission from the source to the destination machines must be

O
recognised and repaired at the destination machine.

Activity
1. Draw the steps to configure an error correcting code.

ty
Question and Answers
1. Define Framing and explain in detail with example.

si
2. Describe Error Control in 5 statements.
3. What is Flow Control?
4. r
How to write Error Correcting Code
ve
5. Define Error Detecting Code.

Glossary
●● Multi-Access: When a host on a shared link tries to send data, there’s a good
ni

chance they’ll collide. The data-link layer offers mechanisms such as CSMA/CD
that enable many systems to access a shared medium.
●● Flow control: Flow control is used to stop data frames from flowing at the receiver
U

end. The source machine cannot deliver data frames faster than the destination
machine’s capacity to take them.
●● Error control: Error control is used to avoid frame duplication. At the destination
ity

machine, mistakes produced during transmission from source to destination

machines must be discovered and repaired.
●● Guaranteed delivery: This layer offers a service that ensures the packet arrives at
its intended location.
m

●● Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay: This service ensures that the packet
arrives within a defined host-to-host delay bound.
●● Packets for Pre-Order: This service guarantees that the packets arrive at their
)A

destination in the same sequence as they were despatched.

●● Guaranteed maximum jitter: With this service, the time between two consecutive
transmissions at the sender is the same as the time between their receipt at the
destination.
(c

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 Network Basics 277

Further Readings:
Notes

e
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New

in
Delhi, 2002.
3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.

nl
Check your Understanding-Answers
Fill in the blanks:

O
1. Circuit errors
2. protocols

ty
3. Character

r si
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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 278 Network Basics

Unit - 5.2 : Data Link Layer Protocols

Notes

e
Objectives

in
At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

●● Understand various error handling methods

nl
●● Understand various flow control methods
●● MAC sublayer protocols like CSMA/CD, Polling, Token Passing.

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Introduction
The Data Link Layer delivers the following services to the Network Layer:

ty
The network layer is concerned in getting messages to a neighbouring machine’s
equivalent network layer module.

The sender should deliver an identical message to the distant Network Layer peer

si
(e.g., if the data link layer adds control information, the header information must be
removed before the message is passed to the Network Layer).

The Network Layer needs to make sure that all of the communications it sends are
r
delivered properly (e.g., none lost, no corruption). It’s worth noting that random failures
ve
can cause both data and control frames to be lost.

5.2.1 Link Layer Addressing

The Data Link Layer (DLL) offers an addressing system for delivering frames over
ni

local shared media. The physical address is the device address in this layer. The Data
Link Layer splits the packets into frames. The frame header is contained in the data
link layer frame. The frame’s source address can also be seen in the header. Physical
U

addresses, unlike Layer 3 logical addresses, are not hierarchical and do not specify
which network the device is connected to. The device will continue to work with the
same Layer 2 physical address even if it is transferred to a different subnet.
ity

The Data Link layer address is only utilised for local delivery since the frame is
only used to convey data between nodes through local media. This layer’s addresses
have no value outside of the local network. In contrast, Layer 3 transports addresses
in the packet header from source to destination regardless of the number of network
hops along the route. If the frame’s packet needs to go to another network segment,
m

the intermediary device - a router - will decapsulate the original frame, construct a new
frame for the packet, and deliver it to the new segment. To transmit the packet over the
new network, the new frame will employ source and destination addressing as needed.
)A

Addressing Requirements
The logical topology determines whether Data Link layer addressing is required at
this layer. Addressing is not required in point-to-point topologies with only two coupled
nodes. The frame can only travel one way once it is on the medium.
(c

As ring and multi-access topologies can connect several nodes on a single media,
they require addressing. When a frame arrives at a node in the topology, it checks the
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destination address in the header to see if it is the frame’s destination.

Notes

e
A trailer is added to the end of each frame by Data Link layer protocols. The trailer
is used to see if the frame arrives in good condition.

in
Error detection is the term for this procedure. It’s important to note that this is not
the same as mistake rectification. Error detection is performed by storing in the trailer a
logical or mathematical summary of the bits that make up the frame.

nl
Sequence of Frame Checks
The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field is used to see if there were any problems

O
during the frame’s transmission and reception. Since here is where data is transported
over the medium, error detection is provided at the Data Link layer. The media may be a
potentially dangerous place for data. Interference, distortion, or loss of the signals on the
media might result in significant changes in the bit values represented by those signals.

ty
Most faults created on the media are discovered by the error detection method
offered by the usage of the FCS field.

si
A transmitting node provides a logical summary of the contents of the frame to
guarantee that the content of the received frame at the destination matches that of the
frame that left the source node. The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value is what this
r
is called. This value is used to indicate the contents of the frame in the Frame Check
ve
Sequence (FCS) field.

The receiving node determines its own logical summary, or CRC, of the frame
when it arrives at the destination node. The two CRC values are compared by the
receiving node.
ni

The frame is regarded to have arrived as sent if the two values are the same. The
frame is rejected if the CRC value in the FCS varies from the CRC calculated at the
receiving node.
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There’s always the chance that a frame with a decent CRC result is in fact corrupt.
When the CRC is determined, errors in bits may cancel each other out. The use of
upper layer protocols to identify and remedy data loss would therefore be necessary.
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Error correction will be enabled or disabled depending on the protocol used in the
Data Link layer. Although the FCS is used to detect the problem, not every protocol will
allow it to be corrected.
m

5.2.2 Stop-Wait Protocol

It is the most basic way of flow control. The transmitter will send one frame at a
time to the recipient in this method. The transmitter will come to a halt and await the
)A

receiver’s acknowledgement.

The sender’s waiting time is the period between message transmission and
acknowledgement receipt, and the sender remains inactive during this time.

When the sender receives the acknowledgement (ACK), it sends the next data
(c

packet to the receiver and waits for the disclosure again, and so on, as long as the
sender has data to transmit.

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The data flow must be managed while being sent from the sender to the recipient.
Notes

e
The data will be lost if the transmitter sends it at a faster rate than the recipient can
receive and process it.

in
Flow-control approaches will assist in ensuring that data is not lost. The flow
control approach ensures that senders communicate data at a rate that the receiver can
understand and comprehend.

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The Stop and Wait Protocol is depicted in the diagram below:

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ty
r si
ve
The fundamental benefit of stop-and-wait techniques is their precision. Only once
the first frame has been acknowledged is the second frame sent. As a result, there is no
risk of losing the frame.

This method has the disadvantage of being inefficient. It slows down the
ni

transmission process. This approach sends a single frame from source to destination
and a single acknowledgment from destination to source. As a result, each frame sent
or received consumes the whole amount of time required to traverse the connection.
U

Furthermore, if two devices are separated by a significant distance, a significant amount

of time is lost waiting for ACKs, resulting in an increase in overall transmission time.

Stop and Wait Protocol has the following characteristics:

ity

●● It is used in connection-oriented communication.

●● It allows you to regulate errors and flows.
●● It’s appropriate for data link and transport layers.
m

●● Stop and Wait ARQ uses Window Size 1 for Sliding Window Protocol.

5.2.3 Sliding Window Protocol

)A

Sliding window protocols are data link layer protocols for delivering data frames in
a reliable and sequential manner. Transmission Control Protocol also makes use of the
sliding window.

A sender can send numerous frames at once in this protocol before obtaining
(c

an acknowledgement from the recipient. The phrase “sliding window” alludes to the
fictitious boxes that keep the frames in place. Windowing is another term for the sliding
window technology.

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Working Principle
Notes

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The sender has a buffer called the sending window, and the receiver has a buffer
called the receiving window in these protocols. The outgoing frame sequence number

in
is determined by the size of the transmitting window. The range of sequence numbers
that can be assigned is 0 to 2n-1 if the frames’ sequence number is an n-bit field. As
a result, the transmitting window has a size of 2n-1. As a result, an n-bit sequence

nl
number is chosen to suit a transmission window size of 2n-1.

Modulo-n is used to number the sequence numbers. If the transmitting window size
is 4, for example, the sequence numbers will be 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1,

O
and so on. The binary sequence 00, 01, 10, 11 is generated by using two bits in the
sequence number.

The receiving window’s size refers to the maximum number of frames the receiver

ty
may accept at one time. It establishes the maximum amount of frames a sender can
send before obtaining an acknowledgement.

Example

si
Assume we have a four-inch transmitter window and a four-inch receiving window.
As a result, both windows’ sequence numbers will be 0,1,2,3,0,1,2 and so on. The
location of the windows after sending the frames and getting acknowledgements is
depicted in the diagram below. r
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U
ity
m
)A
(c

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Sliding Window Protocols Types

Notes

e
There are two types of Sliding Window ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest) protocols.

in
Go - Back - N ARQ
Go - Back - N ARQ allows you to send many frames before getting the first frame’s
acknowledgement. It is also known as sliding window protocol since it makes use of the

nl
sliding window notion. A limited amount of frames are supplied, which are consecutively
numbered. If a frame’s acknowledgment is not received within the specified time, all
frames following that frame are retransmitted.

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ARQ Selective Repetition
This protocol also allows you to submit numerous frames before getting the first
frame’s acknowledgement. Only the incorrect or missing frames are retransmitted in

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this case, while the good frames are received and buffered.

5.2.4 Packet over SONET Protocol

si
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) is a physical layer protocol for sending
numerous digital bit streams via optical fibre lines, which serve as the network’s
backbone. Packet-over-SONET (POS) is a protocol for converting IP packets into
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SONET frames. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is used on IP routers to accomplish
ve
this technique. The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data connection layer protocol
that is used to send data between two computers that are linked directly (point-to-
point). It’s a byte-oriented protocol that’s commonly utilised in high-speed broadband
communications with significant loads.
ni

The protocol stack for Packet over SONET (POS) is depicted in the diagram below.

PPP’s POS Framing features include encapsulating the datagram in a frame and
U

transmitting it over the selected physical layer. It marks the start and finish of each
frame and allows for error detection.

The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is in charge of creating, setting, testing, managing,
and terminating transmission lines. It also imparts negotiation between the two ends of
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the connections for setting up settings and using features.

NCPs (Network Control Protocols) are protocols that are used to negotiate network
layer settings and facilities.
m

Operation and Specifications for Packet over SONET

RFC 2615 (PPP over SONET) is the current Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) PoS specification, which replaces RFC 1619. The PoS RFCs outline the
)A

standards for transporting data packets across a SONET network using PoS. The
following is a summary of these requirements:

High-order containment—In SONET, the required synchronous transport signals

must contain PoS frames. An OC-12 concatenated PoS interface is an example of this.
(c

To carry the needed payload of the PoS communication, this interface requires an STS-
12 circuit.

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Octet alignment—This refers to the data packet octet boundaries being aligned
Notes

e
with the STS octet boundaries. An octet (byte) is a set of eight bits that can be used in
any way. A byte is defined as an 8-bit unit of measurement. A byte was once defined by
IBM as comprising seven bits. Although the terms byte and octet are interchangeable,

in
the term octet is a more appropriate representation of 8 bits because it refers to a
sequence of eight.

nl
Scrambling the payload—Scrambling is the technique of encoding digital 1s and 0s
into a line in such a way that the number of 1s density requirements are met.

For T1 transmission, the ANSI standard specifies a 12.5 percent average density

O
of 1s (a single 1 in 8 bits fits this criterion), with no more than 14 consecutive 0s for
unframed signals and no more than 15 consecutive 0s for framed signals. Timing
recovery or network synchronisation are the key reasons for implementing a 1s density
requirement. However, 1s density has an impact on other aspects such as automated

ty
line build-out (ALBO), equalisation, and power utilisation. RFC 2615 introduces a more
secure payload scrambling technique.

si
POS Implementation
●● When a big volume of network traffic has to be sent via the Internet.
●● In order to send IP packets over a wide area network (WANs).
●● In the RPR (resilient packet ring) standard.
r
ve
5.2.5 ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop)
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) is a form of broadband communications
ni

technology that sends high-bandwidth digital data to homes and businesses over
existing phone lines.

A Digital Subscriber Line modem (DSL modem) must be installed on the client side
U

in order to access ADSL. The DSL modem transfers data bits across the telephone
network’s local loop. The local loop is a two-wire link between a subscriber’s home and
the telephone company’s end office. A device called a Digital Subscriber Line Access
Multiplexer accepts the data bits at the end office (DSLAM).
ity

Characteristics of ADSL
The DSL family of technologies includes ADSL.
m

ADSL is utilised in the telephone network’s local loop, or the portion of the network
that connects the customer’s home to the telephone company’s end office.

Multiple ADSL customers can be linked to the high-speed backbone network via a
)A

Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) at the telephone company’s end
office.

The majority of ADSL connections are full-duplex. It can be accomplished using

any of the following technologies:
(c

frequency-division duplex (FDD)

duplex with echo cancellation (ECD)

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frequency-division duplex (FDD)

Notes

e
FDD is the most often used technology.

Upstream and downstream communications are carried out on two different bands.

in
Upstream communication is carried out on the frequency bands 26.075 kHz to
137.825 kHz, whereas downstream communication is carried out on the frequency

nl
ranges 138–1104 kHz. The frequency of voice transmission is less than 4 KHz. As a
result, data transfer occurs at the same time as speech transmission.

On client premises with non-DSL connections, ADSL filters are utilised.

O
For data transmission, ADSL employs analogue sinusoidal carrier waves. ADSL
modems modulate and demodulate the waves at the customer’s location.

ty
r si
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ni
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5.2.6 Channel Allocation Problem

Channel allocation is the process of dividing and allocating a single channel to
many users in order to carry out user-specific functions. The number of users may
change each time the operation is run. Each user is allotted one piece if there are N
m

users, and the channel is split into N equal-sized sub channels. Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) is a simple and efficient channel bandwidth allotment technique that
may be employed if the number of users is minimal and does not change over time.
)A

Static Channel Allocation in LANs and MANs and Dynamic Channel Allocation may
both be used to tackle the channel allocation problem.
(c

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These are discussed in the next paragraphs.

Notes

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1. LAN and MAN Static Channel Allocation:

in
It is the old or classic method of assigning a single channel to numerous competing
consumers. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a kind of frequency division
multiplexing (FDM). If there are N users, the bandwidth is split into N sections of equal
size, with each user receiving one portion. There is no interaction between users

nl
because everyone has their own unique frequency band.

Dividing into a set number of parts is inefficient.

O
T = 1/(U*C-L); T(FDM) = N*T(1/U(C/N)-L/N)

Where,

T = mean time delay, C = channel capacity, L = frame arrival rate, 1/U = bits per

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frame, N = number of sub channels

Time of Frequency Division Multiplexing T(FDM)

si
2. Dynamic Channel Allocation: Hypotheses to consider are:
Station Model: Assumes that each of N stations produces frames separately. The
r
likelihood of generating a packet in the interval IDt, where I is the constant new frame
arrival rate.
ve
Assumption of a Single Channel: In this allocation, all stations are equal and can
broadcast and receive on the same channel.

Collision Assumption: Collision occurs when two frames intersect in time. Any
ni

frame clash is considered an error, and both frames must be resent. Collisions are the
only type of mistake that can occur.
U

There are two types of time: slotted and continuous.

Stations can detect whether a channel is busy before they attempt to use it.

Assumption for the protocol: N independent stations.

ity

Until a station’s produced frame is sent, it is blocked.

IDt is the chance of a frame being created in a period of length Dt, where I is the
frame arrival rate.
m

There is just one channel accessible.

There are two types of time: continuous and slotted.

)A

Carrier Sense: Before transmitting, a station can detect if a channel is already

occupied.

No Carrier Sense: A timeout is used to detect data loss.

5.2.7 Multiple Access Protocols

(c

Multiple access protocols are a group of protocols that operate under the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model’s Medium Access Control sublayer (MAC

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 286 Network Basics

sublayer). These protocols enable several nodes or users to share a network channel.
Notes

e
The multi-point transmission channel transports numerous data streams coming from
various nodes.

in
Multiple access protocols have the goals of reducing transmission time, reducing
collisions, and preventing crosstalk.

Multiple Access Protocols are divided into several categories.

nl
Random access protocols, controlled access protocols, and channelization
protocols are the three major kinds of multiple access protocols.

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Random Access Protocols (RAP)

Random access methods give all connected nodes the same priority. If the
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transmission channel is idle, any node can send data. There is no set timing or
sequence for data transmission.
U

ALOHA is one of the four random access protocols.

Multiple access is detected by the carrier (CMSA)

CMSA/CD stands for carrier sense multiple access with collision detection.
ity

CMSA/CA stands for carrier sensing multiple access with collision avoidance.

Protocols for Controlled Access

Only one node can communicate data at a time using controlled access protocols.
m

A node collects information from other nodes before commencing transmission to

establish which station has the authority to communicate.

The following three ways can be used to provide the station the ability to transmit. −
)A

Reservation

Token Passing

Channelization
(c

Channelization is a collection of techniques for dividing available bandwidth across

several nodes for simultaneous data transport.

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The three ways of channelization are as follows:

Notes

e
Multiple access frequency division (FDMA)

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a kind of time division multiple access

in
(TDMA)

5.2.8 ALOHA

nl
ALOHA is a system that coordinates and arbitrates access to a shared
communication network channel. Norman Abramson and his colleagues at the

O
University of Hawaii created it in the 1970s. The system was originally designed
for ground-based radio broadcasting, but it has since been adopted by satellite
communication systems.

When two or more systems try to transmit on the same channel at the same time, a

ty
shared communication system like ALOHA needs a way to handle collisions. A node in the
ALOHA system delivers data whenever it is accessible. A collision happens when another
node transmits at the same moment, and the frames that were transferred are lost.

si
A node, on the other hand, may listen to broadcasts on any medium, including its
own, and assess if the frames were sent. “Hello” is what Aloha implies. Aloha is a data-
link layer multiple access protocol that describes how numerous terminals can access
r
the medium without interfering or colliding. Roberts devised a technique in 1972 that
ve
would double the capacity of aloha. The Slotted Aloha protocol divides the time interval
into distinct slots, each of which corresponds to one frame’s worth of time. To avoid
collisions, this approach necessitates synchronisation between the transmitting nodes.

There are two types of ALOHA

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U
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ALOHA for Protocol Flow Chart

Pure ALOHA

●● The stations broadcast frames anytime they have data to send in pure ALOHA.
m

When two or more stations transmit at the same time, the frames collide and are
destroyed.
●● When a station transmits a frame in pure ALOHA, it expects the recipient to
)A

acknowledge it. If no acknowledgement is received after a certain amount of time,

the station considers the frame (or acknowledgement) has been lost.
●● If a collision causes the frame to be destroyed, the station waits a random period
of time before sending it again. If the waiting time is not random, the same frames
will collide again. As a result, after the time-out period expires, pure ALOHA
(c

specifies that each station must wait a random length of time before re-sending its
frame. More collisions will be avoided as a result of the unpredictability.

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 288 Network Basics

●● This diagram depicts a frame collision in pure ALOHA.

Notes

e
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In the illustration, there are four stations competing for access to a common
channel. Frames are being sent by each of these stations.

si
As numerous frames are vying for the shared channel, some of these frames will
collide. Frames 1.1 and 2.2 are the only ones that remain.

If two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, a collision occurs,
r
resulting in both frames being damaged. When the initial bit of a fresh frame overlaps
ve
with the last bit of a nearly finished frame, both frames are destroyed and must be
retransmitted.

Slotted ALOHA
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Since the odds of colliding in pure ALOHA are relatively high, slotted ALOHA was
designed to increase the efficiency of pure ALOHA.

The time of the shared channel is split into distinct segments called slots in slotted
U

ALOHA.

Stations can only send a frame at the start of a slot, and each slot can only send
one frame.
ity
m
)A
(c

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 Network Basics 289

If a station in slotted ALOHA is unable to place the frame into the channel at the
Notes

e
start of the slot, i.e. it misses the time slot, the station must wait until the start of the
following time slot.

in
There is still a chance of collision in slotted ALOHA if two stations try to send at the
same time slot’s commencement, as seen in figure.

As the risks of colliding are lowered to half, slotted ALOHA still has an advantage

nl
over pure ALOHA.

ALOHA Protocol Flow Chart. The ALOHA protocol flow chart is shown in Fig.

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Explanation:
●● It will be sent by a station that has a frame available.
●● After that, it sits and waits for a while.

ty
●● The communication is successful if it gets the acknowledgment.
●● If not, the station employs a backoff method and resends the packet.

si
●● If no acknowledgement is received after a certain number of attempts, the station
abandons the transmission plan.

5.2.9 Collision Free Protocol r

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In CSMA/CD, almost all collisions may be avoided. During the contention phase,
they are still possible. When the cable is long and the packet length is small, a collision
during the contention phase has a negative impact on system performance. As fibre optic
networks become more widely used, this problem becomes more critical. In this section,
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we’ll look at several techniques for resolving collisions during the contention phase.

Protocol for Bit-map Images

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Limited Contention Protocols with a Binary Countdown

The Protocol for Adaptive Tree Walks

1. Bit-map Protocol: Bit-map protocol is a collision-free protocol. Each contention period

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in the bitmap protocol technique has exactly N slots. If a station needs to deliver a
frame, it sends a 1 bit in the appropriate slot. Station 2 transmits a 1 bit during the
second slot if it has a frame to broadcast.
In general, by entering a 1 bit into slot 1, Station 1 announces that it has a frame
m

query. As a result, each station is fully aware of which station desires to transmit.
Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any crashes. Reser
Protocols are used in situations when the desire to send is broadcasting for the
)A

actual transmission.
(c

A Bit-Map Protocol

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We shall measure time in contention bits slot units to analyse the protocol’s
Notes

e
performance, using a data frame consisting of d time units. Due to a paucity of data
frames, the bitmap will simply be replayed over and again under low demand situations.
At high load, all stations have something to send all of the time, therefore the N bit

in
contention period is prorated over N frames, resulting in a frame overhead of just 1
bit. The most significant bits are combined in an OR operation. Station 0001 notices
the 1MSB in another station’s address and realises it is fighting for the channel with a

nl
higher numbered station, so it opts out for the current round.

Limited Contention Protocols: When the network load is minimal, collision-based

protocols (pure and slotted ALOHA, CSMA/CD) are ideal.

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2. Binary Countdown: To overcome the overhead of one bit per binary station, the
binary countdown protocol is utilised. Binary station addresses are utilised in binary
countdown. If a station wishes to use the channel, it must broadcast its address as

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a binary bit string beginning with the high order bit. The length of all addresses is
considered to be the same. We’ll use this example to demonstrate how the binary
countdown works.

si
Different station addresses are ORed together in this manner to determine the
priority of transmission. If these stations 0001, 1001, 1100, and 1011 are all attempting
to take over the channel for transmission, At initially, each station broadcasts its most
r
significant address bit, which is 0, 1, 1, 1 for each station.
ve
In general, high-numbered stations must wait half a scan before transmitting. Low-
numbered stations must wait half a scan (N/2 bit slots) before transmitting; on average,
low-numbered stations must wait 1.5 N slots.

The other three stations, 1001, 1100, and 1011, are still on the air. At station 1100,
ni

the following bit is 1, whereas Swiss stations 1011 and 1001 give up. After that, station
110 transmits a frame, and a new bidding cycle begins.
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When the load is large, collision-free protocols (bitmap, binary Countdown) are
m

beneficial.

Why not combine their benefits?

)A

Under light load, act as if you’re in the ALOHA programme.

Under excessive load, behave like the bitmap scheme.

Protocol for Adaptive Tree Walks:

(c

Partition the group of stations and set a restriction on the number of people
competing for each slot.

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 Network Basics 291

Everyone may attempt for each space like aloha if there isn’t a lot of traffic.
Notes

e
Only a small number of people may compete for each slot when there is a lot of
traffic.

in
How do we go about doing it?

Treat each station as the first slot in a binary tree (after successful transmission),

nl
and all stations can compete for it (under the root node).

If there isn’t a conflict, everything is great; if there is, only nodes in a subtree get to
attempt for the next one. (search in detail first).

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Slot-0: C*, E*, F*, and H* (all nodes beneath node 0 can try to transmit), conflict
ve
Slot-1: C* (every node under node 1 may attempt, C transmits

Slot-2: E*, F*, H* (every node under node 2 can try, conflict)

Slot-2: E*, F* (all nodes beneath node 5 can attempt to transmit), conflict
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Slot-4: E* (all nodes under E may send); E transmits;

Slot-5: F* (all nodes under F can send); F sends;

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Slot-6: H* (all nodes under node 6 can send); H sends.

5.2.10 Wireless LAN Protocol

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Wireless LANs are LANs (Local Area Networks) that connect devices using high-
frequency radio waves rather than wires. It’s a collection of laptops and other wireless
devices that communicate via radio waves. WLAN users are free to roam around within
the network’s service region. The IEEE 802.11 or WiFi standard is used in the majority
m

of WLANs.

Wireless LAN Configuration

)A

A wireless network interface controller is installed on each station in a Wireless

LAN. A station can fall into one of two categories:

WAPs (Wireless Access Points), sometimes known as access points (APs), are
wireless routers that serve as base stations or access points. The APs are connected
via the distribution infrastructure with fibre or copper lines.
(c

Clients include workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smart phones, and other
electronic devices. They’re only a few tens of metres away from an AP.

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Notes

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WLAN Protocols Types
There are several variants of IEEE 802.11 or WiFi, the most common of which are:

The 802.11a standard allows for extremely high transmission rates of 54Mbps. It

si
has a high frequency in the 5GHz band, which makes it difficult for signals to penetrate
walls and other obstacles. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is used (OFDM).

r
802.11b Protocol: This protocol works at a frequency of 2.4GHz and enables a
data throughput of 11Mbps. It allows for easier route sharing and is less susceptible
ve
to obstacles. With the Ethernet protocol, it employs Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).

The 802.11g protocol combines the benefits of the 802.11a and 802.11b protocols.
ni

It supports both the 5GHz (as defined by the 802.11a standard) and 2.4GHz frequency
bands (as in 802.11b standard). 802.11g is backward compatible with 802.11b devices
due to its dual characteristics. 802.11g offers fast speeds, a wide signal range, and
resistance to interference. It is, however, more expensive to install.
U

Protocol 802.11n This is an updated version of 802.11g, commonly referred to as

Wireless N. It offers extremely high bandwidth (up to 600Mbps) and signal coverage.
Several Input/Multiple Output (MIMO) technologies is used, with multiple antennas on
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both the transmitter and receiver ends. Alternative routes are chosen if there are signal
blockages. The implementation, on the other hand, is quite costly.

Check your Understanding

m

Fill in the blanks:

1. __________, finite data rate and propagation delay have important implications for
the efficiency of the data transfer.
)A

2. The _________ used for communications must take all these factors into
consideration.
3. The first framing method, __________ count, uses a field in the header to specify the
number of characters in the frame.
(c

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 Network Basics 293

Summary
Notes

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●● The sender should deliver an identical message to the distant Network Layer peer
(e.g., if the data link layer adds control information, the header information must be

in
removed before the message is passed to the Network Layer).
●● The Data Link Layer (DLL) offers an addressing system for delivering frames over
local shared media. The physical address is the device address in this layer.

nl
●● Error correction will be enabled or disabled depending on the protocol used in
the Data Link layer. Although the FCS is used to detect the problem, not every
protocol will allow it to be corrected.

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●● When the sender receives the acknowledgement (ACK), it sends the next data
packet to the receiver and waits for the disclosure again, and so on, as long as the
sender has data to transmit.

ty
●● A sender can send numerous frames at once in this protocol before obtaining an
acknowledgement from the recipient. The phrase “sliding window” alludes to the
fictitious boxes that keep the frames in place.

si
●● The sender has a buffer called the sending window, and the receiver has a buffer
called the receiving window in these protocols. The outgoing frame sequence
number is determined by the size of the transmitting window.

Activity
r
ve
1. Draw different LAN architectures.

Question and Answers

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1. Define link layer addressing.

2. Describe ALOHA.
3. Elaborate on multiple access protocols.
U

Glossary
1. Multi-Access: When a host on a shared link tries to send data, there’s a good chance
ity

they’ll collide. The data-link layer offers mechanisms such as CSMA/CD that enable
many systems to access a shared medium.
2. Flow control: Flow control is used to stop data frames from flowing at the receiver
end. The source machine cannot deliver data frames faster than the destination
m

machine’s capacity to take them.

3. Error control: Error control is used to avoid frame duplication. At the destination
machine, mistakes produced during transmission from source to destination
)A

machines must be discovered and repaired.

4. Guaranteed delivery: This layer offers a service that ensures the packet arrives at its
intended location.
5. Guaranteed delivery with bounded delay: This service ensures that the packet
(c

arrives within a defined host-to-host delay bound.

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6. Packets for Pre-Order: This service guarantees that the packets arrive at their
Notes

e
destination in the same sequence as they were despatched.
7. Guaranteed maximum jitter: With this service, the time between two consecutive

in
transmissions at the sender is the same as the time between their receipt at the
destination.

Further Readings:

nl
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New

O
Delhi, 2002.
3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.

ty
Check your Understanding-Answers
Fill in the blanks:

si
1. Circuit errors
2. protocols
3. Character
r
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U
ity
m
)A
(c

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Unit - 5.3 : Physical Layer

Notes

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Objectives

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At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

●● Know the services of physical and data link layer

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●● Understand the concept of framing
●● Understand various error handling methods

O
●● Know the Retransmission Strategies at data link layer
●● Understand various flow control methods

Introduction

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The Physical Layer, which is a physical and electrical representation of the system,
is the lowest layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model. It is made up of
numerous network components such as power plugs, connectors, receivers, and

si
different cable kinds. The Physical Layer transports data bits from one device (such
as a computer) to another (s). The types of encoding (how the 0s and 1s in a signal
are encoded) are defined by the Physical Layer. The Physical Layer is in charge of
r
transmitting unstructured raw data streams across a physical channel.
ve
5.3.1 Ethernet Physical Layer
Ethernet, as we’ve seen, is a collection of standards rather than a single item. As
Ethernet employs the same data-link layer standard across all channels, it may serve
ni

as a single LAN technology even if data may travel over multiple types of links (optical
and copper cables, wireless links) at varied speeds (from 10Mbps to 100Gbps).
U

The IEEE 802.3 standard defines the basic frame format, which is necessary for
all MAC implementations. Several extra formats are used to expand the protocol’s
fundamental functionality.

Preamble and SFD, both at the physical layer, begin an Ethernet frame. The
ity

Ethernet header comprises both the Source and Destination MAC addresses, followed
by the packet payload. The CRC field, which is used to identify errors, is the last field.
Let’s look at each field of the basic frame format now.
m
)A

IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame Format

PREAMBLING — The Ethernet frame begins with a seven-byte preamble. This

is a pattern of alternate 0s and 1s that signifies the start of the frame and allows the
sender and receiver to synchronise their bits. PRE (Preamble) was first devised
(c

to accommodate the loss of a few bits due to signal delays. Preamble is no longer
required to secure the frame bits in today’s high-speed Ethernet.

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PRE (Preamble) informs the receiver that a frame is on its way and allows it to lock
Notes

e
onto the data stream before the frame begins.

SFD (start of frame delimiter) – This is a one-byte field with the value 10101011.

in
SFD denotes the start of the frame’s future bits, which is the destination address.

Preamble is sometimes referred to as 8 bytes since SFD is sometimes considered

a component of PRE. The SFD informs the radio or stations that synchronisation is now

nl
or never.

Destination Address – A 6-byte field containing the MAC address of the machine to

O
which the data is being sent.

Source Address — This is a 6-byte field that contains the source machine’s MAC
address. The least significant bit of the first byte is always 0 since the Source Address
is always an individual address (Unicast).

ty
Length — The length of an Ethernet transmission is indicated by a 2-byte field
called length.

si
The length value in this 16-bit field can range from 0 to 65534, however it cannot
exceed 1500 due to Ethernet’s inherent limits.

Data (also known as Payload) — This is where real data is entered. If Internet
r
Protocol is utilised via Ethernet, both the IP header and the data will be placed here.
ve
The greatest amount of data that may be stored is 1500 bytes. If the data length is less
than the minimum length, which is 46 bytes, padding 0’s are appended to bring it up to
the minimum length.

CRC stands for Cyclic Redundancy Check and is a four-byte field. This field holds
ni

a 32-bit data hash code that is formed by combining the Destination Address, Source
Address, Length, and Data fields.

The data received is damaged if the checksum computed by the destination differs
U

from the checksum supplied.

Note: The Ethernet IEEE 802.3 frame size ranges from 64 bytes to 1518 bytes,
including data length (46 to 1500 bytes).
ity

An overview of the Extended Ethernet Frame (Ethernet II Frame) is as follows:

The IEEE 802.3 basic frame format is described in full above. Let’s have a look at
the extended Ethernet frame header, which allows us to receive payloads greater than
m

1500 bytes.
)A

Proposed ETHERNET Frame Extension

6 bytes DA [Destination MAC Address]

(c

6 bytes SA [Source MAC Address]

2 bytes of type [0x8870 (Ethertype)]

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1 byte for DSAP [802.2 Destination Service Access Point].

Notes

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1 byte SSAP [802.2 Source Service Access Point]

1 byte Ctrl [802.2 Control Field]

in
> 46 bytes of data [protocol data]

4 bytes FCS [Frame Checksum]

nl
Despite the absence of a length field in Ethernet II frames, the frame length is
known since the frame is received by the network interface.

O
5.3.2 Ethernet MAC Sublayer Protocol
WiFi, or the IEEE 802.11 standard, defines the design and requirements of wireless
LANs (WLANs). Instead of using cables to link devices in a LAN, WiFi or WLAN uses

ty
high-frequency radio waves. WLAN users are free to roam around within the network’s
service region.

The 802.11 MAC sublayer abstracts the physical layer for the logical link control

si
sublayer and the OSI network’s upper levels. It’s in charge of encapsulating frames as
well as specifying frame formats.

MAC IEEE 802.11 Sublayer Frame r

ve
According to IEEE 802.11, the primary fields of a frame for wireless LANs are:

Frame Control is a two-byte beginning field with eleven subfields. It holds the
frame’s control information.
ni

Duration is a two-byte field that indicates how long the frame and its
acknowledgement will occupy the channel.

There are three 6-byte address fields, one for the source, one for the proximate
U

destination, and one for the eventual terminus.

The frame numbers are stored in the Sequence field, which is a two-byte field.
ity

The data from the higher levels is carried in this variable-sized field. The data field
has a maximum size of 2312 bytes.
m
)A
(c

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Collision Avoidance via the 802.11 MAC Sublayer

Notes

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The collision detection mechanism does not operate in wireless networks. It
employs the CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance) protocol.

in
The CSMA/CA technique is as follows:

The transmitting station examines if the channel is idle or busy when a frame is

nl
ready.

If the channel is congested, the station will wait till it becomes available.

If the channel is not in use, the station waits an Inter-frame gap (IFG) before

O
sending the frame.

It starts a timer after sending the frame. The station then waits for the receiver’s
acknowledgment. It indicates a successful t if it receives the acknowledgement before

ty
the timer expires.

Otherwise, it waits for a period of back-off before restarting the process.

si
IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer Coordination Functions
The IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer utilises two co-ordination functions for collision

r
avoidance before transmission. The Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) is a
CSMA/CA-required function.
ve
It’s employed in channel access with distributed contention.

It is used in both Infrastructure BSS (basic service set) and Independent BSS
(independent service set).
ni

The 802.11 MAC Sublayer’s Point Coordination Feature (PCF) is an optional

function.
U

It’s utilised for centralised channel access that’s free of congestion.

It is exclusively used in the Infrastructure BSS.

ity

5.3.3 Ethernet Performance

Ethernet Performance Capacity Planning may be fine-tuned.

You’re thinking about upgrading to 10 Gbps Ethernet, but are you sure your
motherboard and system bus are fast enough to fill a 10 Gbps network? Can your disc
m

and file system I/O keep up with the data you’re sending and receiving?

The switch backplane requires 2 times the number of ports multiplied by the speed.
To be non-blocking, a switch with 20 ports running at 10 Gbps full-duplex requires a
)A

20210 = 400 Gbps bus backplane.

The switch backplane requires 2 times the number of ports multiplied by the speed.
To be non-blocking, a switch with 20 ports running at 10 Gbps full-duplex requires a
20210 = 400 Gbps bus backplane.
(c

When compared to the cost of upgrading to 10 Gbps hardware, connecting several

1 Gbps adapters makes sense if you have the right data flow patterns.

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Bonding several 10 Gbps adapters is costly, and the CPU is already overworked
Notes

e
trying to maintain the single 10 Gbps link full.

Measure both recent and current usage.

in
For all interfaces, get link-layer statistics:

“# ip -s link

nl
[...]

1: enp0s1: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 1500 qdisc fq_codel

state UNKNOWN mode DEFAULT group default qlen 1000

O
link/ether 00:11:95:1e:8e:b6 brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff

RX: bytes packets errors dropped overrun mcast

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8028989029 31573824 0 0 0 0

TX: bytes packets errors dropped carrier collsns

si
3272273796 15088848 0 0 0 0

[...]”

Non-Zero Values in Fields

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ve
Errors- Mode and speed were negotiated improperly or poorly, or the network cable
was destroyed.

Dropped- It’s possible that this is due to iptables or other filtering rules, but it’s
more probable that this is due to a shortage of network buffer memory.
ni

Overrun- The number of times the network interface’s buffer space was exhausted.

Carrier- Damaged or improperly connected network cables, as well as switch

U

issues.

Collsns- On a switched LAN, the number of collisions should always be zero. Non-
zero indicates that the appropriate duplex mode is not being negotiated. A little number
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that never expands indicates that it occurred when the interface first appeared but
hasn’t occurred subsequently.

Jumbo Frames should be enabled.

m

A standard header is required for every Ethernet transmission. The default MTU,
or maximum Ethernet frame length, provides for 1500 bytes of payload due to design
optimization considerations made years ago. The maximum frame length restricts
latency, or how long a host must wait for a packet to be transmitted, although that limit
)A

of 1500 bytes of payload plus header and CRC was set when Ethernet was running at
10 Mbps. The frames might be substantially larger in bytes and still have a significantly
lower latency with 1,000 times the speed. Additionally, the CPU would be interrupted
less frequently.
(c

An Ethernet frame containing more than 1500 bytes of payload is known as a

jumbo frame.

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With the ip command, you may set this interactively:

Notes

e
“# ip link set enp0s2 mtu 9000”

Add MTU=9000 to /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-enp0s2 to make the

in
adjustment permanent.

Using ethtool to Fine-tune Performance

nl
Be aware that the names of interfaces have changed; instead of eth0, eth1, and
so on, names that represent physical location, such as enp0s2, are now used. Here’s
where you can learn more about network interface names.

O
On a particular network interface, not all options will be available, and even if the
chipset supports something, the present Linux driver may not. As a result, don’t hold
your breath for all of the following to work on your system:

ty
Using ethtool as a tool
Get current parameters, such as speed and duplex mode, as well as whether or

si
not a link beat signal is detected, as well as driver information and statistics:

“# ethtool enp0s2

# ethtool -i enp0s2 r
ve
# ethtool -S enp0s2”

Interrupt Coalesce

Several packets in a quick succession can be merged into a single interrupt and
ni

handed up to the CPU, giving the CPU extra time to run the application.

“# ethtool -c enp0s2”
U

Ring Buffer
The driver queue is also known as the ring buffer. Get the current parameters for
the maximum receive and transmit buffer lengths. The number of frames in the buffer
ity

is reported by RX and TX, and the buffer includes pointers to frame data structures.
Change the parameters to the highest possible level to maximise throughput while
perhaps increasing latency. The CPU will have fewer opportunities to add packets to the
queue on a busy system, increasing the risk that the hardware will exhaust the buffer
before further packets can be queued.
m

“# ethtool -g enp0s2

Ring parameters for enp0s2:

)A

Pre-set maximums:

RX: 4096

RX Mini: 0
(c

RX Jumbo: 0

TX: 4096

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Current hardware settings:

Notes

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RX: 512

RX Mini: 0

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RX Jumbo: 0

TX: 512

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# ethtool -G enp0s2 rx 4096 tx 4096

# ethtool -g enp0s2

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Ring parameters for enp0s2:

Pre-set maximums:

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RX: 4096

RX Mini: 0

RX Jumbo: 0

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TX: 4096

Current hardware settings:

RX: 4096
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RX Mini: 0

RX Jumbo: 0
ni

TX: 4096”

Note: This is suitable for servers connected to high-speed LANs, but not for
personal computers with slower connections. Assume you have 256 packets in your
U

buffer. That’s 384,000 bytes or 3,072.000 bits at 1,500 bytes apiece. That’s about 3
seconds of delay on a 1 Mbps WLAN or ISP connection. With 9,000-byte jumbo frames,
it would be six times worse.
ity

Flow Control
Turn on flow control to allow the host and switch to pace their transmissions
dependent on the other end’s current receive capacity. This will minimise packet loss
and increase the performance of high-speed networks significantly.
m

“# ethtool -A enp0s2 rx on

# ethtool -A enp0s2 tx on”

)A

Processing Offload
Offload as much processing as possible from kernel software to hardware.

“# ethtool -k enp0s2
(c

# ethtool -K tx-checksum-ipv4 on

# ethtool -K tx-checksum-ipv6 on”

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TSO, USO, LSO, and GSO are examples of segmentation offload. TCP
Notes

e
segmentation may be feasible to offload. The kernel allocates a huge segment to the
NIC, perhaps 64 kbytes. The NIC has the intelligence to divide the data and add the
TCP, UDP, IP, and Ethernet headers using a template from the kernel’s TCP/IP stack.

in
TSO is for TCP Segmentation Offload, USO stands for UDP Segmentation Offload,
LSO stands for Large Segment Offload, and GSO stands for Generic Segmentation

nl
Offload. ethtool -k would be used to do this. Be cautious: while segmentation offload
should increase performance on a high-speed LAN, it is more likely to degrade
performance on a multi-hop WAN link.

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Bufferbloat
Across many areas in protocol stacks across the Internet, there has been a
general tendency toward larger and larger buffers, which has harmed both latency

ty
and throughput. “The major issue we’ve been discussing is that all of this unnecessary
buffering ends up breaking many of the timeout mechanisms built into our network
protocols,” as Vint Cerf put it.

si
“# cat /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-enp0s2

DEVICE=enp0s2

BOOTPROTO=static r
ve
IPADDR=10.1.1.100

NETMASK=255.255.255.0

ETHTOOL_OPTS=”-s enp0s2 speed 1000 duplex full autoneg off

ni

ETHTOOL_OPTS=”$ETHTOOL_OPTS; -K enp0s2 tx off rx off”

ETHTOOL_OPTS=”$ETHTOOL_OPTS; -G enp0s2 rx 4096 tx 4096””

U

5.3.4 Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is an address mapping mechanism that
ity

converts a logical address (IP address) used at the network layer to a physical address
(MAC address) used at the data link layer. A cache table, queues, output module, input
module, and cache management module make up the Address Resolution protocol
package. Furthermore, the address Resolution protocol includes Hardware type,
protocol type, Hardware length, protocol length, activities such as request and reply,
m

the sender’s hardware address, the sender’s protocol address, the target’s hardware
address, and the target’s protocol address.

ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol, and it’s used to determine a device’s
)A

MAC address from its IP address. This signifies that the source device already knows
the destination device’s IP address but not its MAC address. As you can’t connect
with a device in a local area network (Ethernet) without knowing its MAC address, the
device’s MAC address is necessary. As a result, the Address Resolution Protocol aids in
obtaining the destination device’s MAC address.
(c

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Notes

e
in
Scenario 1: When a data packet is misplaced or incorrect.

ARP is used to convert a 32-bit logical address (IPv4 address) to a 48-bit physical
address (MAC address). The OSI model’s layer 2 and layer 3 are connected through

nl
this protocol. Layer 2 contains the MAC address, which is also known as the data link
layer, and Layer 3 contains the IP address, which is also known as the network layer.

Note that the ARP request is only sent when both the source and destination

O
devices are connected to the same network.

Consider the following scenario: two devices (device A and device B) desire to
connect with one another. The IP address of Device B is already known to Device A.

ty
However, device A still need the MAC address of device B in order to connect with it.
A device’s IP address is used to find it on a local area network, while its MAC address
is used to identify it. The device A first checks its internal list, known as the ARP cache
(table), to see if the device B’s IP address already contains its MAC address. If device

si
B’s MAC address is in the ARP table, device A can simply use that MAC address to
begin communication.

r
If the MAC address of device B is not found in the database, device A sends an
ARP broadcast message to the network to find out which device has that IP address
ve
and to request the MAC address of that device. The device with the same IP address
as the source address then sends an ARP response message with the device B’s
MAC address. When device A acquires the MAC address of device B, the information
is stored in the ARP cache (table). The ARP cache is used to improve network
ni

performance. It saves the device’s IP address as well as its MAC address.

When device A wishes to connect with device B via a network, the stored
U

information is utilised instead of broadcasting a message over the network. It will just
look for items in the ARP cache and then utilise it for communication. Note that while
the ARP request message is broadcast, the ARP response message is unicast.
ity

Mapping Types in ARP

There are two methods for mapping an IP address to a MAC address, which are
described below:

Static Mapping - A table containing the logical address and physical address of
m

the destination device is used in static mapping. The device’s IP and MAC address are
manually inserted into an ARP table in this method. If a source wishes to connect with
the destination device, it must first access the table.
)A

Dynamic Mapping - In dynamic mapping, if a device knows the logical address of

another device, it can use the Address Resolution protocol to determine the device’s
physical address. When the source device submits an ARP broadcast request, the
dynamic entries are produced automatically. These entries aren’t permanent and are
cleared on a regular basis. Note that the Reverse Address Resolution Protocol also
(c

uses dynamic mapping.

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5.3.5 LAN Topologies

Notes

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LAN stands for Local Area Network (Local Area Network)

A local area network (LAN) is a type of data communication network. Several

in
computers and their peripherals, such as disc storage devices and printers, are
connected to a single high-speed data connection inside a confined region in this sort
of network. A private network is commonly referred to as a local area network. In a LAN,

nl
data is separated and sent in packets, which are then regenerated by the receiving
computer.

It offers high data rates ranging from 10 to 100 megabits per second (Mbps). The

O
most recent LANs can deliver data rates of up to 10 Gbps. The coverage area is under
10 kilometres. LANs, like other networks, require hardware and software components.
The transmission medium and connecting equipment like as transceivers, bridges,

ty
switches, and repeaters make up hardware. Software has Application Programs, which
comprise IEEE-defined protocols.

r si
ve
ni
U
ity

Figure: LAN network

Local Area Network (LAN) Types:

LANs may be set up in a variety of ways, including:
m

●● LAN (Ethernet) (Wired connection)

●● Wifi (Wireless)
)A

LAN (Ethernet) (Wired connection)

Ethernet LAN connects devices in a network using Ethernet wires. The network
is wired in this configuration, and the switches and routers are configured using the
network settings. The Internet Protocol (IP) standard is established, allowing the
(c

internet to function on a variety of devices inside the network.

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Notes

e
in
nl
O
Figure: Ethernet LAN

Wifi (Wireless Local Area Network)

ty
The wireless local area network (WLAN) communicates using radio waves. The
gadgets are connected without the need of wires. The advantage of WLAN over LAN
is that it provides more security. If the users are within the range of the Router, they

si
can access the internet without a wired connection (wireless). Many devices can be
connected at the same time via a WLAN connection, as long as they are all within the
router’s range.
r
ve
ni
U

Wifi (Wireless) LAN

The pattern of connections between the network’s nodes is known as topology. The
following are the three fundamental LAN topologies:
ity

●● Star Topology
●● Ring Topology
●● Bus Topology
m

Star Topology
All nodes in this network are linked to the Central Node. The devices are not linked
)A

to one another, and the communications are sent to the Central Node. The central node
is in charge of sending the message to the correct location. It is the most extensively
used LAN architecture.

Ring Topology
(c

The nodes in this network are joined to form a closed loop. Tokens are used
by each node to connect with the nodes on either side of it (information passing).

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Nodes that have a Token are permitted to send data. This architecture eliminates
Notes

e
the requirement for a Network Server to control other devices because nodes are
connected to the central node.

in
Bus Topology
All nodes in this network, including PCs and servers, are connected via a single
cable known as the Bus. This network is simpler and more cost-effective than others.

nl
The source node sends out a signal that is transmitted across the Bus cable to all of the
other nodes. Despite the fact that the message is disseminated, the signal reaches the
intended receiver. If the MAC Address or IP Address of the receiver matches, the signal

O
can be accepted, and data transfer is one-way.

ty
r si
ve
Figure: LAN Topologies

Among the applications are:

ni

●● LANs are commonly used in schools, workplaces, and hospitals because they
allow for the sharing of resources such as data, scanners, printers, and the
internet.
U

●● Users at home can connect to the internet through a LAN.

●● A central server manages the actions of other devices in a LAN, which is
commonly employed in industrial businesses.
ity

●● High-speed LANs are commonly used to connect many slower networks.

The following are some of the benefits of LAN:

●● High-bandwidth communication is available.
m

●● The transmission medium is low-cost.

●● The available bandwidth is effectively used.
)A

●● The upkeep is simple.

The following are some of the downsides of LAN:

●● As more resources are shared, speed slows down.
(c

●● Less dependable.
●● The network must be set up by professional experts.

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 Network Basics 307

●● Covers a small region.

Notes

e
Check your Understanding
Fill in the blanks:

in
1. Turn on _________ to allow the host and switch to pace their transmissions
dependent on the other end’s current receive capacity.

nl
2. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is an address mapping mechanism
that converts a logical address (IP address) used at the network layer to a
___________________ used at the data link layer.

O
3. The packets are frequently called datagrams and the subnet is called a _________
subnet.

Summary

ty
●● Ethernet LAN connects devices in a network using Ethernet wires. The network is
wired in this configuration, and the switches and routers are configured using the
network settings.

si
●● Ethernet, as we’ve seen, is a collection of standards rather than a single item. As
Ethernet employs the same data-link layer standard across all channels, it may

r
serve as a single LAN technology even if data may travel over multiple types of
links (optical and copper cables, wireless links) at varied speeds.
ve
●● Preamble is sometimes referred to as 8 bytes since SFD is sometimes considered
a component of PRE. The SFD informs the radio or stations that synchronisation is
now or never.
ni

●● CRC stands for Cyclic Redundancy Check and is a four-byte field. This field holds
a 32-bit data hash code that is formed by combining the Destination Address,
Source Address, Length, and Data fields.
U

●● WiFi, or the IEEE 802.11 standard, defines the design and requirements of
wireless LANs (WLANs). Instead of using cables to link devices in a LAN, WiFi or
WLAN uses high-frequency radio waves.
ity

●● It starts a timer after sending the frame. The station then waits for the receiver’s
acknowledgment. It indicates a successful t if it receives the acknowledgement
before the timer expires.
●● A standard header is required for every Ethernet transmission. The default MTU,
or maximum Ethernet frame length, provides for 1500 bytes of payload due to
m

design optimization considerations made years ago.

●● The driver queue is also known as the ring buffer. Get the current parameters for
)A

the maximum receive and transmit buffer lengths.

●● Turn on flow control to allow the host and switch to pace their transmissions
dependent on the other end’s current receive capacity. This will minimise packet
loss and increase the performance of high-speed networks significantly.
(c

Activity
1. Draw different sublayers of Data link layer and write its features.

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Question and Answers

Notes

e
1. What are the sub-layers of data link layer? Explain.
2. List the services of data link layer.

in
3. What is parity bit method? Explain its use with the help of an example.
4. Explain the importance of Sliding Window protocol. Also, List the types of sliding

nl
window techniques.
5. Compare the throughput of pure and slotted ALOHA.

O
Glossary
●● Logical Link Control (LLC) concerned with providing a reliable communication part
between two devices. It is also involved with flow control and sequencing. The LLC
is non-architecture-specific and is the same for all IEEE defined LANs. Medium

ty
Access Control (MAC) focuses on methods of sharing a single transmission
medium.
●● Framing: Encapsulation of network layer data packets into frames, and Frame

si
synchronization
●● Flow Control: Flow control deals with how to keep the fast sender from overflowing

r
a slow receiver by buffering and acknowledgement procedures. This flow control
at data link layer is provided in addition to the one provided on the transport layer.
ve
●● Error detection and correction codes: Various methods used for errordetection and
corrections are – Parity bit, cyclic redundancy check, checksum, Hamming code,
etc.
ni

●● Static Mapping: A table containing the logical address and physical address of the
destination device is used in static mapping.
●● Dynamic Mapping: In dynamic mapping, if a device knows the logical address
U

of another device, it can use the Address Resolution protocol to determine the
device’s physical address.

Further Readings:
ity

1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 2002.
m

3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.

Check your Understanding-Answers

)A

Fill in the blanks:

1. flow control
2. physical address (MAC address)
(c

3. datagram

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Unit - 5.4 : Data Link Layer Switches

Notes

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Objectives

in
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

●● Learn about Bridges

nl
●● Understand different aspects of Routers and Switches
●● Describe Gateways and its role

O
●● Elaborate on Repeaters and its importance
●● Know Hubs and Virtual LAN

Introduction

ty
The switch’s job is to receive and forward incoming link-layer frames to outbound
connections. Packets are forwarded via switches based on their MAC addresses.

si
A host/router addresses a frame to another host/router (rather than the switch)
and cheerfully transmits it into the LAN, completely oblivious that the frame would be
received and forwarded by a switch.
r
The pace of frames arriving at any of the switch’s output interfaces may briefly
ve
surpass that interface’s connection capability. Switch output interfaces feature buffers
to address this issue, similar to how router output interfaces have buffers for datagrams.

Switches are plug-and-play devices since they don’t require any user or network
administrator involvement. To install a switch, all a network administrator needs to do
ni

is connect the LAN segments to the switch interfaces. The switch tables do not need
to be configured during installation or when a host is removed from one of the LAN
segments. Switches are also full-duplex, which means they may send and receive data
U

simultaneously.

5.4.1 Bridges
ity

Bridges provide significant advantages over repeaters by using the data stored
in the Data Link Layer. However, the price to be paid is a far more expensive and
sophisticated product than the repeater; a product that must incorporate logic and
memory. Furthermore, host computers must wrap the data to be transferred in a
packet(s) that includes, at a minimum, the Data Link Layer’s metadata. The source and
m

destination addresses, as well as critical supervisory bits, are all included in this data.

Bridges, also known as Medium Access Control (MAC) bridges, create tables of
)A

which addresses have arrived on which interfaces or connections using the source and
destination addresses in packets. The bridge only delivers packets using the interfaces
it has seen the source addresses originate from if it gets a packet with destination
addresses that are in the database. The packets will not be sent down all interfaces.
Early on, evolution bridges were dubbed “learning bridges,” despite the fact that the
(c

tables they generated were not in any way routing tables. The tables did help with the
store-and-forward capabilities built into bridge relay logic.

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Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
Figure: A network bridge

si
Bridges gain even more advantages by being able to read and use the address
information in packets, or datagrams. If the destination address is on the same network
r
as the packet’s originator, the packet does not need to be forwarded to other networks,
ve
lowering network traffic even more. Users may also utilise this capability to partition
an existing network to increase the performance of both new and existing networks.
A bridge used to segregate engineering workstations and office PCs into two new
networks, for example, will likely increase the performance of both new networks.
Bridges, on the other hand, are extremely quick since they do not inspect or utilise any
ni

information in the Layers above the Data Link Layer.

Transparency is another limiting feature of bridges. Connected Hosts do not need

U

to address bridges individually and can simply launch Data Link Layer built packets.
This may appear to be a benefit at first, but as network demands became more
complicated, Hosts would need to handle the Internetworking product. Finally, bridge
tables are nothing more than a static representation of a network since bridges only
ity

know node source and destination addresses.

Bridges, however, could not fulfil the objectives of organisations and institutions
wishing to establish geographically scattered, massive corporate networks due to their
inability to route dynamically or fully allow multi-protocols.
m

5.4.2 Routers and Switches

What exactly is a Router?
)A

Routers are computer networking devices that perform two functions: (1) creating
and maintaining a local area network, and (2) managing data entering and exiting the
network as well as data travelling within the network. It also aids in the management
of many networks and the routing of network traffic among them. Your router has two
(c

connections in your home network: one to the Internet and one to your private local
network. In addition, many routers include built-in switches that enable you to connect
several wired devices.
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Notes

e
in
nl
Figure: Router

O
What exactly is a switch?
A network switch is a computer networking device that links several computers
on a single network. It may also be used to route information transferred via networks

ty
in the form of electronic data. Switches are commonly referred to as bridging devices
since the process of connecting network segments is also known as bridging.

r si
ve
Figure: Switch
ni

Important Differences
Routers operate on the OSI model’s Layer 3 (Network), whereas network switches
U

operate on the OSI model’s Layer 2 (Data Link Layer).

Switches store MAC addresses in a lookup table, whereas routers store IP

addresses in the routing table.
ity

Except for VLAN implementation, every port on the router has its own broadcast
domain, while the switch has just one broadcast domain.

Switches, on the other hand, are limited to wired network connections whereas
m

routers may function in both wired and wireless network environments.

The Router will provide NAT, NetFlow, and QoS services, but the Switch will not.

The router is quicker in many sorts of network setups (MAN/WAN), however the
)A

switch is faster.

How Does a Router Work?

A router is a device that links several networks and monitors network traffic. It has
(c

two connections: one to the internet and one to your own network.

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Furthermore, many routers include built-in switches that let you connect several
Notes

e
wired devices. Wireless radios are included in many routers, allowing you to connect
Wi-Fi devices.

in
What is the mechanism of Switch?

Bridging hub, switching, and MAC bridge are all terms used to describe a network
switch. MAC addresses are used by switches to route data to the correct destination.

nl
Packet switching is used by the operating system at the data connection layer to
receive, analyse, and forward data.

A switch provides data handling assistance and is aware of the specific addresses

O
to which the message should be sent. It may determine which computer the
communication is intended for and transmit the message to that machine directly. The
switch’s efficiency can be enhanced by increasing the network speed.

ty
5.4.3 Gateways
A gateway is a network node that serves as a connection point between

si
two networks that use distinct transmission protocols. The network gateway is
the most popular sort of gateway, and it works at layer 3 of the OSI (open systems
interconnection) architecture, which is the network layer. A gateway, on the other hand,
r
can operate at any of the seven levels of the OSI model, depending on the functionality.
As all traffic that passes across networks must pass via the gateway, it serves as the
ve
network’s entry and departure point. Internal communication between LAN nodes is the
only type of traffic that does not flow via the gateway.
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

Figure: Gateway

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 Network Basics 313

Gateway Characteristics
Notes

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●● A gateway is a device that sits at the network’s edge and controls all data that
goes in and out of it.

in
●● It serves as a conduit between two networks that use distinct transmission
methods.
●● A gateway acts as a protocol converter, ensuring that the different protocols used

nl
in the two networks are compatible.
●● In most cases, a gateway is constructed as a node with many NICs (network
interface cards) linked to various networks. It may, however, be adjusted via

O
software.
●● It transmits data across networks using the packet switching mechanism.

ty
Gateways are divided into several categories.
Gateways are classified into two groups based on the direction of data flow.

Data can only go in one direction through unidirectional gateways. Changes to the

si
source node are replicated to the destination node, but not the other way around. They
can be used to store information.

r
Data can travel in both directions using bidirectional gateways. They can be used
as tools for synchronisation.
ve
The ability to function at any layer of the OSI model distinguishes a gateway from
other network devices.

It also keeps track of the routing pathways taken by communication networks.

ni

In a corporate setting, a gateway node can also operate as a proxy server or

firewall.
U

There can be a number of gates based on functionality, the most famous of which
are as follows:

The most common sort of gateway is a network gateway, which serves as an

ity

interface between two networks that use distinct protocols. A network gateway is
indicated whenever the term gateway is used without identifying the type.

It is a network node or server that transforms storage requests into multiple cloud
storage service API calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) or REST
m

(Representational State Transfer) (REpresentational State Transfer).

It simplifies data transmission by allowing private cloud storage to be integrated

into apps without requiring the programmes to be transferred to any public cloud.
)A

The Internet-to-Orbit Gateway (I2O) connects Internet-connected devices to satellites

and spacecraft in orbit around the Earth. Project HERMES and the Global Educational
Network for Satellite Operations are two well-known I2O gateways (GENSO).

IoT Gateways collect sensor data from IoT (Internet of Things) devices in the field
(c

and convert it to other sensor protocols before transmitting it to the cloud. They serve
as a link between IoT devices, the cloud network, and user applications.

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It enables data transmission between POTS (plain old telephone service) devices
Notes

e
such as landlines and fax machines and the VoIP (voice over Internet Protocol)
network.

in
5.4.5 Repeaters
Repeaters are network devices that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal

nl
before retransmitting it at the physical layer of the OSI model. They are used in
networks to increase their coverage area. Signal boosters are another name for them.

O
ty
r si
ve
Figure: Repeaters

What is the purpose of Repeaters?

An electrical signal is attenuated as it is conveyed across a channel, depending on
ni

the nature of the channel or the technology. The length of the LAN or the service area
of cellular networks is thus limited. Installing repeaters at regular intervals solves this
problem.
U

The attenuated signal is amplified and then retransmitted by repeaters. Digital

repeaters may even reassemble signals that have been distorted due to transmission
loss. As a result, repeaters are frequently used to connect two LANs, resulting in a big
single LAN. This is seen in the diagram below.
ity
m
)A
(c

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 Network Basics 315

The Different Types of Repeaters

Notes

e
Repeaters may be divided into two kinds based on the sorts of signals they
reproduce.

in
Only the analogue signal may be amplified using analogue repeaters.

They can recreate a distorted signal using digital repeaters.

nl
Repeaters are divided into two varieties based on the networks they connect:
Wired Repeaters and Wireless Repeaters. Wired Repeaters are used in wired LANs.
Wireless Repeaters are used in wireless LANs.

O
Wireless Repeaters are used in cellular networks and wireless LANs.

Repeaters are classified into two kinds based on the domain of LANs they connect
to.

ty
Local Repeaters are devices that link LAN segments that are separated by a short
distance.

si
Remote Repeaters are devices that link LANs that are separated by a large
distance.

The Benefits of Repeaters

●●
r
Repeaters are easy to set up and may rapidly increase the length of a network’s
ve
service area.
●● They are inexpensive.
●● Repeaters do not need any further processing. The only time they need to be
ni

looked at is if their performance starts to deteriorate.

●● Signals can be connected via a variety of cables.
U

Repeaters have a number of drawbacks.

●● Repeaters can’t link networks that aren’t compatible.
●● They are unable to distinguish between true signal and noise.
ity

●● They are unable to minimise network congestion or traffic.

●● The number of repeaters that can be placed by most networks is limited.

5.4.5 Hubs
m

Hubs are networking devices that connect several devices in a network by

functioning at the physical layer of the OSI model. They’re often used to connect
)A

computers in a local area network (LAN).

A hub is a device with a large number of ports. One of these ports is plugged in
by a machine that wants to connect to the network. When a data frame arrives at a
port, it is broadcast to all other ports, regardless of whether it is intended for a specific
destination device.
(c

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Notes

e
in
nl
O
ty
si
Figure: Hubs

Hub Characteristics r
ve
The physical layer of the OSI model is where a hub works.

Data cannot be filtered by a hub. It’s a dumb network device that broadcasts
messages to all ports.
ni

Its primary function is to broadcast messages. As a result, the collision domain of

all nodes connected via the hub remains the same.

Half-duplex transmission is used.

U

Collisions can occur during the configuration of transmission when many

computers send data to the same port at the same time.

Inefficiencies and waste occur because they lack the intelligence to compute the
ity

appropriate path for data packet transfer.

They aren’t connected to any software and are hence passive devices.

They usually have fewer 4/12 ports.

m

Hubs of Various Types

)A
(c

Figure: Hubs-Types

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 Network Basics 317

Hubs were originally designed to be passive devices. Active hubs and intelligent
Notes

e
hubs, on the other hand, have become popular as a result of advancements in
technology.

in
Active Hubs: Before broadcasting, active hubs enhance and regenerate incoming
electrical impulses. They have their own power source and may function as both a
repeater and a connecting centre. They can increase the size of the LAN by extending

nl
the maximum distance between nodes due to their renewing capabilities.

Intelligent Hubs are active hubs that offer extra network management features.
They may perform a wide range of duties normally reserved for more sophisticated

O
network devices, such as network administration, switching, and offering adjustable
data rates.

5.4.6 Virtual LAN

ty
Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a notion that allows us to separate devices logically on layer
2 networks (data link layer). Layer 3 devices typically split broadcast domains, although
switches can use the idea of VLAN to divide broadcast domains.

si
A broadcast domain is a network segment where if a device broadcasts a packet,
it will be received by all devices in the same broadcast domain. All broadcast packets
r
are received by devices in the same broadcast domain, although this is limited to
switches only because routers do not forward out broadcast packets. Inter Vlan routing
ve
is required to forward packets to various VLANs (from one VLAN to another) or the
broadcast domain.

VLAN 0 and VLAN 4095 are reserved VLANs that can’t be viewed or utilised.
ni

VLAN 1: This is the switch’s default VLAN. VLAN is enabled on all switch ports by
default. This VLAN is not editable or deleteable, but it can be utilised.
U

VLAN 2-1001: This is a standard VLAN numbering scheme. These VLANs may be
created, edited, and deleted.

VLAN 1002-1005: For fddi and token rings, these are the CISCO defaults. These
VLANs are not able to be removed.
ity

Vlan 1006-4094 is the Vlan’s expanded range.

Configuration — Creating VLANs is as simple as setting a vlan-id and a VLAN

name.
m

“#switch1(config)#vlan 2

#switch1(config-vlan)#vlan accounts”
)A

The Vlan ID is 2 and the Vlan name is accounts. Vlan is now assigned to the switch
ports.

“Switch(config)#int fa0/0

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

(c

Switch(config-if)#switchport access Vlan 2”

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 318 Network Basics

Switchport ranges, for example, can be allocated to needed vlans.

Notes

e
“Switch(config)#int range fa0/0-2

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

in
Switch(config-if) #switchport access Vlan 2”

Vlan 2 will be assigned to switchports fa0/0, fa0/1, and fa0-2 as a result of this.

nl
O
ty
r si
192.168.1.1/24, 192.168.1.2/24, and 192.168.2.1/24 are the IP addresses assigned
to the PCs. Now we’ll set up Vlans 2 and 3 on the switch.
ve
“Switch(config)#vlan 2

Switch(config)#vlan 3”
ni

We’ve created VLANs, but the most crucial step is to allocate switch ports to them.

“Switch(config)#int fa0/0
U

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch(config-if) #switchport access Vlan 2

Switch(config)#int fa0/1
ity

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch(config-if) #switchport access Vlan 3

Switch(config)#int fa0/2
m

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch(config-if) #switchport access Vlan 2”

)A

As you can see, Vlan 2 has been allocated to fa0/0, fa0/2, and Vlan 3 has been
assigned to fa0/1.

VLAN connection types – There are three methods to link devices on a VLAN; the
kind of connection is determined by whether the connected devices are VLAN-aware
(c

(devices that understand VLAN formats and membership) or VLAN-unaware (devices

that do not understand VLAN formats and membership).

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VLAN awareness is required for all devices connected to a trunk link. A specific
Notes

e
header called tagged frames should be appended to all frames on this page.

VLAN-unaware devices are connected to a VLAN-aware bridge through an access

in
link. The access link’s frames must all be untagged.

Hybrid link - This is a link that combines the trunk and access links. Both VLAN-
unaware and VLAN-aware devices are connected here, and both tagged and untagged

nl
frames can be sent.

Advantages

O
Performance – There is a lot of broadcast and multicast traffic on the network.
VLAN eliminates the need to send such traffic to irrelevant locations. For example,
if communication is meant for two users but ten devices are present in the same
broadcast domain, all would get the traffic, resulting in bandwidth waste. However, if

ty
VLANs are created, the broadcast or multicast packet will only travel to the intended
users. Virtual group formation – VLANs may be quite effective in grouping devices
logically according to their departments, as every corporation has multiple departments

si
such as sales, finance, and so on.

Security - Sensitive data can be broadcast on the same network, which can be
accessed by an outsider, but we can regulate broadcast domains, set up firewalls,
r
and restrict access by creating VLANs. VLANs can also be used to notify the network
ve
administrator of an incursion. As a result, VLANs significantly improve network security.

Flexibility - VLAN allows us to add or delete as many hosts as we wish.

Cost savings - VLANs may be used to build broadcast domains, obviating the
ni

requirement for costly routers. The number of minor broadcast domains may be raised
using Vlan, which are easier to manage than larger broadcast domains.
U

Check your Understanding

Fill in the blanks:

1. ________ provide significant advantages over repeaters by using the data stored in
ity

the Data Link Layer.

2. _____________ are commonly referred to as bridging devices since the process of
connecting network segments is also known as bridging.
3. A router is a device that links several networks and monitors network traffic. It has
m

two connections: one to the ___________ and one to your own network.
4. A gateway is a network node that serves as a connection point between two networks
that use distinct _________ protocols.
)A

5. _________ are network devices that amplify or regenerate an incoming signal before
retransmitting it at the physical layer of the OSI model.

Summary
(c

●● The process of forwarding data frames or packets from one port to another that
leads to data transfer from source to destination is known as network switching.

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●● The data link layer is the second layer of the Open System Interconnections
Notes

e
(OSI) paradigm, and its job is to partition the stream of bits from the physical layer
into data frames, which are then sent according to switching needs. Bridges are
network devices that perform switching at the data connection layer.

in
●● A data link layer bridge joins numerous LANs (local area networks) to build a
bigger LAN. Network bridging refers to the process of aggregating networks.

nl
●● A bridge joins the various components, making them appear to be part of a single
network.Switching by Bridges
●● When a data frame arrives at a bridge’s port, the bridge evaluates the data link

O
address, or more precisely, the MAC address of the frame. The bridge sends the
frame to the targeted port if both the destination address and the needed switching
are correct. If not, the frame is discarded.

ty
●● The bridge is not in charge of end-to-end data transport.
●● It is in charge of sending the data frame from one hop to the next. As a result, they
do not check the frame’s payload field. As a result, they can assist in the switching

si
of any type of packet from the network layer above.
●● Bridges can also be used to link virtual LANs (VLANs) to form a bigger VLAN.

Activity r
ve
1. Write different steps to link virtual LANs.

Question and Answers

1. What are Gateways in Computer Network?
ni

2. What is a LAN? What are fundamentals of networking.

3. What is the Error Control in the Data Link Layer?
U

4. What is data switching?

Glossary
●● Filtering: It is the switch function that determines whether a frame should be
ity

forwarded to some interface or should just be dropped.

●● Forwarding: It is the switch function that determines the interfaces to which a
frame should be directed and then moves the frame to those interfaces.
m

●● Switch Table: Switch filtering and forwarding are done with a switch table. The
switch table contains entries for some, but not necessarily all, of the hosts and
routers on a LAN.
)A

●● Packet Switching: It is a method of transferring the data to a network in form of

packets.
●● Framing: In order to provide service to the network layer, the data link layer must
use the service provided to it by the physical layer.
(c

●● Flow Control: Flow control deals with how to keep the fast sender from overflowing
a slow receiver by buffering and acknowledgement procedures. This flow control
at data link layer is provided in addition to the one provided on the transport layer.

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●● Logical Link Control (LLC) concerned with providing a reliable communication part
Notes

e
between two devices. It is also involved with flow control and sequencing. The LLC
is non-architecture-specific and is the same for all IEEE defined LANs. Medium
Access Control (MAC) focuses on methods of sharing a single transmission

in
medium.
●● Dynamic Mapping: In dynamic mapping, if a device knows the logical address

nl
of another device, it can use the Address Resolution protocol to determine the
device’s physical address.
●● Error detection and correction codes: Various methods used for errordetection and

O
corrections are – Parity bit, cyclic redundancy check, checksum, Hamming code,
etc.
●● Static Mapping: A table containing the logical address and physical address of the
destination device is used in static mapping.

ty
Further Readings:
1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print

si
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 2002.
3. r
Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.
ve
Check your Understanding-Answers
Fill in the blanks:
ni

1. Bridges
2. Switches
3. internet
U

4. transmission
5. Repeaters
ity
m
)A
(c

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 322 Network Basics

Unit - 5.5 : Network Expansion and Security

Notes

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The term “network security” refers to all parts of the network’s sensitive information

in
assets being protected. It encompasses a number of technologies that have been
developed to offer basic security services for data transfer.

This lesson will walk you through numerous different types of network

nl
vulnerabilities and assaults, as well as the security measures that may be used to
counter them. It explains how the most prevalent security protocols work at various
networking levels, from the application to the data connection layer.

O
5.5.1 Creation and Grow of Network
In 2014, two significant milestones in the advancement of information technology

ty
were reached. The first ARPAnet (later known as the Internet) link was established
between UCLA and SRI 45 years ago (October 29, 1969). Tim Berners-Lee presented
his management at CERN with a concept for “Mesh” (eventually known as the World

si
Wide Web) twenty-five years ago (March 1989).

The emergence of these twin blooms of the digital era, one (the Internet) a network
infrastructure and the other (the Web) a software architecture stacked on top of it, is
seen in this timeline. r
ve
They have so far linked more than a third of the world’s population, transforming
millions of individuals into new information consumers and providers.

From this brief history of the Internet and the Web, three major themes or conflicts
ni

emerge: 1. Resource and knowledge centralization vs. decentralisation; 2. Applying a

pre-determined taxonomy to a body of information vs. self-organization via associative
linkages; 3. One-way consumption vs. two-way consumption and production of
knowledge In a broader sense, this has been a war between closed/proprietary and open/
U

universal systems, an ongoing battle that will determine the Internet’s and Web’s future.

The Cyclopaedia, or, Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, is published in

1728 by Ephraim Chambers, a London globe builder. It is the first attempt to link all
ity

of the articles in an encyclopaedia or, more broadly, all of the components of human
knowledge via association. “Former lexicographers have not tried anything like
Structure in their Works; nor appear to have been conscious that a lexicon was in some
degree capable of the Advantages of a prolonged Discourse,” Chambers said in the
m

Preface.

As a result, we don’t perceive anything like a Whole in what they’ve done.... We

attempted to do this by evaluating the many Matters [i.e., themes] not only absolutely
)A

and independently as to what they are in themselves, but also comparatively, or in

terms of how they relate to one another. They are both viewed as a collection of wholes
and parts of a larger whole, the connection to which is indicated by a reference... The
various Articles are in some measure replaced in their natural Order of Science, out
of which the Technical or Alphabetical one had remov’d them; and a communication is
(c

opened between the various parts of the Work; and the various Articles are in some
measure replaced in their natural Order of Science, out of which the Technical or
Alphabetical one had remov’d them.”
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 Network Basics 323

Nobody would have bothered to link computers via a network if it wasn’t critical.
Notes

e
Let’s begin by looking at some classic uses of computer networks in businesses and for
individuals, and then move on to newer advancements in the field of mobile users and
home networking.

in
Business Applications of Computer Networks
The following are some examples of computer network business applications:

nl
1. Resource Sharing: The objective is to make all applications, equipment (such as
printers) and, most importantly, data, available to anybody on the network, regardless

O
of the resource’s or user’s physical location.
2. Server-Client model: A company’s information system might be made up of one or
more databases, as well as certain employees who need remote access. The data
is saved on powerful computers known as Servers in this architecture. A system

ty
administrator is usually in charge of storing and maintaining them. Employees, on
the other hand, have modest gadgets on their desks called Clients that allow them to
access remote data.

si
3. Employee Communication: A computer network may serve as an effective means of
communication among employees. E-mail (electronic mail) is now available in almost
every organisation with two or more computers, and employees use it extensively for
everyday communication. r
ve
4. eCommerce: Doing business with customers through the Internet is becoming
increasingly vital for organisations. Airlines, booksellers, and music retailers have
learned that many customers prefer to purchase from the comfort of their own
homes. This industry is likely to expand rapidly in the future.
ni

Tag and Full Name Example

B2C - Business-to-Consumer Ordering books on-line
B2B - Business-to-Business Car manufacturer ordering tires from suppliers
U

C2C - Consumer-to-Consumer Auctioning second-hand products on line

G2C - Government-to-Consumer Government distributing tax forms electronically
P2P - Peer-to-Peer File sharing
ity

The following is a list of the most prevalent forms:

Networks of Computers: Applications for the Home

The following are some of the most common Internet applications for residential
m

users:

◌◌ Access to remote information

◌◌ Person-to-person communication
)A

◌◌ Interactive entertainment
◌◌ Electronic commerce

Mobile Users on Computer Networks

(c

One of the fastest-growing segments of the computer business is mobile

computers, such as notebook PCs and mobile phones. Wireless networking and mobile
computing are commonly confused, however they are not the same thing.

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5.5.2 Small Network Devices

Notes

e
We’ll go through the many sorts of network devices in this chapter, but first, let’s
define what a network device is. Hardware devices that connect computers, printers,

in
fax machines, and other electronic devices to a network are known as network devices.
These devices carry data over one or more networks quickly, safely, and accurately.
There may be inter-network or intra-network devices available. Some devices, such

nl
as the NIC card or the RJ45 connection, are installed on the device, whereas others,
such as a router or switch, are network components. Let’s take a closer look at a few of
these phones. A modem is a device that allows a computer to transmit and receive data
through phone or cable lines.

O
The data on the gadget is digital, however only analogue data may be sent through
a phone line or cable connection. In the modem, digital signals are transformed to
analogue signals and vice versa. The modem is made up of two devices: a modulator

ty
and a modulator. The modulator converts digital data into analogue data when the
processor provides the data. Analog data signals are converted to digital data when the
demodulator is received by the processor.

si
Network Devices of Various Types

Let’s have a look at the many sorts of network devices and how they function.

Access Point
r
ve
While an AP can have a wired or wireless connectivity, it generally refers to a
wireless device. An access point (AP) works on the second OSI layer, the data link
layer, and can function as a bridge to connect a conventional wireless network to
wireless devices or as a router to send data to another AP. WAPs (wireless access
ni

points) are devices that create a wireless LAN (WLAN) transmitter and receiver.
Networked distinct computers with an integrated antenna, transmitter, and adaptor are
commonly used as access points.
U

Router
Routers monitor the sea of networking devices associated with various network
ity

topologies, allowing packets to be sent to their destinations. Routers are intelligent

devices that keep information about the networks to which they are linked. Most routers
may be configured as a packet filtering firewall and can employ ACLs. In combination
with the network control unit/data service unit (CSU / DSU), routers are also used
to convert from LAN to WAN framing. Boundary routers are the name given to such
m

routers.

They operate on your network borders and function as a LAN external link to a
WAN. Routers communicate with one another through managing destination tables and
)A

local connections.

Hubs
Hubs connect a variety of networking devices. A network also serves as
(c

amplification by enhancing signals that weaken over long distances due to cable
degradation. A hub is the simplest of the network communication system family, as it
connects LAN components using the same protocols. A server can accept digital or
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
 Network Basics 325

analogue data as long as its setup allows for the formatting of the incoming data. Hubs
Notes

e
do not address or process packets; instead, they simply transmit data packets to all
connected devices. Data packets are sent. Hubs work at the physical layer of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI). There are two sorts of hubs: basic and numerous.

in
Hubs are divided into two categories:

Active HUB: These are hubs that use their power supply to clean, raise, and

nl
spread the signal across the network. It functions as a repeater as well as a cable hub.
It is possible to increase the overall distance between nodes.

Hubs that gather cable and electricity from active network nodes are known

O
as passive hubs. These hubs transmit signals to the grid without being cleaned or
enhanced, and there is no way to extend the distance between nodes.

ty
Bridges
Bridges connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The important
responsibilities in the network architecture are bridge processing and frame transfer

si
between the different bridge links. You employ Media Access Control (MAC) hardware
for picture transmission.

By checking at the MAC addresses of the devices connected to each line, bridges
r
may either transfer data or prohibit the crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect
ve
two physical LANs to a larger theoretical LAN. Bridges only work on the Physical and
Data Link levels of the OSI model. Bridges are used to divide big networks into smaller
portions by placing them between two physical network segments and managing data
flow between them.
ni

Bridges are similar to hubs in that they connect LAN components to the same
protocols. However, before transmission, frames, or bridges, filter incoming data
packets to addresses.
U

Gateway
The OSI model’s transportation and session layers are commonly implemented
in gateways. On the transport layer and above, there are several standards and
ity

specifications for various manufacturers, which are managed by gateways. The

gateway facilitates the link between networking technologies such as OSI and
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocols such as TCP / IP. Gateways connect
two or more self-contained networks, each having its own algorithms, protocols,
m

topology, DNS policy, and network administration. All routing functions, as well as
others, are handled by gateways. In actuality, a gateway is a translation router that has
been added. The feature that translates protocols is known as a protocol converter.
)A

Switch
In general, switches do a better job than hubs. A switch increases the network’s
capacity. The switch stores limited information about internal network routing nodes and
connects to systems like hubs and routers. Switches are often used to connect LAN
(c

beaches. In most cases, switches will examine the hardware addresses of incoming
packets before transferring them to their intended destinations. As of the flexibility of the
digital circuit, switches outperform hubs or routers in terms of network efficacy. Switches

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 326 Network Basics

also increase network security because network control makes it easier to inspect
Notes

e
digital circuits.

Modem

in
Modems are used to send digital signals over analogue phone lines (modulator
demodulators). The modem translates digital signals into analogue signals of various
frequencies, which it then sends to a receiver modem. The receiving modem, on the

nl
other hand, gives a digital output to a device linked to the modem, which is usually a
computer. In most circumstances, digital data is sent to or received via a serial line
modem using the RS-232 standard interface. Many phone providers offer DSL services,

O
and most cable operators utilise modems as final terminals to find and remember their
homes and personal clients. Modems are used at all physical and data connection
levels.

ty
Brouter
The bridging router is also known as a device that combines the functions of a
bridge and a router. It may be utilised at both the data connection and network layers.

si
As a router, it may send packets across networks, act as a bridge, and filter network
traffic in the local area.

5.5.3 Network Security r

ve
The protection offered to a network against unwanted access and dangers is
known as network security. Network administrators must take preventative efforts to
safeguard their networks against possible security threats.
ni

Regular transactions and communication within the government, people, or

businesses necessitate the use of computer networks that are secure. Assigning
a unique name and password to a network resource is the most popular and
U

straightforward method of safeguarding it.

Network Security Devices Types

Devices that are active
ity

Surplus traffic is blocked by these security measures. Examples of such equipment

include firewalls, antivirus scanning devices, and content filtering devices.

Devices that are not active

m

Intrusion detection appliances, for example, are devices that detect and report on
unauthorised traffic.

Preventative Mechanisms
)A

These devices analyse networks for security flaws and alert users. Devices for
penetration testing and vulnerability assessment, for example.

Unified Threat Management (UTM)

(c

These gadgets are designed to be all-in-one security solutions. Firewalls, content

screening, and web caching are just a few examples.

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 Network Basics 327

Firewalls are a type of network security device that manages and controls network
Notes

e
traffic using protocols. A firewall separates a trusted internal network from the rest of the
internet.

in
Firewalls are available in the form of software that runs on hardware as well as
physical appliances. Hardware-based firewalls can also perform additional tasks, such
as operating as a DHCP server for the network.

nl
To protect data from online dangers, most personal computers employ software-
based firewalls. Many routers that transmit data across networks include firewall
components, and many firewalls may perform basic routing duties as well.

O
To block illegal access from the internet, firewalls are often employed in private
networks or intranets. Every message that enters or leaves the intranet passes via the
firewall, which checks it for security measures.

ty
Both hardware and software-based devices make up an excellent firewall
arrangement. A firewall can also provide secure authentication certificates and logins for
remote access to a private network.

si
Firewalls, both hardware and software

Hardware firewalls are self-contained units. Broadband routers have them as well.

r
The majority of hardware firewalls provide at least four network ports for connecting
to other computers. Corporate networking firewall solutions are available for bigger
ve
networks, such as for business purposes.

Your machines have software firewalls installed. Your PC is protected from online
dangers by a software firewall. Antivirus
ni

An antivirus programme is a programme that detects and removes dangerous

malware. It was created with the intention of detecting and removing viruses from
computers.
U

Modern antivirus software protects against viruses, worms, Trojan horses,

adwares, spyware, keyloggers, and other malware. Malicious URLs, spam, phishing
assaults, botnets, DDoS attacks, and other threats are all addressed by several
ity

products.

Filtering of Content
Unpleasant or offensive emails or webpages are filtered out by content filtering
systems. These are utilised in both corporate and consumer PCs as part of firewalls.
m

When someone tries to access an unauthorised web page or application, these devices
display the warning “Access Denied.”
)A

Pornographic content, as well as violent or hate-oriented content, is routinely

filtered out. Shopping and job-related information are also excluded by organisations.

The following categories can be used to categorise content filtering:

◌◌ Filtering of the internet

(c

◌◌ Websites or pages are screened.

◌◌ Filtering of emails

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 328 Network Basics

◌◌ Spam detection in e-mail

Notes

e
◌◌ Other stuff that is offensive
Intrusion Detection Systems, also known as Intrusion Detection and Prevention

in
Systems, are network appliances that monitor harmful activity, log information about it,
take action to stop it, and then report it.

Intrusion detection systems can alert you to any harmful behaviour on your

nl
network, delete packets, and reset the connection to save your IP address from being
blocked. The following actions can also be performed by intrusion detection systems:

◌◌ Errors in the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) should be fixed.

O
◌◌ Prevent problems with TCP sequencing.
◌◌ Remove any unnecessary transport and network layer settings.

ty
5.5.4 Network Performance
The term “network performance” refers to the user’s perception of a network’s
service quality. Depending on the nature and architecture of the network, there are

si
several methods for measuring its performance. The following characteristics are used
to assess a network’s performance:

◌◌
◌◌
Bandwidth
Throughput
r
ve
◌◌ Latency (Delay)
◌◌ Bandwidth – Delay Product
◌◌ Jitter
ni

Bandwidth
The quantity of bandwidth given to the network is one of the most important factors
U

of a website’s performance. The webserver’s bandwidth controls how quickly it can

upload the required data. While there are many elements to consider when it comes to
a site’s speed, bandwidth is frequently the limiting issue.
ity

The amount of data or information that can be sent in a given amount of time is
referred to as bandwidth. The phrase can be applied in two ways, each having its own
set of estimated values. The bandwidth of digital devices is measured in bits per second
(bps) or bytes per second (bps).
m

The bandwidth of analogue equipment is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz

(Hz). Bandwidth is simply one factor in determining how fast a network seems to a
person. As internet service providers (ISPs) commonly claim to have a fast “40Mbps
connection” in their advertising efforts, people frequently confuse bandwidth with
)A

internet speed. True internet speed is determined by the quantity of data you get per
second, which has a significant impact on latency.

“Bandwidth” refers to “capacity,” whereas “Speed” refers to “transfer rate.” More

bandwidth does not imply faster performance.
(c

Consider the situation where the tap pipe has been doubled in width but the water
rate remains the same as it was when the pipe was half the diameter. As a result,

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 Network Basics 329

there will be no increase in speed. When we think of WAN lines, we usually think of
Notes

e
bandwidth, and when we think of LAN connections, we usually think of speed. This is
because, rather than device and interface data transfer rates (or speed), we are often
bound by pricey cable bandwidth across WAN.

in
The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies a channel may pass is measured in Hertz. Take, for example, a subscriber

nl
telephone line with a bandwidth of 4 kHz.

The amount of bits per second that a channel, a connection, or a network can send
is referred to as bandwidth in bits per second. A Fast Ethernet network, for example,

O
has a maximum bandwidth of 100 Mbps, which implies the network can transport 100
Mbps of data.

Note that the bandwidth in hertz and the bandwidth in bits per second have an

ty
explicit connection. A bandwidth increase in hertz equals a bandwidth increase in
bits per second. The connection changes depending on whether we’re talking about
baseband or modulated transmission.

si
Throughput
The number of messages successfully transmitted per unit time is known
as throughput. The available bandwidth, the available signal-to-noise ratio, and
r
hardware limits all play a role. As a result, a network’s maximum throughput may be
ve
larger than the actual throughput attained in everyday use. The phrases ‘throughput’
and ‘bandwidth’ are sometimes confused; however they are not interchangeable.
Throughput is an actual measurement of how fast we can deliver data, whereas
bandwidth is a prospective measurement of a network.
ni

The quantity of data transported between several sites over a certain period of
time is measured in bits per second (bps), which has developed into bytes per second
(Bps), kilobytes per second (KBps), megabytes per second (MBps), and gigabytes
U

per second (GBps) and gigabytes per second (GBps) (GBps). Several variables can
impact throughput, including the underlying analogue physical medium’s impediment,
the system components’ available computing capacity, and end-user behaviour. When
several protocol costs are included in, the utilisation rate of sent data might be much
ity

lower than the highest throughput possible.

Example:
Input: A network with a 10 Mbps capacity can only send out an average of 12, 000
m

frames per minute, each containing 10,000 bits. What will this network’s throughput be?

Output: The throughput may be calculated as follows: Throughput = (12, 000 x

10,000) / 60 = 2 Mbps
)A

In this situation, the throughput is approximately equivalent to one-fifth of the

bandwidth.

Latency
(c

Latency (also known as delay) is defined as the whole time it takes for a full
message to arrive at the destination in a network, beginning with the moment the

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 330 Network Basics

first bit of the message is sent out from the source and ending with the time the final
Notes

e
bit of the message is delivered at the destination. Network connections with minimal
delays are referred to as “Low-Latency-Networks,” whereas those with large delays are
referred to as “High-Latency-Networks.”

in
Any network communication that has a high latency creates bottlenecks. It
prevents data from fully using the network pipe, resulting in a significant reduction in the

nl
communication network’s capacity. Depending on the cause of the delays, the effect of
latency on a network’s capacity might be transitory or permanent. Latency, often known
as ping rate, is a unit of measurement that is measured in milliseconds (ms).

O
In layman’s terms, latency is the time it takes to transport a packet over a network
successfully.

It may be measured in a variety of ways, including round trip, one way, and so on.

ty
Any component in the data transportation chain, such as workstations and WAN
links, might have an impact.

The time it takes for a bit to travel from its source to its destination is known as

si
propagation time. The ratio of the connection length (distance) to the propagation
speed over the communication medium can be used to compute propagation time.
Propagation time, for example, is the time it takes for an electric signal to propagate
along a wire. r
ve
Distance / Propagation Speed = Propagation Time
Transmission Time: The length of time it takes to convey a signal down a
transmission line is referred to as transmission time. It includes time costs for an EM
ni

signal to travel from one side to the other, as well as expenses such as the training
signals that the sender often places at the beginning of a packet to help the receiver
synchronise clocks. The length of time it takes for a message to be transmitted is
U

determined by its size and the channel’s bandwidth.

Message size / Bandwidth = Transmission time

Queuing Time: Queuing time is the amount of time it takes for a packet to sit in the
ity

router. As the connection is usually busy, we are unable to transfer a packet instantly.
Waiting time is typically not a fixed component, it varies with the network’s load thrust.
In situations like this, the packet waits in a queue, ready to go. The amount of traffic on
the system is mostly responsible for these delays. The higher the volume of traffic, the
m

more probable a packet may become trapped in the queue, waiting to be sent.

Processing Delay: The processing delay is the time it takes the router to determine
where to transmit the packet. The packet will be queued for transmission as soon as the
)A

router discovers it. These expenses are mostly determined by the protocol’s complexity.
The router must be able to decode enough of the packet to determine which queue to
place it in. Simpler protocols are usually found at the bottom layers of the stack. If a
router is unsure which physical port to transmit a packet to, it will send it to all of them,
instantly queuing the packet in many queues.
(c

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 Network Basics 331

Delay Product - Bandwidth

Notes

e
A link’s bandwidth and latency are two performance indicators. In data
transmission, however, the product of the two, the bandwidth-delay product, is crucial.

in
As an example, consider the following scenario.

Case No. 1: Assume a link with a bandwidth of 1 bps and a latency of 5 seconds.

nl
In this situation, let’s look for the bandwidth-delay product. We may deduce from the
graphic that this product 1 x 5 is the maximum amount of bits that can be used to fill the
connection. On the connection, there might be close to 5 bits at any moment.

O
ty
r si
ve
ni

Figure: Example for Bandwidth delay

U

Jitter
Another performance issue linked to delay is jitter. Jitter is defined as “packet delay
ity

variance” in technical terminology. When various packets of data experience variable

delays on a network and the data at the receiver application is time-sensitive, such as
audio or video data, jitter is considered an issue. Milliseconds are used to measure
jitter (ms). It is described as a disruption in the regular transmission sequence of data
packets. For example, if the first packet arrives 10 milliseconds late, the second arrives
m

35 milliseconds late, and the third arrives 50 milliseconds late, the real-time destination
application that uses the packets would suffer jitter.

Jitter is a bad characteristic that contributes to network congestion and packet loss.
)A

Congestion is similar to a freeway traffic congestion. Cars cannot go ahead at an

acceptable speed in a traffic bottleneck. Congestion is similar to a traffic jam in that all
packets arrive at the same time at a junction. Nothing is capable of being loaded.
(c

Packet loss is the second negative impact. When packets come at irregular
intervals, the receiving system is unable to process the data, resulting in missing data,
commonly known as “packet loss.” Video watching suffers as a result of this. The

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 332 Network Basics

network is suffering jitter if a video turns pixelated and skips. Packet loss is the effect of
Notes

e
jitter.

in
nl
Figure: Jitter

The time it takes for packets to be transmitted is not the same as the time it takes

O
for them to arrive at the recipient side, as seen in the above graphic. One of the packets
experiences an unexpected delay in transit and arrives later than planned. This is what
jitter is.

ty
A jitter buffer can be used in a network, on a router or switch, or on a computer
to mitigate the impacts of jitter. The network packets are frequently received through
the buffer rather than straight from the source system by the system at the destination.
Each packet is supplied at a regular interval from the buffer.

si
5.5.5 Managing IOS Configuration Files
r
This chapter explains how to generate, load, and keep configuration files up to
ve
date. Configuration files are a set of user-configured commands that allow you to adjust
your Cisco routing device’s functionality.

Getting to Know Configuration Files

ni

The Cisco IOS XE software instructions used to change the functioning of your
Cisco routing equipment are stored in configuration files (router, access server, switch,
and so on). When the system is booted (from the startup-config file) or when you
input commands at the CLI in configuration mode, the Cisco IOS XE software parses
U

(translates and executes) the commands.

Configuration File Types

ity

Startup configuration files (startup-config) are used to configure software

during system startup. The current configuration of the software is stored in running
configuration files (running-config). It’s possible that the two configuration files are
different. You could, for example, wish to alter the settings for a limited time rather than
permanently. In this situation, you’d use the configure terminal EXEC command to
m

update the running configuration, but not the copy running-config startup-config EXEC
command to preserve it.
)A

To modify the startup configuration file, use the copy running-config startup-config
EXEC command to save the running configuration file to the startup configuration, or
transfer a configuration file from a file server to the startup configuration.

Configuration Files’ Location

(c

The following are the places where configuration files are kept:

●● RAM is used to store the operating configuration.

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 Network Basics 333

●● The starting configuration is saved in nonvolatile random-access memory on all

Notes

e
platforms except those with the Class A Flash file system (NVRAM).
●● On Class A Flash file system systems, the startup configuration is saved in the

in
CONFIG FILE environment variable-specified location.

Router# display bootvar

nl
The BOOT environment variable’s contents, as well as the name of the
configuration file pointed to by the CONFIG FILE environment variable and the contents
of the BOOTLDR environment variable, are listed.

O
Router# additional file-urls

The contents of a particular file are shown.

Router# display running-config

ty
The contents of the running configuration file are shown. (An alias for the command
more system:running-config.)

si
Router#display startup-config

The contents of the starting configuration file are shown.

r
(The nvram: startup-config command has a command alias.) The default startup-
config file is normally stored in NVRAM on all platforms except those with the Class A
ve
Flash file system. The CONFIG FILE environment variable on Class A Flash file system
platforms refers to the default startup-config file. The CONFIG FILE variable is set to
NVRAM by default.
ni

Selecting a Configuration Source and Entering Configuration Mode

Enter the configure command at the privileged EXEC prompt to enter configuration
mode on the router. The Cisco IOS XE software prompts you to choose the terminal,
U

memory, or a file on a network server (network) as the source of configuration commands:

Using a terminal, memory, or network [terminal] to configure?

ity

When you configure from the terminal, you may use the command line to input
configuration commands, as indicated in the next section. The startup configuration file
is loaded when you configure from memory.

Using the CLI to Change the Configuration File

m

One configuration command per line is accepted by the Cisco IOS XE software.
You have complete freedom to insert as many configuration commands as you wish.
)A

You can leave comments in a configuration file that describe the commands you’ve
run. An exclamation mark (!) should come before a comment. Comments do not display
when you use the show running-config or more system:running-config EXEC command to
list the active configuration because they are not saved in NVRAM or in the active copy of
the configuration file. When you use the show startup-config or more nvram:startup-config
(c

EXEC mode command to list the startup settings, comments are not displayed.

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 334 Network Basics

When the configuration file is loaded onto the router, the comments are removed.
Notes

e
You may, however, list the comments in configuration files saved on a TFTP (Trivial File
Transfer Protocol) server.

in
When you use the CLI to setup the programme, the commands are executed as
you type them. Use the following commands in privileged EXEC mode to setup the
programme via the CLI:

nl
Step 1: Configure the terminal with the router#

This command switches to global configuration mode.

O
This command saves the settings to NVRAM on most systems. This phase saves
the configuration to the location given by the CONFIG FILE environment variable on
Class A Flash file system platforms (the default CONFIG FILE variable specifies that the
file should be saved to NVRAM).

ty
The router’s router prompt name is configured in the following example. The
exclamation point (!) indicates that the comment line does not execute any commands.

si
The hostname command is used to modify the router name from Router to new
name in this example. The user exits configuration mode by pressing Ctrl-Z (Z) or
inputting the end command.

r
Step 2: Type the configuration commands that are required. Configuration
ve
commands are arranged by technology in the Cisco IOS XE documentation collection.

Router(config)# end or Router(config)# Z is the third step.

Exits EXEC mode and ends the configuration session.

ni

Note When you press the Ctrl and Z keys at the same time, the letter Z appears on
the screen.

Step 4: Copy system:running-config to nvram:startup-config on the router.

U

The startup configuration file is created from the ongoing configuration file.

You may also use the alias copy running-config startup-config, but keep in mind
ity

that this operation is less accurate.

This command saves the settings to NVRAM on most systems. This phase saves
the configuration to the location given by the CONFIG FILE environment variable on
Class A Flash file system platforms (the default CONFIG FILE variable specifies that the
m

file should be saved to NVRAM).

The router’s router prompt name is configured in the following example. The
exclamation point (!) indicates that the comment line does not execute any commands.
)A

The hostname command is used to modify the router name from Router to new
name in this example. The user exits configuration mode by pressing Ctrl-Z (Z) or
inputting the end command.
(c

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 Network Basics 335

Controlling the Parser Cache

Notes

e
The Cisco IOS XE command-line parser handles command line translation and
execution (parsing) in the Cisco IOS XE software. The Parser Cache functionality was

in
created to parse big configuration files quickly, reducing load time substantially.

By dynamically creating, caching, and reusing simplified parse graphs, the Parser
Cache feature allows for the rapid recognition and translation of configuration lines

nl
in a configuration file that differ slightly from previously used configuration lines (for
example, pvc 0/100, pvc 0/101, and so on).

This enhancement is most beneficial in configuration files that repeat similar

O
instructions hundreds or thousands of times, such as when thousands of virtual circuits
for subinterfaces must be established or hundreds of access lists must be created.
The performance of files in which the same commands are used frequently but the

ty
numerical arguments change from command to command will benefit the most.

Clearing of the Parser Cache

Clear the parse entries and hit/miss statistics saved by the Parser Cache feature

si
to free up resources or reset the parser cache memory. Use the following command in
privileged EXEC mode to clear the information kept by the Parser Cache feature:

clear parser cache Router# r

ve
Clears the hit/miss statistics and parse cache records for the Parser Cache
functionality.

The Parser Cache is disabled.

ni

By default, the Parser Cache functionality is turned on. Use the following command
in global configuration mode to disable the Parser Cache feature:

Router(config)# no cache for parsers

U

The Parser Cache functionality is turned off.

The no parser cache option is enabled when the parser cache is deactivated.
ity

Check your Understanding

Fill in the blanks:

1. __________can alert you to any harmful behaviour on your network, delete packets,
and reset the connection to save your IP address from being blocked.
m

2. The term “___________” refers to the user’s perception of a network’s service

quality.
)A

3. The ____________is also known as a device that combines the functions of a bridge
and a router.
4. ________ is the amount of time it takes for a packet to sit in the router.
5. A link’s bandwidth and __________ are two performance indicators.
(c

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 336 Network Basics

Summary
Notes

e
●● When you consider how the Internet has affected so many of the things’ people do
on a daily basis, it is difficult to think that it has only been available to the majority

in
of people for around 20 years.
●● It has completely changed the way people and companies interact. For example,
prior to the widespread availability of the Internet, organisations and small

nl
enterprises depended heavily on print marketing to make consumers aware of
their products.
●● Businesses depended on mass print marketing initiatives since it was difficult

O
to discern which families were potential clients. These projects were costly and
varied in their success.
●● Consider how customers are contacted nowadays. Most businesses have a

ty
website where clients may learn about their products, read customer reviews, and
buy things straight from the internet.
●● Social networking sites collaborate with companies to advertise their goods and

si
services.
●● Bloggers collaborate with businesses to spotlight and promote their products and
services. The majority of this product placement is aimed towards the potential
r
consumer rather than the general public.
ve
●● Businesses and consumers must continue to adapt to this ever-changing
environment as new technology and end-user devices enter the market. The
network’s function is evolving to facilitate the connecting of people, devices,
and information. Several new networking developments will have an impact
ni

on businesses and consumers. Bring Your Own Device is one of the top trends
(BYOD)
1. Collaboration through the internet
U

2. Communication via video

3. Computing in the cloud
●● These trends are linked and will continue to build on one another in the coming
ity

years. These patterns will be discussed in further depth in the following areas.

Activity
1. Configure network security group flow logs by using an ARM template
m

Question and Answers

1. Why do we need an anti-replay service?
)A

2. What is a security association?

3. What are the design goals of the firewall?
4. What’s the necessity of a public ring and personal key ring?
(c

5. What can be the impact of a computer network attack?

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

 Network Basics 337

Glossary
Notes

e
●● Resource Sharing: The objective is to make all applications, equipment (such
as printers) and, most importantly, data, available to anybody on the network,

in
regardless of the resource’s or user’s physical location.
●● Server-Client model: A company’s information system might be made up of one or
more databases, as well as certain employees who need remote access. The data

nl
is saved on powerful computers known as Servers in this architecture. A system
administrator is usually in charge of storing and maintaining them. Employees, on
the other hand, have modest gadgets on their desks called Clients that allow them

O
to access remote data.
●● Employee Communication: A computer network may serve as an effective means
of communication among employees. E-mail (electronic mail) is now available
in almost every organisation with two or more computers, and employees use it

ty
extensively for everyday communication.
●● eCommerce: Doing business with customers through the Internet is becoming
increasingly vital for organisations. Airlines, booksellers, and music retailers have

si
learned that many customers prefer to purchase from the comfort of their own
homes. This industry is likely to expand rapidly in the future.
●●
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Active HUB: These are hubs that use their power supply to clean, raise, and
spread the signal across the network. It functions as a repeater as well as a cable
ve
hub. It is possible to increase the overall distance between nodes.
●● Bridges: It connect two or more hosts or network segments together.
●● Static Mapping: A table containing the logical address and physical address of the
ni

destination device is used in static mapping.

Further Readings:
U

1. Homer, Douglas E. The Internet. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India, 2000. Print
2. Computer Network, A. S. Tarenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 2002.
ity

3. Data Network, Drnitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second edition, Prentice
Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.

Check your Understanding-Answers

m

Fill in the blanks:

1. Intrusion detection systems
2. network performance
)A

3. brouter
4. Queuing time
5. Latency
(c

Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education