Operating System Notes OOGSS

OPERATING SYSTEMS An OS consists of a special program called a Supervisor (Kernel/ Executive), which is
stored in ROM of the Main Memory. The Supervisor/Kernel contains the most
Definition necessary commands and procedures that control the running of all other programs.
 An Operating system is a system software that manages the basic hardware When the Supervisor needs a particular program, it is read from the hard disk and
resources of a computer, controls all operations and acts as interface between the user loaded into the RAM memory, where it can be executed.
applications and the hardware. Reasons why an Operating system is needed in a computer (why operating systems
were developed)
When the computer is switched on, the OS programs run & check to ensure that all i). Modern computer systems are so complex & fast such that they need internal
parts of the computer are functioning properly. control.
ii). To ensure that the full system software facilities are readily available.
Operating system’s platform iii). Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to be controlled in what they are
Application programs do not use the hardware devices directly. They send messages allowed to do, for security.
through the operating system which has the capability to give instructions to the iv). To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the amount of data that can be
hardware to perform a particular task. processed through the system in a given period of time.
v). Improve communication between the user & the computer.
vi). To make complex tasks very simple for the user to carry out.
User vii). To reduce job setup time.
(Runs Application programs) viii). To enable computers to allow many programs to be run and also many users to
use the system at the same time.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM

Application software The OS creates a working environment in which the user can run programs. The
(Send users requests to the OS) general functions of the operating system are:
(i). Processor/Job scheduling
(ii). Memory management
(iii). Input/output management
Operating system (iv). Resource control
(Receives & controls execution of (v). Error handling
Application programs) (vi). Interrupt handling
(vii).File management
(viii). System security control
(ix). Communication control and management
Hardware (x). Disk management
(Receives & executes OS commands) (xi). Installation and Uninstallation of hardware and software
(xii). Job sequencing
As in this diagram, the OS is a layer of software on top of the bare hardware, and it (xiii). Logging and accounting
monitors & controls computer operations and it also enables application programs to
use the hardware in a proper, orderly and efficient way.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

1. Processor scheduling/Job scheduling

 The Operating System determines the way tasks will be processed without the 3. Input/Output management.
processor taking a lot of time on one job at the expense of the others.  Every computer has many Input & Output (I/O) devices. The OS controls the
selection and use of input, output and storage devices in the computer.
 The computer may have many jobs ready for execution at the same time;
however, the Processor (CPU) can only execute one job at any one time.  It also tries to monitor the state of each I/O device and signals any faults
detected.
 The OS assigns priority to tasks (jobs) so as to ensure that there is  The OS controls the allocation of I/O devices and attempt to resolve any
continuous processing until all the jobs within the memory are executed. conflicts that are likely to occur when one program requests a device that is
This ensures that the CPU does not remain idle at any given instance. being used by another program.
NB: A Job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer.  Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS has to
control the flow of data from the time of input to the time the user receives it
2. Memory management as information. It ensures that the right data reaches the processor at the right
 The OS ensures that the programs to be processed are transferred into the time.
available space in the Main memory from the secondary storage.  The OS also defines the various input/output ports found on the computer, e.g.,
 In case the main memory is filled up, the OS determines which task will remain printer port.
in memory awaiting execution and which one will be sent back to secondary
storage to wait. 4. Resource control and allocation.
 The OS keeps track of what parts of memory are in use and by which program,  OS allocates computer resources such as CPU time, main memory, secondary
and what parts are free. storage, input and output devices for use by application programs. Each
 The OS utilizes the free space on hard disks to enhance the performance of the resources is given unique identification number called interrupt request [IRQ]
computer by temporarily holding tasks on it that were in RAM ready for which is used by the devices to request attention from the processor.
processing but have to wait for sometime.  When two or more resources request for attention at the same time, the OS
 The OS ensures that storage space is provided for data generated by programs checks the priority of the device and allows the one with a higher interrupt
and during data transfer operations such as, disk copying or printing. number to be served first.
 This prevents an undesirable condition referred to as deadlock.
 The OS divides the main memory into blocks of sizes called page Frames.
Each task is allocated a page frame and the remaining task is sent back to the Deadlock is a situation where a particular job holds a requested resource and fails to
secondary storage, this is called swapping. release it, yet it is requesting for a resource held by the other job.
 The OS also controls the selection & operation of hardware devices used
 Programs must be loaded into memory before they can be executed, and moved
for input, output and storage.
out of memory when they are no longer required. Therefore, before processing
Devices/resources under the control of an Operating System
starts, At any one given time, a number of tasks may require the memory so
A computer is composed of a set of software-controlled resources that enable
that they can be accessed & processed by the computer.
movement, storage and processing of data & information.
As a resource manager, the OS manages the following basic resources/ devices: -
 The hard disk where the other pages that cannot fit in RAM are temporarily
i. Processor.
held is referred to as Virtual Memory.
ii. Main memory (RAM).
 The OS also handles the data files used by the programs that are being executed iii. Secondary storage devices.
by the CPU. iv. Input/Output devices and their Ports.
 The OS also manages the storage and retrieval of data on secondary storage v. Communication devices and their Ports.
devices.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

vi. Files.
5. Communication control and management 9. Interrupt handling
Communication refers to how the various devices and programs in & out of the An Interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a
computer system send & receive messages from one another and from the program.
processor. Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special number
The OS controls the communication devices and processes within the computer called the Interrupt Request number (IRQ).
and provides an environment within which communication protocols operate. Interrupt requires the computer processor to break its normal sequence of
Protocol refers to the rules that govern communication between devices on a processing and give the device attention before returning control back to the
network. process that was initially interrupted.
The OS prevents interrupt conflict by assisting the processor to attend to the
6. File management devices using the Interrupt Request lines assigned to the devices.
 The OS is concerned with the logical organization of the data and program Interrupt requests are categorized into two;
files and provides a means through which files can be sorted, retrieved &  Maskable Interrupt: An Interrupt request that the processor can ignore or
shared. delay if it is performing some critical task.
 It also provides a means of protecting data files & programs against  Nonmaskable Interrupt: An Interrupt request that the processor must
unauthorized access and corruption. respond to immediately.
 The OS organizes files into directories and subdirectories. Some causes of Interrupt.
i). An Interrupt caused by Power failure.
7. Job sequencing. The Kernel saves vital information using the dying power supply so that it
The OS keeps a list of jobs/tasks currently being run and monitors them as they can be restarted when power is returned.
move in & out of the processor. It also arranges them in a particular order to make
it easy for the processor to execute them and to know how & when to fetch ii). Arithmetic or logic errors.
instructions & data for each task. When the ALU detects that an error has occurred, (e.g., the output may be
requested to a non-existent device) it generates a signal that causes an
8. Error handling interrupt. Control is transferred to the Kernel, which indicates the
appropriate error correction routines.
 The operating system alerts the user of any errors that may arise as one uses
the computer.
iii). Hardware malfunction, e.g. parity errors.
 It also offers the options available for solving the problem. The I/O control for each device & its associated hardware normally takes
care of parity checking. If a parity error is detected, the Kernel is notified
It does this by monitoring the status of the computer system & performing error checks by an interrupt.
on both hardware and software.
When the user makes an error, the OS through the Kernel determines the cause of the N/B: Device driver –the software that OS uses to control a specific piece of hardware.
error, and prints diagnostic messages on the screen suggesting appropriate routines of
how the error can be corrected. 10. Interfaces the user to the system’s hardware.
In case of a fatal error that cannot be corrected, the program will be suspended The Operating System provides quick means of communication between the
permanently. E.g., the user program will prematurely terminate when it encounters an computer user & its programs.
illegal operation, such as, dividing a no. by 0 or if it attempts to read a data file that had The user requests the services of the OS by use of commands & the OS
not been opened. communicates the messages regarding the processing to the user through, either the

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

screen or printer. Thus, a form of ‘conversation’ is established between the OS &  Unix.
the computer user.
 Linux.
11. Logging & accounting.
The OS keeps records (internal logs) on how the computer’s resources, e.g., CPU
time, memory usage, & the peripherals are being used. It also keeps a complete
record of all that happens during processing (usually in the form of a printed log).

12. Disk Management

Operating System performs tasks such as formatting, defragmenting, compressing,
disk clean up, system back up and partitioning of the hard disk.
It is also used for;
 Copying and scanning a disk for viruses.
 Deleting some contents of a disk in order to create more storage space.
 Displaying properties such as disk volume and bad sector.

13. Installation and Uninstallation of Hardware and software

 The OS updates the computer system by copying the necessary files
(device drivers) for running the new piece of hardware connected to the
computer. This process is called Installation.
 OS also installs new application software introduced into a computer.
 OS can be used to remove a program that the user no longer needs in
his/her computer. This process is known as uninstallation.

14. System security

 The OS protects data and computer resources from unauthorized access by
controlling access to the system and specific system resources.
 The OS allocates unlimited rights of access and usage to the administrator who can
give or revoke the usage rights of other computer users.
 The OS monitors the usage of computer resources by various users and can collect
statistics for various the various resources and monitor their performance.
 The OS protects hardware, software & data from improper use. They ensure that
application programs use the hardware in an efficient way.

Examples of operating systems:

 DOS (Disk Operating System).
 Windows operating system.
 MacOS (Macintosh).

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

Operating systems can be classified according to:

Characteristics of an operating system/ 1. Number of tasks that the system can perform concurrently.
Qualities of a good Operating System  Single-tasking operating system.
 Multi-tasking operating system.
An OS should have the following characteristics:
2. Number of users the system can support at the same time.
a). Reliable.
If a software or hardware error occurs, the OS should be able to detect the error and  Single-user operating systems.
try to correct it.  Multi-user operating systems.
b). Protected. 3. Human Computer interface (i.e., how the user & the computer interact).
The Operating System should protect users from being affected by errors of other  Command line.
users and by malicious attempts at tampering.  Menu driven interface.
c). Efficient.  Graphical user interface (GUI).
The OS should manage user’s hardware resources to minimize their idle time.
d). Convenient. Classification according to tasks handled concurrently
An OS should be flexible and easy to use and must be in complete control of the (a). Single-tasking OS
allocation of the computer resources. Single-tasking OS allows only one user-program in the main memory to be processed at
e). Predictable. a particular time. The user must then exit from the program before loading and running
A good OS should be able to give an estimate as to when the user will get his another program.
output. Example of a single user OS;
MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS (b). Multi-tasking (Multiprogramming) OS
The OS determines the type of processing that a computer system is able to perform, A Multi-tasking OS allows a single CPU to execute more than one program at the same
since it controls the allocation and use of the computer resources. time.
More than one program can be loaded into the main memory at the same time.
Each program is allocated a time-slice and the programs take turns at short intervals of
processing time. The CPU switches its attention between programs as it execute
statements from one program, and then from another. However, the computer works so
quickly that it appears to be executing the programs simultaneously.

Classification according to number of users

(a). Single-user OS
A single-user Operating System allows only one person to operate the computer at a
time.
Single keyboard and single monitor are used for the purpose of interaction

(b). Multi-user OS
A multi-user operating system allows more than one person to interactively use the
computer at the same time.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

To activate a choice in the menu, one can use the Enter key, or move the cursor until it
is positioned at the desired choice & then press the activation key so that the system can
start acting upon the information given.
Classification according to Human Computer Interface (HCI) This interface is suitable for beginners who may have difficulties in remembering
The term Human Computer Interface (HCI) refers to the method of interaction between commands.
the computer and the user, and determines how easily the user can operate the
computer. Example of Menu driven interface OS:
DOS Shell (DOS Editor).
User-friendliness
HCI is expected to be “user-friendly”, i.e., it should be one that the end-user finds Advantages of Menu driven interfaces
helpful, and easy to learn and use.  Menus provide many options to select from.
 The user is presented with a choice and therefore, does not need to master any
Types of User interfaces commands.
There are different types of Human Computer Interfaces: -  They are easier to use.
1. Command driven interface.
2. Menu driven interface. (c). Graphical User Interface (GUI).
3. Graphical User Interface (GUI). The user issues commands to the computer by activating small graphic images
displayed on the screen called Icons which are selected using a pointing device like a
(a). Command driven interface Mouse.
The user types a command at the prompt found on a command line, the computer then In addition to using menus, GUI make use of rectangular work areas called windows,
reads instructions from the command line and executes them. graphical objects called icons and most commands are executed using a pointing device.
The user must press the enter key for each command to be executed. These features are called WIMP
W- Windows
Commands enable the user to quickly instruct the computer on what to do. I- Icons
M-Menus and
P-Pointing devices

Disadvantages of using command driven interfaces Examples of GUI based OS;

 They are more difficult to learn.  Presentation manager of OS/2,
 The user must know the command to type.
 It is less user-friendly.
 Ms-Windows- (Windows2000,XP, Vista etc)
 It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to master the command format/syntax.  Linux,
 Apple Macintosh OS.
(b). Menu driven interface
This type of interface provides the user with a list of program commands displayed on Features of a graphical user interface.
the screen to choose from and a simple means of selecting between them.
 Programs are represented graphically by use of Icons.
 Commands are selected and issued using pointing devices, e.g., Mouse, trackball.
 There is use of pull-down menus.
 Programs open by displaying windows.

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Advantages of using GUI based OS  UNIX,

 They are user friendly.
 MacOS.
 Easy to learn & use.
Factors to consider when choosing an operating system  OS/2.
The following factors should be considered when choosing an operating system for a Differences between Ms-Windows and Disk Operating System
computer;
1. Hardware configuration of the computer, e.g., RAM memory size, hard disk Ms-Windows MS-DOS
capacity, type of processor, etc. 1. There are icons 1. No Icons
2. Basic design of the computer, - i.e., is it an IBM or IBM compatible, or an Apple 2. Uses both the Mouse & Keyboard 2. Only the Keyboard is used as Input
computer? as Input devices. device.
3. Hardware compatibility. 3. There is use of Menus. 3. It is command-based.
4. User needs (requirements), i.e., the applications intended for the computer. 4. User-friendly. 4. Not user-friendly.
5. User friendliness or Human computer interface, i.e., is it Command line based, 5. Windows fully supports 5. DOS cannot support networking.
Menu-driven or a Graphical user interface? networking. 6. Uses less memory compared to
6. Availability in the market, e.g. Microsoft Windows based OS are very common. 6. Requires a computer with high Windows.
7. Portability. memory size. 7. DOS cannot support Windows, i.e. it
8. Cost – how expensive the OS is. 7. Windows can support DOS, i.e. it is is not possible to run Window-based
9. Reliability, i.e., can it run without crashing or hanging (stop responding to possible to run DOS-based programs in MS-DOS.
commands). programs in Windows. 8. Uses monochrome (1 coloured)
10. The number of processors and peripherals it can support. screen.
11. The number of users it can support. 8. Uses Multi-coloured screen. 9. It is a single-user OS.
12. The documentation available. 9. It is a Multi-user OS. 10. It is a single-tasking OS, i.e. can
10. It is a multi-tasking OS, i.e. can only support one program at a time.
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEMS support more than 1 program at a 11. MS-DOS is an operating system by
Windows operating system was developed as a Graphical User Interface (GUI) for time. itself.
PCs running on MS-DOS. 11. Comes in different versions. 12. Uses Directories to organize files.
12. Uses folders for storage of files.
It provides a friendly interface that allows the users to enter commands by pointing and
clicking at objects that appear on the screen using a pointing device, e.g., a Mouse or a
trackball. These graphical capabilities make a program easier to use.
Microsoft Windows takes its name from the on-screen “Window” that it uses to display
information.
A Window is a rectangular area on a display screen in which text and graphical images
may be displayed.

Examples of Windows operating systems:

 Microsoft Windows 95, 98, 2000 Professional, 2003, NT, Millennium (Me), XP, and
Vista etc
 Linux,

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

HOW AN OPERATING SYSTEM ORGANIZES INFORMATION MICROSOFT WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Most Operating Systems organize information in a computer by use of:- After setting up Windows OS in your computer, it starts automatically when the
computer is switched on.
 Drives There are many versions of Microsoft Windows, however, they have similar features
 Folders apart from a few variations.
 Files
TERMS USED IN WINDOWS OS
Files Desktop
A file is a collection of related data or information given a unique name for ease of The desktop is the first feature of your screen on which windows, icons and dialog
access and storage. boxes appear and shows that the computer is ready for use.
The name enables the operating system to identify a file during storage and retrieval
process. Desktop features
A file is the basic unit of storage in a computer. 1. Background -This is the work space area on the monitor on which icons and
Functions of files running tasks are placed.
√ Storage of data. 2. Taskbar -This is the bar located at the bottom of the screen / desktop that includes
√ Organization of information. the Start button and enables the user to easily switch between different programs
and tasks that are currently running.
Folders
A Folder is a named storage location where related files and other folders can be stored Functions of the Taskbar
to enable easy access. (i). Indicates what programs are running.
Purposes of a folder (ii). Holding minimized programs.
√ To store files and other folders (iii). The Taskbar enables the user to easily switch between different programs and
√ To organize data stored in the computer. documents (tasks) that are currently running.
(iv). Provides the shortcut menu for arranging programs.
Drives
A drive is a hardware that Writes onto or Reads data from a storage media. The Taskbar has 3 main parts;
Disk drives are assigned letters A-Z to identify them. (a). Start button: The leftmost button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display
Summary of the drives the Start menu.
(b). Task Manager: This is the plain strip that displays buttons of all currently
running tasks. You can easily switch between different tasks that are currently
running by clicking their respective buttons on the task manager.
(c). System tray: This is at the rightmost part of the taskbar. It contains icons for
some programs and folders, and tasks running in the background but are not
displayed on the screen.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

Examples of such icons include; the Clock (for time and calendar), an 2. Resizing buttons.
Antivirus program, Volume control, etc. Found on the top right hand corner of the Title bar. They are used to resize the
3. Icons. window.
An Icon is a little graphical picture on the computer screen representing a program, a (i). Minimize button – reduces the window to an icon on the Taskbar. To
drive, file, folder, a command or any other item. activate a minimized window, click its icon on the Taskbar.
(ii). Maximize button – enlarges / expands the window to cover the whole
The following are some of the common icons found on the desktop: screen.
Icon Use (iii). Restore button – Appears after the window has been maximized. It is used
My Computer To manage all the contents in your computer to shrink/ change the window to its previous size before it was maximized.
including your files. This folder includes icons for all (iv). Close button – removes a window or dialog box from the desktop and quits
your computer’s floppy disk drives, hard disk, CD- a program.
ROM drive, & any other network directories that you 3. Menu bar.
have connected to your computer. The horizontal bar that contains a list of commands of the application that can be
used to manipulate a task. It contains commands such as File, Edit, View, Tools,
My Documents Provides a convenient place to store documents, etc.
graphics or other files that you have created by use of To open a menu, click on its name.
an application program. 4. Toolbars
These are bars that contain a set of buttons for the various commands in the Menu
Recycle Bin Is a temporary storage place for deleted files. You bar that you click to perform common tasks.
can use it to retrieve files deleted by mistake. The commands are represented in the form of icons.
ToolTip
Start button To start a program, open a document, change system A brief descriptive text about a screen object. ToolTips appear when you position
settings, get Help, find items on your computer, etc. the mouse pointer over the object.
Icons are mostly manipulated using a pointing device, e.g., the Mouse. 5. Work area
4. Window This is the blank rectangular area where you can create your documents.
The rectangular portion of the screen that displays an open program or the contents of a 6. Cursor
folder or disk. A blinking vertical bar that appears on the working area and it marks the place
where text and graphics will appear when typed or inserted.
Parts (Features) of a Window 7. Status bar
A window might contain all or some of the following features: - This is an interactive strip at the button of the application window that acts as a
1. The Title bar. communication link between the user and the OS that displays information about
This is the horizontal bar on top of a program window that shows the name of the active the program. Such interactive activities include; saving, opening a file, printing,
window, folder, or document. cursor position e.t.c
8. Scroll bars
The Title bar also provides a way of moving the window to a new position on the These are bars that appear on the right-side (Vertical Scroll bar) or bottom side
screen. (Horizontal Scroll bar) of the window.
Functions of the Title bar Scrolling is the moving up, down, left or right of the document window on the
(i). Identifies what program has been opened. screen if it is too large to fit.
(ii). Helps us drag/move windows from one part of the screen to another. To do this, you can drag the Scroll box or click the scroll arrows.
9. Window borders

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

These are the outside edges of the window. command is in effect. If the checkbox is blank, the setting is not selected. To
10. Mouse pointer select or deselect a checkbox, click it.
This is an arrow, which appears on your screen if a mouse is installed and is (d). Radio Button () – A round button that can either be blank or contain a dot. If the
controlled by moving the mouse. It indicates the area of the screen that will be button contains a dot, it is selected. To select a radio button, click it.
affected when you press the mouse button. Note. Only one of the radio buttons can be selected at a time.

Other Terminologies used in Windows (e). Pull-down menu – A box with a downward-pointing triangular button at its right
Task end. To choose another setting other than the one displayed, click on the triangle
Any activity taking place in Windows is known as a ‘Task’. A running program is an button to display a menu, then click an option from the menu.
example of a task and is displayed on the Taskbar. (f). Command button
Command A button in a dialog box that you can click to carry out or cancel the selected action.
A word or phrase usually found on a menu that you choose in order to carry out an E.g. OK and Cancel button.
action.
 Available commands - commands that appear coloured and when clicked on will WORKING WITH PROGRAMS
execute the command. The Start menu
When you click the Start button, a list of choices appears. This list is called the Start
 Dimmed(Unavailable) commands - commands that look faint in colour and pushed menu.
in. A dimmed button or command is displayed in light gray instead of black & it
cannot be used with the application at the current time. Elements of the Start menu
Some of the common items on the Start menu in most of the Windows operating
Select systems are:
To mark an item so that a subsequent action can be carried out on that item. After
selecting an item, choose the action that you want to affect the item. Programs
This menu displays a list of all programs installed in the computer. The menu has a
Dialog box small solid arrow. When you point at it, another list of menus called a Sidekick menu
A dialog box is a window that appears temporarily to request or supply information and will be displayed.
it contains options (settings) you must select to complete a task.
If a computer cannot execute a command without the user providing more information, Documents/ My Recent Documents
it displays a dialog box. The Documentsmenu or My Recent documentsdisplays a list of the last 15 documents
you have opened previously.
Settings on Dialog Boxes
The following are the most common types of settings in dialog boxes: - Control Panel
(a). Text Box - A box you can type in. To change the text in a text box, click in the The SettingsControl Panelmenuprovides tools which the user can use to maintain and
box and edit the text. make changes to the computer setup.
(b). List Box – A box that contains a list of options, one of which is selected.
If the list is too long to fit in the box, a Scroll bar appears along the right side of the Using the Start menu, you can;
box.  Use Find – to search for files, folders or mail messages.
(c). Checkbox – A small, square box that appears in a dialog box & that can be  Click Help - to get assistance on doing something in Windows.
selected or cleared. It appears with an option that you can turn on or off. When the  Use the Run command - to open items, such as Web pages, programs and other
checkbox is selected, a checkmark (✓, X) appears in the box. This shows that the computers.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

 Use Shut down – to shut down, or restart your computer.

An Attribute is the information that indicates whether a file is Read-only, Hidden or
File storage structure System file & whether the file has been changed since a backup of it was made.
All files and folders are stored on a storage device. They are arranged in a particular
pattern for easy access. Read-only – activating this attribute prevents the file contents from being changed or
deleted accidentally.
Files are stored in a hierarchical way on the disk. This creates a tree-like structure
called the Directory tree. Hidden – hides the files’ name from display. You can’t see or use the file or folder
unless you know its name. To show or display the hidden files, clear the “Hidden”
Each storage device has a default base directory called the Root directory. The Root checkbox.
is considered to be the highest level of the directory tree from which all other Archive – is used to show the files which can be backed up.
directories/folders originate from. System – shows whether the file is a System file (a file required by Windows to run
The figure below shows how an operating system organizes information on a hard disk properly).
(drive C:)
COPYING, MOVING & SHARING INFORMATION BETWEEN PROGRAMS

Windows provides 3 methods of sharing data between different Windows programs: -

(a). Drag-and-Drop.
Drag-and-Drop is a method of moving or copying information to another
location in the same file or from one file to another.

To move information, file or folder from one location to another, select it with
your mouse and drag it to its new location.

(b). Cut, Copy and Paste

Cut-and-paste is a Windows feature that enables computer users to select
information from one file and move or copy it to another location in the same
file (or in a different application).

Cut-and-paste works by storing information temporarily on the Clipboard.

Cut – totally removes selected information from its current location and stores it
temporarily on the Clipboard.
Therefore, to access a file or folder on the storage device, you need to follow a Path. If
you want to open the subfolder in Folder 1, you first access drive C:, then open Folder 1 Copy – takes a duplicate of the selected information from its current location and stores
to view the icon or name of the subfolder. it temporarily on the Clipboard.

Paste – is used to transfer all the cut or copied information on the Clipboard to the
File Attributes location of the cursor in the active application.
Attributes are the conditions that a user can attach to a file to prevent unauthorized
access or to protect the file from accidental erasure. The Clipboard

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

The memory location in the computer that saves text, numbers, pictures, or whatever object by using the Ms-Excel program, the Ms-Excel object is stored in the Ms-
you cut or copy, and allowing you to paste that material somewhere else. Word document.
The Clipboard works in the background,
Linking allows the object to retain a very close relationship with its origin, such
Note. The Clipboard can contain only one item at a time, so you should not cut or copy that, if the numbers in the original Ms-Excel file change, the linked Ms-Excel
anything else until you’ve pasted the information where you want it, or else it will object in the Ms-Word document changes to match. This occurs because, the
replace the information already on the Clipboard. Ms-Word document doesn’t really contain the object it displays – it just contains
(c). Object Linking and Embedding (OLE). a reference to the file where the information is stored.
It is a tool used to share information between different types of applications.
(ii). Using OLE to link files is convenient and saves time. However, it should be used
You can share information by either embedding or linking. For example, you carefully. If you move the file containing the linked objects, make sure that the
can use OLE if you want to display an Excel Spreadsheet in a Word document, linked files are also moved.
be able to update a complicated formula, and display the correct answer in the
Word document. Creating shortcuts (aliases)
A Shortcut is an icon that provides a link to a file or folder.
For instance, you may want to create an annual report that includes: -
 Text that has been created and formatted using Microsoft Word. Shortcuts in Windows give fast access to programs or files. A shortcut is a quick way to
 A Company logo that is stored in a graphics file created by Paint. start a program or open a file or folder without having to go to its permanent location in
 Data & calculations on operating costs those are stored in a Microsoft Excel. Windows Explorer.

Advantages of OLE over the Clipboard You can create shortcuts to any object, such as programs, folders, disk drives, printers
(i). When using OLE, the original program retains ownership of the object, and you and documents that you use frequently, and then double-click the shortcut on the
can use the program to edit the object. desktop (or wherever you choose to put it) to open the original program or document.

For instance, if you use OLE to embed a portion of Ms-Excel into an Ms-Word Note. A shortcut does not change the location the file; it just lets the user open the file
document, you can use the Ms-Excel to edit the object. quickly.

If, instead, you use the Clipboard to copy the numbers from Ms-Excel, and then What happens to deleted files?
paste them to the Ms-Word document, you cannot change the numbers in Ms- Whenever you delete a file or folder, it is temporarily moved to the Recycle Bin (a
Word document using Ms-Excel. holding place for files you no longer need). If you change your mind, you can restore
the file from the Recycle bin. However, when you empty the Recycle Bin, all the items
In OLE, an Object refers to a piece of information from one program that is in it are permanently removed from your computer.
placed in a container file created by another program.
E.g., a portion of Ms-Excel is an object when it is included in an Ms-Word Notes
document.  If you press SHIFT+DEL, the file or folder will be deleted from your computer, but
will not be stored in the Recycle Bin.
From the above example, Embedding means putting the Ms-Excel object in the • Files deleted at the Command Prompt, from network locations, and those deleted
Ms-Word document (container file) and asking Ms-Word to take care of storing from removable media (such as Floppy disks, CDs etc.) are not moved to the
the object. Therefore, although the Ms-Word allows editing of the Ms-Excel Recycle Bin. They are permanently removed when you delete them.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

Saving your work - Other drives which are not disks can also be formatted to create a file system on
To save a new document them.
On the File menu, click Save As. - File system refers to the technology that an operating system uses to organize data on
a storage media.
To save changes you have to an existing document. When a disk is bought, it can be described as a ‘Virgin’ disk and cannot be used for data
On the File menu, click Save (or click the “Save” button on the toolbar). storage. The disk must be prepared for use on a particular family of computers.
The process of preparing the disk for use is known as Disk Formatting.

During formatting, the surface of the disk which was initially blank is broken into
PROTECTING YOUR FILES tracks and sectors.
1). Backing up your files. Tracks & sectors form the basis of storage as they define the unit for reading or writing
from or to the disk.
(i). Click Start, point to Programs, point to Accessories, point to System Tools, then
click Backup, then follow the instructions on the screen. Importance of formatting new disks
(i). Formatting prepares the disk for use with a computer by breaking its surface into
2). Using passwords Tracks, which are used for recording information.
 Passwords enable the user to protect his/her computer from unwanted access. (ii). Formatting also creates the Root directory/folder from where all other folders
and files are created.
To protect your files by assigning a Screen saver Password (iii). Creates File Allocation Tables (FAT), which describes how each cluster on disk
You can add a password to a Screen saver so that if the Screen saver starts, you is allocated.
need to provide the password to get back to the desktop. (iv). Removes/ deletes any existing files or information stored on it, if it is no longer
needed on the disk.
Note. A Screen saver password protects your work while you are away, or while (v). Formatting determines the effective storage capacity of the volume. It enables
your computer is idle. As you type the password, it appears in asterisk format the user to know the capacity of the disk, i.e. how much data the disk can hold.
(******) to ensure no one reads what you are typing. (vi). It scans the disk for bad sectors after formatting.
(vii). Enables the user to type a name for the formatted disk for easy identification.
DISK MANAGEMENT USING MICROSOFT WINDOWS
Windows has a number of useful programs/tools that are used to manage the When formattinga disk, some of the information you are required to fill in include.
computer’s storage media; Capacity – specifies how much data the disk can hold.
Examples of disk management utilities Quick (Erase) – removes all files from the disk, but doesn’t scan the disk for bad
 Formatting sectors. You should choose quick format only if you are sure that your disk is not
 Scanning damaged.
 Defragmenting Quick format will only work on disks that have previously been formatted.
 Disk Compression Full – scans the disk for bad sectors after formatting.
 Backup Label – Provides a space for you to type a name for the formatted disk for easy
 Partitioning identification.
No Label – Specifies that you don’t want to name the formatted disk.
Display information when finished – displays information about the disk once
Formatting a Disk
formatting is completed. The information include; the space available & the
- The process of preparing a new disk for use by creating sectors and tracks on the
amount of space taken by system files or bad sectors.
surface of the disk.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

store in a single location on a disk is fragmented (split up) & stored in pieces in any free
Initialization - Before a disk can be recorded, it has to be initialized, i.e. writing 0’s to spaces on the disk.
every byte of data on every track. This eliminates all trace of any existing data. The files are complete when you open them, but your computer takes longer to access
them. This is because it takes time for the computer to locate all the bits and eventually
Backing up the files open the file.
Backup means creating copies of data and programs on separate storage devices to Scanning storage devices for problems [scandisk]
minimizes losses in case of damage to the original data. ScanDisk checks your hard disk for logical & physical errors, and then repairs the
Backing up your files safeguards them against loss if your hard disk fails or you damaged areas.
accidentally overwrite or delete data. Scandisk runs automatically in case the OS is shut down improperly. It detects
If your original files are damaged or lost, you can restore them from the backup. corruptions when they are most likely to occur and then corrects them.
You can also run Scandisk at any time to evaluate your computer.
Reasons for backing up files and folders - Scanning is a tool that checks up and repairsproblems such as lost storage, damaged
(i). To prevent accidental loss of data. storage media surface or malicious programs.
Any loss of important data may have serious consequences. Scanning for viruses
You therefore, need to backup your work frequently to minimize loss of data in - Refers to checking your system for virus and removing them using antivirus
any event. software.
The common types of malicious programs
(ii). To free up computer space. - Virus –a destructive program that attaches itself on removable drives and causes
When the computer is full of data that is not used every day, you can back up the damage to the computer system.
data that is not being used and delete the data from the computer to free up space. - A worm –it does not attach itself to program but self-replicates hence dogging a
The next time you need to use the data, you can easily restore it back to the computer storage and memory.
computer. - Trojan horse- masquerade as genuine programs get they are carriers of viruses.
They may come inform of games and screen savers
(iii). To copy large files from one place to another. - A computer must be installed with the latest antivirus programs such as
Most Backup programs compress data in the process of backing it up.  Norton
When you are copying large files from one place to another, you may need to  McAfee
backup your work so that the data is compressed. In this case, you will end up  Kaspersky
using fewer disks.  AVG Grisoft

Disk Defragmentation
- Refers to arranging together the scattered folders and files on a storage media for Using Disk Cleanup
easy access of the files and folders. Disk Cleanup helps to free up space on your hard drive.
Defragmenting rearranges/ organizes the files in the disk, stores them in adjacent units
such that all the bits of a file that are stored in different locations are brought together, Disk Cleanup searches the drive, and then lists temporary files, Internet cache files, and
and the free space is consolidated/ combined to make the files to open more quickly and unnecessary program files that can safely be deleted.
to free space on the disk.
Disk Compression
When you save your files in the computer, the files are saved in the next available free Compression is the process of consolidating files and folders in smaller storage areas
space (cluster) in the disk.After sometime, a file that is too large for the computer to hence creating more space on the storage device.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

Compressing files or folders reduces the amount of space they occupy on a drive while  If you’ll be away from the computer for an extended time or overnight, put your
compressing a drive decreases the amount of space used by all the files and folders computer in Hibernation. This turns off your monitor & hard disk, saves
stored on the drive and these create more free space for storage of files. everything in memory on disk, and turns off your computer. When you bring your
computer out of hibernation, all applications and documents that were open are
restored to your desktop exactly as you left it. However, it takes longer to bring
Disk partitioning your computer out of hibernation than out of standby.
- This refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into two or more portions MULTIMEDIA TECHNOLOGY
called logical drives. What is Multimedia?
- A logical drive is assigned a separate drive letter. Multimedia is the technology that uses text, graphics, photographs, sound, animation,
video and interactivity elements to create a dynamic visual presentation that catches the
Reason for partitioning a drive viewer’s attention and maintains their interest throughout the presentation.
 When the user intends to install more than one operating system on the same disk,
install each on a separate partition. Text – used to deliver information.
 For purpose of backup on the same disk but different partitions so that if one Graphics – convey messages instantly. E.g., a graph showing sales figures is able to
partition fails the other will still be working. convey messages better than a printed table of the same figures.
Photographs – a full color photograph is an appropriate way to describe a product.
Sound – Attracts attention. Voice-overs & music add depth, making the presentation
more enjoyable for the viewer.
MANAGING POWER CONSUMPTION ON YOUR COMPUTER
Animation – Can be used to add enjoyment to your presentation and attract the
Using Power Management, you can reduce the power consumption of your computer
attention of browsers to your display. They can also be used to demonstrate and
devices or the entire system.
instruct.
Depending on your hardware, you can:
With animation, you can show the operation of your product in a better way than when
 Turn off your monitor and hard disks automatically to save power.
using static pictures.
 If you plan to be away from your computer for a while, put your computer on Video – Video clips are used to incorporate live action into multimedia presentations.
Standby, which puts your entire system in a low-power state. Interactivity – interactivity allows the viewers to navigate a presentation in their own
 Standby -A state in which your computer consumes less power when it is idle, but ways and at their pace. Users can jump from topic to topic, skipping areas of little
remains available for immediate use. interest. In this case, Viewers remain excited and curious – a sure way to attract
customers.
While on standby, your monitor & hard disks turn off, and your computer uses less
power. When you want to use the computer again, it comes out of standby quickly, Multimedia devices
and your desktop is restored exactly as you left it. (i). CD-ROM Drive.
Note (ii). Speakers or headphones.
 You may want to save your work before putting your computer on standby. While (iii). Microphone
the computer is on standby, information in computer memory is not saved on your (iv). Media Player software.
hard disk. If there is an interruption in power, information in memory is lost. (v). Video Adapter cards.
(vi). Sound cards.
Standby is particularly useful for conserving battery power in portable computers. (vii). TV card (Tuner card).
(viii). Editing card.
Hibernation - A state in which your computer shuts down, but first saves everything in (ix). Digital camera.
memory on your hard disk.

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 Operating System Notes OOGSS

NOTEPAD
Notepad is used to create or edit text files that don’t require formatting & are smaller
than 64KB.
Notepad opens and saves text in ASCII (text) format only.

WORDPAD
WordPad is a text editor that you can use to create & modify documents. It can be used
to create or edit documents that require formatting & are larger than 64KB.
WordPad has a toolbar for quick access to common tasks & a full range of fonts you
can select from.

PAINT
Paint is a program used for creating, editing, and viewing simple or elaborate, black
and white or color drawings (pictures).
After you create a drawing, you can print it or use it in another document.

ENTERTAINMENT
Using CD Player
CD Player can be used to play audio Compact discs on a CD-ROM drive connected to
your computer.
To listen to a CD, use headphones that are plugged into the CD-ROM. If you have a
sound card installed, you can listen to a CD over your speaker system.

Using DVD Player to play DVD discs

With DVD Player, you can play DVD discs from a DVD drive connected to your
computer. You can also use your DVD drive to play software and music CDs.

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