1 s2.0 S2405844022006879 Main

Heliyon 8 (2022) e09399
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon
Review article
Metaheuristic algorithms for PID controller parameters tuning: review,

approaches and open problems
Stephen Bassi Joseph a,∗ , Emmanuel Gbenga Dada b , Afeez Abidemi c ,
David Opeoluwa Oyewola d , Ban Mohammed Khammas e
a
Department of Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria
b
Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria
c
Department of Mathematical Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
d
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Federal University Kashere, Gombe, Nigeria
e
Department of Computer Networks Engineering, College of Information Engineering, Al-Nahrain University, Baghdad, Iraq
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The simplicity, transparency, reliability, high efficiency and robust nature of PID controllers are some of the
PID controller reasons for their high popularity and acceptance for control in process industries around the world today.
Tuning Tuning of PID control parameters has been a field of active research and still is. The primary objectives of
Metaheuristic algorithm
PID control parameters are to achieve minimal overshoot in steady state response and lesser settling time. With
Softcomputing
Machine learning
exception of two popular conventional tuning strategies (Ziegler Nichols closed loop oscillation and Cohen-Coon’s
process reaction curve) several other methods have been employed for tuning. This work accords a thorough
review of state-of-the-art and classical strategies for PID controller parameters tuning using metaheuristic
algorithms. Methods appraised are categorized into classical and metaheuristic optimization methods for PID
parameters tuning purposes. Details of some metaheuristic algorithms, methods of application, equations and
implementation flowcharts/algorithms are presented. Some open problems for future research are also presented.
The major goal of this work is to proffer a comprehensive reference source for researchers and scholars working
on PID controllers.
1. Introduction PID controllers have been in use for many years in industries for
process control applications. The use of PID controllers can be dated
Over the years, feedback control mechanisms have established a back to 1890s. Despite its long time of existence, PID controllers still
very strong impact in the fields of manufacturing, robotics, aviation remain the most popular controllers in both process and manufactur-
and process control. Several efficient, robust and adaptive controllers ing industries today. Furthermore, research on PID controllers indicates
(Brogliato and Lozano, 1994; Grimm et al., 2007; Kaloust and Qu, that about ninety percent (90%) of process industries employ PID as
1997; Lazar and Heemels, 2009; Rakovic et al., 2006) have been pro- controllers (Bansal et al., 2012; Abbasi and Naghavi, 2017). This popu-
posed aside proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller. However, larity is as a result of their robustness, simplicity and ease of retuning
the acceptance and reputation of PID controllers in control systems is control parameters (Åström and Hägglund, 1995; Abbasi and Naghavi,
incomparable and supreme. PID control system can be implemented or 2017). PID controller has been conventionally regarded as the best con-
applied in different modes (proportional only (P-mode), proportional troller in the absence of fundamental process knowledge (Abbasi and
and integral (PI mode), proportional and derivative (PD-mode) and pro- Naghavi, 2017; Bennett, 1993). Despite these advantages of PID con-
portional, integral and derivative (PID mode)) depending on process trollers, they are also faced with some shortcomings which include:
requirement (Lipták, 2002; Bharat et al., 2019). Several works have unwanted speed overshoot and sluggish response as a result of unex-
reported applications of typical PID controllers for different systems pected variation in load torque and sensitivity to controller gains 𝐾𝐼
(Ramachandran et al., 2018; Elsrogy et al., 2013; Prasad et al., 2014; and 𝐾𝑃 as identified by Kushwah and Patra (2014). The success of PID
Wang, 2011). controller bases on accuracy of system models and variables.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.B. Joseph).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09399
Received 4 November 2021; Received in revised form 16 January 2022; Accepted 5 May 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/li-
censes/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S.B. Joseph, E.G. Dada, A. Abidemi et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09399
Controller tuning is a long standing and important aspect of feed- to extract some system features analytically or graphically, which
back controllers. Hence, making the area of controller tuning a signifi- are then utilized to pick controller settings. These methods are sim-
cant area of research both in academics and industries. The exploration ple to use, computationally efficient, and can be used as a first
and investigation of dynamic systems to create efficient, reliable and step in parameter adjustment. However, the controller settings of-
promising controllers are related to control engineering. After the de- ten give desired results directly, this is as a result of assumptions
velopment of PID control, numerous interests on tuning techniques that made. Hence, further tuning is required. Some of these classical
assure excellent performance of PID controllers sprang up. Furthermore, tuning methods include Ziegler and Nichols (1942, 1993) method
drawbacks of PID control strategy typically for nonlinear systems, in- and Cohen (1953) method.
clude: challenges in choosing suitable and correct controller gains, and ii. Computational or Optimization Techniques: These techniques
process termed tuning. The challenges commonly lie in choosing ap- involve the use of data modeling and optimization of a cost func-
propriate controller gains if set less than required, the control objective tion strategies to tune PID parameters. These methods of controller
may never be achieved. While using excessively large controller gains parameters depend on a cost function which they attempt to min-
may cause system instability, it is a viable option (Abbasi and Naghavi, imize. There are six (6) generally used cost functions for PID con-
2017). troller parameters tuning. These commonly used cost functions are:
The first PID controller parameters tuning rules was introduced by (a) Integral Absolute Error (IAE) defined as
Ziegler and Nichols (1942), several other tuning rules were proposed 𝜏
later. Though, some of these proposals focused on linear systems sta-
IAE = |𝑒(𝑡)|. (1)
bilization (Åström and Hägglund, 1995), which are not appropriate ∫
0
for nonlinear dynamic models. Conversely, some of these techniques
encompass nonlinear systems (Lozano et al., 1999) with the goal of ob- (b) Integral Square Error (ISE) expressed by
taining control variables that satisfy stability criteria. Conversely, the 𝜏
latter strategies do not assure definite response characteristics. Thus,
ISE = |𝑒(𝑡)|2 . (2)
one major difficulties and concern in control engineering area is appro- ∫
0
priate controller parameters tuning. Controller variables are tuned to
stabilize closed-loop control system and to achieve objectives which are (c) Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE) represented as
related to stability, durability, performance tracking, performance mea- 𝜏
surement, noise reduction, disturbance rejection and robustness against ITAE = 𝑡|𝑒(𝑡)|. (3)
environmental uncertainties. ∫
0
Given a set of objectives, there are several types of tuning strate-
gies for PID controller. Several authors and scholars presented different (d) Integral Time Square Error (ITSE) denoted as
classifications of PID tuning strategies. Moradi (2003) and Johnson and 𝜏
Moradi (2005) classified PID tuning strategies relying on availability of ITSE = 𝑡|𝑒(𝑡)|2 . (4)
a process model and model type. These classifications are grouped into ∫
0
four (4) subgroups namely:
(e) Mean Square Error (MSE) defined as
i. Model free methods: In these methods, there is no existence of 𝜏
∫0 𝑒(𝑡)2
a model or particular points of process identified. Hence, do not MSE = . (5)
𝑡
apply explicit identification important model points or parametric
model as such. (f) Integral Error (IE) given as
ii. Non-parametric model methods: These methods employ only a 𝜏
partial modeling information normally, steady state representation IE = 𝑒(𝑡). (6)

∫
and critical frequency locations. The techniques are most appropri- 0
ate for online application. They are typically used without needing
extensive a priori plant information. Some examples of computational or optimisation techniques are Ar-
iii. In-depth data methods: These techniques are midway amid para- tificial Immune System algorithm (Kim et al., 2002; Shatnawi and
metric and non-parametric strategies. They use process data for Quwaider, 2019; Quwaider and Shatnawi, 2020), Simulated anneal-
tuning as used in subspace strategy or grey knowledge in fuzzy ing (Haber et al., 2007) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) (Bassi
logic systems. et al., 2011). Computational strategies are employed for self tuning or
iv. Parametric model methods: These methods require availability automatic tuning of PID controller parameters. While a broader clas-
of model data, and can be obtained using standard offline or on- sification based on nature and usage can be classified in five (5) cate-
line identification process. They need a linear model of the system gories (the composition can be found in Rodríguez-Molina et al. (2020);
and its transfer function matrix/space model. These techniques are Villarreal-Cervantes and Alvarez-Gallegos (2016); Ang et al. (2005)):
more appropriate for offline PID tuning. The parametric strategies
can be classified into Non-Optimal Parametric, optimal (Restricted i. Analytical methods: These methods involve analysis of closed
Structure control) and optimal (control signal matching) Methods. loop model to attain stability. It involves computation of relation-
ship between a given plant model and the set objective to de-
A more comprehensive, detail discussion and application strategies termine appropriate PID parameters. Examples of these strategies
of this classification can be obtained in Moradi (2003); Johnson and may include Lyapunov (Li et al., 2009) and root locus approaches
Moradi (2005). (Baker, 2011), where the latter is employed for linear systems and
Also, another classification of PID parameters tuning can be found the former is used for nonlinear systems or frequency response.
in Bansal et al. (2012). These methods can be generally categorized Other analytical methods include internal model control or lambda
into classical and computational techniques as presented in Bansal et al. method.
(2012): ii. Heuristic methods: Heuristic strategy of PID tuning is progressed
with practical experience where controller variables are manually
i. Classical Techniques: These methods are centered on making selected reliant on experimental knowledge of a professional de-
some assumptions about plant model and required output. They try signer who utilizes information of controlled variable estimates
2
to set up correct variable-performance relationships. The heuristic The intricacy of multi-objective mathematical programming prob-
method can also serve as a formula or a rule base for online tun- lems, otherwise termed as Multi-Objective Problem (MOP) with re-
ing habitually with tradeoff in design goals or objectives. The most gards to controller parameters tuning function, has necessitated the
popular of these methods are the conventional Ziegler–Nichols and employment of Computational Intelligence (CI) or soft computing ap-
Cohen–Coon as depicted in (Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2020; Kumar proaches (Ruano et al., 2014). The implementation of CI for multi-
et al., 2015; Ho et al., 1996). objective optimization in control engineering is termed intelligent con-
iii. Frequency response methods: These methods for PID parameter trol (Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2020). Metaheuristic algorithms have
tuning are habitually offline and popular in the academic arena. been intensively employed to resolve several optimization problems in
The technique is based on the characteristics of target process or different fields of endeavor today. Some of these applications can be
system such as loop shaping as reported in Ang et al. (2005). seen in Mathematics (Stojanović et al., 2017), robotics (Cruz-Bernal,
Natarajan and Gilbert (1997) and Wang et al. (1999) presented
2013), agricultural engineering (Qi and Altinakar, 2011), structural
the use of frequency response for tuning PID controller parameters.
design (Mirjalili and Lewis, 2016), greenhouse gas emission (Geem,
Hagglund and Astrom presented adaptive techniques on frequency
2011), medicine (Dey and Ashour, 2018), image processing (Alsmadi,
response to tune PID controller in Hägglund and Åström (1991).
2018) and telecommunication (Kumar and Vidyarthi, 2016). The ac-
iv. Optimization methods: These strategies of PID controller tun-
ceptance and popularity of metaheuristic algorithms can be attributed
ing can be considered as an exceptional style of feedback optimal
control system. PID variables are acquired on impromptu basis to their concurrent and quite simple implementation, their ability to
using an offline mathematical programming or numerical optimiza- handle large complex problems at a reduced computational cost, and
tion technique for singular objective. The computation can also be their wide usage in different areas of endeavor (Gogna and Tayal,
implemented using computerized heuristics or evolutionary algo- 2013; Talbi, 2009). These aforementioned qualities of metaheuristic al-
rithms for multiple design objectives. The process involves stating gorithms make them appropriate substitutes for controller parameters
a mathematical programming problem (MPP) for a targeted plant tuning problem. Metaheuristic algorithms have a track record of out-
and employing optimization techniques to solve it. The main at- standing performance and superiority in controller parameters tuning.
tribute of these methods is that control parameters are fixed and ac- The diversity of various assortments of existing dynamic models and
quired by the solution of an offline numerical optimization method. controller structures or architectures necessitates a wide range of dis-
Offline numerical optimization technique uses the derived state tinct tuning MOP(s). These problems entail the application of diverse
vector of plant by simulation or the real plant vectors. The ob- kinds of metaheuristics algorithms with specific search mechanisms to
tained fixed control parameters are then added to a closed-loop acquire the most appropriate or right controller settings. Thus, based
system. This review fall to this class of tuning. Some recent option these assertions, this study seeks to give a comprehensive review
mization techniques for PID tuning may include; Firefly algorithm on metaheuristic algorithms used for PID controller parameters tuning.
(dos Santos Coelho and Mariani, 2012), chaotic optimization (dos Furthermore, in specific terms, the contribution of this work include:
Santos Coelho, 2009), evolutionary multi-objective optimization
(Nisi et al., 2019), PSO (Azar et al., 2019) and glow-worm opti- i. Comprehensive evolutionary background study of PID controller,
mization (Pilla et al., 2019). its most important features, the evolution, developments and ap-
v. Adaptive tuning methods: The adaptive tuning strategies are on- plication strategies.
line real-time tuning methods which involve the use of automated ii. Detailed background of metaheuristic algorithms and their classifi-
online mechanisms to tune PID controller parameters gains. The
cation, application flowcharts and implementation processes.
key feature of these techniques is that control parameters vary over
iii. Survey of PID controller tuning methods and their limitations.
preset time interval in the closed-loop system. Application of this
iv. Presented an elaborate study of several techniques applied to PID
technique can be found in (Pirabakaran and Becerra, 2001; Kim
tuning and a phenomenal review of literatures on PID controller
and Cho, 2005; Chang et al., 2003).
parameters tuning using metaheuristic algorithm over a period of
2000–2020.
The complexity of plant dynamics depicts the effort or difficulty of
tuning the controller parameters (Bernstein, 2002). Plant dynamics can v. Exposed researchers to some powerful metaheuristic algorithms
be equipped with nonlinearity behavior, several tunable variables, and that are not yet explored in PID parameters tuning.
enormous numbers of input and output variables (Rodríguez-Molina vi. Identification of PID configuration problems.
et al., 2020). Furthermore, difficulties can be as a result of environmen-
tal and or operational uncertainties and perturbations. These features The remainder of the paper is laid out as follows: Section 2 gives
contribute to the difficulty of obtaining appropriate or suitable con- a succinct account of previous reviews, Section 3 is the background
troller parameters geared towards achievement of set performance ob- discussion, Section 4 describes the performance measures for evaluat-
jectives. Additionally, existing applications require meeting numerous ing the effectiveness of PID parameters tuning, Section 5 explains the
performance conditions/requirements at once, and are usually in con- metaheuristic algorithms that have found application in PID tuning,
flict (Boyd et al., 1990). Some of these performance requirements may Section 6 is the comparative studies of existing tuning techniques used
include: high performance accuracy, efficiency in energy consumption, in PID tuning, Section 7 unveils open research problems in metaheuris-
low cost just to mention a few among others. Hence, tuning of controller tic algorithms for PID tuning and future direction before concluding in
parameters becomes a significant task since the level of satisfaction is Section 8.
determined by controller parameter settings. To increase readability of manuscript and also enhance understand-
Problems associated with several demand controller calibration can ing of readers, the structure of this paper is depicted in Fig. 1.
be handled as a multi-objective mathematical programming problem
which can be solved using optimization or adaptive-optimization tuning
approaches. This method permits the use of multi-objective optimiza- 2. Literature review
tion strategies to obtain a set of accurate controller settings with diverse
trade-offs. These trade-offs are as a result of their compatibility with
tuning performance conditions. As such operators, designers or deci- This section presents a brief history and background of PID con-
sion makers need to select suitable configurations in accordance with troller, architecture (block diagram), equations, issues and application
the application demands depending on preferences. areas.
3
Fig. 1. Pictorial representation of paper structure.
2.1. Theory and architecture of PID controller parameter nonetheless ensures no alteration in system order as the
output is just proportional to the input. The proportional param-
The PID controller is so called due to its output summation of three eter reduces nevertheless does not eradicate steady state error, or
variables: proportional, integral and derivative terms which are denoted offset. The main task of the proportional element is to examine the
as 𝐾𝑃 , 𝐾𝐼 and 𝐾𝐷 . These parameters 𝐾𝑃 , 𝐾𝐼 and 𝐾𝐷 are reliant on er- magnitude of error and the PID controller response proportionally.
ror term 𝑒 between input and output parameters. Correct tuning of these In proportional term 𝑃 is denoted by Equation (9) as
variables will enhance the dynamic reaction of a system, decrease over-
shoot, eradicate steady state error and increase stability of the process 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝑃 𝑒, (9)
Saad et al. (2012). This relationship is described in Equation (7).
where
𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 : proportional part of controller output,
d𝑒
output = 𝐾𝑃 × 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝐼 × 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝐷 × , (7) 𝐾𝑃 : proportional gain,
∫ d𝑡
0 𝑒: error term.
where 𝐾𝑃 , 𝐾𝐼 and 𝐾𝐷 are 𝑃 , 𝐼 and 𝐷 parameters respectively. 𝐾𝐼 and ii. Integral term (𝐼): This parameter removes offset as it rises the
𝐾𝐷 can be represented by Equation (8). nature and order of the system by 1. This parameter also rises the
system reaction speed, but at the cost of continued oscillations. The
1
𝐾𝐼 = 𝐾𝑃 × 𝑇𝑖 , 𝐾𝐷 = 𝐾𝑃 × , (8) integral control attempts to mitigate the issues of the proportional
𝑇𝑑
control. It studies the error over time and adjust (increase) a small
where 𝑇𝑖 and 𝑇𝑑 are reset time and derivative time, respectively. The error with time. Reset rate, which is a time factor, is used to denote
reset and derivative times are responsible for a systems response type. adjustment of integral control.
The controller variables 𝑃 , 𝐼 and 𝐷 properties are briefly presented and
1
discussed as follows: 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐾𝐼 𝑒 𝑑𝑡, (10)
𝑇𝑖 ∫ ∫
i. Proportional term (𝑃 ): The proportional parameter facilitates the where
reaction as closed loop time constant declines with proportional 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 : is the integral part of controller output,
4
Fig. 2. Fundamental PID control structure.
𝑇𝑖 : reset time or integral time, i. Manual Mode: Here, the output of controller is manipulated by an
𝐾𝐼 : integral gain, 𝑒: error term. experienced who manipulates the controller parameters by push-
iii. Derivative term (𝐷): This setting essentially reduces the system’s ing buttons which will either increase or decrease the controller
oscillatory reaction. It has no effect on the offset, and has no effect output.
on the system’s nature and order. It investigates the error signal’s ii. Automatic Mode: Controller parameters can be attuned during op-
rate of variation. A bigger system reaction to a rapid pace of change eration by the use of algorithms.
is caused by the derivative. The derivative term is adjusted with
time. Too much of derivative term may cause an erratic control or When variations in modes and terms are observed, it is imperative
overshoot. It is denoted by Equation (11). to stop changing transients. Meanwhile, PID controllers are dynamic
systems, hence essential to ascertain state of the scheme is accurate
d d before changing modes of operation. In automatic state, PID algorithm
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇𝑑 𝑒 = 𝐾𝐷 𝑒, (11)
d𝑡 d𝑡 yields a control variable which may be distinct from manually created
where variable. Consequently, it is essential for operator(s) to ascertain both
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑡 : is the derivative part of controller output, control terms match during switching. This process is referred to as
𝑇𝑑 : derivative time, bumpless transfer. Details of switching from one mode to another can
𝐾𝐷 : derivative gain, 𝑒: error term. be found in Anthony and Ho (2020).
Fig. 2 depicts the standard configuration of a PID control system. 2.3. PID performance evaluation
When the set value 𝑟(𝑡) changes, the error term 𝑒(𝑡) between the set
value and the actual output is recalculated. The 𝑒(𝑡) error signal or term The acceptance and wide use of PID controllers has led to an explo-
is utilized to construct the 𝐾𝑃 , 𝐾𝐼 , and 𝐾𝐷 parameter actions, with sion in methods of tuning its parameters. In the past decades, numerous
the resulting signals weighted and summed to make the 𝑢(𝑡) control proposals on PID parameters tuning have been published. Some of these
signal applied to the plant model. The output signal 𝑦(𝑡) is obtained as a proposals are focused on stable processes (Cohen, 1953; Zhuang and
Atherton, 1993), integrating and unstable processes Tan et al. (1999)
result. The controller will receive this updated genuine signal, and the
and multivariate processes (Luyben, 1986). Based on this, a natural
error signal will be recalculated. The plant receives the newly received
question emanated: how can PID setting from different strategies be
control signal, 𝑢(𝑡). This process will run indefinitely until it encounters
compared? In other words, what is the performance of a controller to
a steady-state mistake.
be examined or measured? To answer this question, several researchers
The PID control technique is a typical approach to control that uses
and authors have proposed and presented different measures to address
a proportional factor (𝑃 ), integrative action (𝐼), and differential action
the issue of performance measurements.
(𝐷) to convert error signals into input signals. The error signal is cal-
In the past decades, minimum variance (Huang and Shah, 1999; Har-
culated by comparing the states to their corresponding references (set
ris, 1989), as a standard, have been used as criteria in process control to
points). To improve the speed of the system’s response to its defect, the
assess closed loop performance (Tan et al., 2004). A comprehensive re-
error signal is amplified with proportional gain (𝐾𝑃 ) and understood as
view and assessment on minimum variance can be seen in Qin (1998);
current error term (Muliadi and Kusumoputro, 2018). The error signal
Huang et al. (1997).
is also integrated with the integral gain (𝐾𝐼 ) as the accumulation of the
Although minimum variance is a highly prized metric of system per-
past error term and differentiated with the derivative gain (𝐾𝐷 ) as the
formance, it pays little heed to traditional metrics like setpoint tracking
prediction of future error term in parallel (Mange et al., 2015). These
and disturbance rejection. Furthermore, another vital and important
gains are fine-tuned using tuning methods based on a linear mathemat-
aspect of system performance, robustness, is not directly addressed. Ob-
ical model of the system’s dynamics. For systems with a modest amount
viously, a benchmark that can be used for single- and/or multi-loop
of nonlinearity and perfect uncoupling between the modes of their dy-
processes that are stable, integrating, or unstable would be quite use-
namics, the PID gains can be simply modified.
ful. The benchmark should include both time domain and frequency
domain robustness requirements (Tan et al., 2004).
2.2. Operation modes of PID controllers Tan et al. (2004) further suggested the use of integral error as a good
measure for single loop process and gain-phase margin for robustness
The PID controller is a widely used industrial control structure with measure. However, these methods are not suitable for multi-loop pro-
a common control loop feedback mechanism. PID controllers are the cesses. The use of integral error and gain-phase measure with different
most generally used feedback controllers (Kushwah and Patra, 2014). It tuning methods can be seen in Huang and Shah (1999).
is worthy to note that majority of PID controllers are operated in either The most commonly used performance indices or measures em-
manual or automated state. ployed in control system applications are Integral Absolute Error (IAE)
5
(Equation (1)), Integral Square Error (ISE) (Equation (2)), Integral Time Nichol’s (ZN) software tool, fuzzy logic, GA, and Artificial Neural Net-
Absolute Error (ITAE) (Equation (3)), Integral Time Square Error (ITSE) work (ANN) approaches were studied. The study concluded that it is
(Equation (4)), Mean Square Error (MSE) (Equation (5)) and Integral Er- challenging to attain optimal performance using conventional and ZN
ror (Equation (6)). The application of ITAE for PID tuning can be seen technique. Fuzzy logic, GA and ANN approaches can be employed to
in Martins (2005); da Silva et al. (2019). Jin et al. (2018) evaluated attain anticipated optimal performance but they lack factors to calcu-
disturbance rejection performance for multiple objectives using IAE to late disturbance elimination settling time which aids to measure how
estimate time response of process. Soni and Bhatt (2013) used ISE, IAE, fast the system can cancel or reject disturbance in harsh environments.
IATE and MSE indices with BF-PSO to optimize PID controller. The per- Conversely, software tool scheme using PID tuner can be utilized to
formance and robustness trade-offs of PID control using IE and IAE can attain anticipated performance and good disturbance rejection settling
be seen in Garpinger et al. (2014). A comparison of ISE, IAE, ITAE and time which satisfies the goal of design.
MSE using a heating tank was presented in Hussain et al. (2014). Fister et al. (2016) did a study on two reactive evolutionary algo-
rithms (differential evolution and genetic algorithm), and four reactive,
2.4. Related works swarm intelligence-based algorithms (bat, hybrid bat, PSO and Cuckoo
Search (CS)), were employed to tune PID controller in the comparative
There is still a rapid increase in the interest being shown by the aca- study. Only ten individuals and ten iterations (generations) were uti-
demic and global research communities on PID parameter tuning. This lized in order to choose the most suitable optimization algorithm for
segment presents related reviews that have been presented in literature fast tuning of controller parameters. The results were compared using
on same subject area. This format is adopted to enhance articulation of statistical analysis and showed that PSO is the best option for such a
issues (gaps) yet to be addressed or not fully addressed and to highlight task.
differences with current review. A survey on PSO and automated voltage regulators for synchronous
Bhawana and Neelu (2017) presented an appraisal of traditional as generators was presented by Dixit and Pragati Joshi (2016). The gen-
well as present methods employed for tuning PID controller parameters. erator is utilized to maintain electrical appliance control and stability.
The work presented different PID controller tuning procedures existing Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) employ a variety of ways. Diverse
in literature and gave assessment of some methods. These methods can controllers are also utilized to improve robustness, overshoot, rise time,
be typically grouped as classical methods and optimization methods. and voltage control, however the issue is with the AVR survey. Accord-
The methods appraised are classified into either traditional methods ing to several research paper analyses, assessment studies focusing on
designed for tuning PID controller or heuristic methods of tuning. The PID Controller are conducted to demonstrate rise time, overshoot, and
methods proposed for tuning PID controller for processes like coupled undershoot.
tank system, trajectory tracking of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Kim and Cho (2006) suggests a hybrid technique for adjusting a PID
quadrotor stabilization are as well appraised. controller for an AVR that combines GAs and Bacterial Foraging (BF).
Gholap et al. (2017) presented a review paper comparing different The proposed method was first demonstrated using four test functions,
algorithms based on time domain analysis, acquired tuned parame- and the algorithm’s outcome was evaluated with a focus on mutation,
ters, iteration number and fitness function values. Two distinct process crossover, step size variation, chemotactic steps, and bacteria life du-
plants were considered based on ITAE and time domain analysis as ration. Furthermore, the proposed algorithm was used to calibrate an
objective functions. Variations in values of tuning parameters were AVR’s PID controller. GA, PSO, GA-BF, and GA-PSO are among the al-
considered using two systems and cost functions. Tuning parameters gorithms compared.
were obtained for both systems using Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Nagaraj et al. (2008) presents a survey on how PID controller vari-
Swarm Optimization (PSO), and Simulated Annealing (SA). Assessment ables are tuned for DC motor armature control. The performance of
for all the three algorithms was conducted with gotten tuning variables, conventional procedures such as the continuous cycle approach and the
time domain analysis, number of iterations, and value of cost functions. ZN step response methodology was compared and analyzed with intelli-
Closed loop responses of individual arrangements were plotted. Process gent tuning strategies such as the GA, Evolutionary Programming (EP),
with SA-PID variables settles down fast compared to PSO and GA, how- and PSO. Tuning methods based on GA, EP, and PSO have demonstrated
ever its peak overshoot is higher. PSO-PID tuned system variables high- their superiority by achieving better results. They increased the perfor-
est overshoot is least. PSO and SA out performed GA system with GA mance indices and steady state characteristics.
settling slowly with more overshoot and larger minimum cost function Zulu and John (2014) reviewed some conventional control algo-
value. PSO algorithm converges fast as compared to SA, also cost mini- rithms used on quadrotors in studies. Clearly, no single algorithm can
mization is better in PSO. Different algorithms may not yield the same provide the greatest of all essential features, as evidenced by the evalu-
results after implementing with same system and objective function. ation. It has been determined that achieving superior performance often
In this paper (Srinivas et al., 2014), the results of the GA-PID con- demands hybrid control structures with the best combination of robust-
troller for different tuning techniques employing three tank level pro- ness, adaptability, optimality, simplicity, tracking ability, fast reaction,
cess control systems were compared to the classic PID controller. Using and disturbance rejection, among other things. However, such hybrid
computer simulation, this comparison analysis was performed for set structures do not guarantee the optimal performance; consequently, for
point tracking of process plant procedures. Using Matlab, the optimal any control application, a compromise must be found as to which of the
tuning variables of a PID controller were evaluated using six tuning components is the most appropriate. The assessors are still undecided on
methodologies (Z-N technique, C-C technique, ISE, IAE, IATE, and ge- which mathematical model will provide the best overall performance.
netic algorithm centered PID methodology). The GA-PID controller pro- PID, Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), Sliding mode, Backstepping,
duces a rapid reaction with less peak overshoot and integral square Feedback linearization, Adaptive, Robust, Optimal, L1, H∞ , Fuzzy logic,
error, according to simulation results. Furthermore, this technique has a and ANN have all been appraised after a brief description of the sys-
fine capacity to modify tuning variables for system dynamics variations. tem. The article concludes with a recommendation to examine hybrid
In conclusion, the GA-PID controller has been shown to be a reliable so- systems, which integrate advantages from many control paradigms.
lution for controlling three tank levels. This method can also be used in Divya and Nirmalkumar (2018) in their paper titled “A Survey on
a variety of nonlinear process control systems with long transportation Tuning of PID Controller for Industrial Process Using Soft Computing
lags. Techniques” presented a review of some soft computing methods for
Emmanuel and Inyiama (2015) conducted a survey on robot manip- PID controller parameters tuning. The review considered five (5) soft
ulator controller design strategies that can function optimally in harsh computing techniques, namely Neural Networks (NN), EP, GA, PSO and
environs. PID controller tuning approaches like the conventional Ziegler Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) methods. The survey gave some basic
6
highlights of selected algorithms and presented their flowcharts. Details puting (Donyagard Vahed et al., 2019), applications on PV cell pa-
of implementation of selected algorithms were not presented. rameter identification (Yang et al., 2020), solving grouping problems
Bharat et al. (2019) presented a review of PID tuning method. The (Ramos-Figueroa et al., 2020) and hydropower energy optimization
paper presented a survey on works related to PID controller tuning (Azad et al., 2020). A summary of related works is presented in Ta-
methods using fuzzy-logic and GA. Also, a comparison of conventional ble 1.
two methods (ZN and process reaction curve) and fuzzy-logic based tun-
ing methods was presented. A brief review of tuning methods like Fuzzy 3. PID controller tuning methods
Set-Point Weight (FSPW), GA, fuzzy logic, ZN, and PRC were presented.
A review on tuning techniques for PID controllers was presented A summary of tuning methods for PID controller is depicted in Fig. 3.
in Bansal et al. (2012). The work presented a review on current and
classical technique for PID tuning. The work gave a brief description 3.1. Classical methods of PID parameters tuning
of two main classifications of tuning strategies namely classical and
computational or optimization techniques. On classical method, Ziegler This class of tuning strategy attempts to derive controller configura-
and Nichols method, and Cohen Coon method were presented. Arti- tions for common models. To compute the dynamics of these systems,
ficial Immune Systems (AIS), ACO, Bacteria Forage Technique (BFT), step response of systems is obtained (Bansal et al., 2012). This response
GA, Differential Evolution (DE), EP, ANN, SA, Support Vector Machine is characterized by diverse equations, which leads to development of
(SVM), PSO, Fuzzy logic, and Response Surface Method (RSM) were different classical approaches.
among the topics discussed. The work presented relevant equations, al- Before tuning PID parameters, it is crucial to obtain configuration
gorithms and flowcharts for every algorithm considered in the study. using traditional approaches since the gains of controllers rely on trans-
A good number of works implementing such algorithms for PID tuning fer function variables. Although traditional PID tuning approaches are
was also presented. broadly used, oftentimes their behaviors do not match the set desired
Kushwah and Patra (2014) presented a review on tuning techniques goal or objective (Reis et al., 2016).
using soft computing strategies. The study was focused on DC motor
speed control using PID controller. The study gave a brief discussion on i. Ziegler-Nichols tuning method: Ziegler and Nichols proposed the
PID controller, its pictorial representations and parametric equations. most fundamental acknowledged and popular tuning technique in
The review was focused on GA, PSO, and fuzzy logic soft computing 1942 (Åström and Hägglund, 2004). Ziegler and Nichols conducted
techniques for DC motor speed control. The paper only briefly high- multiple studies and proposed rules for calculating 𝐾𝑃 , 𝐾𝐼 , and 𝐾𝐷
lighted on a few works that implemented the selected algorithms. values based on a plant’s transient step reaction. They presented
The study in Jain et al. (2012) titled “A Review of Soft Computing two methods: closed-loop and open-loop. Process basic features
Techniques for PID Controller Tuning” presented a review of three soft such as process gain (𝐾𝑃 ), process time constant (𝑇 𝑝), and process
computing algorithms (GA, ACO, and PSO) for tuning PID parameters. dead time (𝐿𝑝) are obtained using the ZN tuning approach. Ziegler
The study presented algorithms for each technique and also gave a little and Nichols suggested using the values of 𝐾𝑃 , 𝑇𝐼 and 𝑇𝐷 for closed
background information on the three algorithms chosen. and open loops using different rules. The tables and equations can
A review of how swarm intelligence computation algorithms can be seen in (Shahrokhi and Zomorrodi, 2013; Sorensen, 2007; Hahn,
be used to tune PID controllers was presented in Ghosal et al. (2012). 2006).
The study highlighted on different structures of PID controller and pre- ii. Cohen-Coon tuning method: Cohen and Coon (Cohen, 1953) pro-
sented a survey on swam intelligence computation. The study further posed a technique with PID controller parameters obtained through
listed the advantages of intelligence, and also gave reviews on tuning First Order Plus Time Delay (FOLPD) model. The key design con-
PID parameters using ACO, PSO and Bacterial Foraging Optimization dition is elimination of load turbulence. The controller parameter
(BFOA). A comparative analysis of four (4) tuning methods (ZN, PSO, configuration is presented in (Cohen, 1953), while some applica-
BFO and GA) using MATLAB was presented. Their analysis reported that tion examples can be seen in Hambali et al. (2014); Azman et al.
BFOA gave a better result compared to others. (2017). Regardless of a superior model, results of Cohen and Coon
Despite the significance of metaheuristic algorithms in PID tun- technique are not much superior than Ziegler Nichols approach.
ing, there is no comprehensive, complete and methodical review about iii. Gain and Phase Method: Åström and Hägglund (1984) suggested
their classification. Additionally, future problems and significant role of a test that, in terms of ease of use in automatic loop tuners, was a
metaheuristic algorithms in PID tuning problem have not been itemized significant improvement over the ZN test. They proposed replacing
properly. In summary, reviewed papers have some shortcomings: the variable proportional gain with a nonlinear function, with relay
nonlinearity as the function.
i. Only a few literatures have been investigated. Åström and Hägglund (1984) proposed a gain and phase strategy
ii. Details of algorithms implementation are not explicitly defined. for getting specific spots on the Nyquist curve to aid in determining
iii. Future studies and unanswered issues are not properly expressed. controller pretuning parameters to overcome the Z-N technique’s
iv. Few qualitative and recent papers were cited. trail by error limitation. The tuning method is based on the ability
v. In some cases, only a few metaheuristic algorithms were explored. to move the critical point on the process Nyquist curve to a spe-
vi. Classification of studied techniques has not been adequately pre- cific location. On the Nyquist plot, Åström and Hägglund (1984)
sented. proposed that this point be situated at unity gain and a phase of
vii. Advantages and disadvantages of selected works not clearly pre- 𝜙𝑚 − 180, where 𝜙𝑚 denotes the predicted phase margin and 𝐴𝑚
sented. represents the desired gain margin. A control system’s phase and
gain margins are a measure of how close the system’s polar plot is
Further readings on metaheuristic algorithms reviews and tax- to the (−1 + 𝑗0) point.
onomies on other subject matters like: scheduling techniques in cloud
computing (Kalra and Singh, 2015), vehicle routing problem and its There are other varieties or modifications of ZN tuning methods sug-
variants (Elshaer and Awad, 2020), optimizing 3D well-path designs gested by other researchers. Åström and Hägglund (2004) proposed an
(Biswas et al., 2020), reactive power planning problem (Shaheen et al., improved method of Ziegler and Nichols tuning with robust loop shap-
2018), optimization of Service-Level Agreement (SLA) violation costs ing strategy (McFarlane and Glover, 1992). Chien, Hrones, and Reswick
for dynamic execution of cloud services (Kumar and Bawa, 2020), (CHR) technique was created from original ZN Open Loop technique. It
multi-objective virtual machine placement mechanisms in cloud com- offers swiftest response without overshoot and also with 20% overshoot.
7
Table 1. Summary of previous related surveys.

S/No References No of study Focus of review Number of Taxonomy
referenced algorithms reviewed (classification)
1 Bhawana and Neelu (2017) 33 Classical and Optimisation techniques used for PID tuning 9 Yes
2 Gholap et al. (2017) 10 PID controller tuning parameters, time domain analysis, number of itera- 3 No
tions, and value of cost functions using GA, PSO, and SA.
3 Srinivas et al. (2014) 16 Optimum tuning parameters of PID controller are estimated by six tun- 8
ing methods (Z-N method, C-C method, ISE, IAE, IATE and GA based PID
method) for three tank level process for using Matlab/Simulink
4 Emmanuel and Inyiama (2015) 32 PID controller tuning methods such as the manual, Ziegler Nichols, soft-
ware tool, fuzzy logic, Genetic Algorithm (GA), and the Artificial Neural
Network (ANN)
5 Fister et al. (2016) 32 PID controller tuning methods reactive using differential evolution, ge- 6 Yes
netic algorithm, bat, hybrid bat, particle swarm optimization and cuckoo
search
6 Dixit and Pragati Joshi (2016) 8 PID Controller tuning for Automatic Voltage Regulator using PSO and GA 2 No
7 Kim and Cho (2006) 29 PID controller of an AVR. using GA, PSO, GA-BF, GA-PSO 4 No
8 Nagaraj et al. (2008) 9 PID controller are tuned for controlling the armature controlled DC motor 6 No
using Z-N (step response), Kappa-Tau Continuous cycling, EP, GA and PSO.
9 Zulu and John (2014) 34 PID control tuning for quadrotors using Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), 12 Yes
Sliding mode, Backstepping, Feedback linearization, Adaptive, Robust, Op-
timal, L1, H∞, Fuzzy logic and Artificial neutral networks.
10 Divya and Nirmalkumar (2018) 13 Soft Computing Techniques for PID tuning using Neural Networks (NN), 5 No
Evolutionary Programming (EP), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO), Ant Colony Optimization (ACO).
11 Bharat et al. (2019) 15 Techniques for PID tuning using Fuzzy Logic (FL), Genetic Algorithm (GA). 2 No
12 Bansal et al. (2012) 64 Review of tuning Techniques for PID parameters classification of tuning 14 No
strategies using 14 methods (Z-N method, C-C method, AIS,ACO, BFO, DE,
EP, ANN, SA, SVM, PSO, FL and RSM based PID method)
13 Kushwah and Patra (2014) 43 Speed control of DC motor using for PID controller using three tuning 14 No
strategies GA, PSO, and fuzzy logic algorithms
14 Ghosal et al. (2012) 51 Swam intelligence computation for PID controller using four tuning strate- 4 No
gies ZN, BFO, PSO, and GA
This technique has capability for tuning the set point and disturbance. borhood structures, Mirjalili and Lewis in Mirjalili and Lewis (2016)
Details and application of CHR can be found in Sen et al. (2015). classified metaheuristic algorithms into: evolutionary, physics-based,
A comparison of several tuning strategies can be seen in Shahrokhi and swarm-based and human-based algorithms. A further classification
Zomorrodi (2012). based on population is presented in Beheshti and Shamsuddin (2013);
Nojhan (2007). Another classification can be seen in Jackson et al.
4. Metaheuristic algorithms (2018), metaheuristics can be divided into two types: single-solution
and multiple-solution problems.
Metaheuristic based strategies (Talbi, 2009) deals with problems Several other taxonomies of metaheuristic algorithms can be seen in
by providing near optimal solutions within reasonable time. Due to Kumar and Bawa (2018); Shaheen et al. (2018); DrEO et al. (2007);
its efficiency and effectiveness in solving vast and complicated issues, Beheshti and Shamsuddin (2013); Gogna and Tayal (2013); Hussien
metaheuristics have exploded in popularity in recent years. Metaheuris- et al. (2020); Kumar and Bawa (2020); Abdel-Basset et al. (2018). Fig. 4
tics are a type of heuristic that performs better than simple heuristics. presents a summary of meta-heuristics algorithms classification/taxon-
Meta implies “beyond” or “higher level”. Every metaheuristic algorithm omy. Furthermore, it is worthy to note that metaheuristic algorithms
employs a particular mix of local and global search. Different results are can be conveniently implemented for global optimization (BoussaïD
often realized through randomization. There is no standard or verifiable et al., 2013).
definition of heuristics and metaheuristics in the literature, regardless
of whether metaheuristics are accepted. A number of academics and re- 4.2. Metaheuristic algorithms for PID tuning
searchers utilize heuristics and metaheuristics interchangeably. Current
developments, however, appear to apply to all stochastic algorithms Though analytical classical PID tuning techniques are extensively
that use randomization and global exploration as metaheuristics. This used, occasionally, their performance does not match to the desired re-
assessment will also adopt same convention. sults (Ribeiro et al., 2017; Reis et al., 2016). When an optimization
approach is used to tune controllers, it is feasible to achieve controller
4.1. Classification of metaheuristic algorithms gains to reach as quick as possible responses with reduced overshoot, re-
sulting in errors in the steady-state regime that are close to zero (Ribeiro
This section briefly explores and summarizes a comprehensive re- et al., 2017). It is legal to say that these algorithms are heuristic tech-
view of metaheuristic algorithms and their emergence. Metaheuristic niques, which means that they produce acceptable results even if they
algorithms can be categorized in several forms, depending on selected are not the best. Many controller gains can be discovered in the same
characteristics or features that distinguish them. Different authors and system by simply restarting the study.
scholars classify metaheuristic algorithms considering different features According to recent literature, heuristic algorithm-based optimiza-
or characteristics. The categorization could also be dependent or cen- tion strategies have emerged as a potent tool for solving a variety
tered on objectives or goals of research. of control engineering difficulties (Latha et al., 2013). Metaheuristic
Examples of this category may be found in Blum and Roli (2003) algorithms are extensively utilized in process control due to their ar-
which divides metaheuristics into two categories: nature-inspired and chitectural simplicity, good optimization capability, and fast response.
non-nature-inspired. Whether it is a population or a single point search, When compared to traditional optimization approaches, metaheuristic
whether the objective function is dynamic or static, memory utiliza- algorithms are more efficient in solving higher-dimensional optimiza-
tion or memory-less approaches algorithm and one or more neigh- tion problems. They can easily adapt to existing classical controller
8
Fig. 3. Summary of PID tuning methods.
design methodologies because of their resiliency. Metaheuristic algo- come a challenging effort or requirement. A GA for controller tuning
rithms, regardless of model order, can be used as a basic mechanism for involves:
creating traditional and improved structured controllers for a group of
unstable operational models. i. Evaluate plant characteristics: This is done to obtain a model
In order to produce effective engineering applications, controllers for simulation, such as the number of inputs and outputs, nature
are mechanisms that are utilized to govern the performance of dynamic of performance (linear or nonlinear), and appropriate sort of job it
systems. The main purpose of controllers is to ensure that the feedback accomplishes.
of a dynamic system is balanced. Despite the fact that controllers are ii. Choose controller structure: It is feasible to select an optimal
designed to create stability in principle, the way the system stabilizes controller configuration that successfully balances plant operation
based on the derived plant model.
in practice is determined by a collection of variables. These variables
iii. Identify tunable controller variables: It has a collection of vari-
can be adjusted to satisfy a variety of performance requirements, such
ables that directly compromise the controller process and plant
as shortening the stabilization time (Lequin et al., 1999), permitting
reaction, regardless of the specified controller configuration. The
recovery of stability under unpredictability or perturbation (Freeman
designer must determine which of these variables are used for tun-
et al., 1998), smoothing transition to stability (Hang et al., 1991).
ing and which are set to a fixed value.
Controller tuning, or the precise synchronization of controller vari-
iv. Establish needed performance goals: Designers must describe
ables, is a difficult process that is highly reliant on application needs. conflicting performance settings or criteria for controller tuning
The common controller tuning challenge entails identifying a collection based on application requirements. These criteria are concerned
of controller variables that stabilizes dynamic system reactivity under with the minimization or maximization of quantitative indicators
a defined performance condition that meets the specified parameters connected to system responsiveness, which officially define a multi-
(performance criteria). Engineering applications are becoming increas- objective optimization issue.
ingly difficult with time, in the sense that they demand dynamic systems v. Analyze various sets of controller variables: Due to the difficul-
to meet a variety of competing needs (i.e., one requirement cannot be ties of obtaining analytical answers for engineering optimization
satisfied completely devoid of harming the achievement of others). As problems like controller tuning, various solutions (candidate group
a result, fine-tuning controllers for complex and dynamic systems be- of controller variables) must be recommended and tested in simu-
9
Fig. 4. Summary of metaheuristic classification based on operational procedure.
lation to determine their degree of compliance with the application

requirements.
vi. Choose most appropriate set of controller variables: A collec-
tion of solutions with outstanding (non-dominated) performance
trade-offs is discovered using the degree of compliance of each
solution. Then, from among the options, one is chosen to be im-
plemented in the final application.
Automatic PID tuning algorithms have received lots of attention be-

cause of their importance in the industry. This has been particularly
true in the last two decades (Fraga-Gonzalez et al., 2017). Some meth-
ods applied include metaheuristic techniques such as GA, PSO and SA,
among others. A comprehensive list of some popular metaheuristic al-
gorithms are presented in Tables 2 and 3. In the following paragraphs,
an overview of some of these algorithms and applications for PID tuning
will be presented.
Fig. 5. Genetic algorithm process flowchart.
4.3. Genetic algorithms
tion in Control Engineering has advanced greatly. Despite the fact that
Genetic Algorithms are search and optimization approaches moti-
performance, system stability, static and dynamic index, and system
vated by two biological philosophies termed as procedure of natural
robustness must all be considered while designing a control system,
selection and mechanism of natural genetics (Krishnakumar and Gold-
PID parameters have been fine-tuned using GAs for various processes
berg, 1992). GA (Sreekanth and Hari, 2016; Man et al., 1996) is a
or plants. El-Deen et al. (2015) and Joseph and Emmanuel (2018) dis-
stochastic global search approach that mimics the natural evolution pro-
cussed the best way to tune PID settings for DC motor speed control. The
cess or procedure. GA is a class of probabilistic optimization techniques
GA controlled PID controller is designed for synchronous generators to
that uses natural selection and genetic inheritance to solve problems.
promote damping and maintain power system stability, as presented in
GA avoids local minima and converging to suboptimal solutions by
Mohammed et al. (2014). GA based design of PID controller for cascade
starting at multiple distinct points and searching in parallel (Wang
control process is presented in Patil and Lakhekar (2017). An investiga-
et al., 2003; Skogestad, 2001). As a result, GA has been shown to be
tion on applicability of genetic algorithms for automatic tuning of PID
effective in locating high performance space in complicated domains
while avoiding the issues associated with high dimensionality that other controller parameters is presented in Amaral et al. (2018).
approaches, such as gradient decent techniques that rely on derivative
information, may encounter (Goldenberg, 1989). 4.4. Ant colony optimization
The stages of GA implementation are summarized in a flowchart as
shown in Fig. 5. Details of GA implementation for PID tuning can be The ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm is a distinct method
seen in Meena and Devanshu (2017). inspired by insect swarm behavior and was designed for combinatorial
issues at first. ACO is a stochastic based metaheuristic method for solv-
4.3.1. Genetic algorithm for PID tuning ing combinatorial optimization issues that employs artificial ants. ACO’s
Currently, GA has been getting a good deal of attention and further goal is to find shorter routes from their nests to food sources. Ants leave
studies have been done to research its implementation. Implementa- behind a chemical compound called a pheromone that allows them to
10
Fig. 6. Ant colony optimization search algorithm flowchart.
communicate with other ants. When an ant moves, it leaves a consis- bee colony foraging behavior presented by Karaboga (2005). Working
tent amount of pheromone behind that other ants can detect. Every ant and unemployed foraging bees, as well as food sources, are the three
travels in its own unique way, but when it comes across a pheromone main components of the concept. The employed and unemployed for-
trail, it must decide whether or not to follow it. If one ant follows the aging bees in the first two components look for ample food sources
trail, its own pheromone strengthens it, and an increase in pheromone close to their hive, which is the third component. Forager recruitment
enhances the likelihood that the next ant will follow it. As a result, the to rich food sources, which results in positive feedback, and forager de-
more ants that go along a path, the more appealing it becomes to suc- sertion of low food sources, which results in negative feedback, are two
ceeding ants. In addition, an ant who takes a shorter route to a food fundamental behaviors required for self-organization and collective in-
source will return to the nest sooner. telligence, according to the concept. A comprehensive discussion and
Dorigo suggested the fundamental ant structure, an earlier version
application strategy of ABC can be seen in Karaboga (2010).
of ACO, in his PhD thesis in 1992. (Dorigo, 1992). Dorigo devised a
The ABC optimization algorithm, like the ant colony optimization
difficult optimization algorithm based on both simple and complex for-
algorithm, was created to solve a combinatorial problem in which sev-
aging ant features, which sparked widespread interest in the 1990s and
eral solutions can be discretized into an array of building blocks that
beyond. Dorigo and others introduced a number of alterations and hy-
can be rearranged and mutated to find the best answer. The ABC ap-
brids. Offline pheromone updates and pheromone evaporation were
demonstrated in particular, which led to more widespread of ACO in proach was also utilized to optimize the trajectory (Murrieta-Mendoza
1999 (Cooper and Smeresky, 2020; Dorigo et al., 2006). In Adubi and et al., 2018), parameter optimization (Zhong et al., 2014; Ding et al.,
Misra (2014), an overview of the many types of ACO algorithms, their 2015), and remote sensing applications (Jayanth et al., 2015; Fu et al.,
applications, and a comparative study of a few selected versions are 2020). Applications, overview and relevant equations can be seen in Xu
presented. The navigation of ant is represented by the following proba- et al. (2013); Kumar et al. (2017); Abu-Mouti and El-Hawary (2012).
bility Equation (12) in Sundareswaran and Nayak (2012): An illustration of ABC application flowchart is presented in Fig. 7.
𝜏𝑗(𝑘)
𝑃𝑗(𝑘) = 𝑛
. (12) 4.5.1. ABC for PID tuning
∑
𝜏𝑗(𝑘) The ABC method outperformed earlier population-based algorithms
𝑗=1
in numerical tests, with the extra bonus of fewer control settings (Liao
A high level algorithmic concept of ACO is presented in Fig. 6. et al., 2014). Apart from the usual population-based control parameters
like population size or colony size (SN) and maximum generation num-
4.4.1. ACO for PID tuning ber or maximum cycle number, the ABC algorithm’s basic version only
The parameters of a PID controller for DC motor of a robotic arm has one control parameter called limit (MCN). Because of its simplic-
was tuned using ACO in Sandoval et al. (2015). The findings were ity and ease of implementation, the ABC technique has sparked a lot of
compared to typical tuning techniques, and ACO-PID performed bet- attention, and it has been utilized to solve a variety of real optimiza-
ter than ZN tuned PID. As demonstrated in Priyambodo et al. (2015),
tion problems. One of these practical challenges is the setting of PID
a PID controller is utilized for quadrotor stabilization utilizing the ACO
controller parameters.
method. An application of optimization method based on artificial ants
ABC is used to tune PID settings to perfection. Some benchmark
colonies (ACO) for the synthesis of an optimal PID regulator for human
functions are used to test the algorithm. For the computation of PID
heart control is presented in Aabid et al. (2017). Load Frequency Con-
parameters, the test functions were used. On the basis of overshoot, set-
trol (LFC) of a single area re-heat thermal power system is one of the
other PID tuning applications that uses ACO (Kaliannan et al., 2016), tling time, and minimal error, the performance is compared to that of
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) control system (Herlambang other approaches (Abachizadeh et al., 2010). ABC algorithm was pro-
et al., 2019), Single Machine Infinite Bus control (Yunus and Djalal, posed in El-Telbany (2013) for tuning the regulation parameters of PID
2019), position control operation of a DC motor (Şimşek et al., 2019) controller for DC motor. The optimum parameters of PID controller
and multi objective ACO for PID can be found in Chiha et al. (2012). were obtained using ABC algorithm for higher order oscillatory sys-
tems in Bagis and Senberber (2017). Other plants controlled using PID
4.5. Artificial bee colony optimization controllers and tuned by ABC algorithm include: fractional order sys-
tems (Senberber and Bagis, 2017), hub motion and end point vibration
Karaboga proposed the Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) metaheuristic suppression of double-link flexible robotic manipulator (Annisa et al.,
optimization technique in 2005. Honey bees’ clever foraging habit 2018), bench scaled nonlinear dynamical system (NLDS) (Valluru and
served as inspiration. The method is based on the model for honey Singh, 2017) and single phase inverter (Zhi, 2019).
11
Fig. 7. Phases of artificial bee colony algorithm flowchart.
4.6. Teaching learning based optimization time, frequency overshoot and undershoot, and tie-line power devia-
tion when compared to LCOA, GA, PS, and SA based PID controllers.
This technique was suggested by Rao et al. (2012) and Rao and
Kalyankar (2013) to find the worldwide solution to mechanical design 4.7. Bat algorithm (BA)
difficulties using large-scale non-linear optimization problems TLBO
(Teaching-Learning-Based Optimization) is a population-based meta- The Bat Algorithm (BA) is a metaheuristic algorithm derived from
heuristic search algorithm that mimics a typical class’s teaching and natural bats’ sound waves activity to find prey and differentiate between
learning methods Rao et al. (2012). A group of students is called a so- various kinds of insects even in dark environment (Yang, 2010). BA was
lution in TLBO, and the fitness of solutions is called results or grades. recently introduced by Yang (2010), which was influenced by the sonar
The TLBO algorithm adjusts each learner’s or student’s grade in class by of microbats. Each bat in the original population updates its position
learning from the teacher and learning from student engagement. in a correlated fashion using echolocation. Bat echolocation uses a se-
The algorithm procedure is divided into two stages or actions: the quence of powerful ultra-sound pulses to generate echoes, which are
instructor stage and the learner stage. In the teacher stage, the instruc- then received with latencies and different sound frequencies, qualify-
tor is seen as the best solution in the entire group, and the teacher ing bats to identify the exact prey. In natural world, echolocation can
shares his or her knowledge with the students in order to improve the last only a few thousandths of a second (up to around 8–10 ms) and
class’s mean outcome. The equations and details of implementation can also have a varying amplitude in the range of 25–150 kHz, which cor-
be seen in Rao et al. (2012). The application flowchart for TLBO is pre- responds to air wavelengths of 2–14 mm (Gandomi and Yang, 2014).
sented in Fig. 8. Microbats typically use sound waves to locate prey. Microbats trans-
mit small signals when traveling; nonetheless, when a possible prey is
4.6.1. TLBO for PID tuning nearby, their transmitted pulse rates increase and the frequency is tuned
TLBO has gained a lot of attention, and has been adjusted to capture up. The addition of frequency, also known as frequency tuning, in com-
limited data due to its appealing properties such as simple concept, lack bination with the speed of pulse emission will reduce the wavelength
of exact algorithm variables, simple implementation, and fast conver- of echolocations and hence improve detection precision (Gandomi and
gence (Yu et al., 2016b), multiobjective (Patel and Savsani, 2016; Rao Yang, 2014). An application illustration flowchart for BA is presented
and Patel, 2014), large-scale (Biswas et al., 2012), and dynamic opti- in Fig. 9.
mization problems (Chen et al., 2018a). TLBO has also been effectively Further details, readings or consultation on BAs can be seen in Yang
applied to a variety of scientific and engineering sectors (Chen et al., (2012a); Chaib et al. (2017); Gandomi and Yang (2014); Yang and Gan-
2018b). domi (2012); Singh et al. (2015); Al-Betar et al. (2018).
While in the case of PID parameter tuning, TLBO has been employed
to adjust the variables of PID for different processes. Some of these 4.7.1. BAT for PID tuning
include: automatic voltage regulator (AVR) processes, Automatic Gen- BA was used to solve realistic real-world problems because it is a
eration Control (AGC) in power systems (Sahu et al., 2016), automatic suitable metaheuristic algorithm with unique ability to handle hard
voltage regulator (AVR) (Chatterjee and Mukherjee, 2016; Priyambada optimization problems. A few of these classifications are presented
et al., 2014), improve performance of the magnetic levitation system in Jayabarathi et al. (2018): structural Optimization, classification
(Yadav et al., 2018). and feature selection, electrical power systems, aerospace engineering,
With the help of TLBO, a fuzzy PID controller is proposed for au- petroleum engineering, and nuclear engineering. Furthermore, BA has
tomatic generation control (AGC) of a thermal system (Sahu et al., been implemented in control engineering where PID tuning is an aspect.
2015). There are two degrees of freedom: one and two. Using a teach- The BA for optimizing PID parameters has been used in a variety
ing learning based approach, a PID controller design is used on an AVR of process plants with encouraging results. In Katal et al. (2014), BA
device (Rajinikanth and Satapathy, 2015). The fuzzy-PID controller was was utilized to fine-tune the PID controller parameters for a connected
proposed by Sahu et al. (2015) for the AGC of a two unequal area in- tank liquid level control system, which is widely used in the mineral
terconnected thermal system. For the first time in this sector, the TLBO oil, food manufacturing, and water purification companies. BA in Kot-
technique is employed to obtain parameters for the proposed fuzzy-PID teeswaran and Sivakumar (2013) was used to fine-tune the settings of
controller. The design challenge is formulated as an optimization prob- a centrally controlled PI controller for a coal gas turbine, which is a
lem, and the fuzzy-PID controller’s parameters are optimized via TLBO. non-linear multidimensional process with complex relationships across
When the proposed method’s results are compared to those of several control loops. Singh et al. (2015) used BA for tuning the parameters of
recently published approaches, such as the Lozi Map-based Chaotic Op- PID controller of a servo motor. Other implementations of BA for PID
timization Algorithm (LCOA), GA, Pattern Search (PS), and Simulated tuning include, speed control of brushless direct current drive (Premku-
Algorithm (SA) based PID controller, the proposed method clearly wins mar and Manikandan, 2016), bio-inspired robot manipulator (Rahmani
for the same system and objective function. The TLBO optimized fuzzy- et al., 2016) and control of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
PID controller has superior dynamic performance in terms of settling gyroscopes (Rahmani et al., 2018).
12
Fig. 8. Descriptive flow chart for Teaching–Learning-Based Optimization (TLBO).
4.8. Bacterial foraging optimization (BFO) applications include: number of bacteria 𝑆, swimming length 𝑁𝑛, num-
ber of chemotaxis steps 𝑁𝑐, number of reproduction steps 𝑁𝑟, number
Passino (2002) presented the Bacteria Foraging Optimization (BFO) of elimination and dispersal events 𝑁𝑒, and the probability of elimina-
algorithm, which is a member of the family of nature-inspired optimization/dispersal 𝑃 𝑒𝑑. Step size of swimming 𝐶 for bacteria is a vector
tion algorithms. BFO imitates a swarm of Escherichia coli bacteria’s 𝑀 × 1 corresponding to vector 𝜃. Initial values of 𝜃(𝑖), 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑆
searching strategy. Bacteria look for nourishment in a way that maxi- which are boundaries of parameters randomly created. The functions
mizes the amount of energy they get per unit of time. By sending signals, 𝐽 (𝑖) and 𝐹 (𝑖) are defined to evaluate cost and fitness of 𝑖𝑡ℎ bacterium
each bacterium communicates with each other. After comparing vari- respectively. Details of application flow diagram can be seen in Huynh
ous prior factors, a bacterium makes foraging decisions. Chemotaxis is et al. (2020).
the mechanism by which a bacterium moves by taking little steps while For further readings, variants and applications of BFO can be seen
looking for nutrition, and a key principle of BFO is to simulate chemo- in Agrawal et al. (2012); Niu et al. (2010); Tang and Wu (2009); Rani
tactic motion of artificial bacteria in the problem search space. and Kumar (2015).
Specifics on these processes, as well as the BFO implementation BFO has piqued the interest of scholars from several disciplines of
steps, can be found in Das et al. (2009); Datta and Nandakumar (2017); study since its debut, owing to its biological purpose and beautiful
Jhankal and Adhyaru (2011). A flowchart showing the flow of BFO shape. Researchers are attempting to combine BFO with a variety of
algorithm is depicted in Fig. 10. The BFO variables to be defined for other algorithms in order to investigate both its local and global search
13
neering, intelligent control engineering systems (Niu et al., 2010) are

some of the application sectors in which PID is used.
BFO has been employed for suitable tuning of PID controller set-
tings to overcome difficulties that numerous industrial machinery are
regularly troubled with, such as high order and uncertainties. The BF-
PID controller was optimized and tuned using BFO in Niu et al. (2006).
BF-PID has a faster settling time, little or no overshoot, and greater re-
silience than GA-PID. Compared with GA-PID, BF-PID have a quicker
settling time, little or without overshoot and higher robustness. Sim-
ilarly, dos Santos Coelho and da Costa Silveira (2006) provided an
improved BFO for PID optimization in a robotic manipulator system.
To adjust the 𝐶 constant in basic BFO, the new technique was tested
with a chemotactic step parameter (𝐶) variable speed based on Uniform,
Gaussian, and Cauchy probability distributions. The BFO approach was
used in Ali and Majhi (2006) to improve PID parameters by reducing
the integral of time error squared (ISTE) condition. Also, addressing the
challenge of PID controller tuning, Korani et al. (2009) coupled bacteria
foraging actions with PSO. Rajinikanth and Latha have suggested utiliz-
ing BFO to tune PID controller parameters for unstable process models
in Rajinikanth and Latha (2012). The results demonstrate that utiliz-
ing the bacterium foraging algorithm to tune PID parameters is a viable
option.
Monitoring a moving target along an unpredictable route by a mo-
bile robot is another application of BFO for tuning PID controllers
(Benbouabdallah and Zhu, 2013; Huynh et al., 2020), speed controller
of a permanent magnet synchronous motor (Agarwal et al., 2017), po-
sition control of Direct Current (DC) servo motor (Jasim, 2018) and
tuning PID parameters for Multi-variable Input and Multi-variable Out-
put (MIMO) systems (Sivakumar et al., 2016).
4.9. Particle swarm optimization (PSO)
Kennedy and Eberhart (1995) proposed the PSO algorithm, which is

a metaheuristic algorithm based on the principle of swarm intelligence
and capable of solving complicated mathematics problems encountered
in engineering (de Almeida and Leite, 2019). The social activities of
birds, fish shoals, and even humans inspired the PSO algorithm (Ribeiro
et al., 2017). In PSO, it is assumed that each individual has their own
experience and can assess its quality. Because the algorithm is based on
social behavior, each individual is aware of what their neighbors are
going through.
The PSO algorithm is based on these two perspectives (Ribeiro et al.,
2017). The individual’s actions are influenced by its past performance
and its surroundings. A culture’s adjustment process can be divided into
three categories: assess, compare, and mimic. Every individual have the
ability to assess their surroundings and predict their behavior, as well as
compare their outcomes to those of their peers. It can detect flaws and
advantages in each action and duplicate the important events produced
by their neighbors. It indicates that mental talents are acquired and
Fig. 9. Generic flowchart for Bat algorithm.
maintained (Ribeiro et al., 2017).
Detail information about the evaluation of the implementation can
features. It has previously been used to solve a variety of real-world be found in de Almeida and Leite (2019); Kennedy and Eberhart (1995).
problems, and has been found to be effective over a wide range of GA The flow diagram for basic PSO algorithm is shown in Fig. 11.
and PSO types (Jhankal and Adhyaru, 2011).
4.9.1. PSO for PID tuning
4.8.1. BFO for PID tuning PSO has recently received increased interest from researchers be-
The BFO algorithm is a new swarm intelligence system inspired by cause of its suitability for realization and promising optimization capa-
the foraging behavior of Escherichia coli (E.coli) in human intestines. bility in a variety of applications (Song and Gu, 2004). PSO’s application
After significant research over the previous few years, BFO has demon- to various domains of effort is based on two factors. The first is to
strated good performance in a range of application domains (Niu et al., increase PSO performance by changing parameters, boosting popula-
2010). Lately, BFO has gotten a lot of interest, and it offers a lot of tion diversity, and combining it with other optimization methods. The
promising industrial applications and information processing. Few mod- second is PSO’s use in various domains such as multi-objective optimiza-
els that simulate bacterial foraging behavior have been devised and tion, electronics, neural network training, network security and mute
used to solve actual challenges (Bayoumi and Salem, 2012). The BFO selection, medicine, and emergent system identification, to name a few.
method, like other SI algorithms, has been used to solve problems in Because of its intelligible performance and ease of use, PSO
a wide range of fields. Communication systems, communications engi- has been extensively used to a variety of domains of endeavor
14
Fig. 10. Generic flow diagram for BFO algorithm.
Fig. 11. Flow diagram for basic PSO algorithm.
15
Fig. 12. Application flow diagram for Cuckoo search algorithm.
(Hajihassani et al., 2018). PSO is a popular optimization technique, and 4.10. Cuckoo optimization algorithm
because of its versatility, it has a wide range of applications in fields
such as medicine (Eshtay et al., 2018), financial (Shie et al., 2012), eco- Yang and Deb (2009) developed the Cuckoo Search (CS) metaheuris-
nomics (Lee and Park, 2006), security and military (Cho et al., 2010; tic evolutionary optimization algorithm in 2009. The cuckoo is a bird
Cheng et al., 2008), biological, system identification etc. (Khare and species that inspired the concept of CS. Cuckoos are appealing birds, not
Rangnekar, 2013). only because of their wonderful songs, but rather because of their proac-
PSO was used by many academics to tackle difficulties in the dis- tive breeding approach. Cuckoos lay their eggs in the nests of other host
birds or species when they are grown. Compel brood parasitism is the
ciplines of structural, hydrological, and geotechnical civil engineering
term for this type of parasitism. The ability of a single cuckoo to lay an
(Hajihassani et al., 2018). PSO has recently been used to solve problems
egg that may duplicate, or resemble, host nest eggs in such a way that
in operations research (Yu et al., 2016a; Xia and Li, 2017). Some appli-
the host nest mother bird cannot distinguish the cuckoo egg from her
cations are also closely linked to mechanical engineering (Chen et al., own is crucial. The cuckoo’s egg will hatch before the host egg, con-
2013), and PSO algorithms have been used to solve problems in opera- firming the cuckoo’s control in the nest and so extending their lifespan.
tions research (Che et al., 2012). Academic researchers have also used The concept of Cuckoo Optimization Algorithm (COA) is depicted in
PSO to address optimization problems in the field of electronics and Fig. 12. The pseudocode, equations and application details for CS can
communication engineering (Ganguly et al., 2013). Liu et al. (2013), be seen in Yang and Deb (2009); Bhandari et al. (2014); Shair et al.
Liu et al. created a job scheduling model for cloud computing based on (2015); Mamizadeh et al. (2018); Rajabioun (2011).
the PSO algorithm to reduce energy usage and enhance profit. Zhang
et al. (2015) contains a detailed overview of the implementation of PSO 4.10.1. Cuckoo search algorithm for PID tuning
techniques. Swarm robotics flocking motion is another domain where Recently, CS has been applied in almost every area and domain of
PSO has been successfully utilized (Dada and Ramlan, 2015; Dada and function optimization (Fister et al., 2014), engineering optimization
(Yang and Deb, 2010), image processing (Brajevic and Tuba, 2014),
Ramlana, 2013).
scheduling (Burnwal and Deb, 2013), planning (Akbarzadeh and Shad-
PSO has been used in various applications of automatic control sys-
kam, 2015), feature selection (Abd El Aziz and Hassanien, 2018),
tems that heavily rely on PID controllers. In Štimac et al. (2014), PSO
forecasting (Wu et al., 2019), and real-world applications (Expósito-
was used to tune the settings of a PID controller employing an active Izquierdo and Expósito-Márquez, 2017). Engineering optimization ap-
magnetic bearing that suspends a rotating shaft and keeps it suspended pears to be just one of the many uses. CS and its derivatives have been
using regulated electromagnetic forces on the rotor in radial and ax- used in nearly every field of research, technology, and manufacturing.
ial directions. Chang and Chen (2014) designed a PID control system CS techniques have been used to tune PID controller parameters in
for MIMO activities. In MIMO control systems, an improved version of many studies. Kumar et al. (2014) presents PID parameter tuning for
the PSO algorithm was utilized to tune PID control gains. Particle swam inverted pendulum monitoring, experimental validation of Van der Pol
optimization approach was used in Rajesh and Ananda (2015) to opti- oscillator, and stability study of capsizing problem as an example of
mize settings of PID controllers in order to modify the location of the nonlinear systems employing cuckoo optimization approach. Bingul and
camera in an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). The findings were com- Karahan (2018) presents a new tuning approach for PID parameters in
the AVR system utilizing the CS algorithm and a new frequency-domain
pared to those of a traditional PID controller. PSO approach was used
performance benchmark. In their paper, a new way for designing PID
to calibrate PID controllers for various transitory circumstances of Per-
controllers utilizing the CS optimization algorithm was provided in or-
manent Magnet DC motor in Medewar and Munje (2015). The proposed
der to improve the performance of buck-boost converters in LED driver
approach increased both noise immunity and steady state detection ac- circuits (Verma et al., 2016; Nimisha and Senthilkumar, 2018). The
curacy, according to the results of experiments. PSO has also been used CS optimization approach was recently used to optimize the PID pa-
to tune PID control variables for the control of an inverted pendulum in rameters for various different industrial plants. Maximum Power Point
the past (Joseph and Dada, 2018), and speed control of a DC motor in Tracking (MPPT) of PV systems (Mosaad et al., 2019b), Speed of in-
Bassi et al. (2011). duction motor regulation (Peram et al., 2018), and optimization of
16
Fig. 13. Flowchart for Simulated annealing algorithm.
complicated stability radius via single objective constrained optimiza- in terms of tuning PID parameters (Bansal et al., 2014). Suman et al.
tion are instances of such plants (Solihin and Akmeliawati, 2018). (2010) introduces a novel multi-objective optimization approach based
on SA dubbed Orthogonal Simulated Annealing (OSA).
4.11. Simulated annealing Yachen and Yueming (2008) used SA algorithm for tuning different
PID controllers in practical applications. SA was used to tune PID pa-
In 1953, Metropolis et al. (1953) was the first to propose a Simulated rameters for motion control system having constant disturbance. The
Annealing (SA) approach. It resembles the rearranging of particles in a experimented results were compared, showing that different controller
body to a crystalline state, which is accompanied by a drop in tempera- was superior in different control requirement. Each controller has its
ture. The constituents of a body wander laterally within a region whose own advantage and proper scope.
amplitude is defined by its temperature. As long as cooling is gradual SA was recently employed to fine-tune the characteristics of a per-
enough, atoms or particles can position themselves in lower and lower manent magnet brushless dc motor (PMBLDCMPID)’s controller (Shat-
energy levels, finally reaching the lowest energy state (crystalline state) nawi and Bayoumi, 2019). The response parameters index, maximum
overshoot, rise time, and settling time for each controller are tuned to
(Baselga, 2011). SA is based on the Monte-Carlo iterative approach (Jia
reduce the controller’s parameters. The SA optimization approach is
and Lichti, 2017).
used to tune the system. The technique determines the best PID/PI con-
The flowchart for SA is presented in Fig. 13. Further readings and
troller parameter for fixed-structure PID/PI controllers.
descriptive algorithms on SA can be found in Fouskakis and Draper
SA has been applied for tuning PID parameters of different processes
(2002); Suman and Kumar (2006); Eglese (1990).
like AVR system (Lahcene et al., 2017), attitude control system for a
re-entry capsule (Vijay and Banu, 2016) and DC-DC power converters
4.11.1. Simulated annealing for PID tuning
(Alqudah et al., 2014). Further readings on application of SA can be
SA is a method for proffering solution to difficult optimization prob-
seen in Siddique and Adeli (2016); Suman and Kumar (2006); Sibalija
lems with satisfactory outcomes. Over the years, South Africa has at-
(2018); Varty (2017).
tracted a lot of attention and interest. Kirkpatrick et al. (1983) and
Černỳ (1985) sparked the current interest. These papers showed how to 4.12. Grey wolf optimizer
use a model for simulating solid annealing provided by Metropolis et al.
(1953) to tackle optimization issues where the objective function to be Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) is a recently proposed metaheuris-
minimized relates to the energy of the solid’s states. tic optimization algorithm (Mirjalili et al., 2014). Grey wolves’ social
SA has been used to solve problems in a variety of fields, including structure and intelligent hunting tactics motivate GWO. Grey wolves
computer VLSI design (Wong et al., 2012), image processing (Tavares are generally at the top of the hierarchy in their habitats. Grey wolves
et al., 2019), molecular physics (Wu et al., 2016), chemistry (Hernan- usually dwell in groups of 5–12 people. Grey wolves, in particular, have
dez et al., 2019), process optimization (Sibalija, 2018), and job shop a well-defined social hierarchy. The grey wolf social hierarchy and du-
scheduling (Cruz-Chávez et al., 2017). There has also been development ties are depicted in Fig. 14. The main distinction between GWO and
on theoretical results from a mathematical examination of the method, other metaheuristic optimization algorithms is the social dominant hi-
as well as several computing studies evaluate the effectiveness of SA erarchy, whose primary goal is to develop the candidate solution during
with the effectiveness of other techniques for a variety of situations. each iteration. As a result, GWO imitates grey wolf hunting behavior as
Since the SA algorithm selects control parameters in its own evolu- regards locating and attacking prey (Goldbogen et al., 2013).
tionary process and does not need any rule of thumb, it has diffused Muro et al. (2011) stated the major stages of grey wolves hunting
rapidly into many application areas. Recently, some researchers have actions as follows:
used SA algorithm in tuning of PID control parameters. An intelligent
concept for PID controller parameters tuning is suggested using SA for i. Trailing, pursuing, and advancing the prey.
multi-objective problem and its results was compared with basic PID ii. Following, encircling, and harassing the prey until it stops moving.
which shows SA to be better than conventional or basic PID controller iii. Attacking in the direction of prey.
17
Fig. 14. Social hierarchy of grey wolves and their responsibilities.
4.12.1. GWO for PID tuning

The remarkable advantages of GWO has led to tremendous research
applications from several critical research domains. These application
domains can be categorized into: machine learning (Emary et al., 2016,
2015; Al-Tashi et al., 2019), engineering (Kohli and Arora, 2018; Yıldız
and Yıldız, 2018), wireless sensor network (Kaushik et al., 2019; Ra-
jakumar et al., 2017), environmental modeling (Tikhamarine et al.,
2020; Sweidan et al., 2016), medical and bio informatics (Sharma
et al., 2019, 2020) and image processing (Khairuzzaman and Chaud-
hury, 2017; Li et al., 2017a).
In control engineering, there has been an explosion in amount of
publications that explore application of GWO algorithm for tuning PID
controller parameters. The work in Li et al. (2017b) proposed GWO
scheme to tune variables of a PI controller for a closed-loop condenser
pressure control mechanism. Results of performance demonstrated the
efficacy of Grey Wolf (GW) optimizer compared to GA and PSO. Also
in Yadav et al. (2016), parameters of a basic PID controller was tuned
using GWO algorithm for a magnetic levitation system. Likened to basic
ZN tuning scheme, GW optimizer demonstrated superior results. The
study in Das et al. (2015) investigated the application GW optimizer
to tune the control variables of a PID controller for the regulation of
speed of a second order DC motor system. Improved values of transient
reaction stipulations were attained in comparison to PSO, ABC and ZN
approaches. Regulation of control variables of PID controller for DC
motor was similarly explored in Madadi and Motlagh (2014). Results of
performance evaluation demonstrated superiority of GWO over PSO, by
improving the dynamic performance of the system.
Some other applications of GWO for PID tuning include robotics (Şen
and Kalyoncu, 2018), speed control of DC motor (Agarwal et al., 2018),
inverted pendulum (Yadav et al., 2020), voltage regulation (Verma and
Nagar, 2018) and wind turbine (Sule et al., 2020). A generic flowchart
illustrating GWO algorithm is presented in Fig. 15.
4.13. Krill herd algorithm Fig. 15. Grey wolf optimization application flowchart.
The herding behavior of krill individuals inspired the Krill Herd

(KH) algorithm. It is a new swarm intelligent algorithm that has outper- is defined by its remoteness from food and maximal concentration of
formed conventional swarm intelligent algorithms. Gandomi and Alavi swarm.
(2012) proposes a novel biologically motivated approach for tackling KH’s entire optimization technique may be broken down into three
optimization issues called KH. The KH algorithm is based on the herd- simple steps. These three acts are taken into account while updat-
ing of krill swarms in response to biological and environmental events. ing each krill. The distance between the food position and the krill’s
Almost all of the necessary coefficients for using the KH method are location defines the objective function. Because of its remarkable appli-
determined from real-world experiments. Each krill’s fitness function cation performance, KH has gotten a lot of attention from academics,
18
Table 2. Comprehensive list of some popular metaheuristic algorithms (1975–2014).

No. Year of creation Name of algorithm Reference
1. 1975 Genetic Algorithm (GA). Holland (1975)
2. 1977 Scatter Search (SS). Cordón et al. (2006)
3. 1980 Genetic Programming. Abraham et al. (2006)
4. 1983 Simulated Annealing (SA). Kirkpatrick et al. (1983)
5. 1986 Tabu Search (TS). Glover (1997)
6. 1986 Artificial Immune System (AIS). Farmer et al. (1986)
7. 1989 Moscato presented Memetic Algorithm. Qasem and Shamsuddin (2011)
8. 1992 Ant Colony Algorithm (ACO). Dorigo et al. (1996)
9. 1993 Multi-Objective GA (MOGA). Fonseca and Fleming (1993)
10. 1994 Reactive Search Optimization (RSO) Battiti and Tecchiolli (1994)
11. 1995 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). Eberhart and Kennedy (1995)
12. 1997 Differential Evolution (DE). Storn and Price (1997)
13. 1997 Cross Entropy Method (CEM). Rubinstein (1997)
14. 1999 Partial Optimization Metaheuristic Under Special Intensification Conditions (POPMUSIC) Taillard and Voss (2002)
15. 2001 Harmony Search (HS). Geem et al. (2001)
16. 2001 Bootstrap Algorithm (BA). Hanseth and Aanestad (2003)
17. 2002 Evolution strategies Beyer and Schwefel (2002)
18. 2004 Bees Optimization (BO). Nakrani and Tovey (2004)
19. 2005 Glowworm Swarm Optimization (GSO). Krishnanand and Ghose (2005)
20. 2005 Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm (ABC). Karaboga (2005)
21. 2006 Invasive Weed Optimization (IWO) Mehrabian and Lucas (2006)
22. 2006 Honey-bee Mating Optimization (HMO). Haddad et al. (2006)
23. 2006 Cat swarm optimization Chu et al. (2006)
24. 2007 Intelligent Water Drops (IWD). Hosseini (2007)
25. 2007 Imperialist Competitive Algorithm (ICA). Atashpaz-Gargari and Lucas (2007)
26. 2008 Water Drop Optimization (WDO) Shah-Hosseini (2008)
27. 2007 Monkey Search (MS). Mucherino and Seref (2007)
28. 2009 Firefly Algorithm (FA). Yang (2009)
29. 2008 Plant Growth Optimization Wang and Cheng (2008)
30. 2008 Biogeography - Based Optimization (BBO) Simon (2008)
31. 2009 League Championship Algorithm (LCA). Kashan (2009)
32. 2009 Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA) Rashedi et al. (2009)
33. 2009 Cuckoo Search (CS). Yang and Deb (2009)
34. 2010 Bat Algorithm (BA). Yang (2010)
35. 2010 Fireworks algorithm Tan and Zhu (2010)
36. 2010 Chemical Reaction Algorithm Ramaswamy and Sbalzarini (2010)
37. 2011 Galaxy-based Search Algorithm (GbSA). Shah-Hosseini (2011)
38 2011 Spiral Optimization (SO). Tamura and Yasuda (2011)
39. 2011 Teaching-Learning-Based Optimization (TLBO) Algorithm. Rao et al. (2011)
40. 2012 Krill Herd (KH) Algorithm. Gandomi and Alavi (2012)
41. 2012 Flower Pollination Algorithm (FPA) Yang (2012b)
42. 2012 Differential Search Algorithm (DSA). Civicioglu (2012)
43. 2013 Firefly Algorithm (FA) with chaos Gandomi et al. (2013)
44. 2014 Colliding Bodies Optimization (CBO) Kaveh and Mahdavi (2014)
45. 2014 Animal Migration Optimization Li et al. (2014c)
46. 2014 Centripetal Accelerated Particle Swarm Optimization (CAPSO) Beheshti and Shamsuddin (2014)
47. 2014 Grey Wolf optimization (GWO) Mirjalili et al. (2014)
48. 2014 Bumble Bees Mating Optimization Marinakis and Marinaki (2014)
49. 2014 Crisscross Optimization Algorithm (COA) Meng et al. (2014)
Fig. 16. Basic Krill Head application flow diagram.
experts, and scientists. Further details on KH algorithm can be seen in 4.13.1. KH algorithm for PID tuning
Gandomi and Alavi (2012). Fig. 16 presents basic KH application flow KH algorithm has been employed to solve several engineering prob-
diagram. Other variants of KH algorithm can be seen in Li et al. (2014a); lems. These engineering applications of KH algorithm as grouped by
Yaghoobi and Mojallali (2016); Wang et al. (2019). Wang et al. (2019) include; continuous optimization, combinatorial
19
Table 3. Comprehensive list of some popular metaheuristic algorithms (2015–2020).

No. Year of creation Name of algorithm Reference
50. 2015 Water Wave Optimization Zheng (2015)
51. 2015 Ions Motion Algorithm Javidy et al. (2015)
52. 2015 Social Spider Algorithm (SSA) James and Li (2015)
53. 2015 Bull Optimization Algorithm FINDIK (2015)
54. 2015 Elephant Herding Optimization Wang et al. (2015)
55. 2016 Jaya Algorithm Rao (2016)
56. 2016 Raven Roosting Optimization Algorithm Brabazon et al. (2016)
57. 2016 FIFA World Cup Competitions Algorithm Razmjooy et al. (2016)
58. 2016 Spider Monkey Optimization (SMO) Al-Azza et al. (2016)
59. 2017 Smart Structured Algorithm (SSA) Salmani and Eshghi (2017)
60. 2017 Opposition-Based Water Wave Optimization Wu et al. (2017)
61. 2017 Primal-Dual Asynchronous Particle Swarm Optimization (pdAPSO) Dada et al. (2017)
62. 2018 Primal-Dual Particle Swarm Optimization (pdPSO) Dada and Ramlan (2018)
63. 2018 Farm Fertility. Shayanfar and Gharehchopogh (2018)
64. 2018 Coyote Optimization Algorithm (COA). Pierezan and Coelho (2018)
65. 2019 Wolf Pack Search and Local Search (WPS-LS). Dong et al. (2019)
66. 2019 Chaotic Dolphin Swarm Algorithm (CDSA) Qiao and Yang (2019)
67. 2019 Emperor Penguins Colony (EPC). Harifi et al. (2019)
68. 2019 Pathfinder Algorithm (PFA) Yapici and Cetinkaya (2019)
69. 2019 Squirrel Search Algorithm (SSA) Jain et al. (2019)
70. 2019 Algorithm of the Innovative Gunner (AIG). Pijarski and Kacejko (2019)
71. 2020 Butterfly Optimization Algorithm (BOA). Arora and Singh (2019)
72. 2020 Levy Flight Distribution (LFD). Houssein et al. (2020)
73. 2020 Shuffled Shepherd Optimization Algorithm (SSOA). Kaveh and Zaerreza (2020)
optimization, constrained optimization, multi-objective optimization, method, a whale tries to fill a new place in a search region that is
dynamic and noisy environment applications. Supplementary specific thought to be the group’s best component. Whales use two search tac-
application areas of KH include: electric and power systems (Bulbul tics to locate prey and attack. Prey encirclement and the development
et al., 2018), wireless and network systems (Kalaiselvi and Radhakr- of bubble nets are two of these search techniques. In terms of opti-
ishnan, 2015; Karthick and Palanisamy, 2019), neural network training mization, as whales look for prey, they explore the search space, and
(Kowalski and Łukasik, 2016), robotics (Rao et al., 2018), clustering exploitation happens during attack activity. Whales, like humans, have
(Abualigah et al., 2017) and medicine (Kumari and Arumugam, 2015). spindle cells that control emotions, judgment, and social behavior (Hof
Also, KH has been used for design of industrial controllers. An example and Van der Gucht, 2007).
of such can be seen in Younesi and Tohidi (2015). The implementation flow diagram for WOA is presented in Fig. 17.
The KH algorithm has been shown to be stable and robust in the Whale optimization algorithm is formulated based on the following
tuning of PID settings. The KH method was used to propose optimal steps:
tuning of PID controller parameters for frequency stability in an iso-
lated wind-diesel power system (Shayanfar et al., 2015). The simulation i. Initialization of population number, maximum iteration number
was run in four different scenarios: a step change in diesel side load, and design variables.
a step change in wind speed, a random change in diesel side load, and ii. For every design variable, compute fitness function for each search
a random change in wind speed. The Bee Colony algorithm was used agent and pick up best solution (optimum) and other search agent
to compare the outcomes of the KH technique. When compared to BC- tries to update their position to the best one.
based PID controllers (BC-PID), the results showed that KH-based PID iii. Update the position for each search agent.
controllers (KH-PID) perform better. Optimal tuning of PID parameters
for First Order Plus Dead Time system (FOPDT) and fourth order sys- Further readings and details of WOA can be seen in Mirjalili and
tem in Alikhani et al. (2013). The results suggest that the KH algorithm Lewis (2016); Gharehchopogh and Gholizadeh (2019); Adhirai et al.
is beneficial for controller tuning. The PID-KH algorithm was used to (2018); Mirjalili et al. (2020); Mohammed et al. (2019).
propose and illustrate optimal control of a state microgrid system (Re-
gad et al., 2020). An objective function is used to optimize the gains of 4.14.1. Whale optimization algorithm for PID tuning
PID controllers. The simulation results were shown, and using the KH WOA is employed effectively to backup applications of several ar-
algorithm improves the system’s performance in comparison to the GA eas of study. An example of area of application includes engineering
and PSO focusing on PID. The efficiency of the system has improved. optimization problems. Articulating appropriate problems and defining
Other PID-controlled factories that use KH are: Power System Stabi- suitable parameters and objective functions are the main concerns that
lizer (Mukherjee et al., 2019), Power System Restoration (PSR) Indices can aid effectual problem solving while handling engineering applica-
(Chandrasekar et al., 2017), load frequency load control (Alam et al., tions. Appropriate usage of operators, variable settings, and population
2016). illustration are the major concerns regarding optimization algorithms.
Furthermore, several other variants of KH algorithm have also been WOA applications in engineering are classified into: Electrical engi-
implemented for PID controller tuning. Some of such proposals can be neering (Mirjalili et al., 2020), Civil Engineering (Kaveh and Rastegar
seen in Yaghoobi and Mojallali (2016). Moghaddam, 2018), Classification, Clustering, Image Processing, Me-
chanical Engineering (Algabalawy et al., 2018), Robotics (Elhosseini
4.14. Whale optimization algorithm et al., 2019), Computer Networks (Pham et al., 2020), Industrial En-
gineering (Khalilpourazari et al., 2019), Task Scheduling (Chen et al.,
Mirjalili and Lewis (2016) proposed the Whale Optimization Algo- 2020), and Control Engineering (Saha and Saikia, 2017), applications.
rithm (WOA) in 2016. It is a stochastic metaheuristic algorithm. WOA Though controllers may overcome some stability glitches nonethe-
was inspired by the hunting activity or tactic of humpback whales. less they do not resolve the problems of nonlinear loads, variable oper-
WOA’s methodology treats each and every solution as a whale. In this ating points and time delays. Optimization methods are used to over-
20
Fig. 17. Whale optimization implementation flow diagram.
come these problems through tuning the controller parameters. One is difficult to mathematically explain why these algorithms are so suc-
of such techniques is WOA. Tuning of PID controller parameters us- cessful, despite some interesting previous efforts (Yang, 2011). These
ing WOA for Load Frequency Control (LFC) of two-area interconnected are, in fact, unsolved open research problems. To the best of our knowl-
non-reheat thermal power systems in order to maintain the system fre- edge, except for mathematical study of SA and PSO, the convergence
quency at a prescheduled value in the presence of disturbances was of any other methods has not been proven using mathematical models.
presented in Bhatt et al. (2019). In Debnath et al. (2018), the pa- As a result, any mathematical examination will provide important in-
rameters of a non-integer type PID controller was successfully tunes sight into algorithms. This will be useful for advancing more effective
using Whale Optimization technique for the adjustment of frequency variants of these algorithms or demonstrating inventive approaches of
and interline power oscillations in multi-generation type unified system. constructing new algorithms.
Whale optimizer algorithm to regulate PID parameters for tracking con- Furthermore, it is only poorly understood why distinct components
trol of 2-DOF robot manipulator was presented in Loucif et al. (2020). of heuristics and metaheuristics interact in an intelligent and stable
The results obtained witness the efficacy of WOA-PID in terms settling manner to produce effective algorithms that aggregate under specified
time, errors, and convergence time as well as its robustness for tuning conditions. Why, for example, does a well-balanced mix of randomiza-
parameters PID controller for robot tracking control with or without tion and determinism produce a far more effective algorithm (than a
disturbances. Other plants controlled by PID and tuned with WOA in- pure deterministic or random algorithm)? How do you tell whether you
clude; AVR system (Mosaad et al., 2019a), DC-DC buck converter design have reached a state of stability? How can you demonstrate that mem-
(Hekimoğlu et al., 2018) and high-performance drilling machine (Ku- ory usage can significantly improve an algorithm’s search efficiency?
mar and Kumar, 2018). What are the circumstances? It can be demonstrated from the well-
known No-Free-Lunch assertions of 1997 (Wolpert et al., 1997) that
5. Open research problems they have been validated for single-objective optimization, but not for
multiobjective optimization. What are the implications for algorithm
Notwithstanding the accomplishments of modern metaheuristic al- design if they are proven to be true (or not) for multiobjective opti-
gorithms, a number of important concerns remain unresolved. Heuristic mization?
algorithms’ operating principles are well understood, although compre- Similarly, there is no universally accepted metric for comparing the
hending why they operate is only partially understood. Unfortunately, it performance of diverse algorithms; nonetheless, the assumed absolute
21
objective value and the number of functional evaluations are two com- xiii. How to exploit knowledge or assumptions on particular properties
monly used measures. The attempt to provide a universal framework of problem sub-sets or classes, in the selection or development of
was made by Shilane et al. (2008). A formal theoretical investigation, effective optimization strategies? (Sala and Müller, 2020).
on the other hand, has yet to be formed (Chiarandini et al., 2007). This
could be a fantastic place for students or scholars to conduct further 6. Conclusion
investigation.
Natural World has a nearly infinite number of problem-solving This research provides an in-depth look at metaheuristic algorithms
strategies. Individuals are undoubtedly urged to design more powerful and their application to PID controller tuning. An overview of the cur-
and efficient new generation algorithms through diligent observation. rent state-of-the-art metaheuristic algorithms employed for parameter
In nature, intelligence is a result of biological evolution. In the future, tuning of PID controllers is provided. The efforts made by different
some intelligent algorithms (or systems) may originate, evolve, and scholars and researchers to solving tuning problems of PID controller
modify appropriately to provide efficient and intelligent solutions to parameters using metaheuristic algorithms were discussed. The evolu-
NP-hard optimization problems. Furthermore, a current trend is to use tion of metaheuristic algorithms over the years for optimization prob-
simple metaheuristic algorithms to solve difficult optimization problems solving was examined. The basic architecture of PID controller and
lems. Possibly the need for more complicated metaheuristic algorithms procedures involved tuning its parameters were looked into. The study
that can genuinely mirror the exact operational technique of some nat- surveyed some issues related to PID controller tuning and performance
ural or biological systems motivates the development of self-regulating, metrics utilized to measure effectiveness of tuning approaches for PID
self-evolving, and fully intelligent metaheuristics in the long term. control. The challenges of metaheuristic optimization algorithms in ef-
Although the essential components of most algorithms are well un- ficiently handling issues of tuning was presented. A highlight of some
derstood, how they interact to achieve efficiency remains a secret, open research problems associated with metaheuristic algorithms was
motivating further intensive research. Convergence analysis of a small offered. In general, the figure and volume of literature we reviewed re-
number of algorithms, such as PSO, demonstrates some knowledge; nev- vealed that significant progress have been made and will still be made
ertheless, common mathematical analysis of metaheuristic algorithms in this area. Having presented open problems on metaheuristic algo-
remains unsolved and is an important research area. The choice and rithms, further research to improve the effectiveness of metaheuristic
precise use of a suitable algorithm is required for the solution of an algorithms need to be done. This will make the development of meta-
optimization issue. The nature of the optimization problem is largely heuristic algorithms remain an active research area for academicians
determined by the algorithm chosen. There is no defined policy as to and industrial practitioners researching metaheuristic optimization ap-
how and what to choose for large-scale nonlinear global optimization proaches for effective optimization and controller tuning. The goal and
issues. Indeed, it is not definite if an effective algorithm exists, which is aspiration of this research is that researchers and students will use this
especially true for NP-hard problems, which represent the majority of study as a spring board or background for qualitative research in this
real-world problems. field.
In summary some of these open research problems include:
Declarations
i. Some metaheuristic algorithms, such as GWO, can be improved
as their fundamental deficiency, notwithstanding their capacity to Author contribution statement
handle vast numbers of variables and evading local solutions when
dealing with complex problems. All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development
ii. A hybrid metaheuristic algorithm can be created by combining and the writing of this article.
memetic algorithms to solve several of their individual weaknesses.
iii. To handle dynamic optimization challenges, certain recently pro- Funding statement
posed metaheuristic algorithms have to be changed.
iv. A neutral trade-off between local amplification and global hetero- This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agen-
geneity is required (Yang, 2011; Blum and Roli, 2003). cies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
v. When solving optimization problems, the parameters of meta-
heuristic algorithms have to be fine-tuned (Dokeroglu et al., 2019). Data availability statement
vi. Metaheuristic algorithms with no parameters have to be developed.
vii. Statistical analysis approaches for evaluating the performance of No data was used for the research described in the article.
metaheuristic algorithms have to be developed.
viii. To improve performance and resilience in solving emerging prob- Declaration of interests statement
lems and cases, transfer learning is incorporated into metaheuristic
algorithms (Talbi, 2020). The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ix. Speeding up execution time (process time) of metaheuristic algo-
rithms. Some metaheuristic algorithms like population-based are Additional information
slow solvers (Alba et al., 2013).
x. Theoretical and mathematical models are needed for metaheuris- No additional information is available for this paper.
tic components like exploration versus exploitation, convergence,
searching ability and local optimum versus global optimum (Hus- References
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Heliyon 8 (2022) e09399

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Metaheuristic algorithms for PID controller parameters tuning: review,

partial modeling information normally, steady state representation IE = 𝑒(𝑡). (6)

Fig. 1. Pictorial representation of paper structure.

Fig. 2. Fundamental PID control structure.

Table 1. Summary of previous related surveys.

Fig. 3. Summary of PID tuning methods.

Fig. 4. Summary of metaheuristic classiﬁcation based on operational procedure.

lation to determine their degree of compliance with the application

Automatic PID tuning algorithms have received lots of attention be-

Fig. 6. Ant colony optimization search algorithm ﬂowchart.

Fig. 7. Phases of artiﬁcial bee colony algorithm ﬂowchart.

Fig. 8. Descriptive ﬂow chart for Teaching–Learning-Based Optimization (TLBO).

neering, intelligent control engineering systems (Niu et al., 2010) are

4.9. Particle swarm optimization (PSO)

Kennedy and Eberhart (1995) proposed the PSO algorithm, which is

Fig. 10. Generic ﬂow diagram for BFO algorithm.

Fig. 11. Flow diagram for basic PSO algorithm.

Fig. 12. Application ﬂow diagram for Cuckoo search algorithm.

Fig. 13. Flowchart for Simulated annealing algorithm.

Fig. 14. Social hierarchy of grey wolves and their responsibilities.

4.12.1. GWO for PID tuning

The herding behavior of krill individuals inspired the Krill Herd

Table 2. Comprehensive list of some popular metaheuristic algorithms (1975–2014).

Fig. 16. Basic Krill Head application ﬂow diagram.

Table 3. Comprehensive list of some popular metaheuristic algorithms (2015–2020).

Fig. 17. Whale optimization implementation ﬂow diagram.

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