Principles of Engineering Physics 1

This is a textbook for an introductory course in engineering physics. It provides a coherent treatment
of the basic principles and theories of engineering physics and offers a balance between theoretical
concepts and their applications. Beginning with a comprehensive discussion on oscillations and
waves with applications in the field of mechanical and electrical engineering, it goes on to explain
basic concepts such as Huygen’s principle, Fresnel’s biprism, Fraunhofer diffraction and polarization.
All chapters are interspersed with rich pedagogical features such as solved problems, unsolved
exercises and multiple choice questions with answers. It will help undergraduate students of
engineering acquire skills for solving difficult problems in quantum mechanics, electromagnetism,
nanoscience, energy systems and other engineering disciplines.

Md. N. Khan is Associate Professor at the Department of Physics, Indira Gandhi Institute of
Technology (IGIT), Odisha. He has more than 22 years of teaching experience and has taught
courses on engineering physics, physics of semiconductor devices and materials science. His areas
of interest include X-ray scattering and materials science.

S. Panigrahi is Senior Professor at the Department of Physics and Astronomy, National Institute of
Technology (NIT), Rourkela. He has more than two decades of teaching and research experience in
the field of solid state physics, materials science and ferroelectrics.
 Principles of
Engineering Physics 1

Md. N. Khan
S. Panigrahi
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To all our beloved people who have sacrificed their lives for the betterment
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 Contents

Preface xxi
Acknowledgment xxiii

1. Oscillations and Waves

1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Parameters of an oscillatory system 1
1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillation (SHO) 2
1.2.1 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator 4
1.2.2 Characteristics of SHO 6
1.3 Damped Harmonic Oscillation (DHO) 10
1.3.1 Damping of an oscillator 14
1.4 Forced Vibrations 21
1.4.1 Velocity of the forced harmonic oscillator 25
1.4.2 Total energy of the forced harmonic oscillator 25
1.4.3 Power of the forced harmonic oscillator 27
1.5 Displacement Resonance 30
1.5.1 Resonant amplitude 31
1.5.2 Sharpness of resonance 32
1.5.3 Quality factor of a forced harmonic oscillator 33
1.5.4 Examples of resonance 34
1.6 Coupled Oscillators 36
1.6.1 Experiment on a two-body coupled oscillator 43
1.7 Analogy of Mechanical and Electrical Oscillations 44
viii Contents

1.8 Wave as a Periodic Variation Quantity in Space and Time 48

1.8.1 Wave equation 48
1.8.2 Wave equation in differential form 49
1.9 Longitudinal and Transverse Waves 50
1.9.1 Longitudinal waves 50
1.9.2 Transverse waves 50
1.9.3 Difference between longitudinal waves and transverse waves 52
1.9.4 Characteristic of progressive waves 52
1.10 Stationary Waves 53
1.10.1 Formation of stationary waves 53
1.10.2 Characteristics of stationary waves 56
1.10.3 Differences between progressive and stationary waves 56
1.11 Reflection of a Wave at the Boundary of Two Media 57
1.11.1 Reflection of transverse waves 57
1.11.2 Reflection of longitudinal waves 59
1.12 Refraction of a Wave at the Boundary of Two Media 60
1.12.1 Refraction of transverse waves 60
1.12.2 Refraction of longitudinal waves 61
1.13 Wave Packet 64
1.14 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity 66
1.14.1 Phase velocity 66
1.14.2 Group velocity 66
1.14.3 Relation between phase velocity and group velocity 68
1.15 Uncertainty Principle 70
1.15.1 Uncertainty principle for classical waves 70
1.15.2 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle 72
1.16 Superposition of Waves 76
1.16.1 Basis for the principle of superposition 76
1.16.2 Principle of superposition 77
1.16.3 Two beams superposition in one direction 77
1.16.4 Multiple beam superpositions 82
1.16.5 Coherent and incoherent superposition 85
Questions 87
Problems 91
Multiple Choice Questions 94
Answers 97

2. Interference
2.1 Introduction 98
2.2 Huygens’ Principle 98
 Contents ix

2.2.1 Explanation 99
2.2.2 Construction of a new wavefront 101
2.2.3 Absence of backward waves 102
2.2.4 Applications 103
2.3 Interference of Water Waves 103
2.4 Young’s Double Slit Experiment 104
2.5 Coherent Sources 105
2.5.1 Methods of practical realization of coherent sources 106
2.6 Classification of the Interference Phenomenon 106
2.7 Theory of Interference 107
2.7.1 Constructive interference (I = Imax) 109
2.7.2 Destructive interference (I = Imin) 110
2.7.3 Fringe spacing b 110
2.7.4 Intensity distribution curve 114
2.8 Conservation of Energy in Interference 114
2.9 Conditions for Interference of Light 115
2.10 Shape of Interference Fringes 118
2.10.1 Shape of interference fringes on XY-plane (Hyperbolic) 119
2.11 Interference Fringes in 3-D Space 123
2.11.1 Shape of interference fringes on the ZX-plane (Circular) 125
2.11.2 Shape of interference fringes on the XY-plane (Hyperbolic) 126
2.11.3 Shape of interference fringes on the YZ-plane (Hyperbolic) 127
2.12 Newton’s Rings 127
2.12.1 Experimental setup 127
2.12.2 Theory 129
2.12.3 Calculations 130
2.12.4 Diameter of the nth order Newton’s ring 135
2.12.5 Diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring 136
2.12.6 Diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring 136
2.12.7 Central fringe as seen by the reflected light 137
2.13 Newton’s Rings by Transmitted Light 137
2.13.1 Diameter of the nth order Newton’s ring 141
2.13.2 Diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring 141
2.13.3 Diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring 142
2.13.4 Central fringe as seen by the transmitted light 142
2.13.5 Discussions 143
2.14 Determination of Wavelength of Light using Newton’s Ring 153
2.14.1 Theory for the experiment 154
x Contents

2.15 Determination of Refractive Index of Liquids using Newton’s Rings 155

2.15.1 Theory for the experiment 156
2.16 Fresnel’s Biprism 158
2.16.1 Determination of wavelength of light using a biprism 158
2.17 Interferometers 163
2.17.1 Michelson interferometer 163
Questions 174
Problems 178
Multiple Choice Questions 181
Answers 185

3. Diffraction
3.1 Introduction 186
3.2 Classification of Diffraction 186
3.3 Fresnel’s Explanation of Rectilinear Propagation of Light 187
3.3.1 Fresnel’s assumptions 187
3.3.2 Calculation of the resultant amplitude 188
3.3.3 Average distance of the nth Fresnel’s half period zone from the pole 191
3.3.4 Phase difference among half period zones 192
3.3.5 Schuster’s method of summing the series 194
3.4 Zone Plate 197
3.4.1 Types of zone plates 197
3.4.2 Action of the zone plate 198
3.4.3 Principle behind zone plates 203
3.4.4 Multiple foci of a zone plate 203
3.4.5 Presence of odd numbered foci 204
3.4.6 Intensity of fifth order focus 206
3.4.7 Absence of even numbered foci 208
3.4.8 Intensity of the fourth order focus 209
3.4.9 Comparison of a zone plate with a convex lens 210
3.5 Fraunhofer Diffraction 215
3.5.1 Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit 215
3.5.2 Intensity distribution 220
3.5.3 Width of the principal maximum 225
3.6 Plane Diffraction Grating 231
3.6.1 Theory of plane diffraction grating under normal incidence 231
3.6.2 Theory of plane diffraction grating under oblique incidence 237
3.6.3 Angular width of the principal maxima 238
3.6.4 Formation of spectra by diffraction grating 241
3.7 Dispersion 256
 Contents xi

3.8 Determination of Wavelength of Light by Grating 260

3.8.1 Theory 260
3.8.2 Adjustments 261
3.8.3 Measurement of q 262
3.8.4 Calculation of l 263
3.8.5 Alternative application 263
Questions 263
Problems 266
Multiple Choice Questions 268
Answers 271

4. Polarization
4.1 Introduction 272
4.2 Polarization of Waves 272
4.2.1 Mechanical demonstration of polarization of waves 273
4.2.2 Demonstration of optical polarization of waves 274
4.2.3 Pictorial representation of light 274
4.2.4 Few definitions 275
4.3 Classification of Polarized Light 275
4.3.1 Plane polarized light 276
4.3.2 Circularly polarized light 277
4.3.3 Elliptically polarized light 277
4.4 Polarization by Reflection 277
4.4.1 Explanation of polarization by reflection 277
4.4.2 Brewster’s law 279
4.5 Polarization by Refraction 281
4.5.1 Malus’s law 282
4.6 Polarization by Scattering 284
4.7 Double Refraction 285
4.7.1 Few terms connected with the double refraction phenomenon 287
4.7.2 Difference between ordinary ray and extraordinary ray 290
4.7.3 Polarization by double refraction 290
4.7.4 Huygens’ experiment on polarization by double refraction 291
4.7.5 Huygens’ theory of double refraction 293
4.7.6 Phenomenon of double refraction at normal incidence 294
4.7.7 Phenomenon of double refraction at oblique incidence 297
4.7.8 Special cases 299
4.8 Nicol Prism 305
4.8.1 Principle 305
xii Contents

4.8.2 Construction 305

4.8.3 Action of a Nicol prism 305
4.8.4 Limitations 306
4.8.5 Parallel and crossed Nicol prisms 306
4.9 Retardation Plates 309
4.9.1 Half-wave plate 311
4.9.2 Quarter-wave plate 312
4.10 Production of Circularly Polarized Light 314
4.10.1 Principle 314
4.10.2 Production 315
4.10.3 Analysis of circularly polarized light 316
4.11 Production of Elliptically Polarized Light 317
4.11.1 Principle 317
4.11.2 Production 318
4.11.3 Analysis of elliptically polarized light 319
4.12 Analysis of Light 321
4.13 Optical Rotation 321
4.13.1 Laws of optical rotation 322
4.13.2 Fresnel’s theory of optical rotation 323
4.13.3 Mathematical analysis of Fresnel’s theory of optical rotation 325
4.13.4 Calculation of the angle of optical rotation 328
4.13.5 Specific rotation 329
4.14 Polarimeter 332
4.14.1 Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter 333
Questions 341
Problems 344
Multiple Choice Questions 346
Answers 353

5. Electromagnetism
5.1 Introduction 354
5.2 Vector Calculus 354
5.2.1 Line integrals 355
5.2.2 Surface integrals 357
5.2.3 Volume integral 359
5.2.4 Gradient of scalar function 361
5.2.5 Divergence of a vector function 364
5.2.6 Curl of a vector function 368
5.2.7 Gauss’s divergence theorem 373
5.2.8 Stokes’ theorem 376
 Contents xiii

5.2.9 Green’s theorem 379

5.2.10 Useful vector relations 383
5.3 Gauss’s Law 387
5.3.1 Gauss’s law of electrostatics in free space 387
5.3.2 Gauss’s law of electrostatics in a dielectric medium 388
5.3.3 Applications of Gauss’s law 388
5.4 Magnetic Induction 401
5.4.1 Units of magnetic induction 403
5.4.2 Special cases of magnetic induction 403
5.5 Magnetic Field Strength (Intensity) 405
5.6 Ampere’s Circuital Law 406
5.6.1 Ampere’s circuital law in differential form 408
5.6.2 Applications of Ampere’s circuital law 408
5.7 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction 413
5.7.1 Integral form of Faraday’s law 414
5.7.2 Differential form of Faraday’s law 415
5.8 Displacement Current 417
5.8.1 Physical significance of displacement current 419
5.8.2 Distinction between conduction current and displacement current 420
5.9 Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Equations 427
5.9.1 Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in differential form 427
5.9.2 Special cases 429
5.9.3 Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in integral form 432
Questions 433
Problems 438
Multiple Choice Questions 441
Answers 446

6. Electromagnetic Waves
6.1 Introduction 447
6.2 Electromagnetic Energy Density 447
6.2.1 Interpretation of the left-hand side of Eq. (6.8) 449
6.2.2 Interpretation of the right-hand side of Eq. (6.8) 451
6.3 Poynting’s Vector 451
6.4 Poynting’s Theorem 454
6.5 Vector Potential and Scalar Potential 454
6.5.1 Magnetic scalar potential 454
6.5.2 Magnetic vector potential 455
 
6.6 Electromagnetic Wave Equations for E and B 460

6.6.1 Electromagnetic wave equations for E 460
xiv Contents


6.6.2 Electromagnetic wave equations for H 460

6.6.3 Electromagnetic wave equations for B 461
6.7 Wave Equation in Terms of Scalar and Vector Potentials 461
6.7.1 Wave equation in terms of vector potential A 462
6.7.2 Wave equation in terms of scalar potential jE 463
6.8 Plane Electromagnetic Waves 464
6.9 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves 466

6.9.1 Transverse nature of vector E 466
6.9.2 Transverse nature of vector
 H  467
6.9.3 Relative orientation of E and H 467
6.10 Speed of Electromagnetic Waves 473
6.11 Average Value of Poynting’s Vector 475
6.12 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasma Medium 478
6.12.1 Conductivity of ionized medium 480
6.12.2 Wave equation in ionized medium 481
6.12.3 Propagation constant in an ionized medium 482
6.13 Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves at Non-conducting
and Conducting Boundaries 487
6.13.1 Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at a
non-conducting surface 488
6.13.2 Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at a conducting surface 512
Questions 537
Problems 541
Multiple Choice Questions 544
Answers 548

7. Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics

7.1 Introduction 549
7.2 Need for Quantum Physics 549
7.3 Particles and Waves 550
7.4 Particle Aspect of Waves 551
7.4.1 Blackbody radiation 551
7.4.2 Photoelectric effect 563
7.4.3 Compton effect 568
7.4.4 Pair production 574
7.4.5 Characteristics of photon 576
7.5 Wave Aspect of Particles 576
7.5.1 Matter waves 576
7.5.2 Davisson–Germer experiment 580
7.5.3 Properties of matter wave 583
 Contents xv

7.6 Atom Models 586

7.6.1 Rutherford’s atom model 586
7.6.2 Bohr’s atom model 587
7.7 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 598
7.7.1 Statement 598
7.7.2 Explanation 599
7.7.3 Experimental illustration of the uncertainty principle 599
7.7.4 Applications of uncertainty principle 602
7.8 Transition from Deterministic Classical Physics to Probabilistic Quantum Physics 606
7.9 Wave Function y 607
7.9.1 Characteristics of the wave function of a matter wave 608
7.9.2 Probability density 608
7.9.3 Dimensional analysis of a wave function 611
7.10 Superposition Principle 612
7.11 Normalization 612
7.11.1 Procedures for calculation of the normalization constant 612
7.12 Observables and Operators 617
7.13 Eigenvalues 618
7.14 Eigenfunctions 618
7.15 Operators, Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues 619
7.16 Expectation Value 622
7.16.1 Procedures for calculation of the expectation value 625
7.17 Schrödinger’s Equation 632
7.17.1 Schrödinger’s time-dependent equation 632
7.17.2 Schrödinger’s time-independent equation 633
7.17.3 Newton’s equation and Schrödinger’s equation 634
Questions 634
Problems 639
Multiple Choice Questions 641
Answers 645

8. Applications of Quantum Mechanics

8.1 Introduction 646
8.2 One-Dimensional Problems 646
8.3 Boundary Conditions on y 647
8.4 Free Particle 648
8.5 Potential Steps 650
8.5.1 Reflection and transmission at the boundary at x = 0 655
8.5.2 Potential energy barrier 666
xvi Contents

8.6 Infinity Deep Potential Well 687

8.6.1 Quantization of de Broglie wavelengths 690
8.6.2 Quantization of energy (energy eigenvalues) 690
8.6.3 Quantization of speed (speed eigenvalues) 692
8.6.4 Eigenfunctions 692
Questions 694
Problems 698
Multiple Choice Questions 698
Answers 700

9. Special Theory of Relativity

9.1 Introduction 701
9.2 Frame of Reference 701
9.2.1 Inertial frame of reference 701
9.2.2 Non-inertial frame of reference 702
9.3 Galilean Transformation 702
9.4 Michelson–Morley Experiment 703
9.5 Einstein’s Principles of Relativity 707
9.6 Lorentz Transformation 707
9.6.1 Mathematics of the Lorentz transformation 707
9.6.2 Consequences of the Lorentz transformation equations 711
9.7 Relativity of Simultaneity 714
9.8 Relativistic Addition of Velocity 715
9.9 Relativistic Momentum 720
9.10 Variation of Mass with Speed 724
9.11 Mass–Energy Equivalence 726
9.12 Massless Particles (m0 = 0) 729
9.13 Generalization of Newton’s Second Law 730
Questions 731
Problems 732
Multiple Choice Questions 733
Answers 735

10. Architectural Acoustics

10.1 Introduction 736
10.2 Basic Requirements of an Acoustically Good Hall 736
10.3 Reverberation and Reverberation Time 737
10.3.1 Sabine’s formula for reverberation time 738
10.4 Sound Absorption 744
10.4.1 Room averaged sound absorption coefficient 745
 Contents xvii

10.4.2 Measurement of absorption coefficient 746

10.5 Factors Affecting the Acoustics of Buildings 747
10.5.1 Requisites for good acoustics 749
10.6 Decibel Scale 749
10.7 Acoustic Quieting 753
10.7.1 Aspects of acoustic quieting 753
10.7.2 Methods of quieting 754
10.7.3 Quieting for specific observers 756
10.7 4 Mufflers 756
10.8 Soundproofing 758
10.8.1 Airborne soundproofing 759
10.8.2 Structure-borne soundproofing 759
Questions 760
Problems 761
Multiple Choice Questions 761
Answers 763

11. Ultrasonics
11.1 Introduction 764
11.2 Production of Ultrasonic Waves 764
11.2.1 Galton’s whistle 764
11.2.2 Magnetostriction oscillator 766
11.2.3 Piezoelectric oscillator 767
11.3 Detection of Ultrasonic Waves 769
11.4 Properties of Ultrasonic Waves 770
11.5 Wavelength Determination of Ultrasonic Waves 770
11.6 Ultrasound Cavitation 773
11.6.1 Parameters affecting ultrasonic cavitation 773
11.6.2 Consequences of ultrasonic cavitation 774
11.7 Applications of Ultrasonic Waves 775
11.8 Sonograms 779
11.9 Sonar 779
11.9.1 Applications of sonar 780
11.10 Hazards of Ultrasound 782
Questions 782
Problems 783
Multiple Choice Questions 783
Answers 784
xviii Contents

12. Non-Destructive Testing

12.1 Introduction 785
12.2 Objectives of NDT 785
12.3 Methods of NDT 786
12.3.1 Visual and optical testing (VOT) 786
12.3.2 Dye penetrant testing (DPT) 787
12.3.3 Magnetic particle testing 788
12.3.4 Electromagnetic or eddy current testing 789
12.3.5 Radiographic testing 790
12.3.6 Ultrasonic testing 791
12.3.7 Pulse–echo system 795
12.4 Relative Merits of Various NDT Methods 800
12.5 Non-Destructive Testing Methods and Applications 801
Questions 802
Problems 802
Multiple Choice Questions 802
Answers 804

13. Nuclear Accelerators

13.1 Introduction 805
13.2 Need of Nuclear Accelerators 805
13.3 Basic Mechanism of a Nuclear Accelerator 806
13.4 Main Components 807
13.4.1 Ion sources 807
13.4.2 Accelerating tube 807
13.5 Performance Index 808
13.6 Types of Accelerators 808
13.7 D.C. Accelerators 808
13.7.1 Cockcroft–Walton accelerator (D.C. accelerator) 809
13.7.2 Van de Graaff accelerator (D.C. accelerator) 811
13.7.3 Tandem accelerator (D.C. accelerator) 816
13.8 R.F. Accelerators 818
13.8.1 Linear accelerators 818
13.8.2 Cyclotron 822
13.9 Electron Accelerators 827
13.9.1 Betatron 828
13.10 Applications of Accelerators 836
13.10.1 Radiation processing of materials 837
13.10.2 Uses of isotopes 838
 Contents xix

Questions 840
Problems 842
Multiple Choice Questions 843
Answers 845

14 Holography
14.1 Introduction 846
14.2 Basic Principles of Holography 846
14.3 Types of Holograms 853
14.3.1 Reflection holograms 853
14.3.2 Transmission holograms 853
14.3.3 Comparison of transmission and reflection holograms 854
14.4 White Light Holograms 855
14.5 Necessity of Laser Source 856
14.6 Basic Requirements of a Holographic Laboratory 856
14.7 Viewing a Hologram 857
14.8 Difference between Photography and Holography 857
14.9 Applications of Holography 858
14.9.1 Common applications of holography 858
14.9.2 Application of holographic interferometry 860
14.9.3 Application of holographic microscopy 861
Questions 862
Multiple Choice Questions 862
Answers 863

Bibliography 865
Index 867
 Preface

Science in general may be described as organized common sense. In the real world of science, nothing
prevails except rationality and logics. Science does not believe in miracles. Clear understanding of the
basic principles of science is essential for technological and social development. Once upon a time,
the base of engineering was mainly empirical; however, now it is completely scientific. Physics is a
fundamental aspect of science on which all engineering sciences have been built upon. Nowadays,
more stress is given to the understanding of the basic principles rather than on remembering
specific procedures. The fundamental concepts of physics have paved the way for the development
of technologies. All modern technological advances from laser micro surgery to television, from
computers to dishwashers to mobile phones, from remote controlled toys to space vehicles, trace
back directly to the principles of physics. Accordingly, the syllabus of engineering courses includes
physics as an essential ingredient.
This book, entitled Principles of Engineering Physics 1, is designed as a textbook keeping in view
the engineering physics course curricula prescribed by most technical universities of India. The
present book begins with oscillations and waves and ends with holography, containing altogether
fourteen chapters. This book is written in a logical and coherent manner for easy understanding.
The concepts of physics are mathematized without losing the beauty of the physical ideas involved.
Emphasis has been given to an understanding of the basic concepts and their applications to a
number of engineering problems. Each topic has been discussed in detail, both conceptually and
mathematically, so that students do not face any kind of difficulties. All the derivations and solutions
of numerical examples are given in detail. Each chapter contains a large number of solved numerical
examples, unsolved numerical problems with answers, practical applications, theoretical questions,
and multiple choice questions with answers. Certain topics and derivations that are not included
directly in the syllabi have also been included in the book for the sake of continuity and completeness.
The scope of the book thus has been expanded beyond the basic needs of undergraduate engineering
students. We hope this book will be of immense help not only to the students but also to the teachers.
The authors sincerely request the readers for their constructive criticisms via emails
[email protected] and [email protected] for future modification of the book.
 Acknowledgment

It is a pleasure to express our deep appreciation to the engineering students (both continuing and
passed out) of IGIT Sarang and NIT Rourkela who have borne with us in our class teachings. Many
suggestions from our colleagues, students and reviewers have gone a long way in the development
of this book. Our sincere thanks are due to them. We gratefully acknowledge the ideas received
from a number of standard books on physics as given in the bibliography. We sincerely thank the
editorial team at Cambridge University Press, India, for their keen interest in publishing this book
in a nice format. We particularly wish to thank Gauravjeet Singh Reen for many helpful suggestions
and improvements.
 1 Oscillations and Waves

1.1 Introduction
Objects subjected to restoring forces when displaced from their normal positions and
released, perform to and from or vibrating motions. They move back and forth along a
path, repeating over and over again, a series of motions. Such motion of constant frequency
is called periodic motion or harmonic motion and objects performing such type of motion
are called harmonic oscillators. In this book, it is tacitly assumed that there is a linear
relationship between force and displacement; frequency remains constant throughout the
motion. In real systems however, the linear behavior, implicit in simple harmonic motion,
is rarely obeyed. If the frequency of the oscillatory system is not constant, then it is called
anharmonic motion – its study is beyond the scope of this book due to its mathematical
complexities.
In oscillatory systems, it is not necessarily the bodies themselves who execute oscillations;
bodies may be at rest. If the physical properties of a system undergo changes in an oscillatory
manner, the system will also be called an oscillatory system. The electromagnetic energy
transfer between the capacitor and inductor in a tank circuit used in electronic gadgets,
variation of pressure in air due to propagation of sound waves, vibration of the diaphragm
of a speaker in sound systems, flow of alternating current, variation of electric and magnetic
vectors during propagation of electromagnetic waves, etc., are examples of oscillatory
systems.

1.1.1 Parameters of an oscillatory system

i. Mean position The position of the oscillating body when there is no oscillation
is called the mean position or equilibrium position. This is the rest position of the
oscillating body.
 2 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ii. Amplitude (r) It is the absolute value of the maximum displacement of the oscillating
particle from its mean position or equilibrium position.
iii. Time period (T) It is the time required for one complete oscillation.
iv. Frequency (n) It is the number of complete oscillations made by the oscillating body
in one second. The relation between frequency ‘n ’ and time period ‘T ’ from definition
is T = 1 .
ν

1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillation (SHO)

Let a body of mass ‘m’ be placed on a frictionless plane with a massless spring attached to it
(Fig. 1.1). The other end of the spring is fixed to a rigid support. The spring–body system is
in the relaxed state, i.e., the spring is neither compressed nor extended. Notice the position
of the body – it is called the mean position or equilibrium position. Now, the body is pulled
through a displacement ‘x’. The spring exerts a restoring force on the body tending to pull
it backwards. This restoring force ‘F ’ is proportional to the displacement (i.e., elongation
of the spring) ‘x’ and is opposite in direction to the displacement.

Figure 1.1 Simple harmonic oscillator. Spring–body system is placed on a frictionless plane

Mathematically, F ∝ − x (negative sign appears since the restoring force and displacement
‘x’ are in opposite directions)
F = –kx (1.1)
where k is the proportionality constant and is known as spring constant. This equation is
called Hooke’s law of elasticity. Applying Newton’s laws of motion, Hooke’s law can be
written as
ma = –kx

d2 x
or m = −kx (1.2)
dt 2
 Oscillations and Waves 3

Equation (1.2) is the differential equation of motion of a simple harmonic oscillator in the
absence of other forces. It can also be written as

d2 x
+ ω02 x =
0 (1.3)
dt 2

k
where ω02 = (1.4)
m

Here m is the mass of the body attached at the end of the free end of the spring and w0 is
called the natural angular frequency of oscillation. The general solution of the differential
Eq. (1.3) is determined in the following way. Other methods for the purpose are also
available.
Assume a solution of the form

x = e pt (1.5)

Putting (1.5) into (1.3), we get

p2 e pt + ω02 e pt =
0

or p = ±iω0

The general solution of the differential Eq. (1.3) will be given by

=x C1e iωO t + C2 e −iωO t (1.6)

The constants C1 and C2 must be complex in order for Eq. (1.6) to be the general solution.
Since e iω0t and e −iω0t are complex conjugates of each other, the constants C1 and C2 must be
complex conjugate of each other so that x is real. For this, we set

C1= C= Ae iθ

and C=
2
*
C= Ae −iθ

Upon this substitution into Eq. (1.6), we get

x=Ce iω0t + C * e −iω0t =Ae iθ e iω0t + Ae −iθ e −iω0t

or =x 2 A cos(ω0t=
+ θ ) r cos(ω0t + θ ), 2A = r (1.7)

=(x r sin(ω0t + θ ) may also be a solution).

4 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Here
r = amplitude of the oscillation.
q = the initial phase of the oscillation.

ω0t + θ = phase of the motion.

The constants r and q can be obtained from the initial conditions of the simple harmonic
motion.
The velocity ‘v’ of the body executing SHO is determined by differentiating Eq. (1.7)
with respect to time.

−rω0 sin(ω0t + θ )
v= (1.8)

The acceleration ‘a’ of the body executing SHO is determined by differentiating Eq. (1.8)
with respect to time.

−ω02 r cos(ω0t + θ ) .
a= (1.9)

Putting the value of r cos(ω0t + θ ) =

x from (1.7) into Eq. (1.9), we get

a = −ω02 x (1.10)

Equation (1.10) shows that in the case of a simple harmonic motion, acceleration is directed
opposite to displacement.
If T is the time period, then in T seconds, the number of complete oscillations is 1. So,
in 1 second, the number of oscillations will be 1/T which by definition is the frequency n.
Hence, we have
1
ν= (1.11)
T
Frequency and time period are inversely proportional to each other.
From the definition of angular frequency, we have

2π (1.12)
ω=
0 = 2πν
T

1.2.1 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator

By the definition of potential energy, the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
at any instant or at any position is given by
x x
1 2
∫ Fdx
EP = = ∫=
0
kxdx
2
kx (1.13)
0
 Oscillations and Waves 5

Here ‘x’ has been measured from the mean position x = 0. Putting the value of x from
Eq. (1.7) into Eq. (1.13), we have

1
EP = kr 2 cos2 (ω0t + θ ) (1.14)
2

Putting the value of k from Eq. (1.4) into Eq. (1.14), we get

1
EP = mω02 r 2 cos2 (ω0t + θ ) (1.15)
2

Since the maximum value of cos2 (ω0t + θ ) is 1, the maximum value of potential energy-
EP max from Eq. (1.15) is found out to be

1
EP max = mω02 r 2 (1.16)
2

By the definition of kinetic energy, the kinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscillator at any
instant or at any position is given by

1
EK = mv 2
2

Putting the value of v from Eq. (1.8) into the previous equation, we get

1 (1.17)
EK = mr 2ω02 sin2 (ω0t + θ )
2

Since the maximum value of sin2 (ω0t + θ ) is 1, the maximum value of kinetic energy EK max
from Eq. (1.17) is found out to be

1
EK max = mω02 r 2 (1.18)
2

The total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator at any instant or at any position is given by

E = EP + EK

1 1
= mω02 r 2 cos2 (ω0t + θ ) + mr 2ω02 sin2 (ω0t + θ )
2 2

1
= mω
= 2 2
0r E=
K max EP max (1.19)
2
6 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Equation (1.19) shows that the total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator at any instant
or at any position is constant.

1.2.2 Characteristics of SHO

From the discussions in the previous section, we can infer the following characteristics of SHO.
When the body is released, it moves to and fro about the mean position with constant
amplitude ‘r’. As the body moves towards the mean position, its speed increases but the
force and hence, its acceleration decreases; both become zero at the mean position. Due
to the inertia of motion, the body overshoots the mean position, but at the same time, a
retarding force comes into action to oppose the motion. This retarding force increases until
the body reaches the largest distance from the mean position. Here, it stops and begins its
return journey. This process goes on continuously for an indefinite period if there is no
dissipative force. Throughout the motion, the force as well as the acceleration is directly
proportional to displacement and directed towards the mean position. The distances
travelled by the vibrating body on the two sides of the mean position are equal. This type
of motion is called simple harmonic oscillation. The SHO is graphically represented in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2 Graphical representation of SHO. (a) displacement-time plot, (b) velocity–time plot,
(c) acceleration–time plot
 Oscillations and Waves 7

For a particular simple harmonic oscillator, mass, amplitude and angular frequency are
constants with respect to time. Therefore, we can conclude that the total energy of a simple
harmonic oscillator at any instant or position is constant. Moreover, the total energy of
a simple harmonic oscillator at any instant or position is equal to the maximum values
of potential or kinetic energy. The simultaneous variation of potential energy and kinetic
energy of a simple harmonic oscillator according to Eqs (1.15) and (1.17) is depicted in
Fig. 1.3(a) and in Fig. 1.3(b).

Figure 1.3 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator. The dotted curve represents potential energy,
the dashed line curve represents kinetic energy and the continuous curve represents
the total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator

We will now cite few examples of simple harmonic motion under ideal conditions. The
derivations for time periods in all the examples are left as exercises to the students.
i. The motion of a simple pendulum in vacuum is simple harmonic. Its time period is
given by


T = 2π ,  = length of the simple pendulum.
g

ii. Take a cleaned U-shaped glass tube and fix it vertically on a stand. Partially fill it with
mercury. Now the levels of the mercury column in both sides are equal. Blow slowly
through one end so that the mercury column in the other end rises slightly. When
we stop blowing, the mercury column executes simple harmonic motion having time
period


T = 2π ,  = length of the mercury column in the U-tube.
2g
 8 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

iii. A body dropped into a hole dug through the centre of earth executes simple harmonic
motion with time period

R
T = 2π , R = radius of Earth.
g

iv. Place a small block inside a smooth curved surface having radius of curvature ‘R’.
Move the sphere slightly along the curved surface away from the equilibrium position
and then release. It will perform simple harmonic motion with time period

R
T = 2π .
g

v. Place a sphere of radius ‘r’ inside a curved surface of radius of curvature ‘R’. Move the
sphere slightly along the curved surface away from the equilibrium position and then
release. It will execute simple harmonic motion with time period

7(R − r ) 7R
T = 2π ≈ 2π if R>>r
5g 5g

vi. If a small iron cylinder, partially submerged in mercury vertically, is pressed slightly
and then released, it will execute simple harmonic motion with time period
ρ
T = 2π . Here  = length of the cylinder, r = density of the cylinder, r¢ = density
ρ ′g
of mercury.

Example 1.1
A spring 15 cm in length is fixed to the ceiling. When a body of mass 1 kg is hung at the free
end, its length becomes 17 cm. Calculate the spring constant of the spring.
Solution
The increase in length ‘x’ of the spring when a 1kg body is hung = 17 cm – 15 cm = 2 cm = 0.02 m
The downward force acting on the spring = weight of the body hung. At the equilibrium
position, the restoring force = downward force acting on the spring.

kx = mg

or = mg 1 × 9.8 N
k = = 490 N/m
x 0.02 m
The spring constant of the spring is calculated to be 490 N/m.
 Oscillations and Waves 9

Example 1.2
A 5 kg body extends a spring 15 cm from its relaxed position. The body is removed and a 1 kg
body is hung from the same spring. The 1 kg body is pulled and released. Calculate the time
period of oscillation of the body.
Solution
The increase in length ‘x’ of the spring when a 5 kg body is hung = 15 cm = 0.15 m
The downward force acting on the spring = weight of the body hung. At the equilibrium
position, the restoring force = downward force acting on the spring.

kx = mg

mg 5 × 9.8 N
or=
k = = 326.67 N/m is the spring constant of the spring.
x 0.15 m
k
The natural angular frequency of the oscillation ω0 = .
m

m 1
=
The time period of oscillation π
T 2= 2π s = 0.35 s
k 326.67

Example 1.3

 π
A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion obeying the equation y = 12 cos  0.7π t + m.
 5 
Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the body at time t = 3 s. Also calculate the natural
frequency and time period of the harmonic motion.
Solution
The velocity ‘v’ of the body at any time t is

dy d   π   π
v= = 12 cos  0.7π t + 5   m/s =
−8.4π sin  0.7π t +  m/s
dt dt     5

So the velocity of the body at t = 3 s will be

 π
v =−8.4π sin  0.7π × 3 +  m/s =−21.35 m/s
 5

The velocity is directed opposite to the displacement.

The acceleration ‘a’ of the body at any time t is

dv d   π   π
 −8.4π sin  0.7tπ +   m/s =−5.88π 2 cos  0.7π t +  m/s2
2
a= =
dt dt   5   5
10 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

So the acceleration of the body at t = 3 s will be

 π
a = −5.88π 2 cos  0.7π × 3 +  m/s2 =−34.11 m/s2 .
 5

The acceleration is directed opposite to the displacement.

π
The initial phase constant = .
5
The angular frequency ω = 0.7π s −1

0.7 s −1
=
Hence, the frequency of the oscillation ν = 0.35s −1
2
1
The time period of the oscillation T= = 2.86s
ν

1.3 Damped Harmonic Oscillation (DHO)

In case of simple harmonic oscillation, the amplitude of oscillation does not decrease.
However in reality, in the case of simple pendulums, amplitude decreases with the passing
of time. This is due to the viscosity of the medium. The force is the dissipative force Fd .
Harmonic oscillation under the influence of a spring–like restoring force in a viscous
medium is called damped harmonic oscillation.
For a low velocity dissipative force, Fd is directly proportional to the velocity of the
oscillating body and is always directed opposite to the velocity of the body. Mathematically,
we have

dx (1.20)
Fd = −b
dt

The minus sign appears because the direction of the dissipative force Fd is opposite to that
of velocity. The restoring force on the oscillating body from Eq. (1.1) is –kx. Therefore, the
total force on the vibrating body in a dissipative medium is

dx
Ftotal =
−b − kx
dt (1.21)

or dx
ma =
−b − kx
dt

d 2 x b dx k
or + + x=
0 (1.22)
dt 2 m dt m
 Oscillations and Waves 11

b k
Let = 2γ and = ω02
m m

ω0
g and are the damping coefficient of the dissipative medium and the natural frequency
2π
of the damped harmonic oscillator. Putting these substitutions into Eq. (1.22), we get

d2 x dx
+ 2γ + ω02 x =
0 (1.23)
dt 2 dt

Equation (1.23) is the differential equation of motion of a damped harmonic oscillation in

a dissipative medium. The solutions of this differential equation depend upon the relative
values of g and w0. The general solution of the differential Eq. (1.23) is determined in the
following way. Other methods for the purpose are also available.
Assuming a solution of the form x = ept, from Eq. (1.23), we have

p2 + 2γ p + ω02 =
0

or p =−γ ± γ 2 − ω02 (1.24)

Depending upon the values of g , three different situations can arise for a damped harmonic
oscillator. If the medium and frequency of the oscillator is such that the γ < ω0 condition
is satisfied, the oscillator is said to be underdamped. If the medium and frequency of the
oscillator is such that the γ > ω0 condition is satisfied, the oscillator is said to be overdamped.
If the medium and frequency of the oscillator is such that the γ = ω0 condition is satisfied,
the oscillator is said to be critically damped.

Case 1: g < w0 (Under damped)

From Eq. (1.24), we have

p =−γ ± iω1 ω1
where = ω02 − γ 2

The general solution of the differential Eq. (1.23) will be given by

=x C1e −γ t +iω1t + C2 e −γ t −iω1t (1.25)

The constants C1 and C2 must be complex in order that Eq. (1.25) is the general solution.
Since e −γ t +iω1t and e −γ t −iω1t are complex conjugates of each other, the constants C1 and C2
must be complex conjugates of each other, so that x is real. For this, we set

C1 = C = Aeiq
12 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

and C2 = C * = Ae–iq

Upon this substitution in Eq. (1.25), we get

x =Ce −γ t +iω1t + C * e −γ t −iω1t =Ae iθ e −γ t +iω1t + Ae −iθ e −γ t −iω1t

or (
x = Ae −γ t e i (ω1t +θ ) + e −i (ω1t +θ ) )
or x = 2 Ae −γ t cos (ω1t + θ )

Putting 2A = r into the aforementioned equation, we get

x = re −γ t cos (ω1t + θ ) (1.26)

Here the values of the constants ‘r’ and ‘q ’ depend upon the initial conditions. The frequency
ω
of oscillation in this case is 1 and the amplitude is re–gt which decreases exponentially
2π
with time. The phenomenon is plotted in the Fig. 1.4. This frequency does not change as
the oscillations decay.

−γ t
Figure 1.4 Motion of a damped harmonic oscillator. The solid curve is the plot of x = re cos ωt
−γ t
and the dashed curve is the plot of x = ±re
 Oscillations and Waves 13

The total energy of the damped harmonic oscillator according to Eq. (1.19) may be given as

1 2  1 2 −2γ t 
 2 kr e cos (ω1t + θ ) 
2
=E E=
P max  2 kx =

 max  max

1
= mω02 r 2 e −2γ t
2

or E = E0 e −2γ t (1.27)

1
Here E0 = mω02 r 2 is the total initial energy of the damped harmonic oscillator at t = 0.
2
Thus, the total energy decreases more rapidly than the amplitude with time.

Case 2: g > w0 (Over damped)

If γ > ω0 , γ − ω0 is real and the two solutions of p are

2 2

p =−γ − γ 2 − ω02 =−γ 1

and p =−γ + γ 2 − ω02 =−γ 2

The general solution of Eq. (1.23) will be obtained as

=x C1e −γ 1t + C2 e −γ 2t (1.28)

In this case, both terms decrease exponentially with time, one at a faster rate than the other.
In the overdamped condition, the body does not oscillate. The values of the constants
C1 and C2 depends upon the initial conditions.

Case 3: g = w0 (Critically damped)

If γ = ω0 , Eq. (1.23) has two solutions namely x = e −γ t and x = te −γ t . Therefore, in this case
of critically damped oscillations, the general solution of Eq. (1.23) will be

=
x (C1 + C2t ) e −γ t (1.29)

and declines exponentially at a faster rate than that of Case 2. In this case, the body comes
to rest in finite time without oscillation.
14 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 1.5 Return of a harmonic oscillator to equilibrium position. (a) Under damped (b) Over
damped (c) Critically damped

All the three cases are plotted in Fig. 1.5.

The pointer reading meters, hydraulic and pneumatic spring returns for door are so
designed that they come to equilibrium/rest position quickly without over shoots or
oscillation. These devices are so designed that the condition of critical damping γ = ω0 is
satisfied. If the condition of over damping γ > ω0 is satisfied in these devices, it will take
a long time to come to equilibrium position. If the condition of under–damping γ < ω0 is
satisfied in these devices, it will over shoot the equilibrium position creating noise and will
thus affect the life span of the devices.

1.3.1 Damping of an oscillator

Damping is an effect that reduces the amplitude of oscillations in an oscillatory system,

particularly the harmonic oscillator. In a simple harmonic oscillator, total energy
 1 2 2
 E0 = 2 mω0 r  which is proportional to square of amplitude remains constant throughout
  dx
time and positions. Due to the presence of damping force −2mγ in the case of under–
dt
damped harmonic motion, the amplitude R and energy E of the oscillator becomes R = re −γ t
and E = E0 e −2γ t respectively. The larger the value of the damping coefficient g, the more
rapidly does the amplitude and energy decrease. Measuring natural decay in terms of the
fraction e–1 of the original value is a very common practice in physics. Thus, we can make
use of the exponential factor to express the rates at which the amplitude and energy are
decreased. The time for a natural decay process to reach zero is of course theoretically
infinite. We shall discuss the damping of an oscillator in three different ways.
 Oscillations and Waves 15

1.3.1(a) Logarithmic decrement

Logarithmic decrement l measures the rate of decrease of amplitude of an under–damped
harmonic motion. The under–damped harmonic motion is described by the equation
x = re −γ t cos (ω1t + θ ) , where amplitude is R = re . The equation shows that amplitude
−γ t

2π
decreases exponentially with time. Time period remains constant. Let T be the time
ω1
period of the under–damped harmonic motion. Let R0, R1, R2, R3, and R4 be the amplitudes
at time 0, T, 2T, 3T, and 4T respectively. Then, we have

−γ 0
=
RO re= , R1 re −γ T ,=
r= R2 re −γ 2T ,=
R3 re −γ 3T ,=
R4 re −γ 4T , etc.

R0 R1 R2 R3 R4
Now we can have = = = = = e γ=T
eλ
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

where λ = γ T is called logarithmic decrement. Taking the natural logarithm of the

aforementioned equation, we get

R0 R1 R2 R3 R4
ln= ln= ln= ln= ln= e γ T ln
ln= = eλ λ
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5

In general, we can have

Rn −1
ln = λ= γ T (1.30)
Rn

Now we can define the logarithmic decrement in the following way. Logarithmic decrement
is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of two consecutive and successive amplitudes
which are separated by one time period. In Eq. (1.30), amplitudes Rn and Rn–1 are separated
by one time period.

Example 1.4
A point performs a damped harmonic oscillation with frequency w1 and damping coefficient
g . Find the initial amplitude ‘r’ and the initial phase q if at the moment t = 0 the displacement
of the point and its velocity are y(0) = 0 and v(0) = b respectively.
Solution
The equation of an oscillatory damped harmonic motion is given by

y(t ) = re −γ t cos(ω1t + θ ) (A)

16 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The velocity of the oscillating point is given by

dy
v(t ) = = rω1e −γ t sin(ω1t + θ ) − rγ e −γ t cos(ω1t + θ ) (B)
dt

Putting t = 0 into (A), we get

=y(0) re −γ 0 cos (ω=

1 ×0 +θ ) r cos θ

or 0 = r cos θ

π π
or=θ or −
2 2

Case 1: Suppose θ = π
2

π
Putting t = 0 and θ = into (B), we get
2

 π  π
v(0) = rω1 e −γ 0 sin  ω1 × 0 +  − rγ e −γ 0 cos  ω1 × 0 + 
 2   2

b rω1 × 1
=

b π
r= when θ =
ω1 2

Case 2: Suppose θ = − π
2

π
Putting t = 0 and θ = − into (B), we get
2

 π  π
v(0) = rω1 e −γ 0 sin  ω1 × 0 −  − rγ e −γ 0 cos  ω1 × 0 − 
 2   2

b= rω1 × (−1)
 Oscillations and Waves 17

−b π
r= when θ = −
ω1 2

Example 1.5
The amplitude of an under–damped oscillator falls to 1/10 of its initial value after 10
oscillations. If the time period is 2 s, calculate the (a) damping coefficient, (b) logarithmic
decrement, (c) time during which energy falls to 1/10 of its original value.
Solution
The amplitude of the under–damped harmonic oscillation after n number of oscillations is
given by

Rn = re −γ nT

where T is the time period.

r
or = e γ nT
Rn
r
(a) According to the problem, n = 10, T = 2 s, = 10
R10
So we have

10 = e γ ×10×2

or 20γ = ln10

2.3
or γ
= = 0.115
20

(b) Logarithmic decrement l is given by

λ = γ T = 0.115 × 2= 0.23

(c) The energy of an under–damped harmonic oscillator is given by

E = E0 e −2γ t

E
or = e −2γ t
EO
18 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

E 1
According to the given data =
E0 10
1
or = e −2γ t
10

or e 2γ t = 10

or 2γ t = ln10

ln10
=
or t = 10s.
2 × 0.115

Example 1.6
A body performs damped harmonic oscillation according to the equation x = re −γ t sin ωt .
Calculate the (a) amplitude of oscillation and (b) velocity of the body at time t = 0; (c) the
moments of time at which body reaches the extreme positions.
Solution
(a) The equation of motion of the damped harmonic oscillator is given as x = re −γ t sin ωt .
The amplitude of oscillation at any time is

Rt = re −γ t .

So the amplitude of oscillation at time t = 0 will be

− γ ×0
=
RO re= r

(b) The instantaneous velocity v of the damped harmonic oscillator at any time is given by

d −γ t
v= −rγ e −γ t sin ωt + rωe −γ t cos ωt
re sin ωt = (A)
dt

So the velocity v of the damped harmonic oscillator at time t = 0 will be

v(0) = rω
Since the body is performing damped harmonic motion, the velocity of the body at
extreme positions is zero. If the body reaches the extreme positions at time tn, then
from (A), we have

rγ e −γ tn sin ωtn = rωe −γ tn cos ωtn

1  −1 ω 
=
or tn  tan + nπ 
ω γ 
 Oscillations and Waves 19

Example 1.7
A body performs damped harmonic oscillation according to the equation x = re–g t cos(wt + q).
Calculate the (a) initial amplitude r of oscillation and (b) initial phase q if at time t = 0, velocity
of the body is u and x = 0.
Solution
According to the problem, at t = 0, x = 0. So putting t = 0 and x = 0 in the equation x = re–g t
cos(wt + q), we get

=0 re −γ 0 cos (ω × 0 + θ )

or cos θ = 0

π
or θ = ±
2
The instantaneous velocity v of the damped harmonic oscillator at any time is given by

d −γ t
v= re cos(ωt + θ )
dt

−rγ e −γ t cos (ωt + θ ) − rωe −γ t sin (ωt + θ )

= (A)

According to the problem, at t = 0, v = u. So putting t = 0 and v = u in (A), we get

−rγ cos θ − rω sin θ

u= (B)

π is put in (B), u becomes negative and if π

If θ = θ = − is put in (B), u becomes positive.
2 2
Thus, we have

π
θ= if u < 0
2

and

π
θ=− if u > 0
2

π
Putting θ = ± in (B), we get
2

u = rω
20 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

u
or Initial amplitude of oscillation r will be r =
ω
1.3.1(b) Modulus of decay

The amplitude of an under–damped harmonic oscillator is given as

Rt = R0 e −γ t
1
The time interval during which amplitude decreases to of the original amplitude is called
1 e R
modulus of decay or relaxation time t. At t = seconds, the amplitude becomes 0 and
1 γ e
hence, is the modulus of decay or relaxation time i.e.,
γ
1
τ= (1.31)
γ

1.3.1(c) Quality factor of an under damped harmonic oscillator

This measures the rate at which the energy decays. The energy of an under damped
harmonic oscillator at any instant of time is given as

E = E0 e −2γ t (1.32)

The quality factor Q is defined as the number of radians through which an under–damped
E 1
system goes so that its energy decreases to 0 . During time interval , energy decreases
e 2γ
E0
to .
e
During time interval T seconds (time period), the oscillator traces 2p radians. Then
1 2π 1 ω1
during the time interval seconds, the oscillator traces × = radians. By
2γ T 2γ 2γ
definition, quality factor Q is given by

ω1 1
=
Q = ω1τ (1.33)
2γ 2

In the aforementioned expression, w1 is the angular frequency of the under–damped

oscillator.
From Eq. (1.32), we get

2γ E0 e −2γ t dt
−dE =
 Oscillations and Waves 21

So the energy lost per cycle

2π
dE 2γ E0 e −2γ t ×=
−= T E0 e −2γ t ×
Q

−dE 2π
or =
E0 e −2γ t Q

E0 e −2γ t
or Q = 2π
−dE

Thus, quality factor can be defined as

Energy stored in the system

Q = 2π
Energy lost per cycle (1.34)

1.4 Forced Vibrations

The real life phenomena of forced vibrations can be observed in the vibration of a bridge
under the influence of marching soldiers, vibration of an electric motor due to the periodic
impulses from an irregularity in the shaft, vibration of a tuning fork when subjected to the
periodic force of a sound wave, and so on. The harmonic oscillations under the influence
of an externally applied sinusoidally varying force are called forced vibrations.
Let the externally applied sinusoidally varying force be

F0 cos (ωt + θ0 ) (1.35)

where
F0 = Amplitude of the externally applied sinusoidally varying force.
w = Angular frequency of the externally applied sinusoidally varying force.
q0 = Initial phase of the externally applied sinusoidally varying force.
dx
From Eq. (1.20), the dissipative force on the oscillator is Fd = −b and from Eq. (1.1), the
dt
restoring force on the oscillating body is –kx. Therefore, the total force on the vibrating
body in this case is

dx
−b − kx + F0 cos (ωt + θO )
FTotal =
dt
22 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

By applying Newton’s law of motion to the aforementioned equation, the equation of

motion of a forced harmonic oscillator is obtained as

d2 x dx F0
2
+ 2γ +ω
= 2
0x cos (ωt + θ0 ) (1.36)
dt dt m

b k ω
where = 2γ and = ω02 . g and 0 are the damping coefficients of the dissipative
m m 2π
medium and the natural frequency of an undamped harmonic oscillator respectively.
Equation (1.36) is the differential equation of motion of a forced vibration in a dissipative
medium. The general solution of the differential Eq. (1.36) is determined in the following way
using complex functions. Other methods for the purpose are also available. Equation (1.36)
is modified to

d2 x dx 1
2
+ 2γ + ω02 x = F0 e iθ0 e iωt (1.37)
dt dt m

F0 1
where cos (ωt + θ0 ) is the real part of F0 e iθ0 e iωt , i.e.,
m m

1 iθ0 iωt  F0
Re  F=
0e e  cos (ωt + θ0 )
m  m

Assume a complex solution of the differential Eq. (1.37) of the form

x = x0 e iωt (1.38)

Hence, the complex velocity of the forced oscillator is

dx
= iω x0 e iωt (1.39)
dt

and the complex acceleration of the forced oscillator is

d2 x
2
= −ω 2 x0 e iωt (1.40)
dt

Putting Eq. (1.38) into Eq. (1.40) and Eq. (1.37), we get

1
−ω 2 x0 e iωt + i2γω x0 e iωt + ω02 x0 e iωt = F0 e iθ0 e iωt
m
 Oscillations and Waves 23

F0 iθ0 F0 iθO
e e
or x0 = 2 m 2 = m
2γω (1.41)
ω0 − ω + 2iγω 1 i tan −1

 (
 ω −ω 2
0
2
) + 4γ ω2 2
 e

2 ω02 −ω 2

Let

2γω π (1.42)
tan −1 = −β
ω02 − ω 2 2

Upon this substitution in Eq. (1.41), we get

F0 iθ0 F0 iθ0 −i π2 iβ
e e e e
x0 = m = m
1 π  1

( )
i − β 

 (
 ω −ω 2
0
2
) + 4γ ω 2 2
 e

2 2   ω02 − ω 2 + 4γ 2ω 2  2
 

F0 i (θ0 + β )
−i e
= m
1

( )
 ω02 − ω 2 + 4γ 2ω 2  2
 

F0 i (θ0 + β )
e
or x0 = m (1.43)
1

( )
i  ωO2 − ω 2 + 4γ 2ω 2  2

Putting this value of x0 in Eq. (1.38), we obtain the complex solution of the differential
Eq. (1.38) as

F0 i (ωt +θ0 + β )
e
x= m
1 (1.44)
(
i  ωO2 − ω 2 ) + 4γ ω 
2 2
2 2

 

This is the expression for a complex position. The real position will be the real part of
the aforementioned equation. Hence, the real position of the forced harmonic oscillator is
given by
 24 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

F0
x= sin (ωt + θ0 + β )
1
(1.45)
(
m  ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ ω 
2 2
2 2

 

The general solution of the differential equation of motion (1.37) of a forced harmonic
oscillation is

F0
=x re -γ t cos (ω1t + θ ) + 1
sin (ωt + θ0 + β )
(1.46)
(
m  ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ ω 
2 2
2 2

 

This above solution contains two constants namely r and q which can be determined from
the initial boundary conditions. The first term dies out exponentially in time and is called
a transient term. After some time, the driven body starts oscillating with the frequency of
the driving force or the applied force. This state is said to be the steady state of the forced
vibrations. The second term is called the steady state term and oscillates with constant
F0
amplitude 1
. In steady state, Eq. (1.46) becomes
m (ω0 − ω ) + 4γ ω
 2 2 2
2
2 2

 

F0
x= 1
sin (ωt + θ0 + β )
(1.47)
(
m ω −ω ) + 4γ ω 
2 2
2 2 2 2

 0


The phase of oscillation of the forced oscillator is (ω t + θ0 + β ) and that of the applied force
is (ωt + θ0 ) . Hence, the phase difference between oscillation and the applied force is b and
is defined mathematically in Eq. (1.42) as

2γω π
tan −1 = −β
ω −ω
2
0
2
2

ω02 − ω 2
or β = tan −1 (1.48)
2γω

This equation shows that the phase difference between oscillation and the applied force
depends upon the frequency of the applied force and the damping coefficient of the
medium.
 Oscillations and Waves 25

1.4.1 Velocity of the forced harmonic oscillator

The complex velocity of the forced harmonic oscillator is obtained by differentiating

Eq. (1.44) with respect to time as

F0 i (ωt +θ0 + β ) F0 i (ωt +θ0 + β )

e e
v = iω m =ω m
1 1

(
i  ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ ω  (
 ω2 − ω2
) + 4γ 2ω 2 
2 2 2 2
2 2
   0 

The real velocity will be the real part of the aforementioned equation. Hence, the real
velocity of the forced harmonic oscillator will be

ω F0
v= 1
cos (ωt + θ0 + β )
(1.49)
(
m  ω02 − ω 2 ) + 4γ ω 
2 2
2 2

 

1.4.2 Total energy of the forced harmonic oscillator

The instantaneous kinetic energy EK of the forced harmonic oscillator is given as

1
EK = mv 2 .
2

Putting the value of v from Eq. (1.49) into the aforementioned equation, we get

1 ω 2 F02
EK = cos2 (ωt + θ0 + β )
(
2 m  ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2 
 0  ) (1.50)

The instantaneous potential energy EP of the forced harmonic oscillator is given as

1
EP = kx 2
2

Putting the value of x from Eq. (1.47) into the aforementioned equation, we get

1 F02
=
EP mω02 × sin2 (ωt + θ0 + β )
2 2  2 2
( )
2
m ω0 − ω + 4γ ω
2 2
 
26 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1 ω02 F02
or EP = sin2 (ωt + θ0 + β ) (1.51)
( )
2 m  ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2 
 0 

The total energy E of the forced harmonic oscillator will be given by

=
E EK + EP

Putting the values of EK and EP from Eqs (1.50) and (1.51) into the aforementioned equation,
we have

1 ω 2 F02
E= cos2 (ωt + θ0 + β )
( )
2 m  ω 2 − ω 2 + 4γ 2ω 2 
2

 0 

1 ω02 F02
+ sin2 (ωt + θ0 + β )
( )
2 m  ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2 
 0 

The total average energy < E > of the forced harmonic oscillator over a complete cycle will
be given by

1 ω 2 F02
< E >= < cos2 (ωt + θ0 + β ) >
(
2 m  ω − ω + 4γ ω 
)
2
2 2 2 2
 0 

1 ω02 F02
+ < sin2 (ωt + θ0 + β ) >
( )
2 m  ω − ω + 4γ ω 
2
2 2 2 2
 0 

1 ω02 F02 1
or < E >= ×
(
2 m  ω − ω + 4γ ω  2
)
2
2 2 2 2
 0 

1 ω02 F02 1
+ ×
( )
2 m  ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2  2
 0 
 Oscillations and Waves 27

1 F02
or < E >= ω 2 + ω02 ( ) (1.52)
( )
4 m  ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2 
 0 

1.4.3 Power of the forced harmonic oscillator

In steady state, the power dissipated by the oscillator due to a dissipative medium is
compensated by the power absorption from the driving source. The power of a body ‘P’
moving under the action of force F with velocity v is defined as Fv. Therefore, the power
dissipated by the forced harmonic oscillator will be given by

P = Fv

Putting the value of v from Eq. (1.49)=

and F F0 cos(ωt + θ0 ) , which is the externally applied
sinusoidally varying force, we get the power of the forced harmonic oscillator as

F02 ω
P= 1
cos (ωt + θ0 ) cos (ωt + θ0 + β )
m
(
 ω2 − ω2
) + 4γ ω 
2 2
2 2

 0 

F02 ω
= 1
cos (ωt + θ0 )
m
(
 ω2 − ω2
) + 4γ 2ω 2 
2 2
 0 

× cos (ωt + θ0 ) cos β − sin (ωt + θ0 ) sin β 

F02 ω  1 
cos β cos (ωt + θ0 ) − 2 sin 2 (ωt + θ0 ) sin β 
2
= 1
m
 ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2   
(
 0 ) 
2

F02 ω cos β cos (ωt + θ0 ) F ω sin β sin 2 (ωt + θ0 )

2
or P= − 0 (1.53)
1 1
m 2m
(
 0
)
 ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2  2

(
 ω 2 − ω 2 2 + 4γ 2ω 2  2
 0 
)
28 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Now the average value of cos2 (ωt + θ0 ) and sin 2(ωt + θ0 ) over a complete cycle of the applied
1
force is and zero respectively. Therefore, the average value of power < P > over a complete
2
cycle will be

F02 ω cos β
< P >=
2m 1
(1.54)
(
 ω2 − ω2
) + 4γ 2ω 2 
2 2

 0 

Now either from Eq. (1.48) or from Fig. 1.6, we can have

2γω
cos β = 1

(
 ω2 − ω2
) + 4γ ω 
2 22 2
 0 

Figure 1.6 Evaluation of trigonometric angles. This right triangle is drawn in accordance with
Eq. (1.48)

Putting this value of cos b into Eq. (1.54), we get

F02 γω 2
< P >= 1
m (1.55)
(
 ω2 − ω2
) + 4γ 2ω 2 
2 2

 0 

This expression gives the amount of average power dissipated by the forced oscillator in the
dissipative medium over a complete cycle of oscillation. In steady state, this must be equal
to the power absorbed by the forced oscillator from the driving source.
 Oscillations and Waves 29

Example 1.8
A ball of mass m performs undamped harmonic oscillations about the point x = 0 with natural
frequency w0. At the moment t = 0, when the ball is in equilibrium position, a force FX = F0 cos
wt along the x-axis was applied to it. Find the position of the ball at any time.
Solution
In this problem g = 0 because the motion is undamped and q0 = 0. So with the help of
Eq. (1.46), we can determine the position of the ball by

F0
r cos ωt
x(t ) =+ m sin (ω t + β ) (A)
0
ω02 − ω 2

π
Putting β = into the Eq. (A), we get
2

F0 F0
 π  (B)
x(t ) r cos ωt + 2 m 2 sin  ω0t + =
= r cos ωt + 2 m 2 cos ω0t
ω0 − ω  2  ω0 − ω

According to the problem, at t = 0, x = 0. Applying this boundary condition to (B), we get

F0
(0) r cos(ω × 0) + 2 m 2 cos (ω0 × 0 )
x=
ω0 − ω

F0
or r = − 2 m 2
ω0 − ω

Putting the value of r into (B), we get

F0 F0
x(t ) = − 2 m 2 cos ωt + 2 m 2 cos ω0t
ω0 − ω ω0 − ω

F0
or x(t ) = 2 m 2 ( cos ω0t − cos ωt )
ω0 − ω
30 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1.5 Displacement Resonance

Forced vibrations occur if a system is continuously driven by an external agency. A
simple example is a child’s swing that is pushed on each downswing. Of special interest
are systems undergoing harmonic oscillation and driven by sinusoidal force. This leads to
the important phenomenon of resonance. Resonance occurs when the driving frequency
approaches the natural frequency of free vibrations. The result is a rapid take-up of energy
by the vibrating system, with a continuous growth of the vibration amplitude. A simple
disturbance can set a harmonic oscillator into motion. Repeated disturbances can increase
the amplitude of the oscillations if they are applied in phase with the natural frequency. Even
a very small disturbance, repeated periodically at just the right frequency, can cause a very
large amplitude motion to build up. In general, whenever a system capable of oscillation is
acted upon by a periodic series of impulses having frequencies equal to or nearly equal to
the natural frequencies of oscillation of the system, the system is set into oscillation with
a relatively large amplitude. This phenomenon is known as resonance. Therefore we can
define resonance as the phenomenon in which a body is set to violent vibrations by a strong
periodic force whose frequency coincides exactly or nearly with the natural frequency of
the body.
The amplitude of forced vibration in the steady state from Eq. (1.45) is

F0 1
m
(ω ) + ( 2γω )
2 2
2
0 − ω2

and, as is obvious, it depends on the frequency of the driving force w . This amplitude is
maximum when the denominator is minimum, i.e., when
1
d  2
( ) + ( 2γω )  =
2 2 2
ωO − ω 2 0
dω  

or ω02 − ω 2 =
2γ 2

2
 γ 
ω ω0 1 − 2  
or = (1.56)
 ω0 

Thus, the amplitude is maximum when w is given by Eq. (1.56). The frequency at which
resonance occurs (i.e., amplitude of oscillation become maximum) is called resonant
frequency. Thus, Eq. (1.56) gives the expression for resonant frequency. When damping is
extremely small (i.e., γ → 0 ), the resonance occurs at a frequency very close to the natural
frequency of the system (i.e., ω → ω0 when γ → 0). The variation of amplitude with w is
depicted in Fig. 1.7.
 Oscillations and Waves 31

Figure 1.7 The variation of amplitude with frequency of the applied force for various values of g .
Observe that with increase of damping, the resonance occurs at smaller values of w

It is interesting to observe that when damping decreases, maximum amplitude becomes

very sharp and the amplitude falls off rapidly as we go away from the resonant frequency.

1.5.1 Resonant amplitude

The amplitude of the forced oscillation at resonance is called resonant amplitude RR and
the corresponding frequency is called resonant frequency wR. The expression for resonant
frequency wR is obtained from Eq. (1.56) as

2
 γ 
ωR ω0 1 − 2  
= (1.57)
 ω0 

The amplitude of forced vibration in the steady state from Eq. (1.45) is

F0 1
m
(ω ) + ( 2γω )
2 2
2
0 − ω2
32 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

and hence, the expression for resonant amplitude RR will be given by

F0 1
RR =
m
(ω )
2
2
0 − ωR2 + 4γ 2ωR2

Putting the value of wR from Eq. (1.57) into the aforementioned equation, we get

F0 1
RR = (1.58)
m 2γ ω 2 − γ 2
0

If the damping coefficient of the medium is very small, we can neglect g 2 in comparison to
ω02 and the amplitude of vibration at resonance is obtained as

F0 1
RR = (1.59)
m 2γω0

Equations (1.58) or Eq. (1.59) shows that the amplitude at resonance becomes infinitely
large when γ → 0. Moreover, the same aforementioned equations shows that if the damping
coefficient is very large (i.e., γ → ∞), resonance cannot occur ( i.e., RR → 0 ). The resonant
frequency is inversely proportional to the damping coefficient for small damping.

1.5.2 Sharpness of resonance

The amplitude of vibration of an oscillatory system is maximum when the angular frequency
of the sinusoidally varying applied force is equal to ω02 − 2γ 2 . The amplitude of vibration
decreases when the angular frequency of the sinusoidally varying applied force is less than
or more than ω02 − 2γ 2 . This has been depicted in Fig. 1.7. If the amplitude decreases rapidly
for a slight departure of the frequency of the applied force from ω02 − 2γ 2 , the resonance
is more sharp. If the amplitude decreases slowly for a large departure of the frequency of
the applied force from ω02 − 2γ 2 , the resonance is less sharp. How rapidly the amplitude
decreases on either side of ω0 − 2γ is represented by the sharpness of resonance.
2 2

The sharpness of resonance depends upon the damping coefficient. For small damping
(γ → 0) at resonance, we can have

ωR ≈ ωO

or ω=
R ω0 ± γ ( γ is very small )

or ω=
1 ω0 + γ
 Oscillations and Waves 33

and

ω=
2 ω0 − γ

From the last two equations here, we have

ωR
ω1 − ω2 = 2γ = (1.60)
Q

Hence, ω1 − ω2 = 2γ is the width of the resonance curve. The width of the resonance
curve ω1 − ω2 is approximately proportional to the sharpness of resonance. Therefore, the
sharpness of resonance is approximately proportional to the damping coefficient. More
less the damping, more sharp is the resonance curve and vice versa. The more is the quality
factor Q, the more sharp is the resonance curve.

1.5.3 Quality factor of a forced harmonic oscillator

According to relation (1.34), the quality factor Q of a forced harmonic oscillator can be
defined as

average energy stored per cycle

Q = 2π (1.61)
average energy dissipated per cycle

or <E>
Q = 2π ,
T <P>

T = time period of the applied force

<E>
or Q =ω (1.62)
<P>

Putting the values of < E > and < P > from Eqs (1.52) and (1.55) respectively into Eq. (1.62)
at resonance, we get

(
F02 ωR2 + ω02 )
( )
4m  ω02 − ωR2 + 4γ 2ωR2 
2

 
Q = ωR
γωR F0
2 2

( )
m  ωR2 − ω02 + 4γ 2ω 2 
2

 
 34 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ωR2 + ω02
or Q= (1.63)
4γωR

For small damping, ωR ≈ ω0 . Therefore, for small damping, the quality factor from Eq. (1.63)
becomes

2ωR2 ωR
=Q = (1.64)
4γωR 2γ

Equations (1.63) and (1.64) show that larger the value of quality factor (i.e., lesser is g ),
sharper is the resonance.
At displacement resonance from Eq. (1.58), we have

F0 1
RR =
m 2γ ω 2 − γ 2
0

At low frequency from Eq. (1.47), we have

F0
R0 =
mω02

RR F0 1 mω02 ω0
= = × 1/2
or R0 m 2γ ω 2 − γ 2 F0  γ2 
0
2γ  1 − 2 
 ω0 

RR Q  1 
= ≈ Q 1 + 2  ≈ Q
or R0  1 
1/2
 8Q 
 1 − 4Q 2 
 

The aforementioned equation predicts that the value of Q can be used as an amplification
factor in different branches of science and technology.

1.5.4 Examples of resonance

i. When a tuning fork is struck and its stem is placed on the sonometer, the air inside the
sonometer is set into resonant vibration.
ii. Soldiers marching over a suspension bridge are always advised to break their steps.
If incidentally the frequency of the stepping of the soldiers coincide with the natural
frequency of the bridge, violent oscillations set in, making the bridge to collapse. This
was what happened to Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Washington, U.S.A.). In 1940, the
newly constructed bridge collapsed by a mild storm just four months after it was built.
 Oscillations and Waves 35

iii. Dancing of a small object placed on sound box.

iv. We are able to listen to a particular radio station because the tuned circuit in the radio
set resonate at the frequency of the incoming electromagnetic wave which nearly
coincide with its own natural frequency.
v. A stationary tuning fork vibrates when another vibrating tuning fork having a natural
frequency equal to that of the stationary one is brought near it.

Example 1.9
Forced harmonic oscillations have the same displacement amplitudes at the natural frequencies
w1 = 400/s and w2 = 800/s. Calculate the resonant frequency at which the displacement is
maximum.
Solution
The amplitude of oscillation in case of forced vibration is given by

F0
m
(ω ) + ( 2γω )
2 2
2
− ω02 0

According to the problem,

F0 F0
m = m
(ω ) + ( 2γω ) (ω ) + ( 2γω )
2 2 2 2
2
−ω 2
1 1
2
− ω22 2

or 2ω 2 − ω12 − ω22 =
4γ 2 (A)

From Eq. (1.56), the resonant frequency is given by

ω
=res ω 2 − 2γ 2

Putting the value of 2γ 2 from (A) into this equation, we have

2ω 2 − ω12 − ω22
ω
=res ω2 −
2

ω12 + ω22
or ωres =
2
36 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

According to the problem, w1 = 400/s and w2 = 800/s. Putting these values into the
aforementioned equation, we get the resonant frequency at which the displacement is maximum as

4002 + 8002 ωres

ωres = = 632.46/s or ν=
res = 100 Hz.
2 2π

1.6 Coupled Oscillators

In the section on simple harmonic oscillators, the motion of a single particle held in place
by springs was considered. In this section, the motion of a group of particles bound by
spring-like forces to one another is discussed.

Figure 1.8 Cubic arrangement of atoms in a crystal as inferred from X-ray data. The spring like
forces act between neighbouring atoms

Simple harmonic oscillators interacting with each other by any type of influence are
called coupled oscillators. The understanding and manipulation of these phenomena has
 Oscillations and Waves 37

far-reaching implications in many fields of physics and engineering. For example, a system
of particles held together by springs turns out to be a useful model of the behavior of atoms
mutually bound in a crystalline solid. The atoms of a crystal are held in place by mutual
forces of interaction that oppose any disturbance from equilibrium positions, similar
to the forces in a spring (Fig. 1.8). For small displacements of the atoms, they behave
mathematically just like spring forces – that is, they obey Hooke’s law. Each atom is free to
move in three dimensions rather than one and therefore, each atom added to a crystal adds
three normal modes. In a typical crystal at ordinary temperature, all these modes are always
excited by random thermal energy.
The lower-frequency, longer-wavelength modes may also be excited mechanically.
These are called sound waves. The behavior of oscillatory electrical circuits inductively
coupled to each other can be explained using the concepts of coupled oscillators.
To begin with a simple case, consider two particles in a line, as shown in Fig. 1.9. The
system is a two-body coupled oscillator. Here the masses of the two bodies are same and
equal to ‘m’ and the spring constants of the two springs are same and equal to ‘k’. kc is
the spring constant of the coupling spring connecting the two bodies. For mathematical
simplicity, the motion is restricted to one dimension only, i.e., along the x-axis. Even this
elementary system is capable of surprising behavior. If one particle is held in place while
the other is displaced and then both are released, the displaced particle immediately begins
to execute simple harmonic oscillation.

Figure 1.9 A simple model of a two-body coupled oscillator.

This motion, by stretching the spring between the particles, starts to excite the second
particle into motion. Gradually, the energy of motion passes from the first particle to
the second particle and then the energy passes in the opposite direction. The motion of
one mass depends upon the motion of the other mass. The system will oscillate with two
degree of freedom and will have two natural frequencies. The mode of vibration in which
the system vibrates with one frequency is called the normal mode of vibration. For each
natural frequency, there corresponds a natural mode of vibration with a displacement
configuration called the normal mode. Normal modes of vibrations are the free vibrations
that depend only on the mass and stiffness of the system and how they are distributed.
To analyze the possible motions of the system, one may write the equations of motion
for the two bodies in differential form. Again for mathematical simplicity, the system is
made ideal, neglecting all dissipative forces like friction, air resistance, etc. The masses
of the springs are also neglected. Assume that all the springs are initially at their natural
38 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

lengths. We shall consider oscillations along the horizontal line (x-axis). This corresponds
to longitudinal oscillations.
The force on each particle depends on two factors – first is on its displacement from
its equilibrium position and second is on its distance from the other particle, because the
spring between them stretches or compresses according to that distance. For this reason,
the motions are coupled and the solution of each equation (i.e., the motion of each particle)
depends on the solution of the other (i.e., the motion of the other).
Move the left mass a distance x1 to the right and the right mass a distance x2 to the right
side. The coupling spring is therefore compressed by x1 and stretched by x2. The forces
acting on the left mass are:
i. The force kx1 towards the left side due to the stretching of the left spring by x1.
ii. The force kCx1 to the left due to the compression of the coupling spring by x1.
iii. The force kCx2 to the right due to the stretching of the coupling spring by x2.
The resultant force F1 acting on the left mass is

F1 =
−kx1 − kC x1 + kC x2

Similarly, the resultant force F2 acting on the right mass is

F2 =
−kx2 − kC x2 + kC x1

Applying Newton’s second law of motion to these equations, the differential equation of
motion for both masses are respectively

d 2 x1
m + kx1 − kC ( x2 − x1 ) =
0 (1.65)
dt 2

d 2 x2
m + kx2 − kC ( x1 − x2 ) =
0 (1.66)
dt 2

Equations (1.64) and (1.66) can be respectively rewritten as

d 2 x1 k + kC k
2
+ x1 − C x2 =
0 (1.67)
dt m m

d 2 x2 k + kC k (1.68)
2
+ x2 − C x1 =
0
dt m m

Addition and subtraction of Eqs (1.67) and (1.68) gives

d 2 ( x1 + x2 ) k
2
+ ( x1 + x2 ) =
0 (1.69)
dt m
 Oscillations and Waves 39

d 2 ( x1 − x2 ) k + 2kC
2
+ ( x1 − x2 ) =
0 (1.70)
dt m

Equations (1.69) and (1.70) indicate that x1 + x2 and x1 – x2 are the normal coordinates of the
k k + 2kc
motion. Also and are the normal frequencies of the system. It turns out that
m m
these normal frequencies are the frequencies at which the masses oscillate in their normal
modes of vibration. This will be further explained later. With the following substitution
into the aforementioned equations

q=
1 x1 + x2 (1.71)

q=
2 x1 − x2 (1.72)

k
ω1 = (1.73)
m

k + 2kc
ω2 = (1.74)
m

we have

d 2 q1
+ ω12 q1 =
0 (1.75)
dt 2

d 2 q2
+ ω22 q2 =
0 (1.76)
dt 2

Now we have our equations in a much simpler form. In fact, these equations are exactly the
same as that of the simple harmonic motion. The solutions are

q1 (t ) C1′ cos ω1t + C2′ sin ω1t

= (1.77)

q2 (t ) C3′ cos ω2t + C4′ sin ω2t

= (1.78)

From Eqs (1.71) and (1.72), we have

q1 + q2 q1 − q2
x1 = and x2 = (1.79)
2 2
40 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Thus, general solutions in terms of x2 and x1 are given as

x1 (t ) = C1 cos ω1t + C2 sin ω1t + C3 cos ω2t + C4 sin ω2t (1.80)

x2 (t ) = C1 cos ω1t + C2 sin ω1t − C3 cos ω2t − C4 sin ω2t (1.81)

Equations (1.80) and (1.81) show that motion of both masses is a superposition of two
harmonic vibrations having angular frequencies w1 and w2. The constants C1, C2, C3 and C4
are evaluated from initial boundary conditions.
The coordinates q1 and q2 in terms of which the equations of motion take the form of a
set of linear ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients involving just one of
the coordinates, are called normal coordinates. A vibration (solution) involving only one
dependent variable (normal coordinate) is called a normal mode of vibration and has its
own normal frequency. In other words, we can define normal mode vibration as a vibration
in which both masses harmonically oscillate at the same frequency. In such a normal mode,
all the components of the system oscillate with the same normal frequency. Note that the
normal mode corresponding to q1 has a frequency w1, which is equal to the frequency of
the individual oscillators. The normal mode corresponding to q2 has a frequency w2, which
is greater than the frequency of the individual oscillators. Since w2 > w1, the oscillation with
frequency w1 is referred to as the normal mode of vibration of the coupled oscillator with
lowest mode and the oscillation with frequency w2 is referred to as the normal mode of
vibration of the coupled oscillator with highest mode.
Case 1: Normal mode of oscillation at higher frequency (anti-symmetric mode)
According to Eqs (1.80) and (1.81), the normal mode of vibration of higher frequency w2
occurs when C1 = 0 and C2 = 0. Under this condition, Eqs (1.80) and (1.81) become

x1 (t ) C3 cos ω2t + C4 sin ω2t

= (1.82)

−C3 cos ω2t − C4 sin ω2t

x2 (t ) = (1.83)

In Eqs (1.82) and (1.83), x1 and x2 are opposite in sign and equal in magnitude. Therefore,
we conclude that in the normal mode of vibration of higher frequency w2, the two masses
are vibrating in opposite directions or are out of phase. The normal mode of vibration of
higher frequency is also known as the anti-symmetric mode.
Case 2: Normal mode of oscillation at lower frequency (symmetric mode)
Similarly, the normal mode of vibration at lower frequency w1 is obtained when C3 = 0 and
C4 = 0. Under this condition, Eqs (1.80) and (1.81) become

x1 (t ) C1 cos ω1t + C2 sin ω1t

= (1.84)
 Oscillations and Waves 41

x2 (t ) C1 cos ω1t + C2 sin ω1t

= (1.85)

In Eqs (1.84) and (1.85), x1 and x2 have the same sign and are equal in magnitude. Therefore,
we conclude that in the normal mode of vibration of lower frequency w1, the two masses
are vibrating in the same direction or are in phase. The normal mode of vibration of lower
frequency is also known as the symmetric mode.
Linear combination of normal modes
Suppose the left-side mass is displaced through a distance ‘r’ from its rest position keeping
the right-side mass at rest. Both masses are released at time t = 0. Mathematically, this case
can be described as

dx1 (t )
x1 (0) = r and =0
dt t =0

dx2 (t )
x2 (0) = 0 and =0
dt t =0

Putting these conditions into Eqs (1.80) and (1.81), we obtain

r r
=
C1 =, C3 = =
, C2 0, and C4 0
2 2

r r
Putting
= C1 =, C3 = =
, C2 0, and C4 0 into Eqs (1.80) and (1.81), we obtain
2 2

r ω +ω   ω −ω 
x1 (t ) = ( cos ω1t + cos ω2t ) = r cos  2 1  t cos  2 1  t (1.86)
2  2   2 

r ω +ω   ω −ω 
x2 (t ) = ( cos ω1t − cos ω2t ) = r sin  2 1  t sin  2 1  t (1.87)
2  2   2 

Unlike the case of pure normal modes, neither mass performs simple harmonic motion.
 ω + ω1 
The amplitude of the left-side mass is r cos  2  t , whereas amplitude of the right-side
 2 
 ω + ω1 
mass is r sin  2  t . Since there is a phase difference of π / 2, the crest of x1 corresponds
 2 
to the troughs of x2. Each mass oscillates between the maximum amplitude ‘r’ and an
amplitude of zero This has been illustrated in Fig. 1.10
42 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 1.10 Linear combination of normal mode when x1(0) = r, x2(0) = 0 and the left-side mass is
released from rest

If we give the system initial conditions of x1(0) = r1, x2(0) = r2 (i.e., two bodies have been
displaced through distances of r1 and r2),

dx1 (0) dx (0)

= 0 and 2 = 0
dt dt

(i.e., the two masses are released from rest), we can see a similar behavior. This has been
illustrated in Fig. 1.11.
However, neither mass’s oscillations ever reach an amplitude of zero. This is because
neither mass started at its equilibrium position. Here each mass oscillates between the
maximum amplitude r1 and the minimum amplitude r2. The energy of the system is
continuously oscillating between the two masses, while the total energy of the system
remains constant. The mathematics of the problem is left as an exercise to the students.
 Oscillations and Waves 43

Figure 1.11 Linear combination of normal mode when x1(0) = r1, x2(0) = r2 and the two masses
are released from rest

1.6.1 Experiment on a two-body coupled oscillator

An easy and interesting experiment can be performed on the coupled oscillator. A thick
cotton string is fixed tightly between two rigid support separated by a distance of less than
one meter. Two identical (i.e., same length and same mass) simple pendulums of length
approximately half meter are taken – they can be named A and B. These two simple pendulums
are knotted firmly to the tightly fixed string with a separation of around half meter. After
knotting the two pendulums, the cotton string will sag slightly. Let the two pendulums
become stationary. Without disturbing the other pendulum (B), oscillate one pendulum
(A) in a plane perpendicular to the tightly fixed string.
Now observe the two pendulums. After some time, the stationary pendulum B will start
oscillating with a slowly increasing amplitude and the oscillating pendulum A oscillates
with decreasing amplitude. Again, after some time, pendulum A comes to rest/equilibrium
position and pendulum B oscillates with the largest amplitude. Then the phenomenon will
start to reverse. This process will continue for infinite time. Energy transfer takes place
44 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

automatically from one pendulum to the other periodically with a certain fixed time period.
However, practically, the two pendulums will come to rest due to the damping coefficient
of the air medium and other practical difficulties. Interesting!
Students can do this experiment at home. The experiment can also be performed by
taking more than two pendulums of different lengths and different masses. Naturally, the
observation will be very much complicated, the degree of complexity depending upon the
number of such pendulums chosen and their relative positions.

1.7 Analogy of Mechanical and Electrical Oscillations

It would be very useful to show the analogy of mechanical and electrical oscillations. The
concepts developed earlier for mechanical oscillations can be obviously applied very well to
electrical oscillations in circuits. The behavior of charge or currents in electric circuits can be
described in terms of mechanical free, damped and forced harmonic oscillations. Suppose
an electric circuit consists of a resistor with resistance R, an inductor with inductance L and
a capacitor with capacitance C in series as shown in Fig. 1.12.

Figure 1.12 LCR series circuit with applied voltage V(t)

If VR, VL and VC are the instantaneous voltages across resistor, inductor, and capacitor
respectively, then by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit, we have

VR + VL + VC =
V (t ) (1.88)

Here
t = time
V(t) = time varying applied voltage
 Oscillations and Waves 45

dq
V=
R iR= R = voltage across resistor
dt

di d 2q
=
VL L= L 2 = voltage across inductor
dt dt

q ∫ i(τ )dτ
VC= = −∞
= voltage across capacitor
C C

q = charge

i = current

Thus, Eq. (1.88) can be re-written either in the form

t

di ∫ i(τ )dτ (1.89)

L + Ri + −∞
=
V (t )
dt C

or in the form

d 2q dq q (1.90)
L 2
+R + = V (t )
dt dt C

Differentiating Eq. (1.90) with respect to ‘t’, we have

d 2i di i dV (t )
L +R + = (1.91)
dt 2 dt C dt

For a sinusoidally varying voltage source, like V (t ) = VO sin ωt , Eqs (1.90) and (1.91)
becomes respectively

d 2q dq q
L 2
+R + = V0 sin ωt
dt dt C (1.92)

d 2i di i
L +R + = V0ω cos ωt (1.93)
dt 2 dt C
46 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Under different boundary conditions, these differential equations can be solved for the
current and charges at any instant of time.
A glance at Eqs (1.90)–(1.93) along with that of mechanical problems shows the
equivalence of electrical and mechanical oscillations as shown in the following table.

Equivalence of Electrical and Mechanical Oscillations

Mechanical Oscillation Electrical Oscillation

Mass Inductance

Damping coefficient Resistance

Spring constant Reciprocal of Capacitance

Applied Force Applied voltage

Displacement Charge

Velocity Current

1 2 1 q2
Potential Energy in spring = kx Energy in Capacitor =
2 2C
1 2 1 2
Kinetic Energy = mv Energy in inductor = Li
2 2

For equivalent expressions in electrical oscillations we have to replace the variables and
other parameters according to the aforementioned table. In this way, we can get voltage
equations from force equations as shown in the following text.
For example, let us discuss briefly the damped harmonic electrical oscillation produced
when a charged capacitor is connected to a resistor and inductor in series as shown in
Fig. 1.13.

Figure 1.13 LCR series circuit without applied voltage

 Oscillations and Waves 47

In this case, since there is no externally applied voltage, from Eq. (1.90), we get

d 2 q R dq 1
+ + q=
0
dt 2 L dt LC

R2 1
Comparing this equation with Eq. (1.23) for < , we can have
4 L2 LC
q = q0 e −γ t cos (ω1t + θ )
(1.94)

1 R
Here ω1 =ω02 − γ 2 , ω0 = , γ = , q0 e −γ t , and θ are the angular frequency, natural
LC 2L
angular frequency, attenuation factor, instantaneous amplitude, and initial phase angle of
oscillation respectively. The parameters q0 and q can be determined from initial boundary
conditions.
Similarly, by comparing Eq. (1.93) with Eq. (1.36), we have

V0ω
i= sin(ωt + β )
2
 2 1
ω L − C  + R ω
2 2

 

 1 − ω 2 LC 
with β = tan −1  
 RCω 

Example 1.10
An LCR circuit as shown in Fig. 1.13 contains an inductor of inductance 20.0 mH, a capacitor
of capacitance 5.0 mF and a resistor of resistance 0.2 ohm. Calculate the angular frequency
of oscillation. After how long a time will the charge oscillation decay to half of its initial
amplitude. Assume the initial phase angle to be zero.
Solution
Data given are

L = 20.0 × 10–3 H

C = 5.0 × 10–6 F

R = 0.2 ohm

q 1
=
q0 2
48 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The angular frequency of the electrical oscillation is

1 R2
ω1 = − 2 = 1.0 × 107 − 2.5 rad/s = 3162.3 rad/s
LC 4 L

R
γ
= = 1.58 rad/s
2L

Putting the given conditions in Eq. (1.94), we get

1 −1.58t
=e
2

ln2
=
or t = s 0.44 s
1.58

Thus, the charge oscillation decays to half of its initial amplitude in 0.44 s.

1.8 Wave as a Periodic Variation Quantity in Space

and Time
When a pebble is thrown into the still water of a pond, disturbance is created at the point
where the pebble enters the water. The disturbance created thus is not confined to that
point alone; it spreads out and reaches the boundary of the pond. The water does not move
or flow towards the edge of the pond; only the disturbance moves. The water particles
move up and down over a short distance in a vertical direction about their mean position
as a result of which disturbance travels in a horizontal direction. At any time, the amount of
disturbance is not the same at all points on the water surface. Also, at any point, the amount
of disturbance varies with time. In non-technical language, we call this disturbance, water
waves. This behavior is characteristic of all wave motions.
Now we can define the wave in the following way. A wave is defined as a disturbance
that moves through a medium in such a manner that at any position, the displacement
of the particles of the medium is a function of time while at any instant the displacement
of the particles of the medium is a function of the position of the point. The medium as a
whole does not move in the direction of the motion of the wave. The wave is also called a
progressive wave or a travelling wave (see stationary waves).

1.8.1 Wave equation

Sinusoidal waves can be represented by an equation of the form

ψ ( x, t ) =
r sin (ωt ± kx ) or ψ ( x , t ) =
r sin k ( vt ± x )  (1.95)
 Oscillations and Waves 49

The ‘+’ sign is used if the wave is travelling towards the left side (–x direction) and the ‘–’
sign is used if the wave is travelling towards the right-side (+x direction).
Here
r = amplitude of the wave
w = angular frequency of the wave
2π
k= = wave number of the wave = magnitude of propagation vector.
λ
ω
v = phase speed of the wave =
k
x and t = position and time functions.

The speed of the wave (wave speed) and the speeds of the particles of the medium
(particle speed) are not the same. The particle speed is found out by differentiating the
aforementioned equation. The particle speed is not the same for all the particles. The
relation between maximum particle speed Vmax and wave speed ‘v’ is given by

2π r (1.96)
Vmax = v
λ

1.8.2 Wave equation in differential form

The general wave equation in one dimension is given by

∂ 2 Ψ(x , t ) 1 ∂ 2 Ψ(x , t ) 1 ∂Ψ(x , t )

= 2 + (1.97)
∂x 2 v ∂t 2 ξ ∂t

and in three dimension, it is given by

1 ∂ 2 Ψ 1 ∂Ψ
∇2 Ψ
= +
v 2 ∂t 2 ξ ∂t

1 ∂ 2 Ψ 1 ∂Ψ
or ∇2 Ψ − − =0 (1.98)
v 2 ∂t 2 ξ ∂t

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
where ∇=
2
+ + and is called a Laplacian operator. In these equations, x called
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
diffusivity, takes care of the energy loss of the wave in the medium. Here, Y is called wave
function and v is the speed of the wave. The wave function plays the role of disturbance in
wave propagation. It contains all the information regarding the wave propagation.
The solution of this wave Eq. (1.97) gives the direction of propagation, the wave speed
and many other properties of waves. In case of a stretched string, Y is the displacement of
the string from the x-axis; in case of a sound wave, Y is the pressure difference; in case of
50 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

light wave, Y is either an electric field or a magnetic field. Solutions of this differential wave
equation are of many kinds, reflecting a variety of waves that can occur.

1.9 Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

Depending upon the direction of oscillation of the particles of the medium, progressive
waves can be divided into two categories of waves; one is longitudinal waves and the other
is transverse waves.

1.9.1 Longitudinal waves

A longitudinal wave is defined as a wave in which particles of the medium oscillate in the
direction of propagation of the wave. A beautiful example of a longitudinal wave is the
sound wave. Sound waves propagate in the air medium. In the propagation of sound waves,
air particles oscillate (but do not move) about their mean position in the direction in which
sound travels. In this case, air particles get compressed at one region and at the adjacent
region, air particles get rarefied. This process goes on alternately. The two compression and
rarefaction regions are pictorially represented in Fig. 1.14.

Figure 1.14 Propagation of longitudinal waves. C represents a compression region and R represents
a rarefaction region

1.9.2 Transverse waves

The transverse wave is defined as the wave in which particles of the medium oscillate in a
direction perpendicular (i.e., transverse) to the direction of propagation of the wave. One
of the visible examples of a transverse wave is the water wave. Water wave propagates in
the water medium. In the propagation of a water wave, water particles oscillate about their
mean position in a direction perpendicular to the direction in which the water wave travels.
In this case, water particles get raised above the normal level of the water surface at one
region and at the adjacent region, water particles get depressed below the normal level
of the water surface. The raised region is called ‘crest’ and the depressed region is called
‘trough’. This process goes on alternately and is represented in Fig. 1.15.
 Oscillations and Waves 51

Figure 1.15 Water waves or ripples

All electromagnetic waves belong to the transverse wave category. In this case, the
electromagnetic field oscillates and no material medium is necessary.

Example 1.11
The equation of a wave moving along a string is Y = 4 sin p(0.04 x – 8 t). Here Y, x are in cm
and t is in seconds. Find the amplitude, frequency, and speed of the wave. Also calculate the
phase difference between two points situated 25 cm apart.
Solution
The given equation is Ψ =4 sin π (0.04 x − 8t ) =
4 sin 2π (0.02 x − 4t )
x t 
Comparing this equation with the standard equation
= Ψ r sin 2π  −  , we get r = 4 cm,
1 1 λ T 
= 0.02/cm, and = 4/s. Thus, we have amplitude r = 4 cms, wavelength l = 50 cms,
λ T 1
time period T = 0.25 s and frequency = 4 Hz. The velocity of the wave is given by
T
Speed = frequency x. Wavelength = 4 × 50 cm/s = 200 cm/s

The phase difference between the two points is given by

2π
=
Phase difference × path difference
λ

2π
= × 25 = π radian
50
52 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1.9.3 Difference between longitudinal waves and transverse waves

We can list the differences between longitudinal and transverse waves by having the mental
picture of a sound wave and a water wave in our mind.

Longitudinal wave Transverse wave

1 Here, the particles oscillate about their mean Here, the particles oscillate about their mean
position in the direction of propagation of the position in the direction perpendicular to the
wave direction of propagation of the wave

2 The wave travels in the form of compression and The wave travels in the form of crest and troughs.
rarefaction. One compression and one rarefaction One crests and one trough form a wave.
form a wave.

3 The production of this type of wave is possible in The production of this type of wave is possible in
all type of media any type of media which have elasticity.

4 The longitudinal wave cannot be polarized The transverse wave can be polarized

5 Examples: sound wave, seismic primary waves, Examples: All type of electromagnetic waves,
shock waves in air (shock waves are created by waters waves, seismic shear waves, seismic Love
violent explosion), etc. waves, etc.

1.9.4 Characteristics of progressive waves

The following are the characteristics of progressive waves.

i. A progressive wave is the disturbance produced in the medium by the repeated
periodic motion of the particles of the medium, motion being handed over from
particle to particle.
ii. It is the progressive wave which advances. The particles of the medium do not travel
but oscillate about their mean position.
iii. There is a continuous phase difference between the particles of the medium when
progressive wave advances.
iv. The velocity of the progressive wave is uniform through out the medium.
v. When a progressive wave propagates, each particle of the medium oscillates about
their mean position with the same amplitude and time period. The velocity of the
particle is different at different points. It is maximum at the mean position and zero at
the extreme position.
vi. The particle velocity is different from the wave velocity.
vii. There is transmission of energy across every plane in the direction of propagation
waves
 Oscillations and Waves 53

1.10 Stationary Waves

A stationary wave is defined as a wave produced by the superposition of two identical
progressive waves (i.e., progressive waves having the same wavelength, the same time
period, the same frequency and the same speed) propagating through a medium in a line
but in opposite directions. The new wave produced by this method is called a stationary
wave because there is no transmission of energy across any plane. That means stationary
waves do not carry energy. There are certain points in the medium at which particles of the
medium are permanently at rest. These points are called nodes. There are certain points
in the medium at which particles of the medium are oscillating with maximum amplitude.
These points are called anti nodes. The stationary wave can not carry energy because the
particles of the medium at the nodes are permanently at rest without having any energy.
Stationary waves are also called standing waves.

1.10.1 Formation of stationary waves

A stationary wave is formed when the incident wave and the corresponding wave reflected
by a rigid wall are superimposed on each other. In Fig. 1.16, the displacement graphs of
both incident and reflected waves are plotted.
The incident wave is supposed to be travelling from left to right. The reflected wave
(Fig. 1.17) is travelling from right to left. These incident and reflected waves superimpose
on each other and thus give rise to stationary waves. The continuous curve in 3 of Fig. 1.16
depicts the resultant stationary waves. The mode of stationary waves depends upon the
phase difference of the two waves. The nature of stationary waves is shown graphically in
Fig. 1.17 at different intervals. Here, the incident wave (I) is represented by dotted curves
and the reflected wave (II) is represented by dashed line curves.

Case 1:
At t = 0, the second crest of the incident wave coincides with the trough of the reflected
wave. Since the two waves have equal amplitude, the resultant stationary wave is a straight
line represented by a solid line. At all the points P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, the particles
of the medium have zero amplitude. See Fig. 1.17(a)

Case 2:
At t = T/4, the second incident and reflected wave have individually advanced towards each
other by a distance of l/4 and the relative displacement between them is l/2.  λ + λ = λ
.
 4 4 2 
As a result of this, the crest of the incident wave coincides with the crest of the reflected
wave giving a resultant stationary wave of maximum amplitude. Points P1, P3, P5, P7 and P9
acquire maximum displacements while the points P2, P4, P6, and P8 have zero amplitude.
See Fig. 1.17(b).
54 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 1.16 Stationary waves as superposition of right and left going waves. 1 and 2 are components,
3 the resultant

Case 3:
At t = T/2 second, the incident and the reflected wave have individually advanced towards
λ λ 
each other by a distance of l/2 and the relative displacement between them is l  + = λ .
2 2 
As a result, the crest of the incident wave coincides with the trough of the reflected wave
giving a resultant stationary wave of zero amplitude. In this case, again, the resultant
stationary wave is a straight line. See Fig. 1.17(c).
 Oscillations and Waves 55

Figure 1.17 Graphical explanation for the formation of stationary waves. The dotted curve and
the dashed line curve represent the incident and reflected curves respectively. The
continuous curve is the stationary wave. Ns are the positions of nodes and As are the
positions of antinodes

Case 4:
At t = 3T/4 second, the incident and reflected wave have individually advanced towards
each other by a distance of 3l /4 and the relative displacement between them is

 3λ 3λ 3λ 
l3/2.  + = .
 4 4 2 

As a result of this, the trough of the incident wave coincides with the trough of the reflected
wave giving a resultant stationary wave of maximum amplitude but opposite to that of
Case 2. Points P1, P3, P5, P7 and P9 acquire maximum displacements while the points P2, P4,
P6, and P8 have zero amplitude. See Fig. 1.17(d).

Case 5:
At t = T second, the crest of the incident wave coincides with the trough of the reflected
wave. Since the two waves have equal amplitude, the resultant stationary wave is a straight
line represented by a solid line. At all the points, P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, the particles
of the medium have zero amplitude. See Fig. 1.17(e).
 56 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1.10.2 Characteristics of stationary waves

The followings are the characteristics of stationary waves.

i. A stationary wave is produced when two identical progressive waves (i.e., waves
having the same wavelength, the same time period, the same frequency, and the same
speed) travelling in the same line but in opposite directions are superimposed.
ii. The points at which particles are not oscillating are called nodes.
iii. The points at which particles are oscillating with maximum displacements are called
anti nodes
iv. The distance between any two consecutive nodes is half the wavelength.
v. The distance between any two consecutive anti nodes is half the wavelength
vi. The distance between any two consecutive nodes and anti nodes is one-fourth of the
wavelength.
vii. Except at nodes, each particle of the medium executes simple harmonic oscillation
about its mean position with a time period equal to the time period of the wave motion.
viii. Amplitudes of all the particles of the medium are not the same. It is zero at the node
and maximum at the anti node.

1.10.3 Differences between progressive and stationary waves

Progressive waves Stationary waves

1 A progressive wave is produced due to the A stationary wave is produced when two identical
oscillation of the particles of the medium. progressive waves travelling in the same line but
opposite directions are superimposed.

2 The waves move with a velocity depending The waves remain stationary and do not move.
upon the properties of the medium.

3 Each particle of the medium executes periodic Except the node, all the particles of the medium
motion about their mean position with the same execute SHO with varying amplitude.
amplitude.

4 There is a continuous change of phase from All the particles between two consecutive nodes
particle to particle. are at the same phase, but differ in phase by p
from those in the preceding as well as succeeding
similar segments.

5 At any instant all the particles do not come All the particles pass their mean position at a time,
together in the mean position, they pass their but with different velocities.
mean position in succession but with the same
velocity.
 Oscillations and Waves 57

6 Each particle of the medium undergoes similar There is no change of pressure and densities at
change of pressure and density the antinodes while there is maximum change of
pressure and densities at the nodes.

7 There is transmission of energy across every There is no flow of energy across any plane.
plane in the direction of propagation of waves.

8 A complete wavelength contains a compression The wavelength is the distance between two
and rarefaction in the case of longitudinal waves alternate nodes and anti nodes.
and crest and trough in the case of transverse
waves.

9 Compression and rarefaction move from point The compression and rarefaction do not move
to point throughout the medium. from point to point; they simply appear at and
disappear at certain equidistance fixed points.

10 No particle of the medium is permanently at Particles at the nodes are permanently at rest.
rest.

11 The equation of a progressive wave is given by The equation of a stationary wave is given by
ψ (x , t ) = r sin (kx  ωt ) ψ (x , t ) = 2r sin kx cos ωt

1.11 Reflection of a Wave at the Boundary of Two Media

When a wave is allowed to fall on the interface separating two media, the wave is returned
to the same medium completely or partially. This phenomenon is called reflection.
Reflection is defined as the phenomenon by virtue of which wave (actually energy
contained in the wave) is sent back to the same medium by an interface separating the
two media.

1.11.1 Reflection of transverse waves

Case 1: Passing from rarer medium to denser medium

Let a transverse wave travel along a string fixed to a point ‘P’ on the rigid wall. Suppose a
crest is formed in the string just before the wall. The string will exert an upward force on
the point P as a result of which a downward force of same magnitude will act (Newton’s
third law) on the string at the point ‘P’. The result will be the formation of a trough just
before the point ‘P’. See Fig. 1.18. Therefore, there is a phase change p when a transverse
wave is reflected back by the surface of a denser medium.
58 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 1.18 Reflection of transverse waves from a rigid (hard) wall

Case 2: Passing from denser medium to rarer medium

Let a transverse wave travel along a string fixed to a point ‘P’ on a mass-less ring capable of
sliding freely in the vertical direction without any friction on the rigid support. Suppose a
crest is formed in the string just before the support. The string will exert an upward force
on the point P as a result of which the ring will slide in the upward direction. The result
will be the formation of a crest just before the point ‘P’. See Fig. 1.19. Therefore, there is no
phase change when a transverse wave is reflected back by the surface of a rarer medium.

Figure 1.19 Reflection of transverse waves from a flexible (soft) wall

 Oscillations and Waves 59

1.11.2 Reflection of longitudinal waves

Case 1: Passing from rarer medium to denser medium
Longitudinal waves propagate by means of compression and rarefaction. Let a longitudinal
wave travel towards the rigid wall, i.e., toward the interface separating the rarer medium
from the denser medium. (imagine the propagation of sound waves). Suppose a compression
region is formed just before the rigid wall. The compressed particles will rebound in a
group forming a compression region in the vicinity of the wall. Thus, compression is
reflected back as compression. The same is the fate of the rarefaction. Therefore, a wave
of compression travelling from a rarer to a denser medium is reflected as a wave of
compression while rarefaction is reflected as rarefaction. That means there is no phase
change when a longitudinal wave is reflected back by the surface of a denser medium. See
Fig. 1.20.

Figure 1.20 Reflection of longitudinal waves from a rigid (hard) wall

Case 2: Passing from denser medium to rarer medium

Let a longitudinal wave travel towards the interface separating a denser medium from
a rarer medium. Suppose a compression region is formed just before the interface. The
compression region presses the particles of the rarer medium which yield to it and move
forward with higher speed, leaving a rarefaction behind. This rarefaction travels back as
a reflected wave. Thus, compression is reflected back as rarefaction. The same is the fate
of the rarefaction. Therefore, a wave of compression travelling from a denser to a rarer
medium is reflected as a wave of rarefaction while rarefaction is reflected as compression.
That means that there is phase change of p when a longitudinal wave is reflected back by
the surface of a rarer medium. See Fig. 1.21.
60 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 1.21 Reflection of transverse waves from a flexible (soft) wall

1.12 Refraction of a Wave at the Boundary of Two Media

When a wave is allowed to fall on the interface separating two media, the wave is
transmitted to the other medium completely or partially. This phenomenon is called
refraction. Refraction is defined as the phenomenon by virtue of which wave (actually
energy contained in the wave) is transmitted to the other medium through the interface
separating the two media. The speed and wavelength of waves change in refraction.

1.12.1 Refraction of transverse waves

Case 1: Passing from rarer medium to denser medium

Let a transverse wave travel along a thin string attached to a thick string at a point ‘P’ on
the interface. Suppose a crest is formed in the thin string just before the interface. The thin
string will exert an upward force on the point P as a result of which a downward force of
the same magnitude will act (Newton’s third law) on the light string. The result will be
the formation of a trough just before the interface and a crest just after the interface. See
Fig. 1.22. Hence, a crest is refracted or transmitted as a crest. Therefore, there is no change of
phase when a transverse wave is refracted going from a rarer medium to a denser medium.

Case 2: Passing from denser medium to rarer medium

Let a transverse wave travel along a thick string attached to a thin string at a point ‘P’ on the
interface. Suppose a crest is formed in the thick string just before the interface. The thick
string will exert an upward force on the point P as a result of which light string will yield
to the upward force resulting in the formation of a crest just after and before the interface.
See Fig. 1.23. Hence, a crest is refracted or transmitted as a crest. Therefore, there is no
change of phase when a transverse wave is refracted going from a denser medium to a rarer
medium.
 Oscillations and Waves 61

Figure 1.22 Refraction of transverse waves through a flexible (soft) wall

Figure 1.23 Refraction of transverse waves through a rigid (hard) wall

1.12.2 Refraction of longitudinal waves

Case 1: Passing from rarer medium to denser medium

As mentioned earlier, longitudinal waves propagate in the form of compression and
rarefaction. Let a longitudinal wave travel towards the rigid wall, i.e., toward the interface
separating a rarer medium from a denser medium. Suppose a compression region is formed
just before the rigid wall. See Fig. 1.24.
62 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 1.24 Refraction of longitudinal waves through a rigid (hard) wall

The compressed particles will strike the wall in a group forming a compression region
in the vicinity of the back of the wall. Thus, compression is refracted or transmitted as
compression. The same is the fate of the rarefaction. Therefore, a wave of compression
travelling from the rarer to the denser medium is refracted as a wave of compression
while rarefaction is refracted as rarefaction. That means there is no phase change when a
longitudinal wave is transmitted or refracted from a rarer medium to a denser medium.
Case 2: Passing from denser medium to rarer medium
Let a longitudinal wave travel towards the interface separating a denser medium from
a rarer medium. Suppose a compression region is formed just before the interface. The
compression region presses the particles of the rarer medium to replace them. Thus,
compression is refracted as compression. The same is the fate of the rarefaction. Therefore,
a wave of compression travelling from the denser to the rarer medium is refracted as a wave
of compression while rarefaction is refracted as rarefaction. That means there is no change
of phase when a longitudinal wave is refracted or transmitted from a denser medium and
a rarer medium. See Fig. 1.25.

Figure 1.25 Refraction of longitudinal waves through a flexible (soft) wall

 Oscillations and Waves 63

Example 1.12
The equation of a stationary wave in a medium is given as

2π x
Ψ =6 cos sin 20π t .
13
Here Y and x are in cm and t in seconds. Calculate the amplitude, wavelength, and velocity of
the two component waves. Determine the distance between two consecutive nodes and anti-
nodes. What is the velocity of a particle at a distance 13 cms at time 0.2 s?
Solution
The given equation

2π x
Ψ =6 cos sin 20π t
13
can be written as

2π x
Ψ = 2 × 3cos sin 2π × 10t
13
Comparing this equation with the standard stationary wave equation

2π x t
Ψ =2r cos sin 2π ,
λ T

we get
amplitude = 3 cms, wavelength l = 13 cm time period T = 0.1 s, frequency = 10/s,
velocity = wavelength × frequency = 13 × 10 cm/s = 130 cm/s.
The distance between two consecutive nodes and anti nodes = 13 cms/2 = 6.5 cm.
The particle speed is given by

dΨ d 2π x 2π x
= 6 cos sin 20π t = 6 cos cos 20π t × 20π
dt dt 3 13

So the particle speed at x = 13 cm and t = 0.2 s will be = 6 × cos 2π × cos 4π × 20π =

120π cm/s

Example 1.13
The vibration of a string 40 cms in length fixed at both ends are given by the equation

4π x
Ψ =4 sin cos(4π t ).
25
64 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Here Y, x are in cm and t in seconds. What is the maximum displacement of a particle at

2.5 cm? Write down the equation of the component waves whose superposition gives this
stationary wave.
Solution
The given equation

4π x
Ψ =4 sin cos(4π t )
25
can be written as

2 × 2π x
Ψ = 2 × 2sin cos(2π × 2t )
25

Comparing this equation with a standard equation of the form

2π x  t
Ψ =2r sin cos  2π  ,
λ  T
we have amplitude = 2 cm, wavelength = 25/2 = 12.5 cm, time period = 1/2 = 0.5 s,
frequency = 2/s, speed = 12.5 × 2 = 25 cm/s
The maximum displacement of the particle of the medium is

4π x
Ψ max =
4 sin .
25

The maximum displacement of a particle at x = 2.5 cms is

 4π 
4 × sin  × 2.5  =
4 × 0.95 =
3.80 cm.
 25 

The equations of the component waves are

2π 2π
=Ψ1 r sin =
(x − vt ) 2sin (x − 25t )
λ 12.5

2π 2π
=
and Ψ1 r sin =
(x + vt ) 2sin (x + 25t ).
λ 12.5

1.13 Wave Packet

The concept of a wave packet is purely quantum mechanical. A pure sine wave extends
from −∞ to + ∞. That means it is completely unlocalized. A classical particle is
 Oscillations and Waves 65

approximately localized. We do not know the exact position vector of an electron in an

atom. Such a situation can be described by the concept of wave packets.
A wave packet is defined as a group of waves of slightly different wavelengths, with
phases and amplitudes chosen such that they are superposed to interfere constructively
over only a small region of space; outside of this space they produce an amplitude that
reduces to zero rapidly as a result of destructive interference. Thus, a wave packet is a
localized wave, amplitude of which is zero except over a small region. When a wave packet
is localized in a small region, it can be regarded as a point. Therefore, the motion of a point
particle can be described by the motion of a wave packet. It also has a periodic structure
that is characteristic of a wave. We can represent a wave packed in one dimension by an
expression such as

∞
2π x (1.99)
∫ r(λ ) cos
Ψ( x ) =
0 λ
dλ

2π x
where cos is a sinusoidal wave with wavelength l. The integral represents a superposition
λ
in which we add a very large number of such waves with slightly different values of l, each
with an amplitude r (l) that depends upon l. The wave packet is also called a wave group.
See Fig. 1.26.

Figure 1.26 The resultant of the addition of many sine waves of different amplitudes and
wavelengths
66 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1.14 Phase Velocity and Group Velocity

1.14.1 Phase velocity

The velocity of an individual wave is defined as the phase velocity. It is also the velocities
with which the component waves of a wave packet move inside the wave packet. The phase
velocity is not the velocity of propagation of any physical quantity; it simply represents the
velocity of a point of constant phase on the wavefront. Let x be the position of a point on
the wave front of the wave. The phase velocity vp is defined as
dx (1.100)
vp =
dt

From Section 1.10, we have

dx ω
ωt ± kx =
constant or = .
dt k

ω
or vp = (1.101)
k

2π
We can also get Eq. (1.101) by using the relations
= k = , ω 2πν , and v = λν . Here n is
the linear frequency of the wave. λ

1.14.2 Group velocity

Group velocity is defined as the physical velocity with which a wave packet or wave group
travels. If all the component waves making up a wave packet travels with the same phase
velocity, the wave packet will move with this velocity and maintains its form unchanged. If
the phase velocity varies with wavelength, the component waves do not proceed together. In
this case the wave packet has a different velocity from the phase velocities of the component
waves of the wave packet. Group velocity vg is defined as the rate of variation of angular
frequency with wave number. Mathematically, it is given by
dω (1.102)
vg =
dk

Here
w = angular frequency of the wave

2π
k= = magnitude of propagation vector
λ
The phenomenon of variation of phase velocity with wavelengths of the component waves
of a wave packet is called dispersion. Depending upon how the phase velocity varies with
 Oscillations and Waves 67

wave number k in a particular situation, the group velocity may be less or more than the
phase velocities of the constituent waves of the wave packet. If the constituent waves of
a wave packet travel with the same velocities as that of the wave packet, then the phase
velocity and group velocity are the same. This happens in case of light waves moving in
vacuum. The wave packet moves with group velocity where as within the wave packet,
constituent waves may move with phase velocities. The phase velocity cannot be defined
for a wave packet. It is meaningful only for component waves making up the wave packet.
Electromagnetic signals are transmitted with group velocity and not with phase velocity.
Phase speed and group speed would be better terms in comparison to the terms phase
velocity and group velocity respectively.

Example 1.14
=
Two harmonic waves given by ψ 1 12sin(4π t − 5x=) and ψ 2 16sin(8π t − 7 x ) are superposed
to produce a single wave. Find the group speed of the resultant wave.
Solution
Comparing the given two equations with a standard wave equation, the angular frequencies
w ’s of the two waves are obtained as

ω1 = 4π (A)

ω2 = 8π (B)

Again comparing the given two equations with a standard wave equation, the propagation
vectors of the two waves are obtained as
k1 = 5 (C)

k2 = 7 (D)
Hence, the group speed of the resultant wave is given by

dω
vg =
dk

∆ω ω2 − ω1
or =
vg = (E)
∆k k2 − k1

Putting the values of w 1, w 2, k1 and k2 from equations (A), (B), (C), and (D) into equation (E),
we have

(8π − 4π )/s
vg =
(7 − 5)/cm

or v g = 6.28 cm/s
68 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1.14.3 Relation between phase velocity and group velocity

The phase velocity is the average velocity of component waves making up the wave packet
and is defined in Eq. (1.101) as

ω
vp =
k

or ω = v pk

The group velocity is the velocity of the wave packet and is defined in Eq. (1.102) as

dω d(v p k)
=
vg =
dk dk

dv p
or v=
g vp + k (1.103)
dk

2π
Since k = , Eq. (1.103) becomes
λ

dv p dλ dv p d  2π 
v g =+
vp k × =+
vp k ×
dλ dk dλ dk  k 

dv p
or v=
g vp − λ (1.104)
dλ

This shows that the group velocity may be equal to, less than or more than the phase velocity
of a wave depending upon the variation of phase velocity with respect to the wavelength.

dv p
Case 1: = 0 ⇒ vg =
vp
dλ
dv p
If the phase velocity of the component waves is independent of the wavelength, i.e., = 0,
dλ
then group velocity and phase velocity are equal as in the case of electromagnetic waves
propagating in vacuum. In this case, wave packet moves with the velocity of the component
dv p
waves making up the wave packet. = 0 in a non-dispersive media.
dλ
 Oscillations and Waves 69

dv p
Case 2: > 0 ⇒ vg < vp
dλ

If the phase velocity of the component waves increases with increase of the wavelength,
dv p
i.e., > 0 , then group velocity is less than the phase velocity as in the case of an
dλ
electromagnetic wave propagating in a transparent medium like water or glass. In this case,
the wave packet moves with a velocity less than that of the component waves making up the
wave packet. When white light passes through a glass prism, constituent wavelengths are
separated out and travel through the prism with different phase velocities. This phenomenon
is called normal dispersion and the medium is called a normal dispersive medium.

dv p
Case 3: < 0 ⇒ vg > vp
dλ

If the phase velocity of the component waves increases with decrease of the wavelength,
dv p
i.e., < 0 , then group velocity is more than the phase velocity as in the case of an
dλ
electromagnetic wave propagating in an ionized media. In this case, the wave packet moves
with a speed more than that of the component waves making up the wave packet. This
phenomenon is called an anomalous dispersion and the medium is called anomalous
dispersive medium.

Example 1.15
The de Broglie wavelength of a moving electron is 5 × 10–12 m. Find its kinetic energy, phase
speed and group speed.
Solution
h
de Broglie’s famous relation is p =
λ

hc 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

=
or pc = = J 3.98 × 1014 J
λ 5.0 × 10 −12

or pc = 637 keV

2
The rest energy of the electron=
E0 m=
ec 511 keV

The kinetic energy KE of the electron is

K.E. =E − E0 = E02 + ( pc)2 − E0 = (551)2 + (637)2 keV − 511 keV =305.63 keV
 70 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

We know that

E0
E=
v2
1−
c2

Hence, the speed of the electron can be found out from

E02 511
v = c 1− = c 1− = 0.780 c = The group speed of the electron = v g = 0.780 m/s
E2 816.63

The phase speed of the electron is given by

c2 c2
v=
p = = 1.28 c
v 0.780c

The phase speed is more than the light speed in vacuum!

1.15 Uncertainty Principle

1.15.1 Uncertainty principle for classical waves

The sinusoidal wave Ψ =r1 sin k1 x extends from – ∞ to + ∞ , and hence it is located everywhere.
It is called unlocalized (i.e., there is uncertainty in position ∆x =∞ ). Since there are a
large number of waves, the wavelength can be accurately determined (i.e., uncertainty in
wave number Dk = 0). However, it cannot describe a particle. The sinusoidal wave
=ψ r1 sin k1 x + r2 sin k2 x (one more wave is added) also extends from – ∞ to + ∞ ; however,
we know a bit more about the location of the wave. In case of sound wave, it is the well
known phenomenon of beats. See Fig. 1.27.
The particles of the medium oscillate with much less amplitude at certain points. Unlike
the first case, the determination of the location of the wave improves, i.e., uncertainty
in position Dx decreases at the cost of the accurate determination of wavelength, i.e.,
uncertainty in wave number Dk increased. If we superpose a very large number of waves,
the resultant wave will be like shown in Fig. 1.24. Here, uncertainty in position Dx
decreases and uncertainty in wave number Dk increases, i.e., they are inversely related. So
approximately, we have

∆x ⋅ ∆k ≈ 1 (1.105)

This is the wave number and position uncertainty relationship for classical waves which
states that for any type of wave, the position can be determined accurately at the cost of our
knowledge of its wavelength.
 Oscillations and Waves 71

Figure 1.27 Two waves of different frequency combined to cause beats

One of the other uncertainty relationships for classical waves between angular frequency
and time is

∆ω ⋅ ∆t ≈ 1. (1.106)

It states that for any type of wave, the angular frequency can be determined accurately at
the cost of our knowledge of its time interval.

Example 1.16
One day standing on the Puri sea beach (Odisha), you observe that within a distance of 30 m there
are 30 number of water wave crests. Calculate the minimum uncertainty in the wavelength
measurement.
Solution
The wavelength l of the water wave is found out as

30m
=λ = 1m
30

2π
k=
λ
2π
or dk = − dλ
λ2
72 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Thus by replacing the minus sign, we can have

2π
∆k= ∆λ
λ2
The uncertainty principle for classical wave is given by

∆k∆x ≈ 1

 2π 
or ∆x  ∆λ  ≈ 1
λ
2


1 λ 2 1 12
or ∆λ ≈ ≈ ≈ 5.31 × 10−3 m.
∆x 2π 30 2π
This is the minimum uncertainty in the wavelength measurement – it is too small to be
measured for water waves.

1.15.2 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

This principle is also called the indeterminacy principle. German physicist Werner
Heisenberg, in the year 1927, made the historical statement that even in theory, the
position and the velocity of an object cannot both be measured with cent percent accuracy
simultaneously. The concepts of exact position and exact velocity together, have no meaning
in nature. Ordinary experience provides no clue of this principle. It is easy to measure both
the position and the velocity of an automobile, because the uncertainties implied by this
principle for ordinary objects are too small to be observed. The complete rule dictates that
the product of the uncertainties in position and velocity is equal to or greater than a small
physical quantity
 h 
1.054 × 10−34 Js,  =  ,
=
 2π 
where h is Planck’s constant. It is only for atoms and subatomic particles that the product
of the uncertainties becomes significant due to their very small masses. Any attempt to
measure precisely the position of an electron, will knock it about in an unpredictable way,
so that a simultaneous measurement of its velocity has no validity. This result has nothing
to do with inadequacies in the measuring instruments, the technique, or the observer. It
arises out of the intimate connection in nature between particles and waves in the realm of
subatomic dimensions. Every particle has a wave associated with it and it exhibits wavelike
behavior. The particle is most likely to be found in those places where the undulations
of the wave are most intense. The more intense the undulations of the associated wave
become, the more ill defined becomes the wavelength and so is the momentum of the
 h
particle  p =  . Hence, a completely localized wave has an indeterminate wavelength.
 λ
 Oscillations and Waves 73

The corresponding particle has a definite position but no definite velocity. A particle wave
having a well-defined wavelength is spread out. The particle, while having precise velocity
may be present almost anywhere.
A quite accurate measurement of one observable results in large uncertainty in the
measurement of the other conjugate observable. The uncertainty principle is alternatively
expressed as the product of the uncertainties in the momentum and the position of a
particle is equal to or more than  . The principle applies to other related conjugate pairs
of observables, such as energy–time, angular momentum–angle. The product of the
uncertainty in an energy measurement and the uncertainty in the time interval during
which the measurement is made also equals to or is more than  . Three famous uncertainty
principles, mathematically, are as follows


i. ∆x ∆p ≥ . (1.107)
2
(Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for position and momentum; see Fig. 1.28.)

Figure 1.28 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle for position and momentum. The allowed region has
h
values such that the product DxDp is greater than or equal to . In the forbidden
h 4π
region, DxDp is less than
4π
 74 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


ii. ∆E ∆t ≥ . (1.108)
2
(Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for energy and time)


iii. ∆J ∆θ ≥ (1. 109)
2
(Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for angular momentum and angle)

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and its applications are described in great detail in
Section 7.7. Philosophically, we may say that, ‘We cannot know the future for sure because
we do not know the present for sure.’

Example 1.17
An electron has a speed 2 × 104 cm/s accurate to 0.01%. With what accuracy can we locate
position of this electron?
Solution
The accuracy of the electron speed is 0.01%. Then, uncertainty in speed will be

0.01 0.01
=
∆v =
v× 2 × 104 cm/s ×
= =
0.02 m/s
100 100

The uncertainty in momentum will be ∆p = m∆v.

∴ ∆p = 9.11 × 10−31 kg × 0.02 m/s = 1.8 × 10−32 kgm/s

We know that

h
∆p∆x ≈ = 5.28 × 10−35 J.s
4π

∴ ∆x= 5.28 × 10−35 J.s (1.8 × 10−32 kgm.s)= 2.93 × 10−3 m.

This is the uncertainty in the position of the electron.

Thus, the accuracy with which we can locate the electron is 2.93 × 10–3 m.

Example 1.18
A cricket ball of mass 150 gm is moving at a speed of 160 km/hour. The speed can be measured
with an accuracy of 1%. With what precision can we measure its position simultaneously?
 Oscillations and Waves 75

Solution
The speed of the cricket ball is 160 km/hour = 44.44 m/s. The accuracy of the electron speed is
1%. Then uncertainty, in the speed of the ball is

1
∆v = v × = 44.44 × 0.01 m/s = 0.44 m/s
100

The uncertainty in momentum will be ∆p = m∆v.

∴=
∆p 0.15 kg × 0.44=
m/s 0.07 kgm/s

We know that

h
∆p∆x ≈ = 5.28 × 10−35 J.s
4π

∴ ∆x= 5.28 × 10−35 Js (0.07kgm.s)

= 7.5 × 10−34 m.

This is the uncertainty in the position of the cricket ball.

Thus, the precision with which we can locate the cricket is 7.5 × 10–34 m.
The uncertainty in the position of the cricket ball is 20 orders of magnitude smaller than the
size of an atomic nucleus.

Example 1.19
If the average period that elapses between the excitation of an atom and the time it radiates
energy is 10–10 s, then calculate the uncertainty in the energy of the emitted photon and the
limit of accuracy with which the frequency of the emitted radiations can be determined.
Solution
The uncertainty relation between energy and time is given by

h
∆E∆t ≈ = 5.28 × 10−35 Js.
4π

The uncertainty in time is ∆t =10−10 s. The uncertainty in the energy is given by

∆E= 5.28 × 10−35 Js (∆t )

(
or ∆E= 5.28 × 10−35 Js 10−10= )
s 5.28 × 10−25 J
76 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The energy of the emitted photon in terms of frequency is given by

E = hν

or ∆E = h∆ν

∆E
or ∆ν = is the uncertainty in frequency of the emitted photon.
h

5.28 × 10−25 J
or ∆ν =
6.63 × 10−34 Js

or ∆ν= 7.96 × 10−8 s −1

The limit of accuracy with which the frequency of the emitted radiations can be determined
is 7.96 × 10–8 s–1.

1.16 Superposition of Waves

In our day-to-day life, there are lots of phenomena in which a large number of waves pass
through a single point at the same time. Particles cannot pass through each other; they
collide and their course of action changes. However, waves can pass through each other
freely without being modified. Your friend’s voice quality does not change in the presence
of other sounds although they have passed through the same space simultaneously. The
phenomenon involving a combination of two or more waves travelling in a medium
simultaneously is called superposition of waves. The superposition phenomenon is
governed by very simple law, as long as the wave function is linear, that is, it contains the
function Y(x, t) only to the first power. The wave function is linear for the waves producing
small disturbances.

1.16.1 Basis for the principle of superposition

The general differential wave equation

1 ∂2 Ψ
∇2 Ψ =
v 2 ∂t 2

is a homogeneous linear differential equation. It is the property of the linear differential

equation that the algebraic sum of all its solutions is also one of its solutions. Since all
the harmonic wave functions (i.e., mathematical representation of disturbances) are the
solutions of this differential wave equation, their summation, that is, the resultant wave
 Oscillations and Waves 77

function (resultant disturbance) will satisfy the differential wave equation. This means that
if Ψ1 , Ψ 2 , Ψ 3 , Ψ 4 ,…, Ψ N are the N solutions, then Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ 2 + Ψ 3 + Ψ 4 +…+ Ψ N will be a
solution of the differential wave equation. Thus, Y is the resultant wave function satisfying
the general differential wave equation.

1.16.2 Principle of superposition

Based on the discussions in the previous section, we can now enunciate the principle of
superposition. The principle of superposition states that, ‘when two or more waves of small
disturbance pass through a point simultaneously, the resultant disturbance at the point is
equal to the sum of all the disturbances each wave would produce in the absence of other
waves.’ In other words, when a non-dispersive medium is disturbed simultaneously by any
number of waves, the instantaneous resultant displacement of the medium at every point
at any instant is the sum of all the displacements taken independently.
Mathematically, if Ψ1 , Ψ 2 , Ψ 3 , Ψ 4 ,…, Ψ N are individual disturbances of a particle of
the medium at a point, produced by N waves separately, then the resultant displacement/
disturbance Y, when they pass simultaneously through the point will be given by

Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ 2 + Ψ 3 + Ψ 4 +…+ Ψ N (1.110)

1.16.3 Two beams superposition in one direction

Case 1: Two waves having the same frequency travelling in the same direction
(Production of interference pattern)
Let two harmonic waves Y1 and Y2 having the same frequency travelling in the same +x
direction in a medium be represented mathematically by

Ψ1 r1 sin (ωt − kx ) and

= = Ψ 2 r2 sin (ωt − kx + δ ) .

By the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement will be given by

Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ 2 = r1 sin(ωt − kx ) + r2 sin(ωt − kx + δ ). (1.111)

= r1 sin (ωt − kx ) + r2 sin (ωt − kx ) cos δ + cos (ωt − kx ) sin δ 

= r1 sin (ωt − kx ) + r2 sin (ωt − kx ) cos δ + r2 cos (ωt − kx ) sin δ

or =Ψ sin (ωt − kx )( r1 + r2 cos δ ) + r2 sin δ cos (ωt − kx ) (1.112)

Let r1 + r2 cos δ =
R cos θ (1.113)
78 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

and r2 sin δ = R sin θ (1.114)

Putting these substitutions into Eq. (1.112), we have

Ψ =R cos θ sin (ωt − kx ) + R sin θ cos (ωt − kx )

or Ψ =R cos θ sin (ωt − kx ) + sin θ cos (ωt − kx ) 

or Ψ =R sin θ sin (ωt − kx + θ ) (1.115)

The values of R and q are found out by the following way.

Using the Eqs (1.113) and (1.114), we have

( R sinθ ) + ( R cos θ ) =
( r1 + r2 cos δ ) + ( r2 sin δ )
2 2 2 2

or (
R2 sin2 θ + cos2 θ = ) ( )
r12 + r22 cos2 δ + sin2 δ + 2r1r2 cos δ

or R= r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos δ (1.116)

Thus, the amplitude of the resultant wave is maximum (= r1 + r2) when cos d = 1 and
minimum (= r1 – r2) when cos d = –1. The same conditions are valid for the distribution
of an intensity function (since intensity is proportional to square of the amplitude] with
respect to the phase difference of the two superposing waves.
Again from Eqs (1.113) and (1.114), we have

r2 sin δ
tan θ = (1.117)
r1 + r2 cos δ

Equation (1.115) is of a similar form as that of the two superposing waves and it also satisfies
the general differential wave equation. Thus, the resultant is a wave with a new amplitude
and a phase angle whose values can be calculated from Eqs (1.116) and (1.117) respectively.
From Eqs (1.116) and (1.117), it is clear that the phase angle and the amplitude R of the
resultant wave changes with the initial phase difference d of the superposing waves because
tan q and R is a function of d.
Case 2: Two waves having the same frequency travelling in opposite direction
(Production of stationary waves)
Let two harmonic waves Y1 and Y2 having the same frequency and amplitude travelling,
in opposite directions in a line in a medium be superimposed on each other. This is the
superimposition of the incident wave and the reflected wave moving along a string, which
 Oscillations and Waves 79

gives rise to stationary waves. The incident wave and the corresponding reflected wave may
be represented mathematically by

Ψ R r sin (ωt + kx ) respectively.

Ψ I r sin (ωt − kx ) and=
=

By the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement will be given by

Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ R = r sin (ωt − kx ) + r sin (ωt + kx )

=
or Ψ r sin (ωt − kx ) + sin (ωt=
+ kx )  2r cos kx sin ωt (1.118)

Putting R = 2r cos kx in this equation, we have

Ψ =R sin ωt (1.119)

Equation (1.119) is also a wave equation representing stationary wave or standing wave
with amplitude R = 2r cos kx. Thus, amplitude is a function of the position ‘x’ and varies
from 0 to 2r. The amplitude is 2r when

2r cos kx = 1

or kx = nπ , n is a whole number, i.e., n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

nπ nπ λ nλ
or x= = =nπ × =
k 2π 2π 2
λ

The amplitude is 0 when

2r cos kx = 0

π
or =
kx ( 2n + 1)
2

( 2n + 1)=
π λ
or =
x ( 2n + 1)
2k 4

Thus amplitude is maximum (i.e., displacements of the particles of the medium are at
λ 2λ 3λ 4λ
maximum distance from the mean position) at x = 0, , , , … , etc and amplitude
2 2 2 2
80 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1λ 3λ 5λ 7λ
is zero (i.e., displacements of the particles of the medium are zero) at x = , , , …,
4 4 4 4
etc. The points at which amplitude is maximum are called antinodes and the points at
1λ 3λ 5λ 7λ
which amplitude is minimum are called nodes. Thus nodes occur at x = , , , …,
λ 2λ 3λ 4λ 4 4 4 4
etc and anti-nodes occur at x = 0, , , , … , etc
2 2 2 2
The stationary wave is graphically represented in the Fig. 1.27. We also see from
Eq. (1.119) that at a time when sin wt = 1, all the particles for which cos kx is positive reach
their positive maximum displacement. At this particular instant, all the particles for which
cos kx is negative, reach their negative maximum displacement. At a time when sin wt = 0,
all the particles of the medium crosses their mean position. See Fig. 1.29.

Figure 1.29 External appearance of a string when stationary wave is produced on it. As and Ns are
positions of antinodes and nodes respectively

Case 3: Two waves having NEARLY the same frequency (Beat phenomenon)
Consider two waves of the same frequency having nearly the same frequency (i.e., w1 – w2
is very small.). For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed that two waves are in phase at any
point in the medium at time t = 0. The two waves are represented by

Ψ1 =r1 sin ω1t and Ψ 2 =r2 sin ω2t (1.120)

The resultant wave according to the superposition principle will be given by

Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ 2 = r1 sin ω1t + r2 sin ω2t

or=Ψ r1 sin ω1t + r2 sin {ω1t − (ω1t − ω2t )}

or=Ψ r1 sin ω1t + r2 sin ω1t cos (ω1t − ω2t ) − cos ω1t sin (ω1t − ω2t ) 

=
or Ψ sin ω1t r1 + r2 cos (ω1t − ω2t )  − r2 cos ω1t sin (ω1t − ω2t )  (1.121)

r1 + r2 cos (ω1t − ω2t )

Now let R cos θ = (1.122)
 Oscillations and Waves 81

R sin θ r2 sin (ω1t − ω2t )

and = (1.123)

Substituting Eqs (1.122) and (1.123) into Eq. (1.121), we get the resultant wave as

Ψ =R cos θ sin ω1t − R sin θ cos ω1t

or
= Ψ R sin (ω1t − θ ) (1.124)

Taking the ratio of Eqs (1.123) and (1.122), we have

r2 sin (ω1 − ω2 ) t
tan θ = (1.125)
r1 + r2 cos (ω1 − ω2 ) t

From the this equation, it is clear that the phase angle q of the resultant wave (1.124)
changes with time because tan q is a function of time. Again squaring and adding
Eqs (1.122) and (1.123), we have

r1 + r2 cos (ω1 − ω2 ) t  + r2 sin (ω1 − ω2 ) t 

2 2
R2 =

or R= r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos (ω1 − ω2 ) t

= r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos 2π (ν 1 −ν 2 ) t (1.126)

From Eq. (1.126) it is clear that the amplitude of the resultant wave changes with time
because R is a function of time.
The amplitude of the resultant wave is maximum when cos 2π (ν 1 −ν 2 ) t =
1 in Eq. (1.126).

or 2π (ν 1 −ν 2 ) t =
2nπ , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, etc.

n
or t= (1.127)
ν 1 −ν 2

The amplitude of the resultant wave is maximum at time

1 2 3 4
0s, s, s, s, s, … etc.
ν 1 −ν 2 ν 1 −ν 2 ν 1 −ν 2 ν 1 −ν 2
82 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2 2
The maximum value of the amplitude R is Rmax = r1 + r2 + 2r1r2 =r1 + r2
The amplitude of the resultant wave is minimum when cos 2π (ν 1 −ν 2 ) t =
−1.

or 2π (ν 1 −ν 2 ) t =( 2n + 1) π , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … etc.

2n + 1
or t= (1.128)
2 (ν 1 −ν 2 )

The amplitude of the resultant wave is minimum at time

1 3 5 7
s, s, s, s, … etc.
2 (ν 1 −ν 2 ) 2 (ν 1 −ν 2 ) 2 (ν 1 −ν 2 ) 2 (ν 1 −ν 2 )

The minimum value of the amplitude R is

Rmin = r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 × (−1) = r1 − r2 .

Thus, the maxima and minima occur alternately after equal intervals of time. The time
interval between any two consecutive minima and maxima (difference between nth maxima
1
time and nth minima time) is s.
2 (ν 1 −ν 2 )
The time interval between any two consecutive minima or two consecutive maxima is
1
s. Therefore, the number of maxima (i.e., beats in sound wave or optical beats in
ν 1 −ν 2
light wave) produced per second is v1 – v2. The difference between the frequencies of the
two superposing waves is the number of maxima produced per second.

1.16.4 Multiple beam superpositions

Let us consider the superposition of n number of waves having the same frequency. The
displacements of the particles of the medium due to the n waves are here taken to be along
the same line. Mathematically, we can represent the n waves by the following equations.

Ψ1 r1 sin (ωt − δ1 )
=

Ψ 2 r2 sin (ωt − δ 2 )
=

Ψ 3 r3 sin (ωt − δ 3 )
=

…………………
 Oscillations and Waves 83

…………………

………………….

Ψ n rn sin (ωt − δ n )
=

Here we have assumed all the waves to have the same frequency w.
The resultant displacement of the particles of the medium under the influence of the
first two waves are given by

Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ 2 = r1 sin (ωt − δ1 ) + r2 sin (ωt − δ 2 )

or=Ψ ( r1 cos δ1 + r2 cos δ 2 ) sin ωt − ( r1 sin δ1 + r2 sin δ 2 ) cos ωt . (1.129)

Since rs and d s are constants, we can make the following substitutions.

r1 cos δ1 + r2 cos δ 2 =
R cos θ (1.130)

and

r1 sin δ1 + r2 sin δ 2 =
R sin θ . (1.131)

With these substitution, Eq. (1.125) becomes

Ψ =R cos θ sin ωt − R sin θ cos ωt .

or=Ψ R sin (ωt − θ ) (1.132)

Equation (1.132) is the mathematical representation of the resultant wave with amplitude
R and phase angle q. The values of R and q can be calculated by squaring and adding both
sides of Eqs (1.130) and (1.131).

R2 = ( r1 cos δ1 + r2 cos δ 2 ) + ( r1 sin δ1 + r2 sin δ 2 )

2 2

or R= r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos (δ1 − δ 2 ) (1.133)

Taking the ratio of Eqs (1.131) and (1.130), we have

r1 sin δ1 + r2 sin δ 2
or tan θ = (1.134)
r1 cos δ1 + r2 cos δ 2
 84 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Thus, when two waves are superposed on each other, the resultant wave is of the form
=Ψ R sin (ωt − θ ) . The resultant wave and the two superposing waves have the same form. In
a similar way, if the third wave is superposed= on Ψ R sin (ωt − θ ) , the resultant will also be of
the form
= Ψ R sin (ωt − θ ) (of course, here the numerical values of R and q will be different but
the equations will be similar). Thus, we conclude that when a large number of harmonic waves
are superposed on each other, the resultant wave will be of the form
= Ψ R sin (ωt − θ ) , where R
is the amplitude and q is the phase angle. The equations for them are given by

( r1 cos δ1 + r2 cos δ 2 + r3 cos δ 3 + ..... + rN cos δ N )

2
R2
= +

( r1 sin δ1 + r2 sin δ 2 + r3 sin δ 3 + ..... + rN sin δ N )

2
(1.135)

r1 sin δ1 + r2 sin δ 2 + r3 sin δ 3 … rN sin δ N

tan θ = (1.136)
r1 cos δ1 + r2 cos δ 2 + r3 cos δ 3 … rN cos δ N

Example 1.20
Two simple harmonic oscillations acting in a line simultaneously on a particle are given by

 π  π
=
Ψ1 3sin  ωt +  and
= Ψ 2 5sin  ωt +  .
 5  3

Calculate the resultant equation, phase, and amplitude of the resultant motion.
Solution
The resultant motion will be controlled by the equation

 π  π
Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ 2 = 3sin  ωt +  + 5sin  ωt + 
 5  3

 π π  π π
= sin ωt 3cos + 5cos  + 3sin + 5sin  cos ωt
 5 3  5 3

= sin ωt [ R cos θ ] + [ R sin θ ] cos ωt

or =Ψ R sin (ωt + θ )

2 2
π π π π
where R 2 =  3cos + 5cos  +  3sin + 5sin 
 5 3  5 3
 Oscillations and Waves 85

R2 = ( 2.43 + 2.50 ) + (1.76 + 4.33 )

2 2

or R = 7.84 m is the amplitude of the resultant motion

π π
3sin + 5sin
R sin θ 5 3 = 1.24
tan θ =
and =
R cos θ π π
3cos + 3cos
5 5

or q = 51° is the phase angle of the resultant motion.

1.16.5 Coherent and incoherent superposition

Two waves are said to be coherent waves if the phase difference between the two waves
at a point in space remains constant throughout the observation time. The waves are said
to be incoherent waves if the phase difference between the two waves at a point in space
varies randomly throughout the observation time. Coherent superposition is defined
as the superposition of coherent waves. In the superposition of coherent waves, the
resultant intensity I is directly proportional to the square of the vector sum of amplitudes
of individual waves, i.e. I= k ( r1 + r2 + r3 …) . Incoherent superposition is defined as the
2

superposition of incoherent waves. In the incoherent superposition of waves, the resultant

intensity is directly proportional to the sum of the squares of the amplitudes of individual
waves, i.e. I= k ( r12 + r22 + r32 …) . That means in the case of incoherent superposition, the
resultant intensity is equal to the sum of the intensities of individual waves which is not the
case with coherent superposition.
Mathematical treatment of coherent superposition
In Section 1.16, we have discussed in detail superposition principle taking different cases.
In coherent superposition, the resultant amplitude does not change with respect to time
or space at a point. The resultant amplitudes in Eq. (1.116) or Eq. (1.133) remain constant
with time. The superposition of waves always having constant phase difference (i.e., phases
of all the waves do not change with lapse of time) is called coherent superposition. In case
of coherent superposition, if d is the phase difference between the two waves then,

dδ
= 0.
dt

From Eq. (1.116), we have

R2 = r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos δ (1.137)

86 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

where
R = the resultant amplitude of two superposing waves.
r1 = the amplitude of first wave.
r2 = the amplitude of second wave.
d = the phase difference between the two superposing waves.

In coherent superposition d, the phase difference between the superposing waves is

independent of time. Therefore, the time average of cos d, at a point will be cos d , i.e.,

cos δ = cos δ (1.138)

Hence, for coherent superposition Eq. (1.138) does not change. From Eq. (1.137), the
intensity of the resultant wave will be

I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos δ (1.139)

The interference pattern produced due to coherent superposition of two coherent light
sources having the same amplitudes (i.e., I1 = I2 = I0) is visible and is completely described
by the equation
ϕ  (1.140)
I = 4 I 0 cos2   .
2

Mathematical treatment of incoherent superposition

In incoherent superposition, the resultant amplitude changes with respect to time at a
point. The resultant amplitudes in Eq. (1.116) or Eq. (1.133) does not remain constant with
time. The superposition of waves always having time-varying phase difference (i.e., phases
of all the waves do change with lapse of times.) is called incoherent superposition. In case
of incoherent superposition, if d is the phase difference between two waves then,
dδ
≠ 0.
dt

From Eq. (1.116), we have

R2 = r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos δ (1.141)

In incoherent superposition d, the phase difference between the two superposing waves
varies with time. The value of cos d will vary from –1 to +1 with respect to time. Therefore,
the time average of cos d at a point will be 0, i.e.,

cos δ = 0
 Oscillations and Waves 87

Hence, for incoherent superposition, Eq. (1.141) becomes

R2 = r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 × 0

2
or R= r12 + r22

From this equation, the intensity of the resultant wave in case of incoherent superposition
will be

I = I1 + I2 (1.142)

The interference pattern produced due to incoherent superposition of two coherent light
sources having the same amplitudes (i.e., I1 = I2 = I0) may be described by

ϕ 
I = 4 I 0 cos2   . (1.143)
2

2 ϕ 
Here I is the intensity at any point, I0 is the maximum intensity on the screen and cos  
2
2 ϕ  2 ϕ 
is the time average of cos   . The maximum and minimum values of cos   with the
2 2
2 ϕ 
passing of time are 1 and 0. Therefore, the value of cos   is 0.5.
2
I =4 I 0 × 0.5 =2 I 0 =I 0 + I 0

This equation shows that if two superposing waves are incoherent, then intensity will not
vary from point to point on the screen and the interference pattern will not be visible. Thus,
the resultant intensity is equal to the sum of two individual intensities of the superposing
waves as in Eq. (1.142).

Questions

1.1 What is an oscillatory system? Give few examples.

1.2 Define the parameters of an oscillatory system.
1.3 What is simple harmonic oscillation? Describe an example.
1.4 Derive the differential equation of motion of a simple harmonic oscillation.
1.5 Derive the expression of frequency of a simple harmonic oscillation.
1.6 Derive the equation to describe the position of a simple harmonic oscillator at any
instant of time.
1.7 What are the characteristics of simple harmonic oscillation?
88 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1.8 Draw the graphs of displacement-time, speed–time and acceleration–time of a simple

harmonic oscillator on a single sheet.
1.9 Derive the expression for the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.
1.10 Derive the expression for the kinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.
1.11 Prove that the total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is constant through out the
motion.
1.12 Prove that the average potential energy and average kinetic energy of a simple
harmonic oscillator are the same during one complete oscillation.
1.13 Prove that the maximum potential energy and maximum kinetic energy of a simple
harmonic oscillator are the same.
1.14 Plot in a single plot the kinetic, potential and total energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator.
1.15 Prove that the change of phase when a simple harmonic oscillator moves from
equilibrium position to extremum position is p/2.
1.16 What is the nature of the displacement–acceleration graph of a simple harmonic
oscillator?
1.17 What is the nature of the speed–acceleration graph of a simple harmonic oscillator?
1.18 Show that the displacement and velocity graph of a simple harmonic oscillator is
elliptical.
1.19 A loaded bus is more comfortable than an empty one. Explain.
1.20 What do you mean by a damped harmonic oscillation ? Give few examples.
1.21 Describe in detail the different parameters required to measure the damping of an
under damped harmonic oscillation.
1.22 Explain the role of a dissipative force and a restoring force during the motion of an
oscillator.
1.23 What is the coefficient of damping? What is its units?
1.24 Derive the differential equation of motion of a damped harmonic oscillation.
1.25 Derive the equation to describe the position of a damped harmonic oscillator at any
instant of time.
1.26 What do you mean by underdamped harmonic oscillation?
1.27 What are the characteristics of underdamped harmonic oscillation?
1.28 Calculate the rate of energy loss by an underdamped harmonic oscillator.
1.29 What do you mean by overdamped harmonic oscillation?
1.30 What are the characteristics of overdamped harmonic oscillation?
1.31 What do you mean by critically damped harmonic oscillation?
1.32 What are the characteristics of critically damped harmonic oscillation?
1.33 Prove that the time period of an underdamped harmonic oscillator remains constant
during the motion.
 Oscillations and Waves 89

1.34 Differentiate between underdamped harmonic oscillation, overdamped harmonic

oscillation and critically damped harmonic oscillation.
1.35 Show graphically underdamped, overdamped, and critically damped harmonic
oscillation.
1.36 Give examples of underdamped, overdamped, and critically damped harmonic
oscillation.
1.37 Derive an expression for the amplitude of underdamped harmonic oscillation.
1.38 Differentiate between simple harmonic oscillation, and damped harmonic oscillation.
1.39 Derive the expression for the potential energy of an underdamped harmonic oscillator.
1.40 Derive the expression for the kinetic energy of an underdamped harmonic oscillator.
1.41 Prove that the total energy of an underdamped harmonic oscillator is not constant
through out the motion.
1.42 Prove that the total energy of an overdamped harmonic oscillator is not constant
throughout the motion.
1.43 Prove that the total energy of a critically damped harmonic oscillator is not constant
throughout the motion.
1.44 Derive an expression for the amplitude of critically damped harmonic oscillation. Plot
this amplitude versus time.
1.45 Prove that the average potential energy and average kinetic energy of an underdamped
harmonic oscillator are the same during one complete oscillation.
1.46 Prove that the maximum potential energy and maximum kinetic energy of an
underdamped harmonic oscillator are the same.
1.47 Show graphically with equations the variation of total energy of an underdamped
harmonic oscillator with time when g << w0.
1.48 What is logarithmic decrement?
1.49 What do you mean by forced harmonic oscillation?
1.50 Establish the differential equation of motion of a forced harmonic oscillator subjected
to a sinusoidal force.
1.51 What is the steady state oscillation of forced vibration? What is the expression for
amplitude of steady state oscillation of forced vibration?
1.52 Derive the expression for the kinetic energy of a forced harmonic oscillator.
1.53 Derive the expression for the potential energy of a forced harmonic oscillator.
1.54 Derive the expression for the total energy of a forced harmonic oscillator.
1.55 Derive the condition for amplitude resonance of a system in a dissipative medium.
Reduce the condition in vacuum.
1.56 Prove that the larger the value of quality factor, the sharper is the resonance.
1.57 Derive the condition for velocity resonance.
1.58 Derive the condition for average power resonance.
90 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1.59 Prove that velocity resonance and power resonance of a forced harmonic oscillator
occurs under the same condition
1.60 Compare simple harmonic, damped harmonic and forced harmonic oscillations.
1.61 What do you mean by coupled oscillators? Give few examples.
1.62 Enumerate the importance of the concept of coupled oscillators.
1.63 Explain the motion of a coupled oscillator when two bodies of equal masses are
displaced by equal distances in the same direction and then released from rest.
1.64 Prove that the motion of either mass of a coupled oscillator is a superposition of two
harmonic vibrations.
1.65 What are the characteristics of wave motion?
1.66 Write down the differential equation of wave motion stating clearly the meaning of
each symbol. 2
∂ψ 1 ∂ψ
2
1.67 Show that wave function y(x, t) = r sin(wt – kx) satisfy the wave equation = .
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
1.68 What are the characteristics of transverse waves?
1.69 What are the characteristics of longitudinal waves?
1.70 Differentiate between longitudinal waves and transverse waves.
1.71 Define progressive wave. What are its characteristics?
1.72 Define stationary wave. What are its characteristics?
1.73 Differentiate between progressive wave and transverse wave.
1.74 Differentiate between progressive wave and stationary wave.
1.75 Explain how a stationary wave is produced.
1.76 Explain the phenomenon of reflection of transverse waves in passing from a rarer
medium to a denser medium.
1.77 Explain the phenomenon of reflection of transverse waves in passing from a denser
medium to a rarer medium.
1.78 Explain the phenomenon of reflection of longitudinal waves in passing from a rarer
medium to a denser medium.
1.79 Explain the phenomenon of reflection of longitudinal waves in passing from a denser
medium to a rarer medium.
1.80 Explain the phenomenon of refraction of transverse waves in passing from a rarer
medium to a denser medium.
1.81 Explain the phenomenon of refraction of transverse waves in passing from a denser
medium to a rarer medium.
1.82 Explain the phenomenon of refraction of longitudinal waves in passing from a rarer
medium to a denser medium.
1.83 Explain the phenomenon of refraction of longitudinal waves in passing from a denser
medium to a rarer medium.
1.84 What is a wave packet? What are its characteristics?
1.85 What do you mean by phase speed of a wave?
 Oscillations and Waves 91

1.86 What do you mean by group speed of a wave?

1.87 Define phase speed and group speed of a wave mathematically.
1.88 Differentiate between phase speed and group speed of a wave.
1.89 Derive the relation between phase speed and group speed of a wave.
1.90 What are the conditions under which phase speed is equal to, less than, and more
than group speed of a wave?
dE
1.91 Derive the equation v g = ; v , E and p are group speed, energy and momentum of
a particle respectively. dp g
1.92 Uncertainty principle is a measure of the accuracy of measurement or inherent
properties of nature? Explain
1.93 Write down the uncertainty principle for a classical wave and a quantum mechanical
wave explaining each term.
1.94 Represent uncertainty principle graphically.
1.95 Can the product in the uncertainty principle be made equal to zero? Explain.
1.96 State the principle of superposition of waves.
1.97 Two waves of the same frequency and travelling in the same direction are superposed.
Find the resultant wave.
1.98 Two waves of the same frequency and travelling in opposite directions are superposed.
Find the resultant wave.
1.99 Explain how beat is produced.
1.100 Prove that in incoherent superposition of waves, the resultant intensity is equal to the
summation of the intensities of individual waves.
1.101 Using Eqs (1.123) and (1.124), derive Eqs (1.125), (1.132), and (1.133).
1.102 What do you mean by coherent superposition? What are its characteristics?
1.103 What do you mean by incoherent superposition? What are its characteristics?
1.104 Differentiate between coherent and incoherent superposition.
1.105 The propagation of light in free space is with phase speed or group speed? What is the
difference between phase speed and group for electromagnetic wave propagating in
vacuum?

Problems

1.1 A spring of 10 cm length is fixed to a ceiling. When a body of mass 1 kg is hung at the
free end, its length becomes 32 cm. Calculate the time period of its natural vibration.
[Ans 0.03 s]
1.2 A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion obeying the equation

 π
y = 10 cos  0.5π t +  m.
 3
92 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the body at time t = 4 s and the frequency
and time period of the harmonic motion. [Ans 13.6 m/s, 12.34 m/s2, 0.25 s–1, 4 s.]
1.3 A harmonic wave is represented by y = A cos m(x – ct). Determine the wavelength and
2π 2π
time period of the wave. [Ans , ]
m mc
1.4 A point performs a damped harmonic oscillation with frequency w and damping
coefficient g. Find the initial amplitude r and the initial phase q if at the moment
t = 0, the displacement of the point and its velocity are y(0) = y0 and v(0) = 0.
γ2 γ π
[Ans y0 1 + 2 , tan θ =
r= − when − < θ < 0 if y0 > 0
ω ω 2
π
and < θ < π if y0 < 0]
2
1.5 The amplitude of an underdamped oscillator of frequency 100 per second falls to
1
of its initial value after 1000 cycles. Calculate the (a) damping coefficient, (b)
10 1
logarithmic decrement and (c) time in which energy falls to of its original value.
10
[Ans 23/s, 2.3 × 10–3, 5 s]
1.6 A body performs damped harmonic oscillation according to the equation x = 2e–0.2t
sin 3pt m. Calculate the (a) amplitude of oscillation and (b) velocity of the body at time
t = 2s; (c) the moments of time at which the body reaches the extreme positions.
2n + 1
[Ans 1.34 m, 12.64 m/s, ≈ with n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …]
6
1.7 A body performs damped harmonic oscillation according to the equation
x = re −0.4t cos(2π t + θ )m. Calculate the (a) initial amplitude r of oscillation and (b)
initial phase q if at time t = 0, velocity of the body is 20 cm/s and x = 0.
π
[Ans 3.2 cm, − ]
2
1.8 A ball of mass 250 gm performs undamped harmonic oscillation about the point
x = 0 with natural frequency 3 Hz. At the moment t = 0, when the ball is in equilibrium
position, a force F = 100 cos 3 pt Newton along the x-axis was applied to it. Find the
position and the speed of the ball at time 1 s. [Ans 3.0 cm, 0]
1.9 A body performs damped harmonic oscillation according to the equation x = re–g t cos
wt. Calculate the (a) amplitude of oscillation and (b) velocity of the body at time t = 0;
(c) the moments of time at which body reaches the extreme positions.
1 γ 
[Ans r, − γ r,
 nπ − tan −1  ]
ω ω
1.10 Forced harmonic oscillations have same amplitudes at frequencies 200/s and 300/s.
Find the frequency at which amplitude resonance takes place. [Ans 2265/s]
1.11 Two waves each of equal amplitude and equal frequency pass through a point in the
medium in the same direction with a phase difference of 120°. Calculate the amplitude
of the resultant wave at this point. [Ans Amplitude of either wave]
 Oscillations and Waves 93

1.12 The ratio of amplitude of two waves is 1 : 4. If these two waves superpose on each other,
find the ratio of minimum and maximum amplitudes. [Ans 3 : 5]
1.13 Two waves of the same frequency and same amplitude are reaching a point
simultaneously. What should be the phase difference of the two waves so that the
amplitude of the resultant wave will be r where r is the amplitude of a wave?
[Ans 120°]

1.14 The equation of a stationary wave produced in a stretched string is Ψ =6cos  π x 

 
 3 
sin(6pt), where x and t are measured in centimeters and seconds respectively. Calculate

the frequency, amplitude and velocity of its constituent waves.

[Ans 3 Hz, 3 cm, 18 cm/s]
1.15 Three harmonic waves are represented by Y1 = 2 sin (wt – 30), Y2 = 5 sin (wt + 60) and
Y3 = 4 sin (wt + 30). Find the resultant wave equation if they are superposed.
[Ans y = 9.36 sin(wt + 34.72)]
1.16 Two sources vibrating according to the equation Y1 = 4sin 2pt, and Y1 = 3 sin 2pt
send out waves in all directions with speed 2.40 m/s. Find the equation of motion of a
particle 5 m from the first source and 3 m from the second source when angular speed
of both waves is 2p rad/s [Ans y = 3.08 sin(2pt – 25.3)]
1.17 Two coherent beams of intensities I1 and I2 interfere. What will be the maximum and
( ),( )]
2 2
minimum intensity? [Ans I1 + I 2 I1 − I 2

1.18 An electron moves in the x-direction with a speed of 4.8 × 105 m/s. We can measure its
speed with a precision of 1%. With what precision can we simultaneously measure its
position? With what precision can we measure its velocity along the y-direction?
−24 −11
[Ans ∆pX = 4.4 × 10 kgm/s, ∆x= 2.4 × 10 m, ∆pY = 0 kgm/s, ∆y= inf .
That is we know nothing about the y coordinate]
1.19 A point moves on the XY plane obeying the equation x = a sin wt and y = b cos wt,
where a, b, and w are positive constants. Calculate the trajectory of motion y(x) of the
particle and the direction of its motion along the trajectory. 2 2
x y
[Ans2
+ 2 =
1, clockwise]
a b
1.20 Two cubes of mass m1 and m2 are interconnected by a weightless spring of force
constant k and placed on a frictionless plane. Two cubes were compressed towards
each other and then released simultaneously. Find the natural frequency of the
oscillation. See Fig. 1.9.
1 k ( m1 + m2 )
[Ans ]
2π m1m2
1.21 Two harmonic waves given by y1 = 3 sin (5pt – 4x) and y2 = 4 sin (7pt – 8x) are
superposed to produce a single wave. Find the group speed of the resultant wave.
[Ans 1.57 cm/s]
94 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What is the magnitude of restoring force on an oscillator when the oscillator is at rest at
its mean position.
(i) zero (ii) infinity
(iii) any value (iv) cannot be said
2. Which of the following is correct? In simple harmonic motion, the total energy is
maximum only at
(i) equilibrium position
(ii) extreme position
(iii) any position in between the extremum and minimum position
(iv) it is constant; independent of time or position
3. Which of the following is correct? In a simple harmonic motion, kinetic energy is
maximum at
(i) equilibrium position
(ii) extreme position
(iii) any position in between the extremum and minimum position
(iv) none of the above statements
4. Which of the following is correct? In simple harmonic motion potential energy is
maximum at
(i) equilibrium position
(ii) extreme position
(iii) any position in between the extremum and minimum position
(iv) none of the above statements
5. How many times does the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator attain
minimum value during one complete oscillation?
(i) 1 (ii) 2
(iii) 3 (iv) 4
6. How many times does the kinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscillator attain minimum
value during one complete oscillation?
(i) 1 (ii) 2
(iii) 3 (iv) 4
7. How many times does the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator attain
maximum value during one complete oscillation?
(i) 1 (ii) 2
(iii) 3 (iv) 4
 Oscillations and Waves 95

8. How many times does the kinetic energy of a simple harmonic oscillator attain
maximum value during one complete oscillation?
(i) 1 (ii) 2
(iii) 3 (iv) 4
9. What is the magnitude of dissipative force on an oscillator when the oscillator is at rest.
(i) zero (ii) infinity
(iii) any value (iv) can not be said
10. Which of the following is correct? In damped harmonic motion
(i) amplitude as well as time period changes
(ii) only time period changes
(iii) only amplitude changes
(iv) none of the above statements
11. In damped harmonic motion, frequency does not change.
(i) True (ii) False
12. Which of the following is correct?
1 ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
(i) ∇ψ =2 (ii) ∇2ψ =
v 2 ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
(iii) ∇2ψ =
v2 (iv) ∇2ψ =
v2
∂x 2 ∂t 2
13. Phase change of p occurs due to
(i) reflection of transverse waves in passing from a rarer medium to a denser medium
(ii) reflection of a transverse wave in passing from a denser medium to a rarer medium
(iii) reflection of longitudinal waves in passing from a rarer medium to a denser
medium
(iv) reflection of longitudinal waves in passing from a denser medium to a rarer
medium
14. The phase speed and group speed for an electromagnetic wave propagating in vacuum
are equal.
(i) True (ii) False
15. The angle between the propagation vector and the normal to the wave front is
(i) 0 (ii) p
π π
(iii) (iv)
2 4
16. What type of superposition produces standing waves?
(i) Two waves having the same frequency travelling in the same direction
(ii) Two waves having the same frequency travelling in opposite directions
96 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

(iii) Two waves having the same amplitude travelling in the same direction
(iv) Two waves having different amplitudes travelling in the same direction
17. What type of superposition produces interference patterns?
(i) Two waves having the same frequency travelling in the same direction
(ii) Two waves having the same frequency travelling in the opposite direction
(iii) Two waves having the same amplitude travelling in the same direction
(iv) Two waves having different amplitudes travelling in the same direction
18. What type of superposition produces beats
(i) Two waves having the same frequency travelling in the same direction
(ii) Two waves having the same frequency travelling in the opposite direction
(iii) Two waves having the same amplitude
(iv) Two waves having different frequency
d2 x
19. The differential equation of motion of a freely oscillating body is given by 2 + ω x =
0.
The natural frequency of the body will be dt
2π
(i) ω (ii)
ω
2π ω
(iii) (iv)
ω 2π
20. Which of the following properties does not change when a wave passes from one
medium to another?
(i) speed (ii) wavelength
(iii) frequency (iv) amplitude
21. Which of the following properties of a wave is independent of the other?
(i) speed (ii) wavelength
(iii) frequency (iv) amplitude
22. In a stationary wave in air, the variation of pressure at a node is
(i) maximum (ii) minimum
(iii) initially maximum then minimum (iv) cannot be said
23. In a stationary wave
(i) strain is maximum at nodes (ii) strain is minimum at nodes
(iii) strain is maximum at antinodes (iv) strain is minimum at antinodes
24. Which of the following is incorrect regarding phase speed and group speed
ω dω
(i) vp = (ii) vp =
k dk
dω dE
(iii) v g = (iv) v g = , P = Momentum, E = Energy
dk dP
 Oscillations and Waves 97

25. Two simple harmonic oscillators of masses m1 and m2 oscillate with frequency n1 and n2
respectively under the same restoring force. Which of the following is correct
ν 1 m1 ν 1 m2
(i) = (ii) =
ν 2 m2 ν 2 m1

ν1 m2 ν1 m1
(iii) = (iv) =
ν2 m1 ν2 m2

Answers

1 (i) 2 (ii) 3 (i) 4 (ii) 5 (ii) 6 (ii) 7 (ii) 8 (ii)

9 (i) 10 (iii) 11 (i) 12 (ii) 13 (i) 14 (i) 15 (i) 16 (ii)
17 (i) 18 (ii) 19 (iv) 20 (iii) 21 (i) 22 (i) 23 (i) 24 (ii)
25 (iii)
 2 Interference

2.1 Introduction
In Section 1.16 of the previous chapter we learned that two beams of light waves can cross
each other without either one producing any modification on the other after passing
beyond the region of crossing. However, from the concepts explained in Section 1.16.2, we
expect some modifications in the amplitudes or intensity (since intensity ∝ amplitude2) of
the two waves inside the region of crossing. The intensity of the resultant wave becomes a
function of the position of the point. At certain points intensity is maximum and at other
points it is minimum. In other words, we say that the two waves interfere with each other
inside the region of crossing. This modification of intensity obtained by the superposition
of two or more beams of light waves is called interference of light. The phenomenon of
interference of light complements the validity of the concept that light is a wave. As a result
of the short wavelength and disordered phase relationships of the interfering light waves,
the interference pattern is not visible to the naked eye without special arrangements. It
was in the year 1801 that Thomas Young for the first time demonstrated the interference
of sunlight experimentally. Before discussing the interference phenomenon, let us discuss
Huygens’ principle, a helpful tool and an early concept in favour of the wave theory of light
when the scientific world was mesmerized by Newton’s corpuscular theory of light.

2.2 Huygens’ Principle

Huygens, a Dutch mathematician, in 1678, propounded a theory regarding the propagation
of light wave in any medium. According to this theory, light is a sort of disturbance in
the medium in which it propagates in all direction from a point source. To explain the
propagation of light in vacuum, he postulated an all-pervading medium called ‘ether’
(Later on, in the year 1881, Michelson and Morley, American scientists, performed a
 Interference 99

high precision optical experiment and completely disapproved the presence of this ether
medium).
Huygens’ principle governs the propagation of light waves in any medium. The principle
in original form is stated in his book ‘Traité de la Lumière’ (Treatise on light), which
says, ‘In considering the propagation of waves, we must remember that each particle of
the medium through which wave spread does not only communicate its motion to that
neighbour which lie in the straight line drawn from the luminous point, but shares also
with all particles which touch it and resist its motion. Each particle is thus to be considered
as the centre of a wave’.

2.2.1 Explanation

Huygens assumed light to be a longitudinal wave (Actually, light is a transverse wave

as concluded from Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory as well as from concepts of light
polarization) which propagates in pulses with high speed in the hypothetical ether medium
in the form of compression and rarefaction (shown roughly in Fig. 2.1).

Figure 2.1 Propagation of light wave as visualized by Huygens. According to Huygens light is
a longitudinal wave which propagates in pulses in the hypothetical ether medium in the
form of compression and rarefaction

Suppose in a homogeneous isotropic ether medium, a point source O emits light in the form
of pulses which propagates in all direction with equal speed v so that after time t the light
pulses will reach all the points on the spherical surface A1A2A3A4 … AN … simultaneously
as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). The ether particles present at all the points on the spherical surface
A1A2A3A4 … AN … will vibrate simultaneously in phase. Therefore, this spherical surface
A1A2A3A4 … AN … will be the wavefront of the light wave at time t and its radius will
be vt. Thus, at time t, the shape of the wavefront is a sphere of radius vt. After lapses of
dt time from this moment, the light pulses will have reached another spherical surface
100 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

A1′A′2 A′3 A′4 …A′N … of radius v(t + dt) and this spherical surface will be the position of the
wavefront after time t + dt. Thus, we have after a time t A1A2A3A4 … AN … as the position
of a wavefront and after time t + dt A1′A′2 A′3 A′4 …A′N … is another position of the same
wavefront.

Figure 2.2 (a) Explanation of Huygens’ principle of propagation and construction of spherical
wavefronts. (b) Explanation of Huygens’ principle of propagation and construction of
plane wavefronts

The light pulses originating from O propagate through the ether medium in the form
of disturbances all the ether particles on the wavefront A1A2A3A4 … AN … are disturbed
by the light pulses originating from O. The disturbance at every point on the wavefront
A1A2A3A4 … AN … is exactly the same as that which originated at O t time earlier. Thus,
all the points on this wavefront become the origin of ether disturbance which is exactly
the same to the ether disturbance originated at O at t time earlier. Each of this ether
disturbance originated from the wavefront is called secondary spherical wavelets or simply
secondary wavelets. The ether disturbance originating from all the points of the wavefront
A1A2A3A4 … AN … will be propagated in all directions with speed v and will reach spherical
surfaces each of radii vdt in time dt. The radius of the secondary spherical wavelets is thus
vdt.
Now we shall show that the wavefront A1′A′2 A′3 A′4 …A′N … is tangential to these secondary
spherical wavelets. The radius of the wavefront A1A2A3A4 … AN … is
OA = vt
 Interference 101

The radius of the wavefront A1′A′2 A′3 A′4 …A′N … as shown in Fig. 2.2 is

OA1′ =v ( t + dt ) =vt + vdt

or OA + A1A1′ =+
vt vdt (2.1)

The radius of the secondary spherical wavelet originating from A1 as shown in Fig. 2.2 is

A1A1′ = vdt (2.2)

Equations (2.1) and (2.2) are true simultaneously if wavefront A1′A′2 A′3 A′4 …A′N … is
tangential to the secondary spherical wavelet originating from A. Similarly, it can be proved
for all the points. Thus, we conclude that the wavefront A1′A′2 A′3 A′4 …A′N … is tangential
to all the secondary spherical wavelets originating from all the points of the wavefront
A1A2A3A4 … AN …. In other words, wavefront A1′A′2 A′3 A′4 …A′N … is the envelope of all the
secondary spherical wavelets originating from all the points of wavefront A1A2A3A4 … AN
…. Thus, in the space in front of the wavefront, everything takes place exactly as if the
original light source is absent and only a sheet of secondary sources were present on the
surface A1A2A3A4 … AN …. This concept has been illustrated in Fig. 2.2 for spherical as well
as plane wavefronts.
Huygens’ principle as stated earlier defines a method for the construction of wavefronts
at any instant of time. According to Huygens’ principle, every point on a wavefront is
a source of secondary wavelets. The secondary wavelets emitted from each point of the
wavefront propagate in all directions with speed equal to the speed of the wave. The new
wavefront at a later stage is obtained by drawing a surface tangential to all the secondary
wavelets.

2.2.2 Construction of a new wavefront

Let us consider the construction and position of a new wavefront if a wavefront at a

slightly earlier instant of time is known. Suppose in a homogeneous isotropic medium,
a point source O as shown in Fig. 2.2 emits light which propagates in all directions with
equal speeds v. A1A2A3A4 … AN … is the position of the spherical wavefront after time
t. According to Huygens’ principle, all points on this wavefront emit secondary wavelets
which again propagate in all directions with the same speed v as that of the original wave.
Let us select few points such as A1, A2, A3, A4 … AN … on this spherical wavefront. Our aim
is to determine the new wavefront after t + dt time. During the time interval dt the radii
of all the secondary spherical wavelets emitted from the points A1, A2, A3, A4 … AN … will
be vdt as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). According to Huygens’ principle, the new wavefront will
be the surface which is tangential to all these spherical secondary wavelets. Hence, we can
construct a surface which is tangential to all the secondary spherical wavelets. This surface
is the shape and position of the new wavefront as it satisfies the conditions of a wavefront.
102 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2.2.3 Absence of backward waves

According to Fresnel, the intensity at any point on the spherical secondary wavelets is
given by

I k (1 + cos θ )
2
= (2.3)

where
k = proportionality constant.

q = angle between the normal and the central line passing through the source S.
1
In Eq. (2.3), (1 + cos θ ) is called Fresnel’s obliquity factor or inclination factor which
2
follows automatically from the rigorous theory of diffraction.
When we move the point on the secondary wavelet away from the central line, the angle
q increases from zero and becomes equal to p for the opposite point as shown in Fig. 2.3.
For opposite points on all the secondary spherical wavelets, intensity becomes

k (1 + cos θ ) =
k (1 + cos π ) =
2 2
I= 0

Figure 2.3 Explanation of absence of backward waves in Huygens’ wave theory of light

Thus, intensity at back point zero implies that there is no secondary wavelet and hence no
wavefront is present in the backward direction. The aforementioned analysis shows the
absence of backward wavefronts in Huygens’ wave theory of light.
 Interference 103

2.2.4 Applications
Huygens’ principle can be applied successfully to explain the phenomena of rectilinear
propagation of light waves, specular reflection of plane waves by a plane smooth surface,
diffuse reflection of plane waves by a rough surface, image formation by mirrors, refraction
of plane waves by plane and curved surfaces, refraction of spherical waves by plane and
curved surfaces, total internal reflection. Almost all the phenomena of geometrical optics
can be explained by Huygens’ principle. Huygens’ principle in conjunction with Fresnel’s
theory finds applications in explaining the phenomena of interference and diffraction.

2.3 Interference of Water Waves

Let us consider the interference pattern produced on the water surface due to interference
of water waves. In the Fig. 2.4, S1 and S2 are two points on the water surface where circular
water waves of equal amplitude and constant phases are produced. These waves travel in
the water medium in the form of crests and troughs. As the circular water waves from the
two sources S1 and S2 advance in the forward direction, they interfere with each other.

Figure 2.4 Interference of water waves. S1 and S2 are two points on the water surface where water
waves are produced. The solid curves and broken curves represent crests and troughs of
the water waves respectively. At the points shown by the empty circle the crest of one
wave superimposes on the trough of other wave and hence have zero displacements.
At the points shown by the black circle two crests or two troughs of the two waves
superimpose on each other and hence, have maximum displacements

At any instant, water particles will be under the action of two waves originating from S1
and S2. When the waves have equal amplitudes, the net displacement of the water particles
104 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

will be zero if the crest of one wave superimposes on the trough of the other wave. The
net displacement of the water particles will be maximum (two times the amplitude of one
wave if they have the same amplitude) if the crest of one wave superimposes on the crest
of the other wave and the trough of one wave superimposes on the trough of the other
wave. There is no loss of energy during interference; only re-distribution occurs. The law
of conservation of energy holds good in the interference phenomenon.

2.4 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

In Young’s original setup, shown in Fig. 2.5, sunlight was first allowed to pass through a pin
hole S and then at a considerable distance away through two pin holes S1 and S2 situated on
an opaque screen. The pin hole S was situated on the perpendicular bisector of S1 S2. Finally,
sunlight was incident on a far away screen placed parallel to the pin holes S1 and S2. Two
sets of spherical waves emerging from the two pin holes interfered with each other and the
interference pattern was obtained on the screen. Young found that the illumination on the
screen was not uniform but a symmetric pattern of varying intensity.
In today’s laboratory set up, pin holes are replaced by rectangular fine slits and
monochromatic light is used instead of polychromatic sunlight. According to Huygens’
principle, cylindrical wavelets emerging from the slit S reach S1 and S2 at the same time
since SS1 = SS2; the slit S is situated on the perpendicular bisector of S1 S2. Therefore, at first,
the cylindrical wavelets emerging from the slits S1 and S2 have the same phases and same
amplitudes. The continuous circular arcs represent the wave crest whereas the broken
circular arcs represent the wave trough of each wave. At the points shown by a black circle,
the crest of one wave superimposes on the crest of the other wave or the trough of one wave
superimposes on the trough of the other wave. In other words, at these points, two waves
superimpose on each other in phase and hence, the resultant amplitude is twice that of a
component wave. On the other hand, at the points marked by an empty circle, the crest of
one wave superimposes on the trough of the other wave. In other words, at these points,
two waves superimpose on each other out of phase and hence, the resultant amplitude is
zero. The straight solid lines connecting all the points marked by black circles touches the
screen at P0 and P1. The bright narrow regions of equal spacing appear at these points. The
straight broken lines connecting all the points marked by empty circles touches the screen
at D1 and D2. The dark narrow regions of equal spacing appear at points D1 and D2. Thus,
on screen, a number of alternate bright and narrow regions of equal spacing known as
interference fringes are observed parallel to the slits S1 and S2. To be most accurate, the loci
of black circles or empty circles are confocal hyperbolae. Due to the small field of view of
the eye-piece, these confocal hyperbolae appear to be straight.
The fact that the pattern on the screen is only due to interference of the two waves
emerging from the two slits S1 and S2 can be proved by closing either of the two slits. When
one slit is closed, well-defined interference fringes are replaced by coarser fringes of unequal
spacings. This is due to the diffraction phenomenon of light by the unclosed slit. The coarse
 Interference 105

Figure 2.5 Young’s double slit experiment. The screen AB containing slit S, the screen
A1 B1 containing slits S1 and S2 and the screen A2 B2 are perpendicular to the
plane of the page. At the points shown by the empty circles, the crest of one
wave superimposes on the trough of the other wave and hence, have zero intensity
at the points D1 and D2. At the points shown by the black circles, two crests or two troughs
of two waves superimpose on each other and hence, have maximum intensity at the
points P1 and P0

bright fringe changes to fine dark fringe and the coarse dark fringe changes to fine bright
fringe when the closed slit is opened. The corpuscular theory of light totally failed to
explain, whereas, the wave theory of light completely explained this phenomenon.
Young’s double slit experiment was a turning point in the acceptance of the wave theory
of light.

2.5 Coherent Sources

Two sources of waves are said to be coherent only if the phase difference between the two
∂δ
interfering waves do not change with the passage of time, i.e., = 0. This is possible if
∂t
either the phase of the two sources remain constant with respect to time or changes by equal
amounts so that the difference of phases remains constant. If this condition is satisfied, a
stable-well-defined fringe pattern will be visible on the screen. For completely independent
light sources such as glowing wires or stars this condition of coherence cannot be satisfied.
In any light source, light is emitted due to the electronic transitions that occur among the
energy levels of atoms. The chances that all the electronic transitions in the atoms between
106 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

two independent light sources such as glowing wires or stars take place simultaneously, is
very remote. The atoms of the two light sources do not act cooperatively in emitting lights.
They emit light randomly. So the phase difference between two completely independent
light sources will vary with time very rapidly. The phase difference will change within a
very short interval of time of the order of 10–8 s. Thus, although interference fringes may
exist on the screen for a short interval of time, they will shift their positions each time
there is a change of phase, with the result that no fringes will be visible on the screen at all.
Mathematically, as we know from Eq. (1.139) that the intensity distribution pattern follows
the equation I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos δ , it will vary with the variation of phase difference d.

2.5.1 Methods of practical realization of coherent sources

Although ordinary sources of light in general are incoherent, we can obtain two perfectly
coherent sources from a single incoherent source by the following experimental
manipulation.
i. Two coherent beams can be produced by placing an opaque screen containing two
parallel slits perpendicularly in the path of a light beam. The waves emerging from the
slits will always have constant phase difference at any point in the region in which they
overlap to produce an interference pattern. This is what happens in Young’s double
slit experiment.
ii. A narrow beam of light coming from a source can be divided into two coherent beams by
the phenomenon of complete reflection through suitable experimental arrangements.
The interference effects produced in Lloyd’s mirror is due to the superposition of a
direct beam and a completely reflected beam of light. The interference effects produced
in Fresnel’s double mirror is due to the superposition of two reflected beams of light.
iii. A narrow beam of light coming from a source can be divided into two coherent beams
by the phenomenon of refraction through suitable experimental arrangements. The
interference effects produced in Billet’s split lens is due to the superposition of two
refracted beams of light.
iv. A narrow beam of light coming from a source can be divided into two coherent beams
by the phenomenon of partial reflection/refraction through suitable experimental
arrangements. The interference effects produced in thin liquid films is due to the
superposition of two partially reflected rays – one from the upper surface and the
other from the bottom surface of the liquid films.

2.6 Classification of the Interference Phenomenon

The interference phenomenon can be broadly divided into the following two categories
depending upon the methods by which two coherent interfering waves are produced.
Division of wavefront
The setup which divides the incident wavefront into two parts by using the phenomenon
of reflection, refraction or diffraction in such a manner that they superpose on each other
 Interference 107

to produce interference effects, come under this category of interference phenomenon.

The interference effects produced in Young’s double slits, Fresnel’s biprism, Lloyd’s single
mirror, Fresnel’s double mirror, and so on are examples of interference phenomena
produced by the division of wavefronts methods.
Division of amplitude
The setup which divides the amplitude of the incident wave into two parts by using the
phenomenon of partial reflection or refraction in such a manner that they superpose on each
other to produce interference effects, come under this category of interference phenomenon.
The interference effects produced in liquid films, Newton’s ring and interferometers are
examples of interference phenomena produced by division of amplitude methods. In this
case, an extended source of light is used.

2.7 Theory of Interference

In the Fig. 2.6, a monochromatic source of light is placed behind the slit S. The
monochromatic wave emerging from the slit S is incident simultaneously on the two slits
S1 and S2 which are equidistance from the slit S. The separation 2d between the two slits
S1 and S2 is very small of the order of 10–2 cm. Now we can take the light waves emerging
from the two slits S1 and S2 to have the same amplitudes, same wavelengths and same
frequencies. Let the phase difference between the waves emerging from the two slits S1 and
S2 have constant phase difference so that the interference pattern observed on the screen is
independent of time.

Figure 2.6 Explanation of interference phenomenon. S1 and S2 are two rectangular slits
perpendicular to the plane of the page. 2d is the separation between slits S1 and S2 . D is
the perpendicular distance between the plane of slits and the screen. P is any point
on the screen. According to our coordinate systems, S1(0, d, 0), S2(0, –d, 0) and P(0, yn, D).
Fig. 2.7 may be consulted

Let the wave emitted from the slit S1 be represented by

ψ 1 = r sin ωt (2.4)
108 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Let the wave emitted from the slit S2 be represented by

=ψ 2 r sin(ωt + δ ) (2.5)

According to our assumption, two waves y1 and y2 have the same amplitudes r, same
angular frequencies w and constant phase difference d. The resultant wave y obtained by
the principle of superposition at any point P is given by

ψ= ψ 1 +ψ 2

=r sin ωt + r sin(ωt + δ )

r sin ωt + r sin ωt cos δ + r cos ωt sin δ

=

or ψ= r sin ωt (1 + cos δ ) + r cos ωt sin δ (2.6)

Let R cos α
= r (1 + cos δ ) (2.7)

and R sin α = r sin δ (2.8)

Putting this substitution into Eq. (2.6), we have

ψ = sin ωt × R cos α + cos ωt × R sin α

= R(sin ωt cos α + cos ωt sin α )

=
or ψ R sin(ωt + α )

Thus, the resultant wave y at any point P on the screen is given

= by ψ R sin(ωt + α ), whose
amplitude is R. The resultant amplitude is determined as follows.
Squaring and adding Eqs (2.7) and (2.8), we get

(R sin α )2 + (R cos α
= )2 (r sin δ )2 + [r (1 + cos δ )]2

or R2 = r 2 + r 2 + 2r 2 cos δ

or R2 2r 2 (1 + cos δ )
= (2.9)

The intensity I of a wave is defined as the amount of energy flowing perpendicularly

through unit area in unit time. Mathematically, the expression for the intensity of a wave is

I = 2p 2 rvr 2, r = density of the medium, v = speed of the wave

 Interference 109

or I = k(amplitude)2

where k = 2π 2 ρ v is constant for a particular medium and particular wave. Therefore, the
intensity is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the resultant wave. The
intensity of the resultant wave is thus found out to be

=I 2kr 2 (1 + cos δ ) (2.10)

The relation between optical path difference D (optical path = geometrical path × refractive
index) and phase difference d is

2π
δ
= ∆ (2.11)
λ

λ
or ∆= δ (2.12)
2π

2.7.1 Constructive interference (I = Imax)

The interference is said to be constructive (formation of bright fringe) if the intensity

of the resultant wave I is maximum. From Eq. (2.10), the maximum value of intensity
I = 2kr2 (1 + cos d) is found out as follows.
I = 2kr2 (1 + cos d) is maximum when cos d is maximum. The maximum value of cos a
is 1. Hence, the maximum value of I is

I= I max= 2kr 2 (1 + 1)= 4kr 2 if cos d = +1

or d = 2np, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (maxima) (2.13)

Constructive interference occurs if the phase difference between the interfering waves is an
even multiple of p.
We know that for constructive interference, d = 2np. Hence, the constructive interference
condition in terms of the path difference will be given by

λ
∆
= × 2nπ
2π

λ
or ∆= nλ= 2n   . (maxima) (2.14)
2
110 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Therefore, we conclude that bright fringes are formed at those points for which the optical
path difference between the waves emerging from the two slits S1 and S2 are even multiples
of half the wavelengths.
The maximum intensity of the resultant wave is 4kr2, whereas the maximum intensity
of the component wave is kr2 since the amplitude of each component wave is r. Hence,
the maximum intensity of the resultant wave is four times the maximum intensity of the
component wave in case of constructive interference.

2.7.2 Destructive interference (I = Imin)

The interference is said to be destructive (formation of dark fringe) if the intensity of

the resultant wave I is minimum. From Eq. (2.10), the minimum value of intensity
I = 2kr2 (1 + cos d) is found out as follows.
I = 2kr2 (1 + cos d) is minimum when cos d is minimum. The minimum value of cos a
is –1. Hence, the minimum value of I is

I = Imin = 2kr2 (1 – 1) = 0 if cos d = –1

or d = (2n + 1)p , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (minima) (2.15)

Destructive interference occurs if the phase difference between the interfering waves is an
odd multiple of p.
We know that for destructive interference d = (2n + 1)p. Hence, the destructive
interference condition in terms of the optical path difference will be given by
λ
∆
= × (2n + 1)π
2π

λ
or =
∆ (2n + 1)   . (minima) (2.16)
2
Therefore, we conclude that dark fringes are formed at those points for which the optical
path difference between the waves emerging from the two slits S1 and S2 are odd multiples
of half the wavelength.
The minimum intensity of the resultant wave is 0, whereas the minimum intensity of
the component wave is kr2 since the amplitude of each component wave is r. Hence, the
minimum intensity of the resultant wave is kr2 less than the minimum intensity of the
component wave in case of destructive interference.

2.7.3 Fringe spacing b

Let P be any point on the screen. The formation of a bright fringe or a dark fringe at P
depends upon the optical path difference D between the waves emerging from the two slits
S1 and S2. According to Eq. (2.14), a bright fringe is formed at P if
 Interference 111

λ
∆ =2n   (Bright fringe)
2

and according to Eq. (2.16), a dark fringe is formed at P if

λ
=
∆ (2n + 1)   (Dark fringe)
2

Let the distance between the plane of the slits and the screen be D; O is a point on the screen
so that SO as shown in Fig. 2.7 is the perpendicular bisector of S1S2. We can take O as the
origin of our coordinate system as shown in Fig. 2.7.

Figure 2.7 Our coordinate system, along with the experimental setup for Young’s double
slit experiment. The coordinates of the two rectangular slits S1 and S2 are S1 (0, d, 0) and
S2 (0, –d, 0) P is any point on the screen along a straight line parallel to the Y-axis and its
coordinates will be P(0, yn, D). As shown in the figure, D is along the Z-axis

P(0, yn, D) is any point on the screen along a straight line parallel to the Y-axis. The
separation D between the plane of the slits and the screen is along the Z-axis as shown in
Fig. 2.7. According to our coordinate system, the coordinates of the two rectangular slits
S1 and S2 are S1(0, d, 0) and S2(0, –d, 0). Suppose the nth order fringe appears at P(0, yn, D).
Hence, we have

( 0 − 0 ) + ( d − yn ) + ( 0 − D ) (2.17)
2 2 2
S1P =

( 0 − 0 ) + ( −d − yn ) + ( 0 − D )
2 2 2
=
S2 P (2.18)

The optical path difference D between the two interfering waves emerging from S1 and S2
in vacuum as shown in Fig. 2.6 is
=
∆ S2 P − S1P
112 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

As our experimental setup is immersed in air medium having refractive index 1, the optical
path and the geometrical path are the same.
Putting Eqs (2.17) and (2.18) into the aforementioned equation, we have

( 0 − 0 ) + ( −d − yn ) + ( 0 − D ) ( 0 − 0 ) + ( d − yn ) + ( 0 − D )
2 2 2 2 2 2
∆= −

( yn + d ) ( yn − d )
2 2
= + D2 − + D2

1 1
 ( y + d )2  2  ( y − d )2  2
or ∆ D 1 + n 2  − D 1 + n 2 
=
 D   D 

( yn + d ) ( yn − d )
2 2

Since < 1 and < 1 , we can expand the RHS of the previous equation by
D2 D2
binomial theorem to obtain

 1 ( y + d )2   1 ( y − d )2  1
n n
∆ D 1 +
= 2
 − D 1 + =  × 4 yn d
 2 D   2 D2  2D


The optical path difference D between two interfering waves emerging from S1 and S2
is thus

2 yn d
∆=
D

The position of the nth order fringe is obtained from this equation as

D∆
yn = (2.19)
2d

λ
For the nth order bright fringe, D from Eq. (2.14) is given as ∆ =2n   . Putting this value
2
of D into Eq. (2.19), the position of the nth order bright fringe is obtained as

Dnλ
yn = (2.20)
2d
 Interference 113

Similarly, the position of the (n + 1)th order bright fringe is given by

D(n + 1)λ
yn +1 =
2d

In between the nth and (n + 1)th order bright fringe there must exists the nth order dark
fringe. Here, the distance between two consecutive bright fringes or two consecutive dark
fringes is defined as fringe spacing. Therefore, the separation yn+1 – yn gives the spacing of
the nth order dark fringe b. Hence, we have

Dλ
β = yn +1 − yn = (2.21)
2d

as the spacing of the nth order dark fringe.

λ
For the nth order dark fringe, D from Eq. (2.16) is given as = ∆ (2n + 1)   . Putting this
2
value of D into Eq. (2.19), the position of the nth order dark fringe is obtained as

D(2n + 1)λ
yn = (2.22)
4d

Similarly, the position of the (n + 1)th order dark fringe is given as

D(2n + 3)λ
yn +1 =
4d

In between the nth and (n+1)th order dark fringe there must exists the nth order bright
fringe. Therefore, the separation yn+1 – yn gives the spacing of the nth order bright fringe b.
Hence, we have

Dλ Dλ
β= yn +1 − yn= × 2= (2.23)
4d 2d

Equations (2.21) and (2.23) prove that the spacing of the nth order bright fringe and the
dark fringe are the same. Therefore, we simply say fringe spacing b instead of bright fringe
spacing or dark fringe spacing. Hence, the nth order fringe spacing is

Dλ
β= (2.24)
2d

Equation (2.24) does not contain n. Therefore, we conclude that the spacing of any order
fringe have the same value. From Eq. (2.24), we can have
i. β ∝ D when g and d remains unchanged.
 114 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ii. β ∝ λ when D and d remains unchanged.

1
iii. β∝ when l and D remains unchanged.
d
These conclusions are in perfect agreement with the experimental interference pattern on
the screen.

2.7.4 Intensity distribution curve

The intensity distribution of interference fringes on screen produced due to coherent

superposition of two monochromatic light waves of the same amplitude and same
frequency follows the equation
= I 2kr 2 (1 + cos δ ) (Eq. (2.10)). Again according to equation

Dλ
β=
2d

(Equation (2.24)), spacing of the fringes on the screen is constant for given values of D, d
and l. The intensity I is taken along the Y-axis and phase difference d is taken along the
X-axis. As phase difference d gradually increases from 0 to p, cos d decreases gradually
from +1 to –1 via 0 and as a consequence, intensity I diminishes from 4kr2 to 0. The shape
of the intensity distribution curve is therefore as shown in Fig. 2.8 for different positive and
negative values of d.

Figure 2.8
δ
The intensity distribution I = 2kr 2 (1 + cos δ ) = 4kr 2 cos 2   of interference fringes on a
2
screen produced due to coherent superposition of two monochromatic light waves of
the same amplitude and same frequency

2.8 Conservation of Energy in Interference

No destruction or creation of energy occurs in interference phenomenon; there is only re-
distribution of energy. The transformation of energy from one form to another form does
 Interference 115

not occur in interference phenomenon. The law of conservation of energy should hold
good in interference phenomenon.
The energy which disappears from the dark fringe appears in the bright fringe. The
average value of energy or intensity <I> over any range of phase difference is the same as if
interference effects are absent. We can show it mathematically in the following way.

2π 2π

∫0 Idδ ∫ 2kr 2 (1 + cos δ )dδ

=
<I> = 2π
0
2π

∫ dδ
0
∫0
dδ

2π 2π

∫ 2kr 2 dδ + ∫ cos δ dδ 2kr 2 × 2π

= 0 0
=
2π
2π
∫0
dδ

1
or <= kr 2
I > 2= 4kr 2
2

Thus, the average value of intensity is half of the maximum intensity 4kr2. Therefore, we
conclude that there is no violation of the law of conservation of energy in interference
phenomenon.

2.9 Conditions for Interference of Light

For the observation of a good interference pattern of light, few conditions are to be satisfied.
The conditions are classified into the following three parts.
Conditions for sustained interference pattern
For a well-defined sustained interference pattern, the interference fringe pattern should
remain stable throughout the observation time. To accomplish this, the experimental
arrangements must satisfy the following conditions.
i. The interfering two waves of light must originate from the same source of light so that
they have constant phase difference at all times.
As we know that the intensity distribution pattern follows from the equation
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos δ , it will vary with the variation of phase difference d. If the
phase difference d varies with time, the interference pattern will change with time.
dδ
Therefore, the two interfering light waves should be coherent, i.e., = 0.
dt
 116 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ii. The interfering two waves of light must have the same wavelength, i.e., they must be
monochromatic waves (A monochromatic light source emits light of a single color,
i.e., single wavelength; mono = single, chroma = color). If a source of white light
(polychromatic) is used, no fringes will be seen at all except for some at the central
region. The central dark fringe will be accompanied by a few colored fringes on both
sides.
iii. The interfering two waves of light must have the same period or same frequency.
If frequencies are different, the maximum due to one wave may coincide with the
minimum due to the other wave.

Conditions for observation of interference pattern

For a very clear observation of interference pattern, the experimental arrangements must
satisfy the following conditions.
i. The separation between the two sources (2d) should be small. The expression for
fringe spacing b as obtained in Eq. (2.24) is
Dλ
β= .
2d

If 2d is small, fringe spacing b will be large and fringes will be separately visible. If 2d
is large, fringe spacing b will be small and fringes will not be visible clearly due to the
limited resolving power of our eyes.
ii. The distance D between the two sources and screen should be large. The expression
for fringe spacing b as obtained in Eq. (2.24) is
Dλ
β= .
2d

If D is small fringe, spacing b will be small and the fringes will not be visible clearly
due to the limited resolving power of our eyes. If D is large, fringe spacing b will be
large and fringes will be visible clearly.
iii. The background of the observation should be dark in order to observe the interference
fringe pattern clearly.

Conditions for good contrast interference pattern

In a well-defined good contrast interference pattern, the dark fringe should be fully dark
(Imin = 0) and the bright fringe should be fully bright (Imax = maximum) throughout the
observation time. To accomplish this, the experimental arrangements must satisfy the
following conditions.
i. The interfering two waves of light must have the same or nearly equal amplitudes. If
the two interfering waves have different amplitudes, the dark fringe will not be fully
dark as is evident from equation I= k ( r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos δ ) . I = 0 only when r1 = r2 with
cos d = –1.
 Interference 117

ii. The sources should be narrow. If sources are not narrow, interference between the
waves from doifferent parts of the same source will take place and the contrast will be
poor.
iii. The two interfering light waves must be in the same state of polarization.
iv. The two interfering light waves must be propagated almost in the same direction.
v. The original source from which the two interfering light waves are originating must
be monochromatic or nearly monochromatic. If instead of a monochromatic source
a polychromatic source is used, then each separate colored light may produce its
own interference pattern with its own spacing. The different interference pattern due
to different wavelengths will overlap each other and the net effect will be a blurred
interference pattern.

Example 2.1
The wavelength of light in vacuum is 5890 Å. Calculate the wavelength of the same light in a
medium having absolute refractive index 1.4.
Solution
The absolute refractive index is defined by

c
µ=
v

νλO
or µ = [ v = νλ ]
νλm

λO
or λm =
µ

Putting the values of l0 and m into this equation, we get

5890Å
=λm = 4207Å
1.4

Example 2.2
In Young’s double slit experiment, a 2 cm space on the screen placed at 200 cm contains 20
fringes. Find the slit separation if the wavelength of light used is 5100 Å.
118 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
Twenty fringes occupy 2 cm space on the screen. Hence, the distance occupied by one fringe
on the screen, i.e., fringe spacing b will be

2 cm
=β = 0.1=
cm 0.001 m
20
O
Data given are D = 200 cm = 2 m and=λ 5100
= A 5100 × 10−10 m
The distance between the two slits, i.e., slit separation, 2d, is given as

Dλ
2d =
β
Putting the values of D, l and b into this equation, we get

2 × 5100 × 10−10
2d = 1.02 × 10−3 m =
m= 0.102cm
0.001

Example 2.3
In Young’s double slit experiment, two coherent sources are 0.02 cm apart and fringes are
observed on a screen 100 cm away. It is found that the 6th bright fringe is situated at a distance
of 1.2 cm from the central fringe. Calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light used.
Solution
The data given are 2d = 0.02 cm, D = 100 cm, n = 6, and yn = 1.2 cm
The position of the nth order bright fringe from the central fringe is

Dnλ y 2d
yn = or λ = n
2d Dn

Putting the values of 2d, D, n, and yn into this equation, we get

1.2 × 0.02
λ= cm = 4000 Å
100 × 6

2.10 Shape of Interference Fringes

We can very easily form a mental picture regarding the shape of interference fringes by
deriving the equation of the locus of the points having a given path difference D between
the two interfering waves originating from the two slits S1 and S2. Interference fringes
 Interference 119

are nothing but the loci of the points having a given path difference D between the two
interfering waves.

2.10.1 Shape of interference fringes on the XY-plane (Hyperbolic)

The coordinate system we have chosen is shown in Fig. 2.7. According to our coordinate
system, the coordinates of any point P on the screen are (x, y, D), the coordinates of the slit
S1 are (0, d, 0) and that of S2 are (0, –d, 0). Let D be the optical path difference between the
two interfering waves originating from the two slits S1 and S2. Therefore, from the Fig. 2.6,
we have

S2 P − S1P =
∆ (2.25)

However, S2 P= (0 − x )2 + (−d − y )2 + (0 − D)2

and S1P = (0 − x )2 + (d − y )2 + (0 − D)2

So Eq. (2.25) becomes

x 2 + ( y + d )2 + D=
2
x 2 + ( y − d )2 + D 2 + ∆

Squaring both sides of this equation, we have

( y + d )2 =( y − d )2 + ∆ 2 + 2∆ x 2 + ( y − d )2 + D 2

or 4 yd − ∆ 2 = 2∆ x 2 + ( y − d )2 + D 2

Again squaring both sides of this equation, we have

( 4 yd − ∆ )
2
= 4∆2  x 2 + ( y − d ) + D 2 
2 2

 

or 16 y 2 d 2 + ∆ 4 − 8 yd∆ 2= 4 x 2 ∆ 2 + 4 y 2 ∆ 2 + 4d 2 ∆ 2 − 8 yd∆ 2 + 4 D 2 ∆ 2

or 16 y 2 d 2 + ∆ 4= 4 x 2 ∆ 2 + 4 y 2 ∆ 2 + 4d 2 ∆ 2 + 4 D 2 ∆ 2

or 16 y 2 d 2 − 4 y 2 ∆ 2 − 4 x 2 ∆ 2 =−∆ 4 + 4d 2 ∆ 2 + 4 D 2 ∆ 2
120 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

or ( )
4 4d 2 − ∆ 2 y 2 − 4 ∆ 2 x 2 = ∆ 2 4 D 2 + 4d 2 − ∆ 2( ) (2.26)

Dividing both sides of this equation by ∆2 ( 4 D 2 + 4d 2 − ∆ 2 ) , we have

(
4 4d 2 − ∆ 2 y 2 ) −
4∆2 x 2
=
1
(
∆ 2 4 D 2 + 4d 2 − ∆ 2 ) (
∆ 2 4 D 2 + 4d 2 − ∆ 2 )
y2 x2
− =
1
or  ∆2 D 2 ∆2   2 2 ∆2  (2.27)
 2 2
+   D + d − 
 4d − ∆ 4   4 

In optical experiments, to obtain interference fringes, we need the optical path difference
∆ 2 from Eq. (2.27), we get
∆ ≈ 10−8 cm and 2d ≈ 10−2 cm. Therefore, neglecting
4
y2 x2
− =
1
∆2 D 2 D2 + d2 (2.28)
4d 2 − ∆ 2

y2 x2
Equations (2.27) or (2.28) are of the form − = 1 with
a 2 b2
∆D (2.29)
a=
2 2
4d − ∆

and=b D2 + d2 (2.30)

The hyperbola defined by the equation

y2 x2
− = 1
a 2 b2

is shown in the Fig. 2.9. Equations (2.27) or (2.28) define the loci of a point on the Z = D
plane for which the path difference S2P – S1P = D is constant.
 Interference 121

y2 x2
Figure 2.9 The hyperbola defined by the equation − = 1 with a2 + b2 = c2. The vertices are
a 2 b2
V(0, a) and V’(0, –a); foci are F(0, c) and F(0, –c)

The hyperbola has the vertices at (0, +a) and foci at (0, +c). For a hyperbola.
c2 = a2 + b2

Putting the values of a and b from Eqs (2.29) and (2.30) into this equation, we get

∆2 D 2
c2
= + D2 + d2
4d 2 − ∆ 2

4d 2 D 2 + 4d 4 − ∆ 2 d 2
or c2 =
4d 2 − ∆ 2

Without hampering physics, we can neglect 4d 4 and ∆2 d 2 in this equation and obtain

2dD
c= (2.31)
4d 2 − ∆ 2

The vertices of the hyperbola described by Eq. (2.28) are on the Y-axis at

 D∆   D∆ 
 0,  and  0, − 
 4d 2 − ∆ 2   4d 2 − ∆ 2 

or approximately at

 D∆   D∆ 
 0, 2d  and  0, − 2d  .
   
122 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The foci of the hyperbola described by Eq. (2.28) are on the Y-axis at

 2dD   2dD 
 0,  and  0, − 
 4d 2 − ∆ 2   4d 2 − ∆ 2 

or approximately at (0, D) and (0, –D). Hence, for a particular experimental setup, the foci
are the same for all the fringes. The shape of a conic section curve depends upon the value
of the eccentricity e. If the value of eccentricity is zero (e = 0), then the curve is a circle; if
it is equal to one (e = 1), then the curve is a parabola; if it is less than one (e < 1), then the
curve is an ellipse; and if it is greater than one (e > 1), then the curve is a hyperbola. If e>>1,
curves will be nearly a straight line and if e → ∞ , then the curve → straight line.
The eccentricity e of the hyperbola

y2 x2
− = 1
a 2 b2

c
is defined by e = Putting the values of c and a from Eqs (2.31) and (2.29) into this
a
equation, we have the eccentricity of the hyperbola defined by Eq. (2.28) as

2dD

e= 4d 2 − ∆ 2
∆D
4d 2 − ∆ 2

2d
or e= (2.32)
∆

Thus, eccentricity of the hyperbola described by Eqs (2.27) or (2.28) is obtained

2d
approximately as e = . Putting the values of 2d and D into Eq. (2.28), the eccentricity
∆
of the hyperbola is found much greater than 1. Larger value of eccentricity means the
hyperbola is more flat.
The eccentricity of a bright hyperbolic fringe is obtained by putting the value D from
λ
Eq. (2.13) (for bright fringe ∆ =2n   ) into Eq. (2.32). Hence, the eccentricity of a bright
hyperbolic fringe will be 2

2d
e= (for bright fringe) (2.33)
nλ
 Interference 123

The eccentricity of a dark hyperbolic fringe is obtained by putting the value D from
λ
∆ (2n + 1)   ) into Eq. (2.32). Hence, the eccentricity of a dark
Eq. (2.15) (for dark fringe =
hyperbolic fringe will be 2

4d
e= (for dark fringe) (2.34)
(2n + 1)λ

Equations (2.33) and (2.34) show that for all types of fringes, eccentricity is much more
than 1. Hence, hyperbolic fringes are nearly straight lines. Any plane parallel to the plane of
the slits is a transverse section. Therefore, on any transverse plane, the interference fringes
appear straight though they are actually confocal hyperbolas of large eccentricities. In
Fig. 2.7, the XY-plane is the transverse section containing the straight interference fringe
pattern.

2.11 Interference Fringes in 3-D Space

In Eq. (2.26), in place of D, let us put z, i.e., D = z. As D is along the Z-axis we have

( ) (
4 4d 2 − ∆ 2 y 2 − 4 ∆ 2 x 2 = ∆ 2 4 z 2 + 4d 2 − ∆ 2 )

or ( )
4 4d 2 − ∆ 2 y 2 − 4 ∆ 2 x 2 = 4 ∆ 2 z 2 + ∆ 2 4d 2 − ∆ 2 ( )

or ( )
4 4d 2 − ∆ 2 y 2 − 4 ∆ 2 x 2 − 4 ∆ 2 z 2 = ∆ 2 4d 2 − ∆ 2 ( )
Dividing both sides of this equation by ∆2 (4d 2 − ∆2 ) , we have

(
4 4d 2 − ∆ 2 y 2 ) −
4∆2 x 2
−
4∆2 z 2
=
1
(
∆ 2 4d 2 − ∆ 2 ) (
∆ 2 4d 2 − ∆ 2 ) (
∆ 2 4d 2 − ∆ 2 )

y2 x2 z2
− − =
1
or ∆2 2 ∆2 2 ∆2
d − d −
4 4 4

x2 y2 z2
or − + =
−1 (2.35)
∆2 ∆2 ∆2
d2 − 2
d −
4 4 4
124 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

x2 y2 z2
Equation (2.35) is of the form − + = −1 with
a 2 b2 a 2
2 ∆2
a= d2 −
4

∆2
and b2 =
4

Equation (2.34) describes a hyperboloid of two sheets.

x2 y2 z2
The hyperboloid of two sheets defined by the equation 2 − 2 + 2 =
−1 is shown in
Fig. 2.10. a b a

x2 y2 z2
Figure 2.10 The hyperboloid of two sheets defined by the equation − + = −1. The cross-
a 2 b2 a 2
sections by the x = k plane is a hyperbola, by the y = k plane is a circle and by the z = k
plane is ahyperbola

Equation (2.34) is the loci of points in space for which path difference S2P – S1P = D is
constant. The hyperboloid surface described by Eq. (2.35) touches the Y-axis at the points

 ∆   ∆ 
 0, 2 ,0  and  0, − 2 ,0 
   

and does not touch the X-axis and the Z-axis.

 Interference 125

2.11.1 Shape of interference fringes on the ZX-plane (Circular)

Now let us observe the interference pattern on the ZX-plane along the Y-axis (see
Fig. 2.7). The y = k plane (the ZX-plane at k distance from the origin) cuts the hyperboloid
surface described by the equation

x2 y2 z2
2
− 2
+ =
−1
∆ ∆ ∆2
d2 − 2
d −
4 4 4

in a circle. Therefore, the shape of the interference fringes on the y = k plane are circular.
The radius of the circular fringe on the y = k plane is determined by putting y = k in
Eq. (2.35). Hence, we have

x2 k2 z2
− + =
−1
∆2 ∆2 ∆2
d2 − 2
d −
4 4 4

x2 z2 4k 2
or + = −1
∆2 ∆2 ∆2
d2 − 2
d −
4 4

 4k 2  2 ∆2 
or x2 + z=
2
 2 − 1  d − 
 ∆  4 

r 2 in the XZ-plane. Thus, we

This equation is in the form of the circle equation x 2 + z 2 =
come to know that the y = k plane cuts the hyperboloid surface in a circle. Hence, the loci of
points having constant path difference on the y = k plane (the XZ-plane at k distance from
the origin) is a circular fringe of radius

 4k 2  2 ∆2 
 2 − 1  d −  .
 ∆  4 

The approximate radius of the circular fringe on the y = k plane can be found out in the
following manner. The square of radius of the circular fringe r 2 is given by

 4k 2  ∆2 
r 2 = 2 − 1  d 2 − 
 ∆  4 
126 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

4k 2 d 2 2 2 ∆2
= − d − k +
∆2 4

1  2 2 ∆4 
=
or r2  4 k d − ∆ 2 2
d − ∆ 2 2
k + 
∆2  4 

∆4
As earlier, neglecting ∆2 d 2 and from this equation, for the same reason, we obtain
4
k2
=r2
∆2
(
4d 2 − ∆ 2 )

By neglecting ∆2 from the term (4d 2 − ∆2 ) in this equation, we get the approximate value of
the radius of the circular fringe as
2dk
r= (2.36)
∆

For bright fringe, ∆ =nλ . Hence, the radius of the nth order circular bright fringe on the
y = k plane is obtained as

2dk
r= (Bright fringe) (2.37)
nλ

λ
For dark fringe, = ∆ (2n + 1) . Hence, the radius of the nth order circular dark fringe on
2
the y = k plane is obtained as

4dk
r= (Dark fringe) (2.38)
(2n + 1)λ

2.11.2 Shape of interference fringes on the XY-plane (Hyperbolic)

If we put z = k in the hyperboloid Eq. (2.35), we get

x2 y2 k2
− + =
−1
∆2 ∆2 ∆2
d2 − 2
d −
4 4 4

y2 x2 k2
or − =
1 + (2.39)
∆2 ∆2 ∆2
d2 − d2 −
4 4 4
 Interference 127

This is an equation of a hyperbola on the z = k plane (the XY-plane at k distance from the
origin) and has been discussed in Section 2.10.1. The interference fringes on the XY-plane
are therefore hyperbolic in shape as discussed earlier.

2.11.3 Shape of interference fringes on the YZ-plane (Hyperbolic)

If we put x = k in the hyperboloid Eq. (2.35), we get

k2 y2 z2
− + =
−1
∆2 ∆2 ∆2
d2 − d2 −
4 4 4

y2 z2 k2
or − =
1 + (2.40)
∆2 ∆2 ∆2
d2 − d2 −
4 4 4

The Eq. (2.40) is similar to Eq. (2.39). Equation (2.40) represents a hyperbola on the
x = k plane (the YZ-plane at k distance from the origin). The interference fringes on the
YZ-plane are therefore hyperbolic in shape.

2.12 Newton’s Rings

Let a plano-convex lens of large focal length be placed on a plane glass plate so that the curved
surface of the lens is in contact with the glass surface. It is assumed that the plano-convex
lens touches the glass plate at a single point. Now the plano-convex lens and the glass plate
system is in the air medium. Therefore, a thin air film of uniformly and slowly increasing
thickness in the outward direction is formed around the point of contact. Concentric
circular interference fringes are formed when a parallel beam of monochromatic light is
incident normally on the plane surface of either the plano-convex lens or the glass plate.
The thickness of these alternate bright and dark circular interference fringes decreases as
their radii increases as shown in Fig. 2.12. Any one of these concentric circular interference
fringes is actually the locus of the points of equal depths or thicknesses. Therefore, these
concentric circular interference fringes are called fringes of constant thickness. These
concentric circular interference fringes so formed are termed Newton’s rings since this
phenomenon was first analyzed by Newton, though it was first observed by Robert Hooke
in the year 1635.

2.12.1 Experimental setup

The experimental setup is depicted in Fig. 2.11. S a source of monochromatic light is placed
at the focus of a convex lens so that after refraction through the lens, the refracted beam
becomes parallel. It is one of the properties of a convex lens. This parallel beam of light
128 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

is allowed to fall on a glass plate G placed at 45° with the incident beam. The glass plate
G so placed will reflect a part of the incident beam of light vertically downward towards
the plane surface of the plano-convex lens placed on another glass plate as shown in
Fig. 2.11.

Figure 2.11 The experimental setup for observation of Newton’s rings by reflected light. G is the
glass plate, M is the travelling microscope and S is a monochromatic source of light

A microscope is placed over the glass plate G and is focused on the bottom surface of the
thin film enclosed by the plano-convex lens and glass plate system. When viewed through
the eye-piece of the properly focused microscope, alternate bright and dark concentric
circular interference fringes are seen similar to that as depicted in Fig. 2.12.

Figure 2.12 Newton’s rings by the reflected light as seen by a well-focused microscope when a
thin air film is enclosed between the glass plate and the spherical surface of the
plano-convex lens. The central fringe is dark
 Interference 129

2.12.2 Theory

To generalize, we can assume that a transparent liquid of refractive index m is inserted

between the curved surface of the lens and the glass plate. Thus, the space between the
curved surface of the lens and the glass plate contains a medium of refractive index m
which is less than the refractive indices of the material of the plano-convex lens and the
bottom glass plate. It automatically reduces to air medium when m Æ 1 in the following
calculations. Therefore, a thin film of the medium of refractive index m and of uniformly
and slowly increasing thickness in the outward direction is formed around the point of
contact. As shown in Fig. 2.11, the upper surface and bottom surface of this liquid film
are concave and plane respectively. The lower spherical surface of the plano-convex lens
coincides with the upper concave surface and the upper plane surface of the glass plate
coincides with the bottom plane surface of the liquid film.
Let a ray of monochromatic light AB be incident at point B. Due to division of amplitude
of the incident light wave, a part of it is reflected along BR and the other part is transmitted
along BC. At the point C on the plane glass plate, reflection and transmission occurs along
CB1 and CT respectively. Again at the point B1 on the bottom surface of the plano-convex
lens, reflection and transmission occurs along B1C1 and B1R1 respectively. At the point C1
on the plane glass plate, reflection and transmission occurs along C1B2 and C1T respectively.
This process of reflection and transmission goes on continuously as shown in Fig. 2.13. The
two waves BR and B1R1 originate from a single light wave AB and hence should be capable
of producing an observable interference pattern. Similarly, the two transmitted waves CT
and C1T originate from a single light wave AB and hence should be capable of producing
an observable interference pattern.

Figure 2.13 Formation of Newton’s rings by reflected light. BR and B1R1 originate from the incident
light wave AB by partial reflections. They interfere to produce Newton’s rings. E is the
position of the eye
130 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2.12.3 Calculations

Suppose e is the thickness of the liquid film at the point B1. Since the focal length of the
plano-convex lens is large (hence, the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is
large), the upper concave surface of the liquid film can be assumed to be plane with a
small inclination to the glass plate. Therefore, under this assumption, the thin liquid film
formed between the plano-convex lens and the glass plate system is a wedge-shaped film.
The optical path difference D between the waves BR and B1R1 can be calculated in the
following manner with the help of Fig. 2.14.

Figure 2.14 Calculation of the optical path difference D between the two interfering waves BR
and B1R1 for Newton’s rings

D = geometrical path difference × m

= BCB1 × m – BD × mair

= (BC + CB1)m – BD (Refractive index of air is assumed to be 1)

= (BE + EC + CB1)m – BD

or D = BE × m + EC × m + CB1 × m – BD (2.41)
 Interference 131

BD BE
In the right triangle BB1D sin i = and in the right triangle BB1E, sin r = . Hence, by
BB1 BB1
applying Snell’s law, we have

sin i BD
µ
= =
sin r BE

or BD = mBE

Putting this value of BD into Eq. (2.41), we get

∆ = BE × µ + EC × µ + CB1 × µ − BE × µ

= EC × µ + CB1 × µ

or =
∆ ( EC + CB1 ) µ (2.42)

As shown in Fig. 2.14, BN and CN are perpendicular to the upper surface and lower surface
of the liquid film. We have

∠BFG + ∠BGF = 90° = ∠CNG + ∠CGN

However, ∠BGF =
∠CGN since they are opposite angles. Hence, we get

∠BFG =
∠CNG

or α = ∠CNG

Again ∠CNB + ∠CBN = ∠BCP

or α + r =∠BCP

Since the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, we have

α + r =∠B1CP

Since ∠BCP and ∠NCO are opposite angles, we have

α + r =∠NCO
132 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Since CN is parallel to MO, we have

α + r =∠COM

α + r = ∠B1CP ⇒ ∠CB1M = α + r

Thus, B1CO is an isosceles triangle with

CB1 = CO

Putting this value of CB1 into Eq. (2.42), we get

∆ (EC + CO)µ
=

or = EO × µ
∆ (2.43)

In the right triangle B1EO,

= B1O cos(α + r=
EO ) (B1M + MO)cos(α + r=
) 2B1M cos(α + r )

(B1CO is an isosceles triangle ⇒ MO =

B1M)

or=EO 2e cos(α + r )

where B1M = e is the thickness of the liquid film at point B1.

Putting this value of EO into Eq. (2.43), we have

=∆ 2e cos(α + r ) × µ (2.44)

This equation shows that the optical path difference D between the two interfering waves
BR and B1R1 varies with the thickness of the film as well as with the angle of incidence. The
phase difference d ¢ between the two interfering waves BR and B1R1 due to optical path
difference is

2π (2.45)
δ=′ ×∆
λ

It has been assumed that the refractive index of the liquid is less than the refractive index
of the glass. The wave BR as shown in Fig. 2.13 is obtained from the incident wave AB by
the reflection of the incident wave from the upper surface of the liquid film. That means
wave BR is obtained by the reflection of the incident wave from a surface backed by a rarer
medium. Hence, no phase change occurs due to reflection and the phase difference due to
reflection between the waves AB and BR is zero. Similarly, the wave B1R1 as shown in the
 Interference 133

Fig. 2.13 is obtained from the incident wave AB by the reflection of the incident wave from
the glass surface. That means wave B1R1 is obtained by the reflection of the incident wave
from a surface backed by a denser medium. Hence, the phase change of p occurs due to
reflection and the phase difference due to reflection between the waves AB and B1R1 is p.
In case of transverse waves, no phase change occurs during the refraction or transmission
phenomenon. Therefore, the extra phase difference between the two interfering waves BR
and B1R1 due to reflection is p. The total phase difference d between the two interfering
waves BR and B1R1 due to optical path difference and due to reflection is given by
d = Phase difference due to optical path difference + phase difference due to reflection.

or δ= δ ′ + π

2π
or δ
= ×∆ +π (2.46)
λ

According to Eq. (2.13), constructive interference occurs if the total phase difference
between the interfering waves is an even multiple of p. Hence, the bright circular fringes
appear at the points for which

δ = 2nπ

2π
or × ∆ + π = 2nπ
λ

λ
or =
∆ ( 2n − 1)
2

2n – 1 and 2n + 1 represent odd numbers. Hence, we can replace 2n – 1 by 2n + 1 in this

equation without hampering anything and the equation becomes

λ
=
∆ ( 2n + 1)
2

λ
2 µe cos (α + r ) = ( 2n + 1) (Bright rings) (2.47)
2

According to Eq. (2.14), destructive interference occurs if the total phase difference between
the interfering waves is an odd multiple of p. Hence, the dark circular fringes appear at the
points for which

δ (2n + 1)π
=
134 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2π
or π 2nπ + π
× ∆ +=
λ

λ
or ∆ =2n  
2

λ
2 µe cos(α + r ) =
2n   (Dark rings) (2.48)
2

Equations (2.47) and (2.48) represent the condition for the formation of bright Newton’s
rings and dark Newton’s rings respectively. In Eqs (2.47) and (2.48), a the angle between
the lower surface of the plano-convex lens and the glass plate is exceedingly small. Hence,
in comparison to r, we can neglect a. Therefore, the Eqs (2.47) and (2.48) become

λ
2 µe cos=
r ( 2n + 1) (Bright rings) (2.49)
2

λ
2 µe cos r = 2n   (Dark rings) (2.50)
2

The experimental arrangements can be designed so that light wave is allowed to fall
normally on the plane surface of the plano-convex lens which makes the angle of incidence
zero. Hence, under these experimental conditions which makes r = 0, Eqs (2.49) and (2.50)
boil down to

λ
2 µ=
e ( 2n + 1) (Bright rings) (2.51)
2

λ
2 µe = 2n   (Dark rings) (2.52)
2

If we join all the points on the glass plate below the plano-convex lens having the same
thicknesses, the locus will be a perfect circle. The thickness of the liquid film at the points
where the nth order bright fringe appears is obtained from Eq. (2.51) and is given by

λ
=
e ( 2n + 1) (2.53)
4µ
 Interference 135

Similarly, the thickness of the liquid film at the points where the nth order dark fringe
appears is obtained from Eq. (2.52) and is given by

 λ 
e = 2n   (2.54)
 4µ 

2.12.4 Diameter of the nth order Newton’s ring

The radius of the nth order fringe can be calculated looking at Fig. 2.15.

Figure 2.15 Calculation of radii of nth order Newton’s rings. R is the radius of curvature of the plano-
convex lens and e is the thickness of the thin film at B

In Fig. 2.15, R is the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the plano-convex lens and
rn is the radius of nth order fringe. Since OEB1 is a right triangle, we have

R2 = rn2 + (R − e)2

or rn2 2 Re− e 2
=

Since the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the plano-convex lens is very large,
the thickness e will be a very small quantity, as a result of which e2 is negligibly small in
comparison to 2Re. Hence, neglecting e2 in the aforementioned equation, we get

rn2 = 2 Re (2.55)
136 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

or rn = 2 Re (2.56)

2.12.5 Diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring

Putting the value of e from Eq. (2.53) into Eq. (2.56), we shall get the radius of the nth order
bright Newton’s ring as

λ
rn = 2R × (2n + 1)
4µ

λR
=
rn (2n + 1)
2µ

The diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring will be

λ 2λ R
Dn = 2rn = 4 × 2R × (2n + 1) = (2n + 1) (2.57)
4µ µ

2λ R
Putting = K 2 in this equation, we have
µ

Dn ∝ (2n + 1)

2λ R
For any particular experimental setup, is constant. Hence, this equation shows that
µ
the diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring is directly proportional to the square
root of odd numbers.

2.12.6 Diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring

Putting the value of e from Eq. (2.54) into Eq. (2.56), we shall get the radius of the nth order
dark Newton’s ring as

nλ R
rn =
µ
 Interference 137

The diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring will be

nλ R 2λ R
Dn =
2rn =4 × =2n (2.58)
µ µ

2λ R
Putting = K 2 in this equation, we have
µ

Dn ∝ 2n

2λ R
For any particular experimental setup, is constant. Hence, this equation shows that
µ
the diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring is directly proportional to the square root
of even numbers.

2.12.7 Central fringe as seen by the reflected light

The plano-convex lens touches the glass plate only at the central point. The thickness of
the liquid film at this point is zero. The optical path difference
= ∆ 2e cos(α + r ) × µ for this
point (e = 0), according to Eq. (2.45), reduces to zero, i.e., D = 0. Therefore, the total phase
difference from Eq. (2.52) will be

2π
δ= × 0 + π = π (for central fringe)
λ

According to Eq. (2.15), destructive interference occurs if the total phase difference between
the interfering waves is an odd multiple of p. Hence, a dark fringe appears at the central
point and the central point appears perfectly black as seen by the reflected monochromatic
light. This is true when the space between the curved surface of the lens and the glass plate
contains a medium of refractive index m which is less than the refractive indices of the
material of the plano-convex lens and the bottom glass plate.

2.13 Newton’s Rings by Transmitted Light

In the previous section, we observed and discussed the formation of Newton’s rings by
reflected light due to interference of reflected waves BR and B1R1. Now, we shall discuss
the formation of Newton’s rings by transmitted light due to the interference of transmitted
waves CT and C1T as depicted in Fig. 2.16.
138 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 2.16 Formation of Newton’s rings by transmitted light. Waves CT and C1T originate from the
incident light wave AB by partial transmissions. They interfere to produce Newton’s
rings. E is the position of the eye

No phase change occurs during refraction or transmission transverse waves like light.
Phase change of p occurs during reflection of transverse waves like light from a surface only
backed by an optically denser medium. When light is reflected by a glass surface, the phase
difference between incident wave and reflected wave is p as glass is optically denser than
air. With these points in mind, wave CT is produced from the incident wave AB due to
transmissions at the points B and C. Hence, the incident wave AB and the transmitted wave
CT are in phase. However, C1T is produced from the incident wave AB by two reflections
at the two points C and B1 and one transmission at the point C1.
i. The waves AB and BC are in the same phase as wave BC is produced from AB due
to refraction at point B. The waves BC and CT are in the same phase as wave CT is
produced from BC due to refraction at point C. Therefore, we can conclude that the
incident wave AB and the refracted wave CT are in the same phase.
ii. The wave CB1 is produced from the wave BC due to reflection from a surface backed
by a denser medium (glass plate). Hence, there is a phase difference of p between the
waves BC and CB1 or between the waves AB and CB1.
iii. The wave B1C1 is produced from the wave CB1 due to reflection from a surface backed
by a denser medium (plano-convex lens). Hence, there is a phase difference of p
between the waves B1C1 and CB1.
iv. Combining (ii) and (iii), the phase difference between the waves AB and B1C1 will be
π ±π = 2π or 0°. In other words, the wave AB and the wave B1C1 are in the same phase.
v. The waves B1C1 and C1T are in the same phase as the wave C1T is produced from the
wave B1C1 due to refraction at point C1.
 Interference 139

vi. According to (iv), the waves AB and B1C1 are in the same phase and according to (v),
the waves B1C1 and C1T are in the same phase. Therefore, we can conclude that the
incident wave AB and the transmitted wave C1T are in the same phase.
Combining (i) and (vi), the transmitted waves CT and C1T are in the same phase. No phase
difference is introduced between the transmitted waves CT and C1T due to reflections at
C and B1. The optical path difference between the transmitted waves CT and C1T can be
calculated as

=∆ 2e cos(α + r ) × µ (2.59)

Therefore, the total phase difference d between the transmitted waves CT and C1T due to
optical path difference and due to reflection is given by
d = Phase difference due to optical path difference + phase difference due to reflection, i.e.,

δ = δ ′ + 0°

2π
or δ
= ×∆ (2.60)
λ

According to Eq. (2.13), constructive interference occurs if the total phase difference
between the interfering waves is an even multiple of p. Hence, bright circular fringes appear
at the points for which

δ = 2nπ

2π
or × ∆ = 2nπ
λ

or λ
∆ =2n  
2

λ
or 2 µe cos(α + r ) =
2n   (Bright rings) (2.61)
2

According to Eq. (2.15), destructive interference occurs if the total phase difference between
the interfering waves is an odd multiple of p. Hence, dark circular fringes appear at the
points for which

δ (2n + 1)π
=
140 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2π
or ∆ (2n + 1)π
×=
λ

λ
or =
∆ (2n + 1)
2

λ
or 2 µe cos(α + r ) = (2n + 1) (Dark rings) (2.62)
2

Equations (2.61) and (2.62) represent the condition for the formation of bright Newton’s
rings and dark Newton’s rings respectively. In Eqs (2.61) and (2.62), a the angle between
the lower surface of the plano-convex lens and the glass plate is exceedingly small. Hence,
in comparison to r, we can neglect a. Therefore, Eqs (2.61) and (2.62) become

λ
2 µe cos r = 2n   (Bright rings) (2.63)
2

λ
2 µe cos=
r (2n + 1) (Dark rings) (2.64)
2

The experimental arrangements can be designed so that the light wave falls normally on the
plane surface of the plano-convex lens which makes the angle of incidence. Hence, under
these experimental conditions which makes r = 0, Eqs (2.63) and (2.64) boil down to

λ
2 µe = 2n   (Bright rings) (2.65)
2

λ
2 µ=
e (2n + 1) (Dark rings) (2.66)
2

If we join all the points on the glass plate below the plano-convex lens having the same
thicknesses, the locus will be a perfect circle. The thickness of the liquid film at the points
where the nth order bright fringe appears is obtained from Eq. (2.65) and is given by

 λ 
e = 2n   (2.67)
 4µ 

Similarly, the thickness of the liquid film at the points where the nth order dark fringe
appears is obtained from Eq. (2.66) and is given by

λ
=
e (2n + 1) (2.68)
4µ
 Interference 141

2.13.1 Diameter of the nth order Newton’s ring

The radius of the nth order bright fringe can be calculated looking at Fig. 2.15. In the
figure, R is the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the plano-convex lens and rn is
the radius of the nth order bright fringe. Since OEB1 is a right triangle, we have

R2 = rn2 + (R − e)2

or rn2 2 Re− e 2
= (2.69)

Since the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the plano-convex lens is very large,
the thickness e will be a very small quantity as a result of which e2 is negligibly small in
comparison to 2Re. Hence, we get

rn2 = 2 Re (2.70)

or rn = 2 Re (2.71)

2.13.2 Diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring

Putting the value of e from Eq. (2.67) into Eq. (2.70), we shall get the radius of the nth order
bright Newton’s ring as

λR
rn = n
µ

The diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring will be

2λ R (2.72)
Dn = 2n
µ

2λ R
Putting = K 2 in Eq. (2.72), we have
µ

Dn ∝ 2n

2λ R
For any particular experimental setup, is constant. Hence, this equation shows that
µ
the diameter of the nth order bright Newton’s ring is directly proportional to the square
root of even numbers.
142 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2.13.3 Diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring

Putting the value of e from Eq. (2.68) into Eq. (2.70), we shall get the radius of the nth order
dark Newton’s ring as

λR
=
rn (2n + 1)
2µ

The diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring will be

λR
Dn =2rn = 4 × (2n + 1)
2µ

2λ R
or =
Dn (2n + 1) (2.73)
µ

2λ R
Putting = K 2 in this equation, we have
µ

Dn ∝ 2n + 1

2λ R
For any particular experimental setup, is constant. Hence, this the above equation
µ
shows that the diameter of the nth order dark Newton’s ring is directly proportional to the
square root of odd numbers.

2.13.4 Central fringe as seen by the transmitted light

The plano-convex lens touches the glass plate only at the central point. The thickness e of
the liquid film at this point is zero. The optical path difference
= ∆ 2e cos(α + r ) × µ for this
point (e = 0) according to Eq. (2.45) reduces to zero. Therefore, the total phase difference,
from Eq. (2.46), will be

2π
δ= × 0= 0 (for central fringe)
λ

According to Eq. (2.13), constructive interference occurs if the total phase difference
between the interfering waves is zero. Hence, a bright fringe appears at the central point
and the central point appears bright as seen by the transmitted monochromatic light.
 Interference 143

2.13.5 Discussions

The law of conservation of energy holds good in Newton’s ring experiment. The points at
which light energy appears to be absent as seen by the reflected waves, are the same points
at which light energy is present as seen by the transmitted waves. The regions at which
bright Newton’s rings are formed by the transmitted wave are, the same regions at which
dark Newton’s rings are formed by the reflected wave. The rings observed by the reflected
waves are exactly complementary to those observed by the transmitted light.
i. As discussed earlier, the central fringe appears dark when observed by the reflected
light wave, whereas it appears bright when observed by the transmitted light wave.
ii. From Eq. (2.57), the diameter of the nth order bright fringe as seen by the reflected
light wave is

2λ R
=
Dn (2n + 1) .
µ

From Eq. (2.73), the diameter of the nth order dark fringe as seen by the transmitted
light wave is

2λ R
=
Dn (2n + 1) .
µ

They are located at the same position.

iii. From Eq. (2.58), the diameter of the nth order dark fringe as seen by the reflected light
wave is

2λ R
Dn = 2n .
µ

From Eq. (2.72), the diameter of the nth order bright fringe as seen by the transmitted
light wave is

2λ R
Dn = 2n .
µ

They are located at the same position.

Example 2.4
A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 3.5 m is placed on an optically plane glass plate in
an air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. The diameter of
the 6th bright ring as seen by the reflected light is 0.72 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light.
144 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
Data given are R = 3.5 m = 350 cm, n = 6, Dn = 0.72 cm, m = 1, for the air medium.
The diameter of the nth bright ring as seen by the reflected light is given by

2λ R
=
Dn (2n + 1)
µ

Dn2 µ
or λ =
2R(2n + 1)

Putting the values of the given data into this equation, we get

0.722 × 1
λ= Å = 5697Å
2 × 350 × 13

Example 2.5
A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 185 cm is placed on an optically plane glass plate.
The space between the lens and the glass plate is filled with carbon tetrachloride having a
refractive index of 1.461. It is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. The
diameter of the 12th dark ring as seen by the reflected light is 0.65 cm. Calculate the wavelength
of the light.
Solution
Data given are R = 150 cm, n = 12, Dn = 0.65 cm, m = 1.461.
The diameter of the nth dark ring as seen by the reflected light is given by

4nλ R
Dn =
µ

Dn2 µ
or λ =
4nR

Putting the values of the given data into this equation, we get

0.652 × 1.461
λ= Å = 6951Å
4 × 12 × 185
 Interference 145

Example 2.6
A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 3.5 m is placed on an optically plane glass plate in
air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. The diameter of the
6th bright ring as seen by the transmitted light is 0.7 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light.
Solution
Data given are R = 3.5 m = 350 cm, n = 6, Dn= 0.7 cm, m = 1 for air medium.
The diameter of the nth bright ring as seen by the transmitted light is given by

4nλ R
Dn =
µ

Dn2 µ
or λ =
4nR

Putting the values of the given data into this equation, we get

0.72 × 1
λ= Å = 5833Å
4 × 6 × 350

Example 2.7
A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 95 m is placed on an optically plane glass plate. The
space between the lens and the glass plate is filled with water having a refractive index of 1.333.
It is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. The diameter of the 15th dark ring
as seen by the transmitted light is 0.45 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light.
Solution
Data given are R = 95 cm, n = 15, Dn = 0.45 cm, m = 1.333.
The diameter of the nth dark ring as seen by the transmitted light is given by

2(2n + 1)λ R
Dn =
µ

Dn2 µ
or λ =
2(2n + 1)R

Putting the values of the given data into this equation, we get

0.452 × 1.333
λ= Å = 4583Å
2 × 31 × 95
146 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 2.8
A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 3 m is placed on an optically plane glass plate in
an air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength
5893 Å. Calculate the change in diameter of the 5th bright ring when the air medium is
replaced by water of refractive index 1.33 and is observed by the reflected light.
Solution
Data given are R = 3 m = 300 cm, n = 5, l = 5893 Å.
The diameter of the nth bright ring as seen by the reflected light in a medium of refractive
index m is given by

(2n + 1)2λ R
Dn =
µ

Hence, the diameter of the nth bright ring as seen by the reflected light in the air medium is
given by

D=
n − air (2n + 1)2λ R

The change in diameter of the nth ring will be

(2n + 1)2λ R
Dn −air − Dn = (2n + 1)2λ R −
µ

 1 
or Dn −air − D= (2n + 1)2λ R ×  1 − 
n  µ 


Putting the values of n, l, R and m into this equation, we get

 1 
Dn −air − D=
n (11 × 2 × 5893 × 10−8 × 300 ×  1 − = 0.083cm
 cm
 1.33 

Example 2.9
A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 280 cm is placed on an optically plane glass plate
in an air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength
5893 Å. Calculate the change in diameter of the 7th bright ring when the air medium is
replaced by water of refractive index 1.33 and is observed by the transmitted light.
 Interference 147

Solution
Data given are R = 280 cm, n = 7, l = 5893 Å = 5893 × 10–8 cm.
The diameter of the nth bright ring as seen by the transmitted light in a medium of refractive
index m is given by

4nλ R
Dn =
µ

Hence, the diameter of the nth bright ring as seen by the transmitted light in the air medium is
given by

Dn −air = 4nλ R

The change in diameter of the nth ring will be

4nλ R
Dn −air − D
=n 4nλ R −
µ

 1 
or Dn −air −=
Dn 4nλ R ×  1 − 
 µ 


Putting the values of n, l, R and m into this equation, we get

 1 
Dn −air − Dn= (4 × 7 × 5893 × 10−8 × 280 ×  1 −  cm= 0.090 cm
 1.33 

Example 2.10
A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 3.5 m is placed on an optically plane glass plate in
an air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. The diameter of
the 6th dark ring as seen by the reflected light is 0.72 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the light.
Solution
Data given R = 3.5 m = 350 cm, n = 6, Dn = 0.72 cm.
The diameter of the nth dark ring as seen by the reflected light is given by

4nλ R
Dn =
µ
148 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Dn2 µ
or λ =
4nR

Putting the values of the given data into this equation, we get

0.722 × 1
λ= cm = 6171Å
4 × 350 × 6

Example 2.11
In a Newton’s ring experiment in air, the diameter of the 10th bright ring was 0.272 cm and
that of the 15th bright ring was 0.555 cm. If the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is
200 cm, calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light used.
Solution
The data given are Dn = 0.272 cm, Dn+p = 0.555 cm, n = 10, n + p = 15, p = 5, R = 200 cm.
We know that

Dn2+ p − Dn2
λ=
4 pR

Putting the given values into this equation, we get

0.5552 − 0.2722
λ= cm = 5851Å
4 × 5 × 200

Example 2.12
In a Newton’s ring experiment in air, the diameter of the 10th bright ring was 0.272 cm and
that of the 15th bright ring was 0.555 cm. If the wavelength of the monochromatic light used
is 5893 Å, calculate the radius of curvature of plano-convex lens used.
Solution
The data given are Dn = 0.272 cm, Dn+p = 0.555 cm, n = 10, n + p = 15, p = 5,

λ 5893Å
= = 5893 × 10−8 cm.

We know that

Dn2+ p − Dn2
λ=
4 pR
 Interference 149

Dn2+ p − Dn2
or R =
4 pλ

Putting the given values into this equation, we get

0.5552 − 0.2722
R= cm = 198.6 cm
4 × 5 × 5893 × 10−8

Example 2.13
In a Newton’s ring experiment when a certain liquid is inserted in between the plano-convex
and the glass plate, the radius of the 8th dark ring is measured to be 6 cm. If the wavelength of
the monochromatic light used is 5893 Å and the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens
is 254 cm, calculate the refractive index of the liquid inserted.
Solution
The data given are Dn = 0.6 cm, n = 8, l = 5893 Å = 5893 × 10–8 cm, R = 254 cm
The diameter of the nth dark ring as seen by the reflected light is given by

4nλ R
Dn =
µ

4nλ R
or µ =
Dn2

Putting the values of n, l, R and Dn into this equation, we get

4 × 8 × 5893 × 10−8 × 254

µ= = 1.33
0.62

Example 2.14
In Newton’s ring experiment, light containing two wavelengths l1 and l2 are incident normally
on a plano-convex lens of radius of curvature R placed in an air medium. If the nth dark ring
due to l1 coincides with the (n + 1)th dark ring due to l2, prove that the radius of the nth dark
λ1λ2 R
ring due to l1 is .
λ1 − λ2
150 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
The radius of the nth dark ring due to l1 is

Rnλ1 , (A)

The radius of the (n + 1)th dark ring due to l2 is

R(n + 1)λ2 , (B)

According to the problem statement, the nth dark ring due to l1 coincides with the (n + 1)th
dark ring due to l2, i.e., the two radii are the same. Hence, we have

=
Rnλ1 R(n + 1)λ2

λ1 R(n + 1)λ2
or Rn=

λ2
or n = (C)
λ1 − λ2

Putting this value of n into Eq. (A), we get the radius of the nth dark ring due to l1 as

λ1λ2 R
λ1 − λ2

Example 2.15
The light coming from a sodium vapor lamp generally used in Newton’s ring experiment in
the laboratory is not perfectly monochromatic it contains two wavelengths namely 5890 Å
and 5896 Å. It is found that the nth dark ring due to 5896 Å coincides with the (n + 1)th dark
ring due to 5890 Å. Calculate n. Also calculate the diameter of the nth dark ring due to 5896
Å if the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is 100 cm. The experiment is in general
performed in an air medium.
Solution
The radius of the nth dark ring due to 5896 Å is

Rn5896 × 10−8 cm, (A)

 Interference 151

The radius of the (n + 1)th dark ring due to 5890 Å is

R(n + 1)5890 × 10−8 ,

According to the question, the nth dark ring due to 5896 Å coincides with the (n + 1)th dark
ring due to 5890 Å, i.e., the two radii are the same. Hence, we have

Rn5896 × 10−8 cm = R(n + 1)5890 × 10−8

or 6n = 5890

or n = 982

Putting this value of n into Eq. (A), we get the radius of the nth dark ring due to 5896 Å as

100 × 982 × 5896 × 10−8 cm =

2.41cm

Hence, the diameter of the nth dark ring due to 5896 Å will be = 2 × 2.41 cm = 4.82 cm.
Obviously, this ring lies outside the field of view of the travelling microscope!

Example 2.16
In Newton’s ring experiment in a laboratory, a source of light having two wavelengths 5760 Å
and 4800 Å is used. It is found that the nth dark ring due to 5760 Å coincides with the (n + 2)th dark
ring due to 4800 Å. Calculate n. Also calculate the radii of the nth dark rings due to 5760 Å and
4800 Å if radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is 90 cm.
Solution
The radius of nth dark ring due to 5760 Å is

Rn5760 × 10−8 cm, m is assumed to be 1 (A)

The radius of the (n + 2)nd dark ring due to 4800 Å is

R(n + 2)4800 × 10−8 cm, m is assumed to be 1

152 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

According to the question, the nth dark ring due to 5760 Å coincides with the (n + 2)nd dark
ring due to 4800 Å i.e., the two radii are same. Hence, we have

Rn5760 × 10−8 cm = R(n + 2)4800 × 10−8

or 96n = 960

or n = 10

Putting this value of n into Eq. (A), we get the radius of the nth dark ring due to 5760 Å as

90 × 10 × 5760 × 10−8 cm =
0.2277 cm

Similarly, the radius of the nth dark ring due to 4800 Å is obtained as

90 × 10 × 4800 × 10−8 cm =
0.2078 cm

Example 2.17
In the Newton’s ring experiment by a light of wavelength 5890 Å, the diameter of the 10th
dark ring is 0.532 cm as seen by the reflected light. Calculate the radius of curvature of the
plano-convex lens and the thickness of the film at this point.
Solution
The data given are n = 10, D10 = 0.532 cm, l = 5890 Å = 5890 × 10–8 cm, m = 1 since it is an
air film.
The square of the diameter of the nth order dark fringe as seen by reflected light in the air
medium is

Dn2 = 4nλ R

Dn2
or R =
4nλ

Putting the data given into this equation, we get

0.5322
R= cm = 120.13cm
4 × 10 × 5890 × 10−8
 Interference 153

In Newton’s ring experiment, the thickness of the thin film e at the nth order dark fringe is as
seen by the reflected beam obtained from the formula 2 µe = nλ and is given by

nλ
e=
2µ

Putting the data given into this equation, we get

10 × 5890 × 10−8
e= =cm 2.945 × 10−4 cm = 2.945 × 10–4 cm
2 ×1

Example 2.18
In Newton’s ring experiment, by a light of wavelength 7000 Å, the diameter of the 15th dark
ring is 0.565 cm when a thin liquid film is formed between the lens and the glass plate. If the
radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is 102.9 cm, calculate the refractive index of the
liquid.
Solution
The data given are n = 15, D15 = 0.565 cm, l = 7000 Å = 7000 × 10–8 cm.
The square of the diameter of the nth order dark fringe as seen by reflected light in the air
medium is

4nλ R
Dn2 =
µ

4nλ R
or µ =
Dn2

Putting the data given into this equation, we get

4 × 15 × 7000 × 10−8 × 102.9

µ= = 1.354
0.5652

2.14 Determination of Wavelength of Light using

Newton’s Ring
The experimental arrangement to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light by
using Newton’s ring is shown in Fig. 2.11. S is the source of the monochromatic light
of which wavelength is to be determined. Generally, a sodium light source is taken.
The source of monochromatic light is placed at the focus of a convex lens so that after
154 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

refraction through the lens, the refracted beam becomes parallel. This parallel beam of light
is allowed to fall on a glass plate G placed at 45° with the incident beam. The glass plate
G so placed will reflect a part of the incident beam of light vertically downward towards
the plane surface of the plano convex lens placed on another glass plate as shown in
Fig. 2.11. A thin air film (m = 1) is enclosed between the lower surface of the plano convex
lens and the glass plate. A travelling microscope is placed over the glass plate G and when it
is properly focused on the air film, alternate bright and dark concentric circular interference
fringes are seen when viewed through the eye-piece of the microscope. These concentric
circular interference fringes are called Newton’s rings. The diameter of any Newton’s rings
can be measured with help of the travelling microscope. The cross-wire in the eye-piece of
the travelling microscope is placed in contact with a ring; the microscope is then moved
horizontally to the exact opposite end of the ring and the diameter of the ring is found out.
In this manner, diameters of approximately ten number of rings are found out.

2.14.1 Theory for the experiment

From Eq. (2.57), square of the diameter of the nth number of bright rings is given by

2 2λ R
D=
n (2n + 1)
µ

The refractive index m of thin air film is nearly 1. Hence, the above equation becomes

2
D=
n (2n + 1)2λ R (2.74)

Similarly, the square of the diameter of the (n + p)th number bright ring will be given by

Dn2+ p = [2(n + p) + 1] 2λ R (2.75)

Subtracting Eq. (2.74) from Eq. (2.75), we get

Dn2+ p − Dn2 = [2(n + p) + 1] 2λ R − ( 2n + 1) 2λ R

or =
D 2
n+ p 4λ Rp + Dn2 (2.76)

This equation is in the form of

2
y = mx + c with y = Dn + p , x = p, c = y-intercept = Dn2 , and m = slope= 4λ R
 Interference 155

Figure 2.17 The slope of this straight line is put in the working formula (2.77) to find out the
wavelength of the monochromatic light

If we plot Dn2+ p along the Y-axis and p along the X-axis with p = 1, 2, 3, …, 10, we shall get
a straight line as shown in Fig. 2.17. By determining the slope m of this straight line from
the plot, we can get the wavelength l by using the formula

slope
λ= (2.77)
4R

The radius of curvature of the curved surface R of the plano-convex lens can be found out
accurately either by using a spherometer or by Boy’s method. Knowing the value of R, by
using this formula, we can easily calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light.

2.15 Determination of Refractive Index of Liquids

using Newton’s Rings
The experimental arrangement for determining the wavelength of monochromatic light
using Newton’s ring is shown in Fig. 2.18. S is the source of the monochromatic light.
Generally, a sodium light source is taken. The source of monochromatic light is placed
at the focus of a convex lens so that after refraction through the lens the refracted beam
becomes parallel. This parallel beam of light is allowed to fall on a glass plate G placed at 45°
with the incident beam. The glass plate G so placed will reflect a part of the incident beam
of light vertically downward towards the plane surface of the plano-convex lens placed on
another glass plate as shown in Fig. 2.18. The given transparent liquid whose refractive
index is to be found out is poured into a shallow container containing the plano-convex
156 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

lens and the glass plate system. A thin liquid film of refractive index m is filled between the
lower surface of the plano-convex lens and the glass plate. A travelling microscope is placed
over the glass plate G and when it is properly focused on the air film, alternate bright and
dark concentric circular interference fringes are seen when viewed through the eye-piece
of the microscope. These concentric circular interference fringes are called Newton’s rings.
The diameter of any Newton’s ring can be measured with help of the travelling microscope.
The cross-wire in the eye-piece of the travelling microscope is placed in contact with a ring;
the microscope is then moved horizontally to the exact opposite end of the ring and the
diameter of the ring is found out. In this manner, diameters of approximately ten number
of rings are found out.

Figure 2.18 Experimental arrangement to measure the refractive index of a transparent liquid by
using Newton’s ring

2.15.1 Theory for the experiment

From Eq. (2.57), the square of the diameter of the nth number of bright ring is given by

2 2λ R
D=
n (2n + 1) (2.78)
µ

Similarly, the square of the diameter of (n + p)th number of bright ring will be given by

2λ R
Dn2+ p = [2(n + p) + 1] µ
(2.79)

Subtracting Eq. (2.78) from Eq. (2.79), we get

2λ R 2λ R
Dn2+ p − Dn2 = [2(n + p) + 1] µ
− (2n + 1)
µ
 Interference 157

4λ Rp
or Dn2+ p
= + Dn2 (2.80)
µ

This equation is in the form of

2 4λ R
y = mx + c with y = Dn + p , x = p, c = y-intercept = Dn2 , and= =
mL slope (2.81)
µ

In the absence of the thin liquid film (i.e., in the presence of the thin air film), the slope will
be
= = 4λ R
mAir slope (2.82)

Taking the ratio of Eq. (2.82) into Eq. (2.81), we get

mAir (2.83)
µ=
mL

If we plot Dn2+ p along the Y-axis and p along the X-axis with p = 1, 2, 3, …, 10 in the
presence of the liquid and in the absence of the liquid, we shall get two straight lines as
shown in Fig. 2.19. By finding out the slopes of these two straight lines from the plot and
putting these two values in Eq. (2.83), we can get the value of the refractive index of the
given transparent liquid.

Figure 2.19 The slopes of these two straight lines are put in the working formula (Eq. 2.83) to find out
AB A′B′
the refractive index of the given liquid. mAir = and mL = . Since as shown in
CB C ′B′
mAir AB
=
the figure, CB = C¢B¢, we have µ = .
mL A′B′
158 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2.16 Fresnel’s Biprism

Fresnel’s biprism, as shown in Fig. 2.20(a), is essentially made of two prism, each of a very
small refracting angle a placed base to base. Practically, a biprism is constructed from a single
glass piece by grinding and polishing it so that its obtuse angle is slightly less than 180°.

2.16.1 Determination of wavelength of light using a biprism

The experimental setup is shown schematically in Fig. 2.20(b). In this figure, slit S is
perpendicular to the plane of the page. The obtuse angle of the biprism faces the
monochromatic source of light S, i.e., the slit so that two virtual coherent sources S1
and S2 are created on the plane of the slit at equal distance from it due to refraction.
This will be accomplished when the edge of the biprism at the obtuse angle is exactly
parallel to the slit and plane surface of the biprism and the plane containing the slit are
exactly parallel to each other.

Figure 2.20 (a) Fresnel’s biprism. (b) Ray diagram for determination of wavelength of light using
a biprism
 Interference 159

The wavefront which is incident on the plane surface of the biprism is divided into two parts
as explained here. According to the laws of refraction, the portion of the wavefront incident
on the upper part and the lower part of the biprism are bent towards the thicker part, i.e.,
towards the obtuse angle edge of the biprism after refraction. The two refracted wavefronts
are thus derived from a single monochromatic source satisfying the fundamental condition
of interference. As the two refracted wavefronts passes through common space at the right
side, they produce interference patterns of equally spaced non-localized fringes. These
fringes can be captured on a screen placed in the overlapping region of the two refracted
wavefronts. Moreover, interference fringes can be seen through a powerful eye-piece it
its focal plane. When they are extended towards the left side, they meet at two points on
the plane of the slit producing two virtual sources S1 and S2 of equal brightness, i.e., equal
amplitudes. Now the two refracted wavefronts which interfere to produce interference
fringes appear to come from these two virtual coherent sources. The fringe pattern thus
produced is illustrated in Fig. 2.21.
If 2d is the distance between S1 and S2 with SS1 = SS2 = d, Eqs (2.21) and (2.23) show that
the spacings b of bright fringe and dark fringe are equal and are given by

Dλ
β=
2d

β × 2d
or λ= (2.84)
D

Figure 2.21 Fringe pattern as obtained in Fresnel’s biprism experiment

 160 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

To determine of wavelengths of monochromatic light l using this formula, we need to

measure the bright fringe spacing b, the distance between the two virtual sources 2d and
the distance between slit and eye-piece D.
2.16.1A Experimental setup
A heavy metallic optical bench is utilized to perform this experiment. A scale is attached
to one of the two railings. It is provided with four uprights to support an adjustable slit, a
biprism, a high accuracy micrometer, Ramsden’s eye-piece and a convergent lens. These
uprights are attached with vernier scales, their heights can be changed according to our
requirement and are capable of moving freely over the rails. There are also arrangements in
the uprights so that the slit and the biprism can be rotated in their own planes. These have
been illustrated schematically in Fig. 2.22.

Figure 2.22 Schematic diagram of an optical bench

2.16.1B Adjustments
i. The optical bench is made perfect horizontal with the help of a spirit level and levelling
screws.
ii. The cross wires in the eye-piece are made perfectly vertical/horizontal.
iii. The slit and eye-piece are kept at the same height on two uprights. The slit is made
exactly vertical by making its bright image coincide with the vertical wire of the eye-piece.
iv. The biprism is placed on another upright and is kept between the eye-piece and the
slit at the same height. The edge at the obtuse angle of the biprism and slit length are
 Interference 161

made exactly parallel. This is accomplished when two equally bright images of the slit
are visible through the eye-piece.
v. The line joining the centers of the slit, the edge at the obtuse angle of the biprism and
cross wires and the optical bench should be perfectly parallel.
Sharp fringes are visible through the eye-piece when suitable separations are maintained
among the four uprights.
2.16.1C Measurements
i. Measurement of D
The difference in the positions of uprights containing the slit and the eye-piece gives
the value of D.
ii. Measurement of b
The reading of the micrometer attached to the eye-piece is taken when the vertical
wire of the cross wire is made to coincide with a bright fringe. The micrometer is
continuously rotated in the same direction and readings are taken each time the
vertical wire coincides with consecutive bright fringes. The difference between two
consecutive readings gives the fringe spacing b.
iii. Measurement of 2d
The upright containing the convex lens is placed between the biprism and the eye-
piece at such a position L1 that images of virtual sources S1 and S2 are visible through
the eye-piece. Now measure the distance d1 between S1 and S2. Move the lens towards
the eye-piece to another position L2 so that images of virtual sources S1 and S2 are
again visible through the eye-piece. Again, measure the distance d2 between S1 and S2.
The actual distance 2d between the virtual sources S1 and S2 will be given by

2d = d1d2

There is another method of finding 2d in terms of the refracting angle a . As we

know, the refractive index m of the prism material in terms of the minimum angle of
deviation d is given by

sin[(α + δ ) / 2]
µ=
sin(α / 2)

For a small refracting angle a, this equation gives

µ ≈1+ δ /α

or δ ≈ (µ − 1)α
162 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Here d and a have been depicted in Fig. 2.20. d and a are to be measured in radians
only. Applying simple geometry in Fig. 2.20, we have

SS1
= δ= (µ − 1)α
a

2d 2a(µ − 1)α
or = (2.85)

β × 2d
Putting the values of D(= a + b), b, and 2d into λ = , the wavelength of
monochromatic light can be obtained. D

Example 2.19
A biprism is placed 5 cm from a slit illuminated by sodium light of wavelength 5890 Å
Calculate the fringe spacing if the distance between the biprism and the screen is 75 cm and
the two virtual sources are separated by 0.05 cm
Solution
Data given are l = 5890 Å = 5890 × 10–8 cm, a = 5 cm, b = 75 cm, 2d = 0.05 cm. The fringe
spacing is calculated as

−8
(a + b)λ (5 cm + 75 cm) × 5890 × 10 cm
=β = = 9.424 × 10−2 cm
2d 0.05 cm

Example 2.20
A biprism of refractive index 1.5 and refracting angle 1° is placed 10 cm from a monochromatic
light source of wavelength 5890 Å. Find the fringe spacing observed at a distance of 110 cm
from the biprism.
Solution
Data given are l = 5890 Å = 5890 × 10–8 cm, a = 10 cm, b = 110 cm,

π 22 7
α = 1° = rad = rad and µ = 1.5.
180 180

The distance between the two virtual sources is calculated as

22 / 7
2d =2a(µ − 1)α =2 × 10 cm(1.5 − 1) × =0.175 cm
180
 Interference 163

The fringe spacing is calculated as

(a + b)λ (10cm + 110cm) × 5890 × 10−8 cm

=β = = 4.04 × 10−2 cm
2d 0.175cm

2.17 Interferometers
Optical instruments that produce optical interference are called interferometers.
Standardization of meter scale, determination of wavelengths of light, and thickness of thin
films can be determined accurately by interferometers devised by utilizing the concepts of
interference of light. The interferometer was first envisioned and constructed by Albert
Abraham Michelson around 1880.

2.17.1 Michelson interferometer

In the Michelson interferometer, different types of interference patterns are produced due
to the splitting and reunion of two coherent light beams by partial reflection and refraction.
Michelson himself and Morley used this interferometer to prove the absence of hypothetical
ethereal medium and paved the way for Einstein and his special theory of relativity. In this
device, both equal thickness and equal inclination interference fringes can be produced.
Principle
Different types of interference patterns are produced in the instrument due to the
superposition of two coherent light beams produced by the division of amplitude method.
The two beams thus produced, after travelling different optical paths are superposed to
give interference patterns. The basic principle is depicted in Fig. 2.23.
Construction
In a Michelson interferometer, division of the amplitude of incident light is done by means
of arrangements of mirrors and glass plates in such a manner that each part is made to travel
different paths and brought back together where they interfere according to their path
difference. The essential parts of a Michelson interferometer are shown schematically in
Fig. 2.23. These are
i. Two highly polished and optically plane mirrors M1 and M2
ii. Two glass plates G1 and G2 with thickness exactly equal and having the same refractive
index.
iii. Convex lens L.
iv. Supports and screws for mirrors and glass plates.
164 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 2.23 Schematic diagram of a Michelson interferometer

The two glass plates G1 and G2 are mounted vertically and exactly parallel to each other on
a frame at 45° angle to the interferometer arm as shown. The plate G1 is so silvered that the
light ray coming from the source S is divided by it into reflected and transmitted beams
of equal intensity. Mirror M2 is unmovable whereas mirror M1 is mounted on a carriage
capable of moving along well-machined tracks with the help of a very fine micrometer
screw in the double arrow direction. This micrometer screw with very a small least count
is calibrated to show the exact distance the mirror M1 has been moved. The mirror M2
is capable of slight tilting about the vertical as well as horizontal axis with the help of
three screws attached to its back side and thus, mirrors M1 and M2 can be made exactly
perpendicular to each other so that fringes can be obtained. The interferometer is said to
be in normal adjustment when mirrors M1 and M2 are exactly perpendicular to each other.
Action of the apparatus
Monochromatic light from an extended source rendered parallel by a lens is divided into
two parts of equal intensity by partial reflection from the rear side of G1. The reflected
wave and the transmitted wave proceeds towards mirrors M1 and M2 respectively and get
 Interference 165

reflected normally. The reflected wave from M1 is partly transmitted through G1 and the
reflected wave from M2 is partly reflected along AE from the thinly silvered surface of G1.
As shown in Fig. 2.23, the image of M2, M¢2 formed by reflection in G1 is visible when we see
along EA. Thus, the fundamental conditions of interference are satisfied and interference
patterns are observed when we look into M1 along EA through G1. In normal adjustment,
M1 and M¢2 are parallel and hence, concentric circular fringes are seen. Depending upon
the orientation and separation between M1 and M2, circular, straight, parabolic, hyperbolic
elliptical fringes can be produced.
Optical path difference
The incident ray is divided into two rays of equal intensities by the silvered surface of the
glass plate G1 – one ray goes towards M1 and the other ray towards M2. The rays concerned
with M1 and M2 pass through M2 twice and nil respectively after their origination as a
result of which there is an optical path difference of 2(µ − 1)t between them. Here t is the
thickness of G1. Therefore, to compensate this path difference of 2(µ − 1)t , another identical
glass plate G2 called the compensating plate is introduced in the path of the rays concerned
with M2 parallel to G1. Though it is not essential for producing fringes in monochromatic
light, it is indispensable when white light is used.
Adjustment
An interferometer is said to be in normal adjustment when the silvered surface of G1 exactly
bisects the angle between mirrors M1 and M2. In this condition, the image of M2 in M1, i.e.,
M¢2 is exactly parallel to M1 and concentric circular fringes are visible when we look along
EA. To accomplish adjustment, the following steps are followed.
i. An extended source is suitable for Michelson interferometer adjustments. If a point
source is placed at the focal length of a convex lens, it will behave like an extended
source. The total field of view is filled with light when we look into M1 through G1.
ii. Position M1 and M2 so that their distances from G1 are nearly equal, not exactly. If
exactly equal, then the field of view would be completely dark.
iii. Place a pin between the lens and G1. Two pairs of images of the pin are visible when
we look into M1 along EA – one pair is produced due to reflection from the unsilvered
surface and the other pair is produced due to reflection from the silvered surface of G1.
iv. Adjust the tilting screws attached to the back side of M2 so that one pair of images
coincides exactly on the other pair and interference fringes appear. When they first
appear, the fringes may not be clear unless the eye is focused on or near M1, so that the
observer should look constantly at this mirror while searching for fringes. When they
have been found, the adjusting screws should be turned in such a way as to continually
increase the width of the fringes and finally, a set of concentric circular fringes will be
obtained. M1 and M2 are now perpendicular to each other if the angle between M1 and
G1 is exactly 45°!
 166 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Forms of fringes
In a Michelson interferometer, different types of fringes such as straight, circular, elliptical,
parabolic, hyperbolic, etc., can be obtained. The shape of the fringe depends upon the angle
j and the separation e between M1 and M¢2 .
i. Circular fringes
These are produced with monochromatic light when the interferometer is in normal
adjustments and are used in many kinds of measurements with interferometers. Their
origin may be explained with reference to Fig. 2.24.

Figure 2.24 Explanation of the origin of circular fringes

Due to several reflections in the real interferometer, real source L can be thought of as
being behind the observer. L1 and L2 are its images in M1 and M2 respectively. If e is the
separation between M1 and M¢2 , then 2e will be the separation between L1 and L2. If P
is a point on the real source L, then P1 and P2 are its images on L1 and L2 respectively.
All the light waves originating from P, P1, and P2 are in phase all the time and interfere
constructively or destructively depending upon their path difference. As shown in
Fig. 2.24, 2e cosq is the path difference D between the waves reaching the eye from P1
and P2, i.e.,

= cos θ 2n(λ / 2) (Bright circular fringe)

∆ 2e= (2.86)

= (2n + 1)(λ / 2) (Dark circular fringe) (2.87)

λ
These equations shows that e ≥ for the fringe pattern to appear.
2
Let O = foot of the perpendicular from eye E on M¢2
 Interference 167

Figure 2.25 Evaluation of cos q

x, y = rectangular coordinates of P¢ as shown in Fig. 2.24

P¢E = hypotenuse of triangle O P¢E.
p = OE
From Fig. 2.25,
we have r2 = x2 + y2

P ′E = p2 + x 2 + y 2 = p2 + r 2 and hence,

OE p
=
cos θ =
P'E p + r2
2

Putting this value of cos q in Eqs (2.86) and (2.87), we get the radius of the nth bright
fringe and dark fringe as

 4e 2 
p ×  2 2 − 1  (Bright circular fringe)
rn = (2.88)
n λ 

 16e 2 
rn =
p×  − 1  (Dark circular fringe) (2.89)
 (2n + 1) λ
2 2

 168 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

In contrast to Newton’s rings, these equations show that as the diameter of the concentric
fringes increase, the order of the fringes decrease – the order of the central fringe is
maximum. As evident from Fig. 2.24, concentric circular fringes in the Michelson
interferometer are fringes of constant inclination whereas in Newton’s rings, they
are fringes of constant thickness. These fringes in the Michelson interferometer are
situated at infinity but Newton’s rings are localized, situated in between the plano-
convex lens and the plane glass plate of Newton’s apparatus. Nevertheless, in both
systems, concentric fringes gets closer as their radii increases.
ii. Localized fringe
If orientation of the mirrors M1 and M2 are not exactly perpendicular, then the space
between M1 and M¢2 will be wedge shaped containing air; but fringes will be seen with
monochromatic light for path difference not exceeding a few mm. Since fringes are
formed in the vicinity of M1, they are called localized fringes. The two rays reaching
the eye from a point P on the source will appear to come from a point P¢ near the
mirror M1. For various positions of P on the source, the path difference between
the two rays remain constant but the distance of P¢ from the mirrors change. The
fringes are curved with their convex side towards the edge of the wedge as long as e
has an appreciable value because there is a variation of the path difference with angle.
If the separations of M1 and M¢2 is decreased, the fringes will move towards the left
across the field. A new fringe will cross the center each time e changes by l/2. As
we approach zero path difference, the fringes become straighter. The fringes become
perfectly straight when M1 actually intersects M¢2 . Afterwards, they begin to curve in
the opposite direction.

Figure 2.26 Explanation of origin of fringes when mirrors M1 and M2 are not parallel
 Interference 169

The field of view becomes blank for large path difference. These fringes are called
fringes of equal thickness because they are actually the loci of equal thickness in the
wedge-shaped air film and hence, more or less parallel to the edge of the wedge.

Applications
The Michelson interferometer has a wide range of applications in science and technology.
We will discuss a few of them like (i) determination of wavelength of monochromatic light,
(ii) resolution of spectral lines, (iii) determination of refractive index of materials, and
(iv) determination of thickness of a thin sheet.
i. Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light
If the Michelson interferometer is in normal adjustment, concentric circular fringes
appear in the center of the field of view. As we move M1 with the help of a micrometer
screw, fringes cross the field of view. For the central fringe, since cosq = 1, we have

λ
de = dn ,
2

i.e., one fringe crosses the field of view (dn = 1) when M1 is moved by

λ
de = units.
2
λn
Thus, when n number of fringes cross the field of view, M1 is moved by units
2
which can be measured with the help of a micrometer screw. If x is the distance M1 has
been moved as measured by the micrometer screw, we have

λ
x =n
2

2x
or λ = (2.90)
n

Example 2.21
In a Michelson interferometer, it is found that 420 fringes crossed field of view when mirror
M1 is moved through a distance of 0.1414 mm. What is the wavelength of the monochromatic
light used?
Solution
Data given are n = 300 and x = 0.01414 cm. l = ?

2x
λ
= = 6733Å
n
 170 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ii. Resolution of spectral lines

There are two spectral lines D1 (l1 = 5890 Å) and D2 (l2 = 5896 Å) in sodium light. The
Michelson interferometer is in normal adjustment and the mirror M1 is so adjusted
that the brightest fringe pattern is obtained. In this case, the bright fringe and dark
fringe due to l1 coincides with the bright fringe and dark fringe due to l2 respectively.
When M1 is moved, two sets of fringes due to l1 and l2 get out of step and for a certain
position of M1, bright fringes and dark fringes due to l1 will coincide with dark fringes
and bright fringes due to l2 respectively and as a result, no fringe will be visible. As
M1 is moved in the same direction for a certain position of M1, fringes will be again
distinct. This happens when the nth order of the longer wavelength l1 coincides with
the (n + 1)th order of shorter wavelength l2. Let n1 and n2 be the number of fringes due
to wavelengths l1 and l2 respectively that cross the center of the field of view when
M1 is moved through a distance of x between two consecutive positions of maximum
distinctiveness of the fringes. Thus, we have

= 1λ1
2x n= n2 λ2

or x n1λ=
2= 1 (n1 + 1)λ2

since λ1 > λ2

λ1
or n1 =
λ1 − λ2

λ1λ2
Hence, ∆λ = λ1 − λ2 = (2.91)
2x

Since λ1 ≈ λ2 =
λ this equation becomes

λ2 (2.92)
∆λ =
2x

By using Eq. (2.92), the difference in wavelength of closely spaced spectral lines (λ1 ≈ λ2)
can be determined. The difference in the wave number of two closely spaced spectral
lines can be calculated using the formula

2π 2π 2π
− = (2.93)
λ2 λ1 2x
 Interference 171

Example 2.22
In a Michelson interferometer, two distinct lines 5890 Å and 5896 Å of a sodium vapour lamp
were observed. Calculate the distance through which mirror M1 has moved through.
Solution
=
Data given are λ1 5890Å,
= λ2 5896Å , x = ?

λ1λ2 5890 × 5896

=x = Å = 0.02894 cm
2(λ1 − λ2 ) 2(5896 − 5890)

iii. Determination of refractive index of materials

The refractive index of material available in the form of a thin plate can be determined
with the help of a Michelson interferometer. The extra optical path difference of 2(m –
1)t is introduced between two interfering light beams when a thin plate is introduced
between glass plate G1 and M1. Due to this, a large number of fringes crosses the field
of view it is not possible to count each of them in a normal way. The number of
fringes that cross the field of view can be counted when the thin sheet is rotated slowly.
Suppose n number of fringes cross the field of view when the thin plate is rotated
through an angle j.

Figure 2.27 Calculation of optical path difference due to rotation of the plate by j
 172 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The optical path for ABC is mt + BC and that for ADE is mAD + DE as shown in
Fig. 2.27 and hence, the optical path difference is (mAD + DE) – (mt + BC) due to
rotation of the plate by j. Thus, we have

λ
(µ AD + DE ) − (µt + BC ) =
n
2

From Fig. 2.27

t
i. AD =
sin ϕ ′

t
ii. =
BC −t
cos ϕ

iii. DE = sin ϕ ( t tan ϕ − t tan ϕ ′ ) Since DC = FC − FD = t ( tan ϕ − tan ϕ ′ )

Putting all these values in aforementioned equation, we get

µt  1  nλ
+ t sin ϕ ( tan ϕ − tan ϕ ′ ) − µt − t  − 1 =
cos ϕ ′  cos ϕ  2

sin ϕ
Putting µ = into this equation, we get
sin ϕ ′

µ sin2 ϕ sin ϕ sin ϕ ′ 1 nλ

+ − − = −1+ µ
cos ϕ ′ cos ϕ cos ϕ ′ cos ϕ 2t

µ sin2 ϕ sin2 ϕ 1 nλ
or − + − = −1+ µ
cos ϕ ′ µ cos ϕ ′ cos ϕ cos ϕ 2t

1 1 nλ
or
µ cos ϕ ′
(µ 2
)
− sin2 ϕ −
cos ϕ
( )
1 − sin2 ϕ =
2t
−1+ µ

Putting µ cos=
ϕ' µ 2 − sin2 ϕ into this equation, we have

nλ
µ 2 − sin2 ϕ − cos ϕ= −1+ µ
2t
 Interference 173

n2 λ 2
(2t − nλ ) − (1 − cos ϕ ) +
or µ= 4t
2t (1 − cos ϕ ) − nλ

(2t − nλ ) − (1 − cos ϕ )
or µ≈ (2.94)
2t (1 − cos ϕ ) − nλ

This expression for refractive index contains only measurable quantities. By using the
aforementioned formula, the refractive index of material available in the form of a thin
plate can be calculated. Also by using the same formula, refractive indices of different gases
and liquids contained in thin transparent rectangular containers under different pressures
can be studied. In addition to this, 2(m – 1)t = nl can also be used to determine the refractive
index of gases as explained in the following example.

Example 2.23
Refractive index of a gas is to be found out by using the Michelson interferometer. A transparent
tube of length 20 cm containing gas is introduced between G1 and M1. A shift of 200 fringes is
observed in the field of view when gas was slowly taken out. Calculate the refractive index of
the gas if light of wavelength 5890 Å is used.
Solution
The data given are

N = 200

t = 20 cm

λ = 5890Å

2(µ − 1)t =
nλ

nλ
µ= + 1= 1.0003
2t

Example 2.24
For accuracy purpose, the refractive index of a material in the form of sheet of a thickness
0.5 cm is to be found out by using the Michelson interferometer. There is a shift of 300 fringes
when it is rotated through 53° angle. Sodium vapour lamp is the source of monochromatic light.
174 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
Data given are t = 0.5 cm, j = 50°, n = 300, l = 5890 Å.

n2 λ 2
(2t − nλ ) − (1 − cos ϕ ) +
µ= 4t
2t (1 − cos ϕ ) − nλ

( 2 × 0.5 − 300 × 5890 ×10 ) − (1 − cos 53) + ( 300 × 5890 ×10 )

2
−8 −8
2
µ=
2 × 0.5 (1 − cos 53 ) − 300 × 5890 × 10 −8

µ = 1.5354

Questions

2.1 What is Huygens’ principle with regard to light waves?

2.2 What is a wavefront? How it is produced according to Huygens’ principle?
2.3 What type of sources produces a spherical wavefront?
2.4 What type of sources produces a cylindrical wavefront?
2.5 What type of sources produces a plane wavefront?
2.6 At a certain instant, the position of a plane wavefront is given. Applying Huygens’
principle, find its position and shape at a later instant.
2.7 At a certain instant, the position of a spherical wavefront is given. Applying Huygens’
principle, find its position and shape at a later instant.
2.8 How can you get spherical, cylindrical and plane wavefronts by a point source?
2.9 How can you explain the absence of backward wave propagation?
2.10 What is the basis of Huygens’ principle?
2.11 What are secondary wavelets?
2.12 Give few examples of applications of Huygens’ principle.
2.13 What is optical path? What is geometrical path?
2.14 What is interference of light?
2.15 Why are interference patterns not visible to the naked eye?
2.16 Does the law of conservation of energy hold good in case of interference phenomenon?
If yes, explain
2.17 What are coherent sources of light?
2.18 How are coherent sources practically realized?
 Interference 175

2.19 Why was corpuscular theory discarded in favour of wave theory?

2.20 Describe Young’s double slit experiment with the necessary theory.
2.21 Classify interference phenomenon. Give few examples of each category.
2.22 Give the mathematical theory of the interference phenomenon.
2.23 Discuss the conditions for interference.
2.24 What is the condition for constructive interference in terms of phase difference
between the two interfering waves?
2.25 What is the condition for destructive interference in terms of phase difference between
the two interfering waves?
2.26 What is the condition for constructive interference in terms of path difference between
the two interfering waves?
2.27 What is the shape of fringes theoretically obtained in Young’s double slit experiment?
2.28 Why do we not observe interference effects of light from two candles?
2.29 What do you mean by constructive interference?
2.30 What do you mean by destructive interference?
2.31 Discuss why two independent sources of the same wave length and same amplitude
can not produce a visible interference pattern.
2.32 What do you mean by fringe spacing? Give the basic concept about it.
2.33 Derive an expression for fringe spacing of a bright fringe in the fringe pattern produced
in Young’s double slit experiment.
2.34 Derive an expression for fringe spacing of a dark fringe in the fringe pattern produced
in Young’s double slit experiment.
2.35 In Young’s double slit experiment, what should be the phase difference between the
two interfering waves reaching a bright fringe?
2.36 In Young’s double slit experiment, what should be the phase difference between the
two interfering waves reaching a dark fringe?
2.37 How does fringe spacing vary with the distance of the screen from two coherent
sources?
2.38 Derive an expression for the resultant intensity at any point on the screen in case of
Young’s double slit interference pattern.
2.39 Draw the intensity distribution curve in case of Young’s double slit interference
pattern.
2.40 Give the analytical treatment of the intensity distribution in case of interference in
Young’s double slit experiment.
2.41 Draw the diagram of Young’s double slit experiment.
2.42 Explain with a diagram how coherent sources are realized in Young’s double slit
experiment.
2.43 In Young’s double slit experiment, would you like the two sources to be closer or
farther apart? Give reason for your choice.
176 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2.44 How do you obtain coherent sources in Young’s double slit experiment?
2.45 Why is it not possible to obtain a visible interference pattern without the sources
being coherent?
2.46 Prove that the law of conservation of energy holds good in case of Young’s double slit
interference pattern.
2.47 What are the conditions for observation of interference pattern?
2.48 What are the conditions for observation of sustained interference pattern?
2.49 What are the conditions for observation of a good contrast interference pattern?
2.50 Prove analytically that the interference fringes obtained in Young’s double slit
experiment are hyperbolae.
2.51 Explain how the interference fringes obtained in Young’s double slit experiment
appear straight although they are actually hyperbolae.
2.52 What is the shape of the interference pattern in space? Explain
2.53 What is the shape of the interference pattern in the XY-plane? Explain
2.54 What is the shape of the interference pattern in the YZ-plane? Explain
2.55 What is the shape of the interference pattern in the ZX-plane? Explain
2.56 What is a Newton’s ring?
2.57 Why are Newton’s rings circular?
2.58 Describe the experimental setup to obtain Newton’s rings.
2.59 Derive the expression for the total phase difference between the two interfering
waves to form Newton’s rings by reflected light.
2.60 Derive the expression for the total phase difference between the two interfering
waves to form Newton’s rings by refracted light.
2.61 Under what conditions will the Newton’s rings seen by reflected light be bright?
2.62 Under what conditions will the Newton’s rings seen by refracted light be bright?
2.63 Under what conditions will the Newton’s rings seen by reflected light be dark?
2.64 Under what conditions will the Newton’s rings seen by refracted light be dark?
2.65 Explain with a diagram how coherent sources are realized in Newton's ring
arrangements.
2.66 Derive the expression for the fringe spacing of the nth order bright fringe produced by
reflected light.
2.67 Derive the expression for the fringe spacing of the nth order dark fringe of Newton’s
rings produced by reflected light.
2.68 Derive the expression for the fringe spacing of the nth order bright fringe of Newton’s
rings produced by transmitted light.
2.69 Derive the expression for the fringe spacing of the nth order dark fringe produced by
transmitted light in Newton’s rings.
2.70 Prove that fringe spacing decreases with increase of radius of the Newton’s rings
formed by transmitted light.
 Interference 177

2.71 Explain the variation of the radius of the bright fringe of Newton’s rings with the
refractive index of the thin film enclosed between the plano-convex lens and the glass
plate when observed by reflected light.
2.72 Explain the variation of the radius of the dark fringe of Newton’s rings with the
refractive index of the thin film enclosed between the plano-convex lens and the glass
plate when observed by reflected light.
2.73 Explain the variation the radius of the dark fringe of Newton’s rings with the refractive
index of the thin film enclosed between the plano-convex lens and the glass plate
when observed by transmitted light.
2.74 Explain the variation of the radius of the bright fringe of Newton’s rings with the
refractive index of the thin film enclosed between the plano-convex lens and the glass
plate when observed by transmitted light.
2.75 Explain the variation of the diameter of the bright fringe of Newton’s rings with the
radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens when observed by reflected light.
2.76 Explain the variation of the diameter of the dark fringe of Newton’s rings with the
radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens when observed by reflected light.
2.77 Explain the variation of the diameter of the dark fringe of Newton’s rings with the
radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens when observed by transmitted light.
2.78 Explain the variation of the radius of the bright fringe of Newton’s rings with the
radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens when observed by transmitted light.
2.79 Explain why the central fringe of Newton’s rings appears dark as seen by reflected
light when a thin air film is enclosed between the glass plate and the spherical surface
of the plano-convex lens.
2.80 Explain why the central fringe of Newton’s rings appears bright as seen by transmitted
light when a thin air film is enclosed between the glass plate and the spherical surface
of the plano-convex lens.
2.81 Prove that the central fringe of Newton’s rings as seen by reflected light and by
transmitted light is complementary to each other.
2.82 Account for the blackness and brightness of the central fringe of Newton’s rings.
2.83 How are Newton’s rings affected if we use polychromatic light instead of
monochromatic light?
2.84 How are Newton’s rings affected if we change the light source from red to green?
2.85 Prove that the law of conservation of energy holds good for Newton’s rings.
2.86 How do we determine the wavelength of sodium light using Newton’s rings?
2.87 Stating the working formula, describe an experiment to determine the wavelength of
sodium light using Newton’s rings.
2.88 Derive the necessary theory to determine the wavelength of sodium light using
Newton’s rings.
2.89 How do we determine the refractive index of transparent liquid using Newton’s rings?
178 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2.90 Stating the working formula, describe an experiment to determine the refractive
index of transparent liquid using Newton’s rings.
2.91 Derive the necessary theory to determine the refractive index of transparent liquid
using Newton’s rings.
2.92 Describe in detail an experiment to determine the wavelength of sodium light using
Newton’s rings.
2.93 Describe in detail an experiment to determine the refractive index of transparent
liquid using Newton’s rings.
2.94 Explain the formation of Newton’s rings. How can these be used to determine the
refractive index of a liquid?
2.95 Explain how Newton’s rings are used to determine the wavelength of sodium light.
2.96 Give the theory of Newton’s rings and describe an experiment to determine the
wavelength of sodium light using these rings.
2.97 Explain, giving necessary theory, how the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens
can be determined using Newton’s rings.
2.98 Explain the principle and construction of a Michelson interferometer.
2.99 Explain how we can determine the wavelength of monochromatic light using a
Michelson interferometer.
2.100 Derive the working formula for the determination of refractive index of solid materials
using a Michelson interferometer.
2.101 Distinguish between circular fringes produced in Newton’s ring apparatuses and the
Michelson interferometer.
2.102 Explain with theory the determination of refractive index of gas using a Michelson
interferometer.

Problems

2.1 The wavelength of light in vacuum is 6500 Å. Calculate the wavelength of the same
light in a medium having absolute refractive index 1.5. [Ans 4333 Å]
In Young’s double slit experiment, the separation between the slits is 0.19 cm and
the fringe spacing is 0.031 cm at a distance of 1 meter from the slits. Calculate the
wavelength of the light. [Ans 5890 Å]
2.2 In Young’s double slit experiment, 1 cm on the screen placed at 200 cm contains 20
fringes. Find the slit separation if the wavelength of light used is 5100 Å.
[Ans 0.051 cm]
2.3 In Young’s double slit experiment, two coherent sources are 0.02 cm apart and the
fringes are observed on a screen 80 cm away. It is found that the 4th bright fringe is
situated at a distance of 1.2 cm from the central fringe. Calculate the wavelength of
the monochromatic light used. [Ans 7500 Å]
 Interference 179

2.4 Two coherent sources are 0.07 cm apart and the fringes are observed on a screen
120 cm away. It is found that the 8th dark fringe is situated at a distance of 0.8 cm from
the central fringe. Calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light used.
[Ans 5490 Å]
2.5 A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 3 meter is placed on an optically plane
glass plate in an air medium. It is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic
light. The diameter of the 8th bright ring as seen by the reflected light is 0.72 cm.
Calculate the wavelength of the light. [Ans 5082 Å]
2.6 A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 2.7 m is placed on an optically plane glass
plate in an air medium. It is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light.
The diameter of the 10th dark ring as seen by the reflected light is 0.8 cm. Calculate the
wavelength of the light. [Ans 5925 Å]
2.7 A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 160 cm is placed on an optically plane
glass plate. The space between the lens and the glass plate is filled with water having
refractive index 1.333 and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light.
The diameter of the 8th dark ring as seen by the reflected light is 0.4 cm. Calculate the
wavelength of the light. [Ans 4166 Å]
2.8 A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 3 m is placed on an optically plane glass
plate in an air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic
light. The diameter of the 9th bright ring as seen by the transmitted light is 0.74 cm.
Calculate the wavelength of the light. [Ans 5070 Å]
2.9 A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 2.7 m is placed on an optically plane glass
plate in an air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light.
The diameter of the 10th dark ring as seen by the transmitted light is 0.8 cm. Calculate
the wavelength of the light. [Ans 5644 Å]
2.10 A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 250 cm is placed on an optically plane
glass plate. The space between the lens and the glass plate is filled with ethyl alcohol
having refractive index 1.354 and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic
light. The diameter of the 11th dark ring as seen by the transmitted light is 0.72 cm.
Calculate the wavelength of the light. [Ans 6104 Å]
2.11 A plano-convex lens of radius of curvature 290 m is placed on an optically plane glass
plate in an air medium and is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light
of wavelength 5893 Å. Calculate the change in diameter of the 7th bright ring when
the air medium is replaced by water of refractive index 1.33 and is observed by the
transmitted light. [Ans 0.092 cm]
In a Newton’s ring experiment in air, the diameter of the 5th bright ring was 0.336 cm
and that of the 15th bright ring was 0.590 cm. If the radius of curvature of the plano-
convex lens is 100 cm, calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light used.
[Ans 5880 Å]
2.12 In a Newton’s ring experiment in air, the diameter of the 10th bright ring was 0.372 cm
and that of the 15th bright ring was 0.555 cm. If the wavelength of the monochromatic
light used is 5893 Å, calculate the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens used.
[Ans 143.9 cm]
180 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2.13 In a Newton’s ring experiment, when certain liquid is inserted in between the plano-
convex and the glass plate radius, the radius of the 10th dark ring is measured to be
6 cm. If the wavelength of the monochromatic light used is 5893 Å and the radius
of curvature of the plano-convex lens is 203 cm calculate the refractive index of the
liquid inserted. [Ans 1.33]
2.14 In Newton’s ring experiment in a laboratory, a source of light having two wavelengths
6000 Å and 4500 Å is used. It is found that the nth dark ring due to 6000 Å coincides
with the (n + 1)th dark ring due to 4500 Å. Calculate the radii of the nth dark rings due
to 6000 Å and 4500 Å if the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is 100 cm.
[Ans 0.1342 cm, 0.1162 cm]
In Newton’s ring experiment in a laboratory, a sodium vapor lamp having two
wavelengths 5890 Å and 5896 Å is used. It is found that the nth dark ring due to
5896 Å coincides with the (n + 2)nd dark ring due to 5890 Å. Calculate n. Also calculate
the radii of the nth dark rings due to 5896 Å and 5890 Å if the radius of curvature of
the plano-convex lens is 200 cm. [Ans 1963, 4.81 cm, 4.81 cm]
2.15 In Newton’s ring experiment in a laboratory, a source of light having two wavelengths
5600 Å and 4800 Å is used. It is found that the nth dark ring due to 5600 Å coincides
with the (n + 2)nd dark ring due to 4800 Å . Calculate n. Also calculate the radii of the
nth dark rings due to 5600 Å and 4800 Å if the radius of curvature of the plano-convex
lens is 90 cm. [Ans 12, 0.2459 cm, 0.2277 cm]
2.16 In the Newton’s ring experiment by a light of wavelength 5896 Å, the diameter of the
20th dark ring is 0.73 cm as seen by the reflected light in the air medium. Calculate
the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens and the thickness of the film at this
point. [Ans 112.98 cm, 5.896 × 10–4 cm]
2.17 In the Newton’s ring experiment by a light of wavelength 7000 Å, the diameter of
the 15th dark ring is 0.565 cm when a thin film of refractive index 1.354 [ethyl alcohol
at 20°C] is formed between the lens and the glass plate. Calculate the radius of
curvature of the plano-convex lens and the thickness of the film at this point.
[Ans 102.91 cm, 3.877 × 10–4 cm]
2.18 In the Newton’s ring experiment by a light of wavelength 6500 Å, the diameter of
the 12th dark ring is 0.565 cm when a thin liquid film is formed between the lens and
glass plate. If the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is 65.5 cm, calculate the
refractive index of the liquid. [Ans 1.461]
2.19 In a biprism experiment, the distance between the source and the eye-piece is 100
cm and that between two virtual sources is 0.075 cm. Find the wavelength of the light
used if the fringe spacing is 0.0845 cm. [Ans 6338 × 10–8 cm]
2.20 In a biprism experiment, the distance between the biprism and the eye-piece is
175 cm and that between the biprism and the monochromatic source (l = 5 × 10–5 cm)
is 25 cm. The biprism is made of glass of refractive index 1.5. Calculate the refracting
angle. [Ans 1.14°]
2.21 Fringes of equal inclination are observed in a Michelson interferometer. When mirror
M1 is moved through a distance of 0.1732 mm, 500 number of fringes crossed the field
of view. Calculate the wavelength of monochromatic light used. [Ans 6928 Å]
 Interference 181

2.22 Mercury has a distinctive yellow doublet between approximately 575 nm and 580 nm.
Calculate the distance through which mirror M1 has to be moved through so that two
distinct lines would be observed. [Ans 0.03335 mm]
2.23 A material in the form of a sheet of thickness 0.5 cm is introduced between glass
plate G1 and M1 of the Michelson interferometer. It is found that there is a shift of 500
fringes when it is rotated through a 45° angle. Sodium vapor lamp is the source of
monochromatic light. Find its refractive index. [Ans 2.571]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Huygens’ idea of secondary waves gives a method to find

(i) the focus of a thin lens
(ii) the resolving power of a microscope
(iii) the position and shape of a wavefront
(iv) the speed of a light wave
2. According to Huygens’ wave theory of light, the locus of all the points in the same state
of vibration is called
(i) wavefront (ii) zone plate
(iii) half period zone (iv) vibration contour
3. What is the phase difference between two points situated on a wavefront?
(i) p/2 (ii) p
(iii) 2p (iv) 0
4. What type of source produces spherical wavefronts?
(i) linear source (ii) plane source
(iii) point source (iv) none of the above
1
5. The rays from two coherent sources reach a certain point with a path difference of λ .
What is the phase difference between them? 6
π π
(i) (ii)
4 3
π
(iii) (iv) p
2
π
6. The rays from two coherent sources reach a certain point with a phase difference of .
What is the path difference between them? 3
λ λ
(i) (ii)
6 4
λ
(iii) (iv) l
2
182 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

7. What is the angle between the normal to a wavefront and the direction of propagation
of the wave in a homogeneous isotropic medium?
π
(i) (ii) p
2
(iii) 2p (iii) 0
8. What is the relation between intensity I and amplitude a of electromagnetic waves?
(i) I ∝ a2 (ii) I ∝ a
1 1
(iii) I ∝ (iv) I ∝
a a2
9. What is the relation between optical path and geometrical path in a medium of
refractive index m?
(i) optical path = geometrical path (ii) optical path = m × geometrical path
(iii) geometrical path = m × optical path (iv) geometrical path × optical path = m
10. Who demonstrated the interference phenomenon for the first time?
(i) Newton (ii) Huygens
(iii) Young (iv) Fresnell
11. Can corpuscular theory of light explain the interference phenomenon?
(i) No
(ii) Yes
(iii) Yes or no dependsing on the size of the light corpuscles
(iv) Yes or no depending on the shape of the light corpuscles
12. What do you mean by the statement, ’Two waves are in the same phase’?
(i) The phase difference between two waves is only 0
(ii) The phase difference between two waves is only 2p
(iii) The phase difference between two waves is either 0 or 2p
(iv) The phase difference between two waves is p
13. What is the shape of fringes practically obtained on the screen in Young’s double slit
experiment in the laboratory?
(i) circular (ii) elliptical
(iii) parabolic (iv) straight
14. What is the theoretical shape of fringes obtained on the screen in Young’s double slit
experiment?
(i) circular (ii) hyperbolic
(iii) parabolic (iv) straight
15. What is the theoretical shape of fringes obtained on the horizontal plane in Young’s
double slit experiment?
(i) circular (ii) elliptical
(iii) parabolic (iv) straight
 Interference 183

16. Which of the following phenomena produces colors in soap bubbles?

(i) interference (ii) diffraction
(iii) polarization (iv) dispersion
17. What is the relation between fringe spacing of a bright fringe and a dark fringe?
(i) fringe spacing of bright fringe = fringe spacing of dark fringe
(ii) fringe spacing of bright fringe > fringe spacing of dark fringe
(iii) fringe spacing of bright fringe < fringe spacing of dark fringe
(iv) There is no fixed relation between them
18. Young’s double slit experiment was performed by taking monochromatic blue, (B),
orange (O) and red (R) lights. Which of the following relations for their fringe spacings
b is correct?
(i) β B > βO > β R (ii) β B < βO < β R
(iii) βO < β B < β R (iv) β B > β R > βO
19. In Young’s double slit experiment, slit spacing are in the ratio 4:9. What will be the ratio
of intensity of maxima to minima?
(i) 5:1 (ii) 3:2
(iii) 25:1 (iv) 81:16
20. In Young’s double slit experiment, the slit central fringe is
(i) dark (ii) bright
(iii) semi-black (iv) semi-bright
21. In Young’s double slit experiment, slit separation is made half and the separation
between the slits and the screen is doubled. What will happen to the fringe spacing?
(i) It does not change (ii) It becomes two times
(iii) It becomes four times (iv) It becomes half
22. Does the law of conservation of energy hold good in interference phenomenon?
(i) Yes (ii) No
(iii) depends upon the type of interference
(iv) depends upon the experimental arrangements
23. What happens to the fringe spacing of a bright fringe in Young’s double slit experiment
when the distance between the slits is halved and the perpendicular distance between
the screen and plane slits is doubled?
(i) unchanged (ii) doubled
(iii) halved (iv) quadrupled
24. What happens to the fringe spacing of a bright fringe in Young’s double slit experiment
when the distance between the slits is doubled and the perpendicular distance
between the screen and plane slits is halved?
(i) doubled (ii) halved
(iii) one-fourth (iv) quadrupled
184 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

25. Newton’s ring illustrates the phenomenon of

(i) interference (ii) diffraction
(iii) polarization (iv) dispersion
26. What is the shape of Newton’s rings when you look through the microscope
perpendicularly?
(i) circular (ii) elliptical
(iii) parabolic (iv) straight
27. What is the shape of Newton’s rings when you look through the microscope making a
certain angle with the vertical?
(i) circular (ii) elliptical
(iii) parabolic (iv) straight
28. What happens to the fringe spacings of Newton’s rings with increase of radius?
(i) fringe spacing increases
(ii) fringe spacing first increases then decreases
(iii) fringe spacing decreases
(iv) fringe spacing first decreases then increases
29. The central fringe of Newton’s rings as seen by monochromatic reflected light when a
thin air film is enclosed between the glass plate and the spherical surface of the plano-
convex lens is
(i) black (ii) bright
(iii) semi-black (iv) semi-bright
30. The central fringe of Newton’s rings as seen by sunlight when a thin air film is enclosed
between the glass plate and the spherical surface of the plano-convex lens is
(i) black (ii) bright
(iii) colorful (iv) central fringe cannot be seen
31. The central fringe of Newton’s rings as seen by monochromatic transmitted light when
a thin air film is enclosed between the glass plate and the spherical surface of the plano-
convex lens is
(i) black (ii) bright
(iii) semi-black (iv) semi-bright
32. Newton’s ring experiment was conducted first in air medium then in some liquid
medium [transparent liquid is inserted in between the plano-convex lens and glass
plate]. What happens to the diameter of a particular ring?
(i) diameter increases (ii) diameter decreases
(iii) diameter remains unchanged
33. The radius of dark Newton’s ring is
(i) directly proportional to the square root of natural numbers
(ii) directly proportional to the square root of odd numbers
 Interference 185

(iii) directly proportional to the square root of even numbers

(iv) inversely proportional to the square root of natural numbers
34. The radius of bright Newton’s ring is
(i) directly proportional to the square root of natural numbers
(ii) directly proportional to the square root of odd numbers
(iii) directly proportional to the square root of even numbers
(iv) inversely proportional to the square root of natural numbers
35. Newton’s rings are fringes of
(i) constant inclination (ii) equal fringe spacing
(iii) constant path difference (iv) equal thickness

Answers

1 (iii) 2 (i) 3 (iv) 4 (iii) 5 (ii) 6 (ii) 7 (iv) 8 (i)

9 (ii) 10 (iii) 11 (i) 12 (iii) 13 (iv) 14 (ii) 15 (i) 16 (i)
17 (i) 18 (ii) 19 (iii) 20 (ii) 21 (iii) 22 (i) 23 (iv) 24 (iii)
25 (i) 26 (i) 27 (ii) 28 (iii) 29 (i) 30 (i) 31 (ii) 32 (ii)
33 (iii) 34 (ii) 35 (iv)
 3 Diffraction

3.1 Introduction
In a homogeneous medium, light travels in a straight line – if an object is placed in its path,
it should cast a sharp shadow of the object. However, the shadow of a fine wire caused
by sunlight is not observable on a screen and the shadow of a straight edge as shown in
Fig. 3.1 is not sharp when observed minutely. Some light bends into the shadow of the
straight edge with the intensity of the light decreasing rapidly as we move into the shadow.
The amount of bending depends upon the wavelength of the light and the size of the obstacle.
In the region of the fuzzy boundary of the shadow of the straight edge, alternate dark and
bright fringes of unequal spacings are seen when viewed by a well-focused microscope
against a good contrast background. This optical phenomenon of bending of light around
the obstacle is called diffraction and the fringes are called diffraction bands.
The diffraction phenomenon was first discovered by Italian scientist Grimaldi in the
year 1665 and was correctly interpreted by Fresnel. He combined the Huygens’ principle
of secondary wavelets with the principle of interference and concluded that diffraction
occurs due to the interference of secondary wavelets originating from various points of the
wavefront which are not obstructed by the obstacle. The diffraction phenomenon occurs
only when a part of the advancing wavefront is obstructed by some sharp obstacle.

3.2 Classification of Diffraction

The diffraction phenomenon is broadly classified into the following two general classes.
i. Fresnel’s diffraction
In this class of diffraction, the light source and the obstacle are separated by finite
distance. Therefore, the wavefront incident on the obstacle is either cylindrical or spherical.
 Diffraction 187

Figure 3.1 (a) The shadow of a straight edge formed by a parallel beam of sunlight. The shadow is
not very sharp. The encroachment of shadow by light is called diffraction. (b) A rough
sketch of intensity distribution on the screen

ii. Fraunhofer’s diffraction

In this class of diffraction, the light source and the obstacle are separated by infinite
distance. Therefore, the wavefront incident on the obstacle is plane. In the laboratory,
infinite distance is created by placing a lens in between the light source and the obstacle
so that the light source is at the focus of the lens.

3.3 Fresnel’s Explanation of Rectilinear Propagation of

Light
The greatest difficulty encountered by the supporters of the wave theory of light was
how to explain the observed fact that light propagates in a straight line. In the year 1815
French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel gave the correct interpretation of the rectilinear
propagation of light on the basis of wave theory of light by combining Huygens’ principle
of secondary wavelets with the principle of interference. In addition to this, he concluded
that rectilinear propagation of light is only approximate.

3.3.1 Fresnel’s assumptions

i. Observable diffraction pattern is produced only when the wavefront is incident on a

sharp obstacle or passes through slits.
ii. The principle of interference holds good also for secondary wavelets originating from
all the points of the unobstructed wavefront.
188 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

iii. By applying the interference principle to the secondary wavelets originating from all
the points of the unobstructed wavefront the resultant intensity at a forward point can
be calculated taking into account their relative amplitudes and phase differences.
iv. Diffraction pattern is due to the interference of secondary wavelets originating from
all the points of the unobstructed wavefront.

3.3.2 Calculation of the resultant amplitude

Figure 3.2 represents an advancing plane wavefront ABCD of monochromatic light of

wavelength l. ABCD is the unobstructed wavefront. The wavefront ABCD is perpendicular
to the plane of the page. P is a point situated at a perpendicular distance b from the
wavefront. From the point P, a perpendicular is dropped at C0 on the wavefront. The point
C0 is called the pole of the wave with respect to P. Thus we have PC0 = b. To calculate the
resultant intensity at the point P we have to determine the resultant amplitude at P due
to all the secondary wavelets originating from every point of the wavefront ABCD in the
following manner.
The concentric spheres of radii

λ 2λ 3λ 4λ
b+ , b+ , b + , b + …, etc.,
2 2 2 2

are drawn with P as the centre which intersect the wavefront ABCD in circles C1, C2, C3 …
Cn etc., respectively. Thus, from Fig. 3.2, we can have

λ λ
PC1 =b + =PC0 +
2 2

λ
or PC1 − PC0 =
2

2λ  λ λ
Similarly, PC2 − PC1 =b + − b +  =
2  2 2

3λ  2λ  λ
PC3 − PC2 =b + − b + =
2  2  2

nλ  (n − 1)λ  λ
PCn − PCn −1 =b + − b + =
2  2  2
 Diffraction 189

Figure 3.2 (a) Construction of Fresnel’s half period zones in a plane wavefront. The plane wavefront
nλ
ABCD is perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The concentric spheres of radii b +
2
with n = 1, 2, 3, … are drawn with P as the centre which intersect the wavefront ABCD
in circles C1, C2, C3 …, Cn respectively. The area of nth half period zone is An = (area of the
circle Cn ) – (area of the circle Cn – 1 ). (b) Construction of Fresnel’s half period zones in
a spherical wavefront
190 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

PC1 – PC0 is the geometrical path difference between the waves originating from the
circumference of the circle C1 and the point C0. Hence, the phase difference

2π
( PC1 − PC0 )
λ

between the waves originated from the circumference of the circle C1 and the point C0 will
be given by

2π 2π λ
( PC1 − PC0 ) = =π
λ λ 2

In general,

2π
( PCn − PCn−1 ) =
π
λ
λ
The phase difference of p corresponds to half of the period, i.e., T/2, where T = is the
c
time period of the light wave. Hence, the circular area enclosed by the circle C1 is called
Fresnel’s first half period zone. The circular strip enclosed by the circle C1 and C2 is called
Fresnel’s second half period zone and so on. Thus, this construction divides the entire
wavefront into a large number of half period zones called Fresnel’s half period zones. The
area of the nth half period zone An as evident from Fig. 3.2 is given by

= (
An π C0Cn2 − C0Cn2−1 )

 nλ   (n − 1)λ  
2 2

or A= π   b + − b + 
2   2  
n


λ2
or An =π bλ + π ( 2n − 1) (3.1)
4

Equation shows that higher half period zones have greater area than that of lower half
λ2 λ2
period zones. is a very small quantity due to which we can neglect the π (2n − 1) term
4 4
in comparison to the term pbl. Thus, Eq. (3.1) becomes

An ≈ π bλ (3.2)

Equation (3.2) shows that each half period zone has approximately equal area.
 Diffraction 191

3.3.3 Average distance of the nth Fresnel’s half period zone from
the pole

The nth half period zone is a circular strip. The distance of the inner circumference from
(n − 1)λ nλ
the point P is b + and that of the outer circumference is b + . Therefore, the
2 2
average distance of the nth Fresnel’s half period zone dn from P will be

(n − 1)λ nλ
b+ +b+
dn = 2 2
2

λ
or dn =+
b (2n − 1) (3.3)
4

From Eqs (3.1) and (3.3) we have

λ2  λ
π bλ + π ( 2n − 1) πλ b + ( 2n − 1) 
An 4 =  4 
=
dn λ λ
b + ( 2n − 1) b + ( 2n − 1)
4 4

An
or = πλ (3.4)
dn

Let Rn be the amplitude of the secondary wavelets at P due to the nth Fresnel’s half period
zone. The magnitude of Rn may depend upon the following three factors.
i. The number of secondary wavelets originating from Fresnel’s half period zone is
proportional to the area of the zone. Again, more is the number of secondary wavelets,
more is the amplitude at P. Therefore, we conclude

Rn ∝ An

ii. The optical intensity ( ∝ amplitude2 ) decreases inversely with the square of the
distance. Hence, we can conclude that the amplitude of the nth Fresnel’s half period
zone at P is inversely proportional to the average distance of the nth Fresnel’s half
period zone from P, i.e.,

1
Rn ∝
dn
192 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

iii. Rn ∝ (1 + cosqn ), where (1 + cosqn ) is called the obliquity factor or inclination factor.
Over a single Fresnel’s half period zone, (1 + cosqn ) remains nearly constant since
π
variation of qn is very small. As shown in Fig. 3.3, as q increases from zero to , cos q
2
decreases slowly at first and then rapidly for larger values of q. The obliquity factor
(1 + cos qn ) varies in the same manner.

π
Figure 3.3 Variation of cosq with q for 0 ≤ θ ≤ .
2

By combining (i), (ii), and (iii), we have

An
=Rn K (1 + cos θn )
dn

An
Putting the value of from Eq. (3.3) into equation, we have
dn

Rn Kπλ (1 + cos θn )
=

or =
Rn k (1 + cos θn ) (3.5)

Thus, for a particular light, the magnitude of Rn depends only upon the obliquity factors
π
(1 + cosqn ). As q increases from zero to , cos q decreases slowly at first and then rapidly
2
for larger values of q and so do the obliquity factors (1 + cosqn ). Rn varies exactly in the
same manner. Therefore, the magnitudes of the amplitudes R1, R2, R3 …, Rn decrease
continuously.

3.3.4 Phase difference among half period zones

Suppose at any particular instant, the phase of the secondary wavelets originating from C0
and reaching P is zero.
 Diffraction 193

i. At this instant, the phase difference at P between the wavelets originating from the
circumference of the circle C1 and the point C0 is p. Therefore the average phase
difference of all the secondary wavelets originating from the first Fresnel’s half period
zone reaching P will be
0 +π π
= .
2 2
ii. At the same instant, the phase difference at P between the wavelets originating from
the circumference of the circle C1 and the circumference of the circle C2 is p. Hence,
the phase of the secondary wavelets originating from the circumference of the circle C2
and reaching P must be 2p as the phase of the secondary wavelets originating from the
circumference of the circle C1 is p. Therefore, the average phase difference of all the
secondary wavelets originating from the second Fresnel’s half period zone reaching P
will be
π + 2π 3π
= .
2 2
iii. At the same instant, the phase difference at P between the wavelets originating from
the circumference of the circle C2 and the circumference of the circle C3 is p. Hence,
the phase of the secondary wavelets originating from the circumference of the circle
C3 and reaching P must be 3p as the phase of the secondary wavelets originating from
the circumference of the circle C2 is 2p. Therefore, the average phase difference of all
the secondary wavelets originating from the third Fresnel’s half period zone reaching
P will be

2π + 3π 5π
= .
2 2

iv. Similarly, proceeding further, the average phase difference of all the secondary
wavelets originating from the nth Fresnel’s half period zone reaching P will be
(2n − 1)π
.
2

Let R1, R2, R3 …, Rn be the amplitudes of the secondary wavelets at P due to the first,
second, third Fresnel’s half period zones respectively. From the earlier discussions, the
odd numbered Fresnel’s half period zones are in phase and the even numbered Fresnel’s
half period zones are out of phase. Therefore, the resultant amplitude R of the secondary
wavelets originating from all the Fresnel’s half period zones at P will be given by

R= R1 − R2 + R3 − R4 + ..... + (−1)n −1 Rn (3.6)

194 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.3.5 Schuster’s method of summing the series

According to Eq. (3.5), the magnitude of each term of the RHS of the Eq. (3.6) is less than
the previous one.

Case A: n is odd
If n is odd, Eq. (3.6) becomes

R = R1 − R2 + R3 − R4 + ... + Rn

In this case, RHS of the aforementioned equation can be grouped in the following two
alternative ways; either

1 1 1  1 1  1
R = R1 +  R1 − R2 + R3  +  R3 − R4 + R5  +…+ Rn (3.7)
2 2 2  2 2  2

1 1 1  1 1  1
or R = R1 − R2 −  R2 − R3 + R4  −  R4 − R5 + R6  −…− Rn −1 + Rn (3.8)
2 2 2  2 2  2

The results of Eqs (3.7) and (3.8) should be the same simultaneously. Let us assume that

Ri −1 + Ri +1
Ri > , i = 2, 3, 4, ...
2

Under this assumption, the bracketed terms in Eqs (3.7) and (3.8) are negative. So Eqs (3.7)
and (3.8) can be written respectively as

1 1
R = R1 + Rn − α (3.9)
2 2

1 1 (3.10)
R = R1 − R2 − Rn −1 + Rn + β
2 2

where
a = sum of all the bracketed terms in Eq. (3.7)
b = sum of all the bracketed terms in Eq. (3.8)
 Diffraction 195

From Eqs (3.9) and (3.10), we have respectively

1 1
R1 + Rn > R (3.11)
2 2

1 1
and R > R1 − R2 − Rn −1 + Rn (3.12)
2 2

Experimentally, R1 ≈ R2 and Rn −1 ≈ Rn , n = 2, 3, 4, …. Under this condition Eq. (3.12)

becomes

1 1
R > R1 + Rn (3.13)
2 2

The Eqs (3.11) and (3.13) are simultaneously true only if

1 1
=
R R1 + Rn (3.14)
2 2

Case B: n is even
If n is even, Eq. (3.6) becomes

R = R1 − R2 + R3 − R4 + ..... + Rn −1 − Rn

In this case, RHS of the aforementioned equation can be grouped in the following two
alternative ways; either

1 1 1  1 1  1
R = R1 +  R1 − R2 + R3  +  R3 − R4 + R5  +…− Rn (3.15)
2  2 2   2 2  2

1 1 1  1 1  1
or R = R1 − R2 −  R2 − R3 + R4  −  R4 − R5 + R6  −…+ Rn −1 − Rn (3.16)
2 2 2  2 2  2

The results of Eqs (3.15) and (3.16) should be the same simultaneously. Let us assume that

Ri −1 + Ri +1
Ri > , i = 2, 3, 4, ....
2
196 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Under this assumption the bracketed terms in Eqs (3.15) and (3.16) are negative. Hence,
Eqs (3.15) and (3.16) can be written respectively as

1 1
R = R1 − Rn − α (3.17)
2 2

1 1
R = R1 − R2 + Rn −1 − Rn + β (3.18)
2 2

a and b have been defined earlier. From Eqs (3.17) and (3.18), we have respectively

1 1
R1 − Rn > R (3.19)
2 2

1 1
and R > R1 − R2 + Rn −1 − Rn (3.20)
2 2

Experimentally, R1 ≈ R2 and Rn −1 ≈ Rn , n = 2, 3, 4, …. Under this condition Eq. (3.20)

becomes

1 1
R > R1 − Rn (3.21)
2 2

Equations (3.19) and (3.21) are simultaneously true only if

1 1
=
R R1 − Rn (3.22)
2 2

According to Eq. (3.5), the amplitude due to the nth half period zone at P Rn is negligibly
small for large values of n. So we can neglect Rn in comparison to R1 in Eqs (3.14) and
(3.22). Therefore, whether n is odd or even, the resultant amplitude R at P due to the entire
wavefront ABCD is given by

1
R = R1 (3.23)
2

The resultant amplitude at P due to the entire wavefront ABCD is half of the amplitude at
P due to the first Fresnel’s half period zone.
In a similar manner, we can construct Fresnel’s half period zones in case of cylindrical
wavefronts and spherical wavefronts. We can then determine the resultant amplitude at a
point due to the entire wavefront.
 Diffraction 197

3.4 Zone Plate

The half period zone theory of Fresnel can be experimentally confirmed with help of an
optical device called the zone plate. In reality, either all the odd numbered terms or all
the even numbered terms of the RHS of Eq. (3.6) can be removed increasing the resultant
amplitude to many times. This concept has been applied practically in constructing a zone
plate. A zone plate is simply a thin parallel glass plate containing concentric circles of radii
accurately proportional to the square root of natural numbers (recollect Newton’s rings).
The annular space so created is deeply blackened alternately. Practically, a highly reduced
photograph of the Newton’s rings is taken on a thin parallel glass plate.

3.4.1 Types of zone plates

Either the even numbered annular spaces are blacked leaving the odd numbered annular
space transparent or the odd numbered annular spaces are blacked leaving the even
numbered annular space transparent. Depending upon this, the zone plates are of two types.
i. Positive zone plate
When the central circular zone, i.e., the first half period zone on the thin glass plate is
transparent, the zone plate is called a positive zone plate. In a positive zone plate, even
numbered half period zones, i.e., 2nd, 4th, 6th, …, etc., are blackened to make them
opaque for light, leaving odd numbered half period zones, i.e., 1st, 3rd, 5th, … etc.,
transparent. A typical positive zone plate is shown in Fig. 3.4(a).
ii. Negative zone plate
When the central circular zone, i.e., the first half period zone on the thin glass plate
is opaque, the zone plate is called a negative zone plate. In a negative zone plate, odd
numbered half period zones, i.e., 1st, 3rd, 5th, …, etc., are blackened to make them
opaque for light, leaving even numbered half period zones, i.e., 2nd, 4th, 6th, …, etc.,
transparent. A typical negative zone plate is shown in Fig. 3.4(b).

Figure 3.4 (a) Positive zone plate where the central circular zone is transparent. (b) Negative zone
plate where the central circular zone is opaque. Both figures are drawn not to scale
198 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.4.2 Action of the zone plate

YY¢ in Fig. 3.5 is a thin transparent screen placed perpendicular to the plane of the page and
S is a point source emitting spherical wavefronts of monochromatic light of wavelength l.
P is a point situated on the other side of the screen so that SP passing through the point
O on the screen is perpendicular to the screen. We can find the resultant amplitude at P
due to the secondary wavelets diverging from various points of the screen by dividing the
transparent screen into a large number of half period zones though the screen itself is not
a wavefront. We can divide the transparent screen into a large number of half period zones
by the following process.
We mark points C1, C2, C3 …, Cn along YY¢ on the transparent screen so that

λ
SC1P − SOP =
2

2λ
SC2 P − SOP =
2

3λ
SC3 P − SOP =
2

……………………=…..

……………………=…..

……………………=…..

nλ
SCn P − SOP = . (3.24)
2

The circular area enclosed by the circle C1 of radius OC1 may be called Fresnel’s first half
period zone. The circular strip enclosed by the circle C1 and C2 may be called Fresnel’s
second half period zone and so on. This construction divides the entire transparent screen
into a large number of half period zones called Fresnel’s half period zones.
Let
The outer radius of the nth half period zone = OCn = rn

The distance between the screen and the source = OS = –u

The distance between the screen and the point P = OP = v

 Diffraction 199

Figure 3.5 Theory of zone plate. Division of a transparent screen into a large number of half period
zones. Either all the odd numbered terms or all the even numbered terms of the RHS of
Eq. (3.6) can be removed increasing the resultant amplitude to many times by
blackening either all the odd numbered or all the even numbered half period zones

Now applying the Pythagoras theorem to the right angled triangle SOCn, we get

SCn = OS 2 + OCn2 = OS 2 + rn2

1
 r 2 2
or =
SCn OS  1 + n 2 
 OS 

Since in general, OS >> rn, we can apply the binomial theorem to the this equation to get

 1 rn2 
=
SCn OS  1 + 2 
 2 OS 

1 rn2
or SC=
n OS +
2 OS

According to our sign convention, OS = –u. Putting this value of OS into the this equation,
we get

rn2 r2
SCn =−u + =−u − n (3.25)
2(−u) 2u
200 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Following the exact similar procedure, we obtain

rn2
PCn = v + (3.26)
2v

Combining Eqs (3.25) and (3.26), we get

rn2 r2
SCn + PCn =−u − +v + n
2u 2v

rn2 r2
or SCn P =−u − +v + n (3.27)
2u 2v

Putting the value of SCnP from Eq. (3.27) into Eq. (3.24), we obtain

rn2 r2 nλ
−u − + v + n − SOP =
2u 2v 2

rn2 r2 nλ
or −u − +v + n +u −v =
2u 2v 2

rn2  1 1  nλ
or − = (3.28)
2  v u  2

nuvλ
or rn2 = (3.29)
u −v

uvλ
or r12 =
u −v

Putting this equation into Eq. (3.29), we get

rn2 = nr12 (3.30)

or rn = r1 n (3.31)
 Diffraction 201

Putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …, into Eq. (3.31), we can get the radii of the first, second and third
Fresnel’s half period zone. Thus, the radii of half period zones are directly proportional to
the square root of natural numbers.

Area of the nth half period zone

The square of the outer radius of the nth half period zone according to Eq. (3.29) is

nuvλ
rn2 =
u −v

The inner radius of the nth half period zone is equal to the outer radius of (n – 1)th half
period zone. So we have

(n − 1)uvλ
rn2−1 =
u −v

Therefore, area of the nth half period zone An will be equal to

(
An π rn2 − rn2−1
= )

 nuvλ (n − 1)uvλ 
or=An π  −
 u −v u − v 

π uvλ
or An = (3.32)
u −v

π vλ
or An = (3.33)
v
1−
u

This expression for area of the nth half period zone is independent of n. Therefore, each
half period zone has equal area. If the monochromatic light source is at infinity, i.e., u → ∞,
the wavefront will be a plane. Putting u → ∞ in Eq. (3.33), the area of the nth half period
zone in case of a plane wavefront will be given by

An = π vλ (3.34)
202 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.4.2 B Intensity at P
Let R1, R2, R3, …, Rn be the amplitudes of the secondary wavelets at P due to the first,
second, and third Fresnel’s half period zones respectively. The resultant amplitude R of the
secondary wavelets originating from all the Fresnel’s half period zones at P will be given
according to Eq. (3.6) as

R= R1 − R2 + R3 − R4 + ..... + (−1)n −1 Rn

1
R = R1 (as n → ∞)
2

Therefore, the intensity I at P due to the entire wavefront will be given by

k
I = R12 (3.35)
4

where k is the proportionality constant.

The resultant amplitude at P due to only the odd numbered half period zone is

1
Rodd = R1 + R3 + R5 + R7 … ≈ NR1 (3.36)
2

The resultant amplitude at P due to only the even numbered half period zone is

1
Reven= R2 + R4 + R6 + R8 … ≈ NR1 (3.37)
2

where N is the number of half period zones on the transparent screen and N/2 the number
of zones that are exposed. Therefore, the intensity at P due to only odd numbered half
period zones Iodd will be given by

k
I odd ≈ N 2 R12 (3.38)
4

Thus, the intensity at P due to only odd numbered half period zones Iodd is N 2 times more
than that of the intensity I at P due to the entire wavefront. Similarly, the intensity at P due
to only even numbered half period zones Ieven will be given by

k
I even ≈ N 2 R12 (3.39)
4
 Diffraction 203

Thus, the intensity at P due to only even numbered half period zones Ieven is N2 times more
than that of the intensity I at P due to the entire wavefront.

3.4.3 Principle behind zone plates

From the previous discussions, we conclude that the intensity at point due to only either
even numbered half period zones or due to only odd numbered half period zones is many
times more than that of the intensity at the same point due to the entire wavefront. If
somehow either all the odd numbered half period zones or all the even numbered half
period zones on the screen were blocked off, the intensity at a point will be many times
more than that of the intensity at the same point due to the entire wavefront. In a zone
plate, either all the odd numbered half period zones or all the even numbered half period
zones are blackened or made opaque. Hence, when light passes through a zone plate, the
intensity at a forward point will be maximum and is the image of the light source. The
position of the image should satisfy the Eq. (3.28), i.e.,

rn2  1 1  nλ
− =
2  v u  2

1 1 nλ
or − = (3.40)
v u rn2

Equation (3.40) is in the form of the equation of a thin lens. Hence, the zone plate behaves
like a lens. Here u is the distance of the source from the zone plate and v is the distance of
the image from the zone plate.

3.4.4 Multiple foci of a zone plate

The focal length of a lens or a zone plate is defined as the image distance when the object
distance is infinity. Therefore, by putting u → ∞ and v = fn into Eq. (3.40), we will get the
expression for focal length of a zone plate. Hence, we have

1 1 nλ
− =
fn ∞ rn2

rn2
or fn = (3.41)
nλ

Equation (3.41) shows that a zone plate has a number of foci and a number of focal lengths
for different values of n. By putting n = 1 into this equation, we get

r12 (3.42)
f1 =
λ
204 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The focal length f1 obtained by putting n = 1 into Eq. (3.41) is called first order focal
length or primary focal length of the zone plate and the corresponding focus is called
first order focus or primary focus of the zone plate. The intensity of the primary focus is
maximum as compared to the other foci. The intensity of the other foci goes on decreasing
as we move towards the zone plate along the axis. The intensity of the primary focus I1 is
given, according to Eq. (3.36), by

k
I1= k ( R1 + R3 + R5 + R7 …) ≈ N 2 R12
2
(3.43)
4

3.4.5 Presence of odd numbered foci

The presence of only odd numbered foci both in case of positive and negative zone plates
can be explained in the following way. The areas of all the Fresnel’s half period zones are
approximately equal. The area of a Fresnel’s half period zone of a plane wavefront incident
on a zone plate is approximately given by Eq. (3.2) as

A = πλv

If v in this equation is replaced by focal length f1 which is true for a plane incident wavefront,
we can have

A = πλ f1

f1 A
or πλ = (3.44)
2m + 1 2m + 1

where m = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, etc.
Putting m = 1 into Eq. (3.44), we get

f1 A
πλ = (3.45)
3 3

f1 A
Equation (3.45) shows that when v becomes , area of a Fresnel’s zone becomes , i.e.,
3 3 A
each Fresnel’s half period zone is divided into three half period zones each having area .
3
Let us consider the case of a positive zone plate (central zone is transparent). The
transparent central zone, i.e., the first zone of the positive zone plate contains the 1st, 2nd,
and 3rd half period zone and its second opaque zone contains the 4th, 5th, and 6th half
period zone of the incident plane wavefront. Similarly, its transparent third zone contains
the 7th, 8th, and 9th half period zone and the fourth opaque zone contains the 10th, 11th,
 Diffraction 205

and 12th half period zone of the incident plane wavefront. The odd numbered transparent
half period zones of a positive zone plate allows the secondary wavelets to pass and its even
numbered opaque half period zones does not allow the secondary wavelets to pass. Hence,
the secondary wavelets originating from the 1st, 2nd, 3rd; 7th, 8th, and 9th; 13th, 14th,
15th, and etc., of the Fresnel’s half period zones of the incident plane wavefront can pass
through a positive zone plate. The resultants of secondary wavelets originating from these
Fresnel’s half period zones will have equal amplitudes and alternately, they have opposite
f
phases. Therefore, the resultant amplitude A3 at a distance of 1 from the zone plate will
be given by 3

A3 = ( R1 − R2 + R3 ) + ( R7 − R8 + R9 ) + ( R13 − R14 + R15 ) + ( R19 − R20 + R21 ) +…

 1   1 
or A3 ≈ R1 − ( R1 + R3 ) + R3  + R7 − ( R7 + R9 ) + R9 
 2   2 

 1   1 
+ R13 − ( R13 + R15 ) + R15  + R19 − ( R19 + R21 ) + R21  +…
 2   2 

1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1 
= R1 + R3  +  R7 + R9  +  R13 + R15  +  R19 + R21  +…
2 2  2 2  2 2  2 2 

1
or A3 ≈ ( R1 + R3 + R7 + R9 + R13 + R15 + R19 + R21 +…)
2

The intensity of the third order focus I3 is given by

k
( R1 + R3 + R7 + R9 + R13 + R15 + R19 + R21 +…)
2
I 3= (3.46)
4

Equations (3.43) and (3.46) proves that

I 3 < I1

i.e., the intensity of the third order focus is less than the intensity of the primary/first order
focus. The position of the third order focus from the zone plate is obviously

f1
f3 = (3.47)
3
206 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.4.6 Intensity of fifth order focus

Putting m = 2 into Eq. (3.44), we get

f1 A
πλ = (3.48)
5 5
f1 A
Equation (3.48) shows that when v becomes , area of a Fresnel’s zone becomes , i.e.,
5 5
each Fresnel’s half period zone is divided into five half period zones each having area A .
5
As earlier, let us consider the case of a positive zone plate. The first zone of the positive
zone plate contains the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th half period zone and its second opaque zone
contains the 6th, 7th, and 8th, 9th, 10th half period zone of the incident plane wavefront.
Similarly its transparent third zone contains the 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th half period
zone and the fourth opaque zone contains the 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th half period zone
of the incident plane wavefront. As before the secondary wavelets originating from the
1st, 2nd, 3rd; 4th, 5th, 11th; 12th, 13th,14th, 15th, and etc., of the Fresnel’s half period
zones of the incident plane wavefront can pass through a positive zone plate. The resultants
of secondary wavelets originating from these Fresnel’s half period zones will have equal
amplitudes and alternately, opposite phases. Therefore, the resultant amplitude A5 at a
f
distance of 1 from the zone plate will be given by
5

A=
3 ( R1 − R2 + R3 − R4 + R5 ) + ( R11 − R12 + R13 − R14 + R15 ) +…

 1 1 
or A5 ≈ R1 − ( R1 + R3 ) + R3 − ( R3 + R5 ) + R5  +
 2 2 

 1 1 
R11 − ( R11 + R13 ) + R13 − ( R13 + R15 ) + R15  +…
 2 2 

 1 1 1 1 
or A5 ≈ R1 − R1 − R3 + R3 − R3 − R5 + R5  +
 2 2 2 2 

 1 1 1 1 
R11 − R11 − R13 + R13 − R13 − R15 + R15  +…
 2 2 2 2 
 Diffraction 207

1 1  1 1 
or A5 ≈  R1 + R5  +  R11 + R15  +…
2 2  2 2 

1
or A5 ≈ ( R1 + R5 + R11 + R15 + R21 + R25 )…
2

The intensity of the fifth order focus I5 is given by

k
( R1 + R5 + R11 + R15 +…)
2
=
I5 (3.49)
4

Equations (3.43), (3.46), and (3.49) proves that

I 5 < I 3 < I1

i.e., intensity of the fifth order focus is less than the intensity of the third order focus. In
general, intensity of the higher order foci is less than the intensity of the lower order foci.
Closer is the foci to the zone plate, lesser is the intensity of the foci. Though in the earlier
discussions, we have taken the zone plate as positive, similar type of logic is applicable to a
negative zone plate. The position of the fifth order focus from the zone plate is obviously

f1
f5 = (3.50)
5

Taking into account Eqs (3.42), (3.47), and (3.50), the general expression for odd numbered
focal lengths is given by

2
f1 r
f 2m −1 = with f1 = 1 (3.51)
2m − 1 λ

r12
or f 2m −1 = (3.52)
(2m − 1)λ

where r1 is the radius of the Fresnel’s first half period zone of the incident plane wavefront
on the transparent screen and m = 1, 2, 3 …. Equations (3.51) or (3.52) give the position of
foci for a zone plate.
208 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.4.7 Absence of even numbered foci

The absence of even numbered foci both in case of positive and negative zone plates can
be explained in the following way. The areas of all the Fresnel’s half period zones are
approximately equal. The area of a Fresnel’s half period zone of a plane wavefront incident
on a zone plate is approximately given by Eq. (3.2) as

A = πλv

If v in this equation is replaced by focal length f which is true for a plane incident wavefront,
we can have

A = πλ f1

f1 A
or πλ = (3.53)
2m 2m

where m = 1, 2, 3, …, etc.,
Putting m = 1 into Eq. (3.53), we get

f1 A
πλ = (3.54)
2 2

f1 A
Equation (3.54) shows that when v becomes , area of a Fresnel’s zone becomes , i.e.,
2 2 A
each Fresnel’s half period zone is divided into two half period zones each having area .
2
Let us consider the case of a positive zone plate again. The transparent central zone,
i.e., the first zone contains the 1st, and 2nd half period zone and the second opaque zone
contains the 3rd, and 4th half period zone of the incident plane wavefront. Similarly, the
transparent third zone contains the 5th and 6th half period zone and the fourth opaque
zone contains the 7th and 8th half period zone of the incident plane wavefront. The odd
numbered transparent half period zones of a positive zone plate allow the secondary
wavelets to pass and its even numbered opaque half period zones do not allow the secondary
wavelets to pass. Hence, the secondary wavelets originating from the 1st, 2nd and 5th; 6th,
…, etc., of the Fresnel’s half period zones of the incident plane wavefront can pass through
a positive zone plate. The resultants of secondary wavelets originating from these Fresnel’s
half period zones will have equal amplitudes and alternately, opposite phases. Therefore,
f
the resultant amplitude A2 at a distance of 1 from the zone plate will be given by
2

A2 = ( R1 − R2 ) + ( R5 − R6 ) + ( R9 − R10 ) + ( R13 − R14 ) +… (3.55)

 Diffraction 209

The magnitudes of the bracketed terms in Eq. (3.55) are very small because
R1 ≈ R2 , R5 ≈ R6 , R9 ≈ R10 , R13 ≈ R14 , and etc. Hence, the resultant amplitude A2 will be very
f
small as a result of which intensity I 2 ( = A22 ) at a distance of 1 from the zone plate will
2
be negligibly low.

3.4.8 Intensity of the fourth order focus

Putting m = 2 into Eq. (3.53), we get

f1 A (3.56)
πλ =
4 4

f1 A
Equation (3.56) shows that when v becomes , area of a Fresnel’s zone becomes , i.e.,
4 4
each Fresnel’s half period zone is divided into four half period zones each having area A .
4
As earlier, let us consider the case of a positive zone plate. The first zone contains the
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th half period zone and the second opaque zone contains the 5th, 6th, 7th,
8th half period zone of the incident plane wavefront. Similarly, the transparent third zone
contains the 9th, 10th, 11th, 13th half period zone and the fourth opaque zone contains
the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th half period zone of the incident plane wavefront. As before, the
secondary wavelets originating from the 1st, 2nd, 3rd; 4th, 9th; 10th, 11th, 12th, and etc., of
Fresnel’s half period zones of the incident plane wavefront can pass through a positive zone
plate. The resultants of secondary wavelets originating from these Fresnel’s half period
zones will have equal amplitudes and alternately opposite phases. Therefore, the resultant
amplitude A4 at a distance of f1 from the zone plate will given by
4

A4 = ( R1 − R2 + R3 − R4 ) + ( R9 − R10 + R11 − R12 ) + ( R17 − R18 + R19 − R20 ) +…

The magnitudes of the bracketed terms in this equation are negligibly very small because
R1 ≈ R2 ≈ R3 ≈ R4 , R9 ≈ R10 ≈ R11 ≈ R12 , R17 ≈ R18 ≈ R19 ≈ R20 … etc. Hence, the resultant
f
amplitude A4 will be very small as a result of which intensity I4 at a distance of 1 from the
4
zone plate will be negligibly low.
Similar logic holds for all the other even numbered foci. Therefore, practically, even
numbered foci do not exist for positive zone plates. Though in these discussions we have
only considered positive zone plates, a similar logic is applicable to negative zone plates.
210 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.4.9 Comparison of a zone plate with a convex lens

The similarities and dissimilarities between a convex lens and a zone plate are elaborated
here.

Similarities

Convex lens Zone plate

1 Convex lens has focusing action. Zone plate also has focusing action.

2 The real image is formed on the other side of the The real image is also formed on the other side of
source. the source.
3 Focal length of a convex lens depends upon the Focal length of a convex lens also depends upon
wavelength. the wavelength.
4 Convex lens suffers chromatic aberrations. Zone plate also suffers chromatic aberrations.
5 In a convex lens, the image distance and object In a zone plate, the image distance and object
1 1 1 distance are also connected by a similar equation
distance are connected by − =
v u f 1 1 nλ
− =
v u rn2

Dissimilarities

Convex lens Zone plate

1 Focusing action is due to refraction of light Focusing action is due to diffraction of light
through the lens through the zone plate.
2 All the light waves refracting through a lens are The secondary wavelets diffracted through a zone
in phase. plate are not in phase.
3 All the monochromatic light waves refracting The monochromatic secondary wavelets
through a lens travel the same optical paths. diffracting through a zone plate travel different
optical paths.
4 For monochromatic light, a convex lens has a For monochromatic light a zone plate has multiple
single focus. foci.
5 The intensity of the focus is maximum in case of The intensity of the primary focus of a zone plate is
convex lens. less than the focus of a lens.
6 In case of convex lens, the focal length of violet In case of a zone plate, the focal length of violet
light is less than that of red light. light is more than that of red light.
7 For a given wavelength of light, a convex lens has For a given wavelength of light, a zone plate has
a single focal length given by multiple focal lengths given by

1  1 1  r12
(µ 1)  − 
=− f 2 m+1 =
f  R1 R2  (2m + 1)λ
 Diffraction 211

8 A convex lens has no virtual focus on the side of A zone plate has virtual foci on the side of the
the source. source.
9 A convex lens cannot act like a concave lens in a A zone plate can act like a concave lens.
single medium.
10 A concave lens only acts like a converging lens. A zone plate can act like a converging as well as a
diverging lens.

Example 3.1
The principal focal length of a positive zone plate is 1.5 m for a light of wavelength 6500 Å.
Determine the radii of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd transparent zones.
Solution
The radius of the nth half period zones of a zone plate is given by

rn = nf λ

The radius of the first half period zone will be

r1 = f λ = 150 × 6500 × 10−8 cm = 0.10 cm.

In a zone plate, alternate zones are transparent. Hence, the radius of the 2nd and 3rd half
period zones are obtained by putting n = 3 and 5 respectively. Hence, we have

=
r2 r1=3 0.17 cm and =
r3 r1=5 0.22 cm

Example 3.2
What is the radius of the first zone of a zone plate with focal length 30 cm for a light of
wavelength 6000 Å?
Solution
The data given are
n=1

f = 30 cm

l = 6000 Å = 6 × 10–5 cm

r1 = ?
212 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

r12
The required formula is (3.42), f1 =
λ

or r=
1 f1λ= 30 × 6 × 10−5 cm= 0.042 cm

The radii of the other zones of the zone plate for the same light will be r2 = r1 n , n = 2, 3, …

Example 3.3
A point source of light of wavelength 5000 Å A is placed on the axis of a zone plate. The
strongest and next strongest images of the source are formed on the other side of the zone
plate at distances of 30 cm and 10 cm respectively. Calculate (a) the distance of the point
source from the zone plate, (b) the radius of the first zone and (c) the principal focal length of
the zone plate.
Solution
The data given are l = 6000 Å = 6 × 10–5 cm, v1 = + 30 cm, and v2 = + 5 cm.
We know that

1 1 (2m − 1)λ 1
=− = 2
v u r1 f 2m −1

Hence, we can have

1 1 λ
− =
v1 u r12

and
1 1 3λ
− =
v2 u r12

Putting the values of v1 and v2 into these equations, we get

1 1 λ
− =
30 u r12

1 1 3λ
− =
5 u r12

Solving the aforementioned two equation for u and r1, we get

u=
−20 cm ⇒
 Diffraction 213

that point source is placed at a distance of 20 cm to the left side of the zone plate.

and r1 = 0.027 cm

The principal focal length of the zone plate (m = 1) is given by

r12
f=
1 = 12 cm
λ

Example 3.4
A zone plate is constructed by taking the print of Newton’s ring formed by a plano-convex
lens of radius of curvature 1 m on a thin glass plate. Find the principal focal length of the zone
plate constructed in this way.
Solution
The square of the radii of the nth order dark ring of Newton’s rings formed in an air medium
is given by

rn2 = nλ R

or r12 = λ R

where R = radius of curvature of the curved surface of the plano-convex lens.

The principal focal length of a zone plate is given by

r12
f1 =
λ

λR
or f1= = R= 1m
λ

Example 3.5
The radius of the first half period zone of a zone plate is 0.05 cm. What should be the position
of a screen so that the brightest spot is formed on the screen when a plane monochromatic
light of wavelength 5890 Å is incident normally on the zone plate.
Solution
The data given are

r1 = 0.05 cm
214 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

l = 5890 Å = 5890 × 10–8 cm

The screen should be at the principal focal plane of the zone plate so that the brightest spot will
be formed. The principal focal length of a zone plate is given by

r12 0.052
f=
1 = cm = 42.4 cm
λ 5890 × 10−8

Example 3.6
The diameter of the central zone of a zone plate is 0.20 cm. If a point source of light of
wavelength 5500 Å is placed at a distance of 50 cm from the zone plate, find the positions of
the strongest image and other weaker images.
Solution
The data given are

0.2 cm
=r1 = 0.1cm and l = 5500 Å = 5500 × 10–8 cm.
2

The positions all the point images are given by

r12
f 2m −1 = =, m 1,2,3, ….
(2m − 1)λ

The position of the strongest point image (m = 1) will be

r12 0.12
f=
1 = cm = 182 cm
λ 5500 × 10−8

The position of the other point images (m = 2, 3, 4, …) will be

r12
=
f3 = 60.6 cm
3λ

r12
=
f5 = 36.4 cm and etc.
5λ
 Diffraction 215

3.5 Fraunhofer Diffraction

In the previous sections, we have discussed the Fresnel class of diffraction in which
separation between source and diffracting aperture is finite. Now we shall discuss the
Fraunhofer class of diffraction in which separation between the source and diffracting
aperture is infinite. Accordingly, the incident wavefront is plane. Secondary wavelets
originating from the plane of the aperture are in phase and the diffracted wavefront is in plane.

3.5.1 Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single slit

Figure 3.6 Fraunhofer diffraction of a plane wavefront due to a single slit consists of a central bright
band and fainter side bands on a screen. The path difference between the extreme
diffracted rays, e sinq, has been shown

In Fig. 3.6, a plane wavefront of monochromatic light of wavelength l is incident on a slit of

width e so that the plane of the slit and the plane wavefront is parallel to each other. When
the diffracted beam is focused on a screen with the help of a converging lens, a Fraunhofer
diffraction pattern consisting of a central bright band and fainter side bands is obtained on
the screen. The theoretical explanation of this observation is as follows.
In the Fig. 3.7, the point O, the origin of our coordinate system is the centre of the
slit of width e. The plane of the slit coincides with the Y-axis and the central line OP0 is
along the X-axis. P(x0, y0) is a point on the screen. OP makes an angle q with OP0. Let dy
having coordinates (0, y) be an elemental portion of the incident wavefront on the plane of
the slit.
216 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

r = The distance between dy and P(x0, y0).

x0 = The distance between the plane of the slit and the screen.

r = OP(x0, y0) = The distance between O and P(x0, y0)

q = The angle between OP0 and OP(x0, y0).

(0, y) = Coordinate of dy

Figure 3.7 Theoretical explanation of Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. The resultant amplitude
sin α
of the total wave disturbance at any point P(x0, y0) is calculated to be A = ke
π e sinθ α
with α = .
λ

The wave disturbance dy at the point P(x0, y0) due to dy at any given instant is given by

t r
dψ = kdy sin 2π  − 
T λ 

The total wave disturbance y at the point P(x0, y0) due to the entire wavefront of width e at
any given instant is given as
e
+
2
t r (3.57)
ψ = ∫ k sin 2π  −  dy
−
e T λ 
2
 Diffraction 217

From the Fig. 3.7, we get

r 2 =x02 + ( y0 − y )
2
(3.58)

ρ=
2
x02 + y02 (3.59)

Putting the value of x02 from Eq. (3.59) into Eq. (3.58), we get

r 2 = ρ 2 − y02 + ( y0 − y ) = ρ 2 + y 2 − 2 yy0
2

 y 2 2 yy 
or r 2 = ρ 2 1 + 2 − 2 0  (3.60)
 ρ ρ 

y2
As shown in the Fig. 3.7, ρ >> y as a result of which 2 is negligibly small. Hence, in
y2 ρ
Eq. (3.60), neglecting 2 , we obtain
ρ
1
 2 yy  2 (3.61)
=r ρ 1 − 2 0 
 ρ 

2yy0
As is much less than 1, we can expand the RHS of Eq. (3.61) up to the second term
ρ2
to have

yy0 (3.62)
r= ρ −
ρ

From the Fig. 3.7, we can have

y0
= sin θ
ρ

y0
Putting this value of into Eq. (3.62), we get
ρ

r= ρ − y sin θ (3.63)
 218 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Substituting this value of r into Eq. (3.57), we get

e
+
2
 t ρ − y sin θ 
ψ = ∫ k sin 2π  −  dy
e T λ 
−
2

e
+
2
t ρ y sin θ 
or ψ
= ∫ k sin 2π  T − λ +
e λ 
dy (3.64)
−
2

For a given point and given wavelength at any particular instant, T, t, r l, and q do
not change with respect to y. The integration (3.64) can be evaluated by the method of
substitution.
Let

 t ρ y sin θ 
u 2π  − +
= (3.65)
T λ λ 

sin θ
or du = 2π dy
λ

λ
or dy = du (3.66)
2π sin θ

Putting these values of dy and u into Eq. (3.64), we have

e
+
2
λ
=ψ ∫ k sin u × 2π sinθ du
e
−
2

e
+
λ 2
or ψ =k
2π sin θ ∫ sin udu
e
−
2

λ  + 
e
or ψ k
=  − cos u − 2e 
2π sin θ  2 
 Diffraction 219

Re-substituting the value of u from Eq. (3.65) into this equation, we get

 + 
e

λ  t ρ y sin θ  2 
ψ = −k cos 2π  − +
2π sin θ  T λ λ  − e 
 2 

λ   t ρ e sin θ   t ρ e sin θ  
ψ = −k  cos 2π  − +  − cos 2π  T − λ − 2λ  
2π sin θ  T λ 2λ   

λ  t ρ   π e sin θ 
or ψ =k sin 2π  −  sin  
π sin θ T λ   λ 

λ  t ρ   π e sin θ 
= ke sin 2π  −  sin  
π e sin θ T λ   λ 

ke t ρ
= sin 2π  −  sin α
α T λ 

sin α t ρ
or ψ = ke sin 2π  −  (3.67)
α T λ 

π e sin θ
where α = (3.68)
λ

Equation (3.67) is of the form

t ρ
=ψ A sin  −  with A = ke sin α .
T λ  α

Hence, Eq. (3.67) shows that the amplitude A of the resultant wave disturbance at any point
P(x0, y0) due to all the secondary wavelets is

sin α
A = ke (3.69)
α
220 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Therefore, the resultant intensity I at P(x0, y0) will be

sin2 α
I = k 2e2 (3.70)
α2

As shown in Fig. 3.7, the central band corresponds to θ → 0. When θ → 0 according to

Eq. (3.68), α → 0 and the value of

sin α
lim =1
α →0 α

as a result of which the intensity of the central band I0 will be given by

I0 = k 2e2 (3.71)

Putting this value into Eq. (3.70), the expression for the intensity at any point P(x0, y0) on
the screen will be given by

sin2 α π e sin θ
I = I0 with α = (3.72)
α 2
λ

3.5.2 Intensity distribution

Now we shall proceed to analyze the intensity distribution on the screen due to Fraunhofer
diffraction by a single slit. The resultant amplitude A of the wave disturbance at any point
P(x0, y0) due to all the secondary wavelets is given by Eq. (3.69). Expanding the sin a in the
power series, we have from Eq. (3.69)

ke  α3 α5 α7 
=A α − + − +…
α 3! 5! 7! 

 α2 α4 α6 
or A = ke  1 − + − +… (3.73)
 3! 5! 7! 

Principal maximum
All the terms after second term in Eq. 3.73 are negligibly small and the amplitude A will be
maximum if second term is made zero. This is possible when a = 0. For a central band as
discussed earlier, a = 0. When this value is put into Eq. (3.73), it gives the maximum value
of the amplitude as
A = ke
 Diffraction 221

Hence, at the central band, the resultant amplitude of all secondary wavelets is maximum
and the intensity at the central band will be maximum. The central band in case of the
Fraunhofer single slit diffraction is the brightest band having intensity

IO = k 2e 2

Here a = 0 implies that q = 0, which corresponds to the central band. This shows that
the central band is formed by the secondary wavelets originating from the slit travelling
perpendicular (q = 0) to the plane of the slit. This maximum is called the principal
maximum. The principal maximum is surrounded symmetrically by alternate dark and
bright bands of decreasing intensity as we move away from the principal maximum.

Positions of dark bands

According to Eqs (3.69) or (3.72), the intensity will be minimum at the points for which

sin α = 0

or α = ±nπ with n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …

π e sin θ
or = ±nπ
λ

λ
or e sin θ = ±2n (3.74)
2

As shown in Fig. 3.6, the path difference between extreme diffracted rays is e sinq . Then
according to Eq. (3.74), the rays diffracted at an angle q will interfere destructively if
λ
the path difference between extreme diffracted rays is an even multiple of . The same
2
equation also proves that Fraunhofer diffraction does not occur if slit width is less than the
wavelength of the monochromatic light used. α = ±nπ gives the positions of the minima or
dark bands in case of single slit diffraction pattern and are shown in Fig. 3.8.

Positions of secondary maxima

In the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern in addition to the principal maximum, the secondary
maxima of lower intensity are also present on both sides of the principal maximum on
the screen. In between the secondary maxima, there are dark bands. The positions of the
222 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

secondary maxima are found in the following way. The intensity I is maximum with respect
dI d2 I
to a if = 0 and < 0. Applying this concept to Eq. (3.72), we have
dα dα 2

d sin2 α
I0 =0
dα α2

sin α  α cos α − sin α 

or 2I0 =0
α  α2 

sin α  α cos α − sin α 

This equation shows that either
α
= 0 or   = 0. As discussed earlier,
sin α  α2 
= 0 (or sin α = 0) gives the position of dark bands. The positions of the secondary
α
maxima are given by the conditions

 α cos α − sin α 
 =0
 α2 

or α cos α − sin α =
0

or α cos α = sin α

or tan α = α (3.75)

From Eq. (3.75), the values of a can be found out graphically. As shown in
Fig. 3.8(b), y = a and y = tan a are plotted on the same graph. From the points of intersection
of the two plots, the values of a are determined. The values of a as obtained from
Fig. 3.8(b) are given approximately by

π
a = 0 and α ≈ ±(2n + 1)
2

As discussed earlier, a = 0 gives the position of the principal/primary maximum.

π
α ≈ ±(2n + 1) gives the positions of the secondary maxima. Putting α ≈ ±(2n + 1) π into
2 2
Eq. (3.72), the intensities of the secondary maxima are obtained as

2
I0  π
In ≈ 2  sin(2n + 1) 2 
 2n + 1  2  
 2  π
 
 Diffraction 223

Figure 3.8 (a) shows the graphical solution of tan a = a. y = a and y = tan a plotted on the
same graph. From the points of intersection of the two plots, the values of a are
determined. (b) Shows the distribution of intensity with respect to a. a = 0 gives the
π
position of the principal/primary maximum, α ≈ ±(2n + 1) give the positions of the
2
secondary maxima and α = ±nπ gives the positions of the minima

I0
( ±1)
2
In ≈
or  2n + 1  2
2

 2  π
 

I0
In ≈ 2
or  2n + 1  2
 2  π
 

4
or In ≈ I 0 (3.76)
(2n + 1)2 π 2
224 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The intensities of the first, second, third, etc., order of secondary maxima are found by
putting n = 1, 2, 3, … respectively into Eq. (3.76) as

4 I0
I1 ≈ I 0 =
9π 2
22.2

4 I0
I2 ≈ I0 =
25π 2
61.7

4 I0
I3 ≈ I0 =
49π 2
121

……………………..

……………………..

The first equation of these equations shows that the intensity of the first secondary
maximum is nearly twenty-two times less than that of the principal maximum. Inference
about intensities of other secondary maxima can be obtained in a similar manner.
The intensity distribution curve is shown in Fig. 3.8(a). The principal maximum
occurs at a = 0 and the intensity of the principal maximum decreases to zero at α = ±π .
The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, … order secondary maxima occur at

3π 5π 7π
α≈ ,α ≈ ,α ≈ …
2 2 2

respectively. In general, the (2n + 1)th order secondary maxima occur at

(2n + 1)π , n = 1, 2, 3, …
α 2n −1 ≈ ±
2

or
π e sin θ2n −1 (2n + 1)π
≈±
λ 2

(2n + 1)λ
or sin θ2n −1 ≈ ±
2e

or  ±(2n + 1)λ 
θ2n −1 ≈ sin −1  
 2e 
 Diffraction 225

This equation shows that the position of the secondary maxima depends upon the relative
values of slit width and wavelength of the light.

3.5.3 Width of the principal maximum

The direction of the first dark band is obtained from Eq. (3.74) as

λ
sin θ =
e

λ
θ = sin −1 (3.77)
e

x
Figure 3.9 Calculation of tanθ = is depicted. P0 is the mid-point of the central maximum. P is
f
the centre of the first minimum. x is half the width of the central maximum. When
a plane wavefront is incident on the slit, it is diffracted through an angle of q
downward. The diffraction may be upward.

As shown in Fig. 3.9, we have

x
tan θ = (3.78)
f
226 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

where x is the distance between the centre of the central maximum and centre of the first
minimum, i.e., x is half the width of the central maximum. Putting the value of q from
Eq. (3.77) into Eq. (3.78), we obtain

x λ
= tan sin −1
f e

λ
or x= f × tan sin −1 = half the width of the central maximum.
e

Hence, the width of the central maximum 2x is

λ
x 2 f × tan sin −1
2= (3.79)
e

The width of the central maximum depends upon the wavelength of the light. Narrower is
the slit, wider is the central maximum. If we use a converging lens of larger focal length, a
wider central maximum is obtained.
Half angular width of the principal maximum
The half angular width of the central maximum in a single slit Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern is defined as the angle between two points on the central maximum where intensity
is one half of the intensity at the centre of the central maximum, i.e., mathematically
I
q = half width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction pattern when I = 0 .
2
From Eq. (3.72), the intensity distribution in case of a single slit Fraunhofer diffraction
pattern is governed by the equation

sin2 α π e sin θ
I = I0 with α =
α2 λ

1 sin2 α
or =
2 α2

sin α 1
or =
α 2

 π e sin θ 
By solving this equation graphically for a  with α = , the half width of the central
 λ 
maximum q can be found. The graphical solution of the aforementioned equation gives

α = 1.391
 Diffraction 227

π e sin θ
= 1.391
λ

λ
or sin θ = 1.391
πe

 1 ⋅ 391λ 
or θ = sin −1  
 πe 

is the half angular width of the central maximum in a single slit diffraction pattern.
There are some clear differences between interference and diffraction phenomena in
optics.

Interference Diffraction
i Interference phenomenon occurs between two Diffraction phenomenon occurs between secondary
waves originating from two coherent sources. wavelets originating from the unobstructed portion
of the incident wavefront.
ii The dark fringe of the interference fringe is The dark band of the diffraction band is not
almost perfectly dark. perfectly dark.
iii In the interference pattern, the spacings of the In the diffraction pattern, the spacings of the
interference fringes may (double slit) or may not diffraction bands are never equal.
(Newton’s rings) be uniform.
iv In the interference pattern, the maxima are of In the diffraction pattern, the maxima are of
equal intensity. unequal intensity.

In the following, we mention the basic differences between Fresnel’s diffraction and
Fraunhofer’s diffraction.

Fresnel’s diffraction Fraunhofer’s diffraction

i In Fresnel’s diffraction, the separation between In Fraunhofer’s diffraction, the separation between
the light source and the obstacle is finite. the light source and the obstacle is infinite.
ii The wavefront incident on the obstacle is either The wavefront incident on the obstacle is plane.
spherical or cylindrical.
iii No lens is used. A lens is used to produce a plane wavefront from
spherical or cylindrical wavefronts.

Example 3.7
A single slit of width 12 × 10–5 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength 6000 Å. Calculate the angular width of the central maximum.
228 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
The data given are e = 12 × 10–5 cm and l = 6000 Å = 6 × 10–5 cm.
If q is the angular width of the central maximum, we have from Eq. (3.77)

λ
sin θ =
e

6 × 10−5
or θ = sin −1 = 30º
12 × 10−5

Example 3.8
A single slit is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 Å.
Calculate the slit width if the angular width of the central maximum is 20°.
Solution
The angular width of the central maximum is 20°. Hence, the half angular width of the central
maximum will be 10°. The slit width will be given by

λ 6000 × 10−8
=e = = 3.46 × 10−4 cm
sin θ sin10

Example 3.9
A slit of width 0.02 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. A screen is
placed at a distance of 2 m from the converging lens to obtain the diffraction pattern. Calculate
the wavelength of the monochromatic light if the first minima lie at 0.5 cm on either side of
the central maximum.
Solution
The screen is placed at a distance of 2 m from the converging lens to obtain the diffraction
pattern due to a single slit. Hence, the focal length of the converging lens must be 2 m.
The data given are e = 0.02 cm, f = 2 m = 200 cm, x = 0.5 cm.
From Eq. (3.79), we have

λf
x=
e

xe 0.5 × 0.02
λ
or = = cm = 5000 Å
f 200
 Diffraction 229

Example 3.10
A slit of width 0.02 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength
5000 Å. The diffracted beam is focused on a screen by a converging lens of focal length 100 cm
to obtain the diffraction pattern. Calculate the distance between the centre of the first minima
and the central maximum on the screen.
Solution
The data given are e = 0.02 cm, l = 5000 Å, and f = 100 cm
The distance x between the centre of the first minima and the central maximum on the screen
is given by

λf 5000 × 10−8 × 100

=
x = cm = 0.25cm
e 0.02

Example 3.11
For what value of slit width will the first minimum for sodium vapor light of wavelength
5890 Å fall at q = 20°?
Solution
The data given are n = 1, l = 5890 Å and q = 20°.
The direction of the nth minimum of diffraction pattern due to a single slit is given by

nλ
sin θ =
e
nλ 1 × 5890 × 10−8
=
Hence, we have e = = 1.72 × 10−4 cm
cm
sin θ sin 20

Example 3.12
In a single slit diffraction pattern, the distance between the first minimum on left to the first
minimum on the right is 0.0546 cm for a light of wavelength 5460 Å. Calculate the slit width
if the distance of the screen from the slit is 80 cm.
Solution
The data given are x = 0.0273 cm, l = 5460 Å = 5460 × 10–8 cm, and f = 80 cm.
In a single slit diffraction pattern the distance between the first minimum on left to the first
minimum on the right is given by

2λ f
2x =
e
230 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

λf 5460 × 10−8 × 80
or=
e = cm = 0.16 cm
x 0.0273

Example 3.13
A single slit of width 0.02 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength 5890 Å. A converging lens is placed behind the slit to focus the diffraction pattern
on a screen placed at a distance of 100 cm. What is the distance of the first minimum and the
second minimum from the centre of the central maximum?
Solution
The data given are e = 0.02 cm, l = 5890 Å = 5890 × 10–8 cm, and f = 100 cm.
In a single slit diffraction pattern, the distance of the nth minimum to the centre of the
central maximum is given by

nλ f
xn =
e

The distance of the first minimum to the centre of the central maximum will be given by

1 × 5890 × 10−8 × 100

x1 = cm = 0.294 cm
0.02

The distance of the second minimum to the centre of the central maximum will be given by

2 × 5890 × 10−8 × 100

x2 = cm = 0.589 cm
0.02

Example 3.14

What is the angular width of the central diffraction pattern due to a single slit when the slit
width is 2l?
Solution
The datum given is e = 2l.
The angular width of the single slit central diffraction pattern is given by

 λ   λ 
2θ = 2sin −1  1.391  = 2sin −1  1.391 = 25.58°
 π e   π × 2λ 
 Diffraction 231

Example 3.15
A single slit of width 5.3 × 10–4cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength 6300 Å. What is the half width of the central maximum?
Solution
The data given are e = 0.0053 cm and l = 5300 Å.
The angular width of the single slit central diffraction pattern is given by

 λ   6300 × 10−8 
2θ = 2sin −1  1.391  = 2sin −1  1.391 =  6.03°
 πe   π × 5 ⋅ 3 × 10−4 

3.6 Plane Diffraction Grating

A plane diffraction grating is an optical device in which a very large number of parallel
slits of same widths, separated by equal opaque spaces are arranged within a small linear
region on a plane. In a diffraction grating, slit widths are comparable to the wavelength
of light.

3.6.1 Theory of plane diffraction grating under normal incidence

When a monochromatic wavefront is incident on the plane diffraction grating normally,
the opaque spaces between the slits obstruct the wavefront. Each of the slits becomes the
source of secondary wavelets having the same amplitude and the same initial phase. Now we
shall see the resultant effect of all the secondary wavelets emitting from N slits at any point
P(x0, y0) on the screen.
The resultant effect due to a single slit at a point P(x0, y0) is, according to Eq. (3.64),
given by
e
+
2
t ρ y sin θ 
=ψ ∫ k sin 2π  T − λ +
e λ 
dy
−
2

The resultant effect due to two similar slits at a point P(x0, y0) will be given by

e e
+ d+
 t ρ y sin θ 
2 2
 t ρ y sin θ 
=ψ ∫ k sin 2π  − +  dy + ∫ k sin 2π  − + dy
e T λ λ  e T λ λ 
− d−
2 2

where d = e + b is called the grating element. Thus, the grating element is defined as

d=e+b (3.80)
 232 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Similarly, the resultant effect due to N similar slits at a point P(x0, y0) will be given by

e e
+ d+
 t ρ y sin θ
2
 2
 t ρ y sin θ 
=ψ ∫ k sin 2π  − +  dy + ∫ k sin 2π  − +  dy +
−
e T λ λ  d−
e T λ λ 
2 2

e
2d +
2
 t ρ y sin θ 
∫ e
k sin 2π  − +
T λ λ  dy +…+

2d −
2

e
( N −1)d +
2
 t ρ y sin θ 
∫ e
k sin 2π  − +
T λ λ  dy

( N −1)d −
2

Evaluating all the integrals, we have

sin α t ρ sin α  t ρ d sin θ 

ψ = ke sin 2π  −  + ke sin 2π  − + +
α T λ  α T λ λ 

sin α  t ρ 2d sin θ  sin α  t ρ (N − 1)d sin θ 

ke sin 2π  − +  + …+ ke sin 2π  − + 
α T λ λ  α T λ λ 

π e sin θ
where α =
λ

sin α p= N −1
t ρ d sin θ 
or ψ = ke
α
∑p =0
sin 2π  − + p
T λ λ 

sin α p= N −1
 2π t 2πρ π d sin θ 
= ke
α
∑
p =0
sin 
 T
−
λ
+ 2p
λ 

sin α p= N −1
or ψ = ke ∑ sin ( x + 2 pβ ) (3.81)
α p =0
 Diffraction 233

π d sin θ
where β = (3.82)
λ

2π t 2πρ
and=
x − (3.83)
T λ

Applying the formula

 nm  m
p =n
sin  x +  sin(n + 1) 2
 2 
∑ sin ( x + pm ) =
m
p =0
sin
2

to the Eq. (3.81), we get

sin α sin [ x + (N − 1)β ] sin(N β )

ψ = ke
α sin β

sin α sin(N β )
or ψ = ke sin [ x + (N –1)β ] (3.84)
α sin β

sin α sin(N β )
This equation shows that ke is the amplitude of the resultant wave at point
α sin β
P(x0, y0) on the screen. Hence, the resultant intensity at point P(x0, y0) will be

sin2 α sin2 (N β )
I = k 2e2
α2 sin2 β

sin2 α sin2 (N β )
or I = I0 (3.85)
α2 sin2 β

The term sin 2α represents the intensity distribution of a single slit diffraction pattern
2

α sin2 (N β )
and the additional term represents the interference effect due to secondary
sin2 β
wavelets emitted from N slits. The intensity is maximum, i.e., I → IO at the point where
234 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

sin α sin(N β )
→ 1 i.e. α → 0 and → N i.e. β → 0 . Putting N = 1, 2, 3, …, etc into the
α sin β
Eq. (3.85), we can obtain the intensity distribution function of the diffraction pattern
for single slit, double slit and triple slit, … etc. The intensity distribution function of the
diffraction pattern due to a grating containing N slits is governed by Eq. (3.85).
Principal maxima
The intensity is maximum when sin b = 0 is put in the expression (3.85). The condition for
maxima is therefore

sin β = 0

or β = ±nπ (3.86)

sin(N β )
When β = ±nπ , the value of = N . Equation (3.85) becomes
sin β

sin2 α (3.87)
I = I0 N 2
α2

π d sin θ
Since β = , we get
λ

π d sin θ
±nπ =
λ

Putting the value of d = e + b into this equation, we get

(e + b)sin θ =
±nλ , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … (3.88)

Equation (3.88) gives the direction of the principal maxima of zero order, 1st order, 2nd
order, 3rd order, … etc. for values of n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, etc., respectively. (e + b)sin θ is the
path difference between two parallel rays diffracted from any pair of corresponding points
on the grating. The whole number n is called the order of the interference maximum. The
expression (3.88) is independent of N. Hence, the direction of principal maxima depends
only on the grating element (e + b).
Minima
The intensity is minimum when simultaneously sin N b = 0 and sin β ≠ 0 in the expression
(3.85). The condition for minima is therefore

sin N β = 0 and sin β ≠ 0

 Diffraction 235

or N β = ±mπ , with m ≠ nN ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, etc. (3.89)

m can take any integral value except 0, N, 2N, 3N, … etc. Putting m = 0, N, 2N, 3N,
…, etc. into Eq. (3.89) gives the condition for principal maxima. Putting m = nN into
Eq. (3.89), we get β = ±nπ or sin β = 0 which is the condition of principal maxima. So
m ≠ nN .
π d sin θ
Putting the value of β = into Eq. (3.89), we get
λ

π d sin θ
N ±mπ ; m ≠ nN
=
λ

Putting the value of d = e + b into this equation, we get

N (e + b)sin θ =
±mλ , m ≠ nN

m
or (e + b)sin θ =
± λ, m ≠ nN (3.90)
N

Equation (3.90) gives the direction of minima. The direction of minima are given by

1 2 3 N −1 N +1 N +2 N +3
(e + b)sin θ = ± λ , ± λ , ± λ ,…± λ, ± λ, ± λ, ± λ , etc.
N N N N N N N
(3.91)

This Eq. (3.91) is obtained by putting m = 1, 2, 3, …, N – 1, N + 1, N + 2,

N + 3, …, etc. in the Eq. (3.90).
The direction of principal maxima are given by

N 2N 3N
(e + b)sin θ =
0; ± λ, ± λ, ± λ , … etc. (3.92)
N N N

Equation (3.92) derived from Eq. (3.90) by putting m = 1N, 2N, 3N, 4N, …, etc. The values
of m between 1 to N are

1 2 3 N −1
λ, ± λ, ± λ, … ± λ
N N N N

and their total number is (N – 1). m = 0 and 1 give the direction of first two principal
maxima of the zero order and the first order.
236 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1 2 3 N −1
m= λ, ± λ, ± λ, … ± λ
N N N N

give the direction of first (N – 1) minima. Therefore, in between the first two principal
maxima of zero order and first order there are (N – 1) minima.

Secondary maxima
In between any two consecutive principal maxima, there are (N – 1) minima. Since there
are minima, there must be maxima; otherwise, the minima will not be distinguishable.
Since in between two principal maxima there are (N – 1) minima, there must be (N – 2)
maxima called secondary maxima. The positions of the secondary maxima are found out
dI d2 I
in the following way. The intensity I is maximum with respect to b if = 0 and < 0.
dβ dβ 2
Applying this concept to Eq. (3.85), we have

d sin2 α sin2 N β
I0 =0
dβ α 2 sin2 β

sin2 α sin N β d sin N β

or 2I0 =0
α 2 sin β d β sin β

sin N β d sin N β
or =0
sin β d β sin β

This equation shows that either

sin N β
= 0 or d sin N β = 0.
sin β d β sin β

sin N β
As discussed earlier, = 0 with sin β ≠ 0 gives the position of the minima. The
sin β
positions of the secondary maxima are given by the conditions

d sin N β
=0
d β sin β

or N tan β = tan N β (3.93)

 Diffraction 237

Equation (3.93) can be solved for the values of b and the values of b except β = ±nπ gives
the direction of the secondary maxima. The secondary maxima are not of equal intensity
but decreases gradually as we go away from either side of the principal maxima.

3.6.2 Theory of plane diffraction grating under oblique incidence

Let a parallel beam of light be incident obliquely on a plane diffraction grating at an angle
of incident i as shown in Fig. 3.10.

Figure 3.10 Plane diffraction grating under oblique incidence. i = angle of incidence. (a) incident
wave is diffracted upward; Here, the path difference is FC + CE; (b) incident wave is
diffracted downward. Here, the path difference is AE – FC

The path difference between the secondary wavelets passing through the points A and C is

FC + CE = (e + b)sin i + (e + b)sin θ = (e + b)(sin θ + sin i) (3.94)

Equation (3.94) is true when incident wave is diffracted upward as shown in Fig. 3.10(a). When
incident wave is diffracted downward as shown in Fig. 3.10(b), the path difference between
the secondary wavelets passing through the points A and C is

FC − AE = (e + b)sin i − (e + b)sin θ = (e + b)(sin i − sin θ ) (3.95)

The direction of the nth order diffraction maxima in case of upward diffraction is obtained
from Eq. (3.94) as

(e + b)(sin θ + sin i) =
nλ
238 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 θ +i θ −i 
or (e + b)  2sin cos nλ
= (3.96)
 2 2 

θ +i nλ
or sin = (3.97)
2 θ −i
2(e + b)cos
2

θ +i
The deviation of the diffracted beam is q + i. When deviation q + i is minimum, sin
θ +i θ − i2
must be minimum. According to Eq. (3.97), sin is minimum when cos is
θ −i 2 2
maximum. cos is maximum when
2

θ −i
=0
2

or q=i

This equation shows that when q = i, the deviation q + i is minimum. The angle of minimum
deviation will be

δ m= θ + i with θ = i

Hence, we have

δm δm
θ= and i =
2 2

In terms of angle of minimum deviation, the direction of the nth order diffraction maxima
will be obtained from

δm
2(e + b)sin nλ
= (3.98)
2

3.6.3 Angular width of the principal maxima

The angular width of a principal maximum is defined as the angle between two straight lines
connecting the extreme ends of the principal maximum on the screen to the central point
of the grating. The angular width of a principal maximum is a measure of the sharpness
of the principal maximum. Lesser is the angular width of a principal maximum, sharper is
 Diffraction 239

the principal maximum. The mathematical expression for the angular width of a principal
maximum may be derived in the following way.
The directions of the nth order principal maximum when a parallel beam of light is
incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.88) as

(e + b)sin θn =
nλ (3.99)

Let θn + dθn and θn − dθn be the directions of first minima on the two sides of the nth order
primary maximum. Then directions of these two minima will be given by

1
(e + b)sin (θn ± dθn ) =nλ ± λ (3.100)
N

where N is the number of lines on the grating.

Figure 3.11 qn is the direction of the nth order principal maximum. θn ± dθn are the directions of two
minima on the two sides of the nth order principal maximum. 2dqn is the angular width
of the nth order principal maximum as is visible from the figure

Dividing Eq. (3.100) by Eq. (3.99), we get

λ
(e + b)sin (θn ± dθn ) nλ ±
= N
(e + b)sin θn nλ
 240 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

sin θn cos dθn ± cos θn sin dθn 1

or = 1±
sin θn nN

Since dqn is a small quantity, we can set safely cos dqn = 1 and sin dqn = dqn in the previous
equation to obtain

sin θn ± dθn cos θn 1

= 1±
sin θn nN

dθn cos θn 1
or =
sin θn nN

2
or 2dθn = (3.101)
Nn cot θn

This expression is for the angular width of the nth order principal maximum.
Equation (3.101) concludes the following.
1
i. dθn ∝ : the angular width of the nth order principal maximum is inversely
N
proportional to the number of lines on the grating.
1
ii. dθn ∝ :. With increase of order of the principal maxima (n increases), the
n cot θn
value of qn increases. The value of cot qn decreases as the value of qn increases, i.e.,
cot qn decreases with increase of n. However, the value of n cotq increases with increase
of n, because the rate of increase of n is much more than the decrease of cot qn. Hence,
1/n cot qn decreases with the increase of n. Therefore, we conclude that the
angular width of the nth order principal maxima decreases with increase of n, i.e.,
higher order principal maxima have less angular width.
As seen from equation (e + b) sin qn = nl , qn is more for longer wavelength keeping n constant
(red end of the visible spectrum). Hence, grating spectral lines of shorter wavelengths are
sharper than the longer wavelengths.
Putting the value of n from Eq. (3.99) into Eq. (3.101), we get

1 λ λ
dθn = = (3.102)
N cot θn (e + b)sin θn (e + b)N cos θn

Now if there are N number of lines on the grating surface, the width of the grating will be

(N − 1)(e + b) ≈ N (e + b) since N>>1

 Diffraction 241

Hence, we have

1 λ
dθn = (3.103)
width of the grating cos θn

1 λ
or dθn ∝ if is constant.
width of the grating cos θn

This equation shows that grating spectral lines are more sharper in grating having more
width.

3.6.4 Formation of spectra by diffraction grating

The directions or positions of principal maxima of nth order when a parallel beam of light
is incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.88) as

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ (3.104)

When the number of slits per unit length on the grating is very large of the order of
15000 slits/inch or 6000 slits/cm, i.e., the slit width is comparable to the wave length of
the incident light. The slits on the grating, in general, are called lines. When the primary
source is narrow, the diffraction maxima are seen as bright sharp lines on the focal plane
of the eye-piece of the telescope adjusted for parallel rays. Hence, the principal maxima
of a diffraction pattern due to a grating are called spectral lines. It is obvious from
Eq. (3.104) that for a given order of principal maxima or spectral lines with n π 0, the
diffraction angle depends upon the wavelength l. With the increase of wavelength l, the
diffraction angle increases. For different wavelengths, the diffraction angle q will be different
and the position of diffraction maxima of each wavelength will be different. Hence, we
shall observe as many spectral lines as there are different wavelengths in the light source.
n = 0 ⇒ θ = 0 ; in which case, the principal maximum is situated on the central axis and is
called the central principal maximum. Whatever may be the values of l, (e + b)sin q = 0
for the central principal maximum. Therefore, the central maxima of all the wavelengths or
colors coincide at a single point giving a central maximum of the same color as that of the
source. On either side of the central maximum, there exist spectral lines whose wavelengths
increase as we move away from the central maximum. In other words, the spectral lines of
shorter wavelengths are closer to the central maximum.

Absence of spectral lines

From Eq. (3.104), we get

nλ
sin θ =
e +b
 242 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Since the value of sin q cannot be greater than 1, the spectral lines of the wavelengths for
which (e + b) > nl are absent.
The condition for absent spectra can be obtained from the following consideration.
From Eq. (3.104), we get e sin θ + b sin θ = nλ . If the value of the slit width e and diffraction
angle q is such that e sin θ = λ , then the slit has no effect on the diffraction pattern. Dividing
nλ by e sin θ = λ , we get
(e + b)sin θ =

(e + b)sin θ nλ
=
e sin θ λ

e +b
or =n (3.105)
e

In Eq. (3.105), n is the order of the spectra that are absent in the diffraction pattern.
Equation (3.105) shows that n = 1 when b = 0. In this case, grating reduces to a single slit
and the first order spectrum is absent. In a single slit, there exists only zero order central
maximum. Equation (3.105) shows that n = 2 when b = e. In this case, the second order
spectrum is absent in the diffraction pattern.

Overlapping of spectral lines of a grating

If spectral lines of a grating overlap, it means that spectral lines of different wavelengths
or color are formed at the same space. If polychromatic light containing a large number of
wavelengths is incident normally on a plane diffraction grating, the spectral lines of higher
order and lower wavelengths may overlap with the spectral lines of lower order and higher
wavelengths. If first order spectral lines of wavelength l1, the second order spectral lines
of wavelength l2 and the third order spectral lines of wavelength l3 overlap each other, we
must have

(e + b)sin θ =×
1 λ1 =2 × λ2 =3 × λ3

For example, the third order spectral line of wavelength 7000 Å (red light), the fourth
order spectral line of wavelength 5250 Å (green light) and the fifth order spectral line of
wavelength 4200 Å (violet light) overlap each other or form at the same place because
3 × 7000 Å = 4 × 5250 Å = 5 × 4200 Å. If the n1th order of wavelength l1 coincides with the
n2th order of the wavelength l2, we can have

n1λ1 = n2 λ2 (3.106)
 Diffraction 243

Example 3.16
What is the maximum wavelength of the visible spectrum so that the third order spectrum can
be observed by a grating having 6000 lines/cm?
Solution
The data given are n = 3 and there are 6000 lines/cm on the grating surface.
1
Hence, the grating element e + b will be e + b= cm= 1.67 × 10−4 cm.
6000
The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident
normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.108) as

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ

(e + b)sin θ
λ=
n

The wavelength is maximum when the value of sin q is maximum, i.e., sin q = 1. Hence, we have

(e + b)
λ=
n

Putting the values of e + b and n into this equation, we get

1
λ= 5556 × 10−8 cm =
cm = 5556 Å
6000 × 3

The third order diffraction lines of all the wavelengths less than 5556 Å of the visible spectrum
can be observed by this grating.

Example 3.17
What are the angles at which maximum intensity beam occur when a monochromatic light of
wavelength 5890 Å is incident normally on a diffraction grating having 3000 lines/cm?
Solution
The data given are l = 5890 Å and on the grating there are 3000 lines/cm.
1
Hence, the grating element e + b will be given by e + b = cm.
3000
The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from the Eq. (3.108) as

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ , with n = 0, 1, 3, 4, …
244 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

nλ nλ
sin θ = or θ = sin −1
e +b e +b

Putting the values of e + b, l into this equation, we get

n × 5890 × 10−8
θ = sin −1 = sin −1 (0.1767n)
1
3000

or θ = sin −1 (0.1767n)

Putting n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, we get

θ =sin −1 (0.1767 × 0) =sin −1 0 =0° for n = 0

θ=sin −1 (0.1767 × 1) =sin −1 (0.1767) =±10.18° for n = 1

θ=sin −1 (0.1767 × 2) =±20.70° for n = 2

θ=sin −1 (0.1767 × 3) =±32.01° for n = 3

θ=
sin −1 (0.1767 × 4) =±44.98° for n = 4

θ=sin −1 (0.1767 × 5) =±62.07° for n = 5

Thus, the angles for which diffracted beam has maximum intensity are

0 °, ± 10.18°, ± 20.70°, ± 32.01°, ± 44.98°, ± 62.07°.

Example 3.18
A sodium vapour light is incident on a grating with 15000 lines/inch. Find the angles of
diffraction for the principal maxima of the two lines of the sodium light 5890 Å and 5896 Å in
the first order spectrum. Can this grating resolve the sodium vapour light?
 Diffraction 245

Solution
The data given are n = 1, l1 = 5890 Å, l2 = 5896 Å and on the grating there are 15000 lines/
15000 lines
inch = = 5906 lines/cm.
2.54 cm
1
Hence, the grating element = e + b = =cm 1.693 × 10−4 cm
5906
The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.108) as

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ

nλ 
or θ = sin −1  
 e +b 

The angles of diffraction of the spectral line of the sodium light 5890 Å in the first order
spectrum is

 1 × 5890 × 10−8 
θ1 = sin −1  = 20.36°
−4 
 1.693 × 10 

The angles of diffraction of the spectral line of the sodium light 5896 Å in the first order
spectrum is

 1 × 5896 × 10−8 
θ2 = sin −1  = 20.38°
−4 
 1.693 × 10 

The condition for just resolution is

λ
= nN , N = number of lines on the grating surface.
dλ

λ 5890 × 10−8
or =
N = = 982 lines
ndλ 1 × 6 × 10−8

Since there are 5906 lines/cm much greater than 982 lines, the two wavelengths of the sodium
vapour light can be well resolved by this grating.
246 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 3.19
A parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on a grating surface having
8489 lines/cm. The first order spectral line is observed to be diffracted through an angle 30°.
Calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light.
Solution
The data given are n = 1 and on the grating there are 8489 lines/cm.
1
=
Hence, the grating element = e + b =cm 1.178 × 10−4 cm
8489
The wavelength of the monochromatic light incident normally on a diffraction grating is
obtained from the Eq. (3.104) as

(e + b)sin θ
λ=
n

1.178 × 10−4 sin 30

= cm =5 ⋅ 89 × 10−5 cm =5890 A
Å
1

Example 3.20
A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 6000 Å is incident normally on a grating
surface having 6000 lines/cm. What is the highest order spectrum that can be observed?
Solution
The data given are l = 6000 Å = 6000 × 10–8 cm and there are 6000 lines/cm on the given
grating.
1
Hence, the grating element of the grating will be e + b = cm = 1.67 × 10–4 cm
The grating equation is 6000

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ

(e + b)sin θ
or n =
λ

n is maximum when sin q is maximum. The maximum value of sin q is 1. Therefore the
maximum value of n is given by

(e + b) 1.67 × 10−4
=
nmax = = 2.8 ≈ 3
λ 6000 × 10−8

The highest order spectrum that can be observed is three.

 Diffraction 247

Example 3.21
A plane transmission grating has 5000 lines/cm. Calculate the angular separation between two
wavelengths 5890 Å and 5896 Å of a sodium vapour light for a second order spectrum.
Solution
The data given are n = 2, l1 = 5890 Å = 5890 × 10–8 cm, l2 = 5896 Å = 5896 × 10–8 cm and on
the grating there are 5000 lines/cm.
1
Hence, the grating element = e + b = cm = 2.0 × 10−4 cm
5000
The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

 nλ 
θ = sin −1  
 e +b 

The angles of diffraction of the spectral line of the sodium light 5890 Å in the second order
spectrum is

 2 × 5890 × 10−8 
θ1 = sin −1  −4 = 36.09°= 36°5′24′′
 2.0 × 10 

The angles of diffraction of the spectral line of the sodium light 5896 Å in the second order
spectrum is

 2 × 5896 × 10−8 
θ2 = sin −1  −4 = 36.13°= 36°7′48′′
 2.0 × 10 
o o
The angle of separation q2 – q1 of sodium lines 5890 A and 5896 A in the second order spectrum
becomes

θ2 − θ1 = 36.13° − 36.09° = 0.04° = 0°2′24′′

Example 3.22

Calculate the angle of separation of helium lines 5048 Å and 5016 Å in the second order
spectrum when a parallel beam of helium light is incident normally on a grating containing
6000 lines/cm.
Solution
The data given are n = 2, l1 = 5048 Å = 5048 × 10–8 cm, l2 = 5016 Å = 5016 × 10–8 cm and on
the grating there are 6000 lines/cm.
248 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1
Hence, the grating element = e + b = cm = 1.67 × 10−4 cm
6000
The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

 nλ 
θ = sin −1  
 e +b 

The angles of diffraction of the spectral line of the helium light 5048 Å in the second order
spectrum is

 2 × 5048 × 10−8 
θ1 = sin −1  −4 = 37.2°= 37°12′
 1.67 × 10 

The angles of diffraction of the spectral line of the helium light 5016 Å in the second order
spectrum is

 2 × 5016 × 10−8 
θ2 = sin −1  −4 = 36.92°= 36°55′
 1.67 × 10 

The angle of separation of helium lines 5048 Å and 5016 Å in the second order spectrum
becomes

θ1 − θ=
2 37.2° − 36.92
= ° 0.28
= ° 0°16′48′′

Example 3.23
A sodium vapour light containing two wavelengths 5890 Å and 5896 Å is incident normally on
a grating having 10000 lines/cm. A lens of focal length 100 cm is used to observe the spectrum
on a screen. Calculate the separation in cm of the two lines in the first order spectrum.
Solution
The data given are n = 1, l1 = 5890 Å = 5890 × 10–8 cm, l2 = 5896 Å = 5896 × 10–8 cm, f = 100 cm
and on the grating, there are 10000 lines/cm.
1
Hence, the grating element = e + b = cm = 1.00 × 10−4 cm
10000
The directions of the spectral lines of the nth order spectrum when a parallel beam of light
is incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

 nλ 
θ = sin −1  
 e +b 
 Diffraction 249

The positions of the spectral lines of the nth order spectrum from the central line when a parallel
beam of light is incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from the equation

x
tan θ =
f

or x = f tan θ

 nλ 
or x = f tan sin −1  
 e +b 

The position of the spectral line from the central line (n = 0) of the sodium light 5890 Å in the
first order spectrum is

 1 × 5890 × 10−8 
x1 = 100 × tan sin −1  −4 =72.88 cm
 1.00 × 10 

The position of the spectral line from the central line (n = 0) of the sodium light 5896 Å in the
first order spectrum is

 1 × 5896 × 10−8 
x2 = 100 × tan sin −1  −4 =73.00 cm
 1.00 × 10 

The separation in cm of the two lines in the first order spectrum of the sodium light is.

x2 − x1 =
0.12cm

Example 3.24
A monochromatic light of wavelength 5500 Å is incident normally on a plane transmission
grating having 5000 lines/cm. Calculate the difference between the diffraction angles of first
order and third order spectra.
Solution
The data given are n = 1, 2, l = 5500 Å = 5500 × 10–8 cm, and number of lines per cm = 5000.
1
The grating element (e + b) will be obtained as e + b = cm = 2.0 × 10−4 cm.
5000
250 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

 nλ 
θ = sin −1  
 e +b 

Hence, we have

 1 × 5500 × 10−8 
θ1 = sin −1  −4 = 15°57′43′′
 2.0 × 10 

 2 × 5500 × 10−8 
and θ3 = sin −1  −4  33°22′1′′
=
 2.0 × 10 

Therefore, the difference between the diffraction angles of first order and third order spectra is

θ3 − θ1 = 17°24′2′′

Example 3.25
In a plane transmission grating, the angle of diffraction for the first order principal maximum
is 20° for a wavelength of 6500 Å. Calculate the number of lines in one cm of the grating
surface.
Solution
The data given are n = 1, l = 6500 Å = 6500 × 10–8 cm, q = 20°.
The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident
normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

nλ
(e + b) =
sin θ
1 × 6500 × 10−8
Hence, the grating element e + b = = 1.9 × 10−4
sin 20
1
Therefore, the number of lines per cm will be = 5263
e +b

Example 3.26
How many orders of diffraction bands will be visible theoretically if the wavelength of incident
radiation is 5893 Å and the number of lines per cm on the grating is 6000?
 Diffraction 251

Solution
The data given are l = 5893 Å = 5893 × 10–8 cm and the number of lines per cm = 5000.
The grating element (e + b) will be obtained as

1
e +b= cm = 2.0 × 10−4 cm
5000

The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

(e + b)sin θ
n=
λ

(e + b)
or nmax = because the maximum value of sin θ = 1
λ

Putting the values of e + b and l into this equation, we get

2 × 10−4
=nmax = 3.4
5893 × 10−8

The maximum orders of diffraction bands that will be visible theoretically is 3

Example 3.27
A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to incident normally on a grating having
8000 lines/cm. The second order spectral line is found to be diffracted through an angle 40°.
Calculate the wavelength of the light used.
Solution
The data given are n = 2, q = 40° and the number of lines per cm = 8000
The grating element (e + b) will be obtained as

1
e + b= cm= 1.25 × 10−4 cm
8000

The directions of the nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

(e + b)sin θ
λ=
n
252 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting the values of e + b, n and q into this equation, we obtain the values of the wavelength
of the light used as

1.25 × 10−4 sin 40

λ= = 4017 Å
2

Example 3.28
A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a line with wavelength 6000 Å in a certain
order superimposed on another line of wavelength 5000 Å of the next higher order. If the
angle of diffraction for the two wavelengths is 25°, how many lines are there in one cm of the
grating?
Solution
The data given are l1 = 6000 Å, l2 = 5000 Å, q = 25° = q1 = q2 and n2 = n1 + 1
The directions of nth order spectral line when a parallel beam of light is incident normally
on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ

For the two wavelengths, we have

n1λ1 and (e + b)sin θ2 =

(e + b)sin θ1 = n2 λ2 s

Since θ1 = θ2 , we have from these equations

n1λ1 = n2 λ2

or n1λ=
1 (n1 + 1)λ2

or n1 (λ1 − λ2 ) =
λ2

λ2 5000
or=
n1 = = 5
λ2 − λ2 1000

n2 = n1 + 1 = 5 + 1 = 6
 Diffraction 253

Putting the values of θ1 , λ1 and n1 into equation (e + b)sin θ1 =

n1λ1 , we get the expression for
the grating element

n1λ1 5 × 6000 × 10−8

e +=
b = =cm 7.099 × 10−4 cm
sin θ1 sin 25

1
The number of lines in one cm of the grating is = 1409
e +b

Example 3.29
o o
The limits of the visible spectrum are approximately 4000 A to 7000 A . Find the angular width
of the first order visible spectrum produced by a plane transmission grating having 8000 lines/cm
when light is incident normally on the grating.
Solution
The data given are l1 = 4000 Å, violet light, l2 = 7000 Å, red light, n1 = n2 = 1, and the number
of lines per cm = 8000.
Hence, the grating element

1
e + b= cm= 1.25 × 10−4 cm
8000

The directions of the spectral lines of the nth order spectrum when a parallel beam of light is
incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

 nλ 
θ = sin −1  
 e +b 

The angular deviation of the violet light in the first order spectrum is

 1 × 4000 × 10−8 
θV = sin −1  −4
=  18.66°
 1.25 × 10 

The angular deviation of the red light in the first order spectrum is

 1 × 7000 × 10−8 
θ R = sin −1  =
−4  34.06°
 1.25 × 10 
254 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Therefore, the angular width θ R − θV of the first order visible spectrum by this grating is

θ R − θV = 34.06° − 18.66°= 15.4°= 15°24′

Example 3.30
A sodium vapour light (5890 Å and 5896 Å) is incident normally on a plane transmission
grating and is viewed in third order at an angle of 80° to the central line. The sodium doublets
are not resolved. Calculate the grating element.
Solution
The mean wavelength of the sodium vapour light is

1
2
( 5890 Å + 5896 Å ) =
5893 Å.

The grating element will be

nλ 3 × 5893 × 10−8
e +=
b = = 1.8 × 10−4 cm
sin θ sin 80

Example 3.31
A grating having 2000 lines/cm is illuminated normally by a polychromatic light and the
spectrum is formed on a screen placed 50 cm from the grating. If a square hole of 1 cm side
is cut on the screen so that the edge of the square hole is at 5 cm from the central maximum,
what is the range of wavelengths that can pass through the hole?
Solution
The data given are f = 50 cm and the number of lines per cm of the grating surface is 2000.
Hence, the grating element will be

1
e +b = cm.
2000

The positions of two points on the screen are 5 cm and 6 cm from the central maximum. All
the wavelengths in between y = 5 cm to y = (5+1) cm = 6 cm can pass through the hole.
The directions of the spectral lines of first order spectrum when a parallel beam of light is
incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

(e + b)sin θ =
λ
 Diffraction 255

The positions of the spectral lines of first order spectrum from the central line when a parallel
beam of light is incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from the equation

y
tan θ =
f

y
or θ = tan −1
f

y
or λ= (e + b)sin tan −1
f

Figure 3.12 Solution of Example 3.31

The wavelength that is incident at x = 5 cm is

5
λ1= (e + b)sin tan −1
f

The wavelength that is incident at x = 6 cm is

6
λ2= (e + b)sin tan −1
f
256 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting the values of e + b and f into these equations, we get

1 5
λ1 = sin tan −1 = 4975 Å
2000 50

1 6
λ2 = sin tan −1 = 5957 Å
2000 50

The range of wavelengths that pass through the hole is 4975 Å to 5957 Å.

3.7 Dispersion
Dispersion is defined as a phenomenon in which constituent wavelengths, i.e., colors of a
polychromatic light is fanned out. The dispersive power of an optical device is the ability
of the device to separate the wavelengths of the polychromatic light. The dispersive power
of a grating is defined as the angular separation of spectral lines of a polychromatic light
with respect to wavelengths. The dispersive power of a grating is a measure of the angular
separation produced between two incident monochromatic waves whose wavelengths
differ by a small wavelength interval. Mathematically, the dispersive power of a grating is
dθ
defined as . Differentiating both sides of Eq. (3.109) with respect to wavelength l, we get
dλ
d d
(e + b)sin θ = nλ
dλ dλ

dθ n
or =
dλ (e + b)cos θ

dθ nN ′
or = (3.107)
dλ cos θ

1
where N ′ = is the number of lines per unit lengths of the grating.
e +b

Equation (3.107) shows that the dispersive power of a grating is

i. Directly proportional to the number of slits per unit length of the grating.
ii. Directly proportional to the order of the spectral lines.
iii. Inversely proportional to the cosine of the angle of diffraction.
 Diffraction 257

The value of cos θ from equation (e + b)sin θ =

nλ is obtained as

n2 λ 2 (e + b)2 − n2 λ
cos θ =1− =
(e + b)2 (e + b)

Putting the value of cos θ into Eq. (3.107), we get the expression for the dispersive power
of a grating as

dθ n(e + b)
=
dλ (e + b) (e + b)2 − n2 λ 2

dθ n
or = (3.108)
dλ (e + b)2 − n2 λ 2

If the linear separation between two consecutive spectral lines of wavelengths l and l + dl
is dx on the focal plane of the telescope objective or on the photographic plate, then

dx
dθ =
f

where f is the focal length of the telescope objective. From this equation, the expression for
linear dispersion is obtained as

dx = fdθ

dx dθ
or =f
dλ dλ

or dx nN ′
=f
dλ cos θ

From this equation, the expression for linear dispersion is obtained as

nN ′
dx = f dλ (3.109)
cos θ
258 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 3.32
Calculate the dispersive power of a grating in the third order spectrum of a wavelength region
5890 Å having 5000 lines/cm for a normal incidence.
Solution
The data given are n = 3, l = 5890 Å and N¢ = 5000 lines/cm.
Hence,

1 1
e + b= = cm
N ' 5000

The dispersive power of a grating for normal incidence is given from Eq. (3.109) by

dθ n
=
dλ (e + b)2 − n2 λ 2

Putting the values of n, e + b and l into this equation, we get the dispersive power of the
grating

dθ 3 rad
= = 32021.8
dλ  1 
2 cm
2 −8 2
 5000  − 3 (5890 × 10 )
 

rad
= 32022 .
cm

dθ rad
or = 3.20 × 10−4
dλ Å

Example 3.33
What is the expected dispersive power in the vicinity of a sodium line 5890 Å in the first three
orders in a grating having 5250 lines/cm?
Solution
1
N′
The data given are= = 5250 lines/cm, λ = 5890 A
Å and n = 1, 2, 3.
e +b
 Diffraction 259

The directions of the spectral lines of the nth order spectrum when a parallel beam of light is
incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

 nλ 
θ = sin −1  
 e +b 

In the first order (n = 1), the angle of diffraction is

θ1 = sin −1 ( 5250 × 1 × 5890 × 10−8 ) = 18°.

In the second order (n = 2), the angle of diffraction is

θ2 = sin −1 ( 5250 × 2 × 5890 × 10−8 ) = 38°.

In the third order (n = 3), the angle of diffraction is

θ3 = sin −1 ( 5250 × 3 × 5890 × 10−8 ) = 68°

The dispersive power is given by

dθ nN ′
=
dλ cos θ

The dispersive power in the first order will be

dθ 1 × 5250 × 10−8 rad

= = 5.52 × 10−5
dλ cos18 Å

The dispersive power in the second order will be

dθ 2 × 5250 × 10−8 rad

= = 13.33 × 10−5
dλ cos 38 Å

The dispersive power in the third order will be

dθ 3 × 5250 × 10−8 rad

= = 42.04 × 10−5
dλ cos 68 Å
260 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 3.34
A grating having 3000 lines/cm is illuminated by light from mercury vapour discharges. What
is the expected dispersive power in the third order in the vicinity of the intense green line
(l = 5460 Å)?
Solution
The data given are n = 3, l = 5460 Å and N¢ = 3000 lines/cm.
Hence,

1 1
e + b= = cm
N ′ 3000

The dispersive power of a grating for normal incidence is given from Eq. (3.108) by

dθ n
=
dλ (e + b)2 − n2 λ 2

Putting the values of n, e + b and l into this equation, we get the dispersive power of the
grating

dθ 3 rad rad
= = 10333.7 = 10334 .
dλ  1 
2 cm cm
( )
2
2 −8
 3000  − 3 5460 × 10
 

dθ rad
or = 1.03 × 10−4
dλ Å

3.8 Determination of Wavelength of Light by Grating

Generally, plane transmission grating is used in laboratories to measure the wavelength of
monochromatic light.

3.8.1 Theory

The directions or positions of the principal maxima of the nth order when a parallel beam
of light is incident normally on a diffraction grating is obtained from Eq. (3.104) as

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ
 Diffraction 261

Here (e + b) is the grating element, q is the angle of diffraction corresponding to the

wavelength l of the light. The expression for the wave length is obtained from this
equation as

(e + b)sin θ
λ=
n

The number of lines per inch is written on the grating by the manufacture. Taking the
inverse of the number of lines per inch, the grating element (e + b) is calculated in inches.
Multiplying it with 2.54, we will get the grating element in cm, i.e.,

1
e +b = × 2.54 cm
number of lines per inch

The unknown quantity left in the expression for wavelength l is the angle of diffraction q
for a particular order n.
In the laboratory, the grating spectrum of a source of light is obtained by using a
spectrometer. Generally, in physics laboratories, a sodium vapour lamp is used as a source
of monochromatic light source. Before performing the experiment to measure the angle of
diffraction, the following adjustments has to be carried perfectly.

3.8.2 Adjustments

i. The spectrometer has to be adjusted for parallel rays by Schuster’s method.

ii. The adjustment of the grating for normal incidence of light is done in the following
ways.
The slit of the collimator is illuminated by a monochromatic light source and the position
of the telescope is adjusted so that the image of the collimator slit is obtained parallel to the
vertical cross-wire on the field of view of the telescope. Now the axes of the collimator and
telescope are collinear. The position of the telescope is noted with help of the circular vernier
scale attached to the spectrometer. From this position, the telescope is rotated through
90° and is fixed with the help of a fixing screw. The axis of the collimator and the axis of
the telescope are perpendicular to each other in this position. The transmission grating is
placed at the centre of the prism table so that the plane of the grating is perpendicular to
the plane of the prism table. Now the prism table is rotated in such a way that the image of
the collimator slit formed in the grating surface is visible through the telescope at the centre
of the field of view. This is possible when the parallel beam from the sodium light source
is incident on the grating surface at 45° as the axes of the telescope and the collimator are
perpendicular to each other. The prism table is rotated again through 45° in such a way
that the parallel rays of light from the collimator incident normally on the grating surface.
262 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.8.3 Measurement of q

The collimator slit is illuminated by a monochromatic light source and is seen through the
telescope. The telescope is moved slowly towards the left and is stopped when a vertical
bright line is visible. By adjusting more finely, the vertical wire of the cross-wire of the
telescope is made to coincide with the bright line. In this position, the reading RL1 of the
vernier scale is noted down. This reading RL1 is the position of the telescope for the first
order (n = 1) spectrum in the left. In a similar manner, moving further towards the left, the
position of the telescope for the second order (n = 2) spectrum in the left RL2 is obtained.
Similarly moving towards the right side, the positions of the first and second order spectrum
RR1 and RR2 are obtained. Practically, in case of the sodium vapour lamp, the spectra up to
the third order are visible using a well adjusted spectrometer.

Figure 3.13 Determination of the wavelength of light using a plane transmission grating.
The readings RL1, RL2, RL3, and the readings RR1, RR2, RR3 give the positions of the
telescope for the 1st , 2nd and 3rd order spectra on the left side and right side
R  RR1 R  RR 2 R  RR 3
respectively. θ1 = L1 , θ2 = L 2 , θ3 = L 3 .
2 2 2

As can be seen from Fig. 3.13, the angles of diffraction for the first order spectrum q1,
second order spectrum q2 and third order spectrum q3 are obtained by

RL1  RR1
=θ1 = diffraction angle for the first order spectrum
2

RL 2  RR 2
and θ2
= = diffraction angle for the second order spectrum
2

RL 3  RR 3
=θ3 = diffraction angle for the third order spectrum
2
 Diffraction 263

3.8.4 Calculation of l

The wavelength of the monochromatic light as obtained for three orders of diffraction
will be

(e + b)sin θ1 (e + b)sin θ2 (e + b)sin θ3

λ1 = , λ2 = and λ3 =
1 2 3

respectively. The actual wavelength of the monochromatic light l will be the mean of l1,
l2, and l3, i.e.,

λ1 + λ2 + λ3
λ= .
3

With a diffraction grating, a very accurate measurement of wavelengths of light is possible.

The method involves only an accurate measurement of angle of diffractions.

3.8.5 Alternative application

The experiment mentioned earlier can be used alternatively to measure the grating element
of a given grating by using a monochromatic source of light of accurately known wavelength
by using the formula

nλ
e +b =
sin θ

Questions

3.1 What is diffraction?

3.2 Why is the shadow of a fine wire due to sunlight not observable on a screen?
3.3 Differentiate between interference and diffraction.
3.4 How can we remove all the odd terms or even terms from the RHS of Eq. (3.6)
practically?
3.5 What is Fresnel diffraction?
3.6 What is Fraunhofer diffraction?
3.7 Fraunhofer diffraction cannot occur if slit width is less than wavelength. why?
3.8 Differentiate between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
3.9 What is Fresnel’s half period zones?
3.10 Why are Fresnel’s half period zones so named?
3.11 Describe the procedure to construct Fresnel’s half period zones.
264 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.12 Explain why higher order Fresnel’s half period zones have greater area than that of
lower order?
3.13 Prove that the ratio of area of the nth half period zone to its average distance from the
pole of the wavefront is constant for a particular wavefront.
3.14 The resultant amplitude at pole point due to the entire wavefront is half the amplitude
due to the first Fresnel’s half period zone. Explain.
3.15 On which factor does the intensity at an axial point due to Fresnel’s half period zone
depend? Explain.
3.16 How does the radius of Fresnel’s half period zone depend on the wavelength of light?
3.17 What is a zone plate?
3.18 Differentiate between positive zone plate and negative zone plate.
3.19 Prove that the radii of half period zones of a zone plate are proportional to the square
root of natural numbers.
3.20 Prove that each half period zone of a zone plate have equal area.
3.21 Prove that the intensity at an axial point due to only odd numbered half period zones
is many times more than that of the intensity at the point due to the entire wavefront.
3.22 Prove that the intensity at an axial point due to only even numbered half period zones
is many times more than that of the intensity at the point due to the entire wavefront.
3.23 Explain how the zone plate behaves like a lens.
3.24 Derive an expression for the focal length of a zone plate.
3.25 How do the focal lengths of a zone plate depend on the wavelength of light?
3.26 Prove that a zone plate has a number of foci.
3.27 Explain the presence of only odd numbered foci in a zone plate.
3.28 Explain the absence of even numbered foci in a zone plate.
3.29 Explain how the intensity of the focus of a zone plate decreases with increase in the
order of the focus.
3.30 Explain how the intensity of the focus decreases as it moves towards the zone plate.
3.31 What are the similarities between a zone plate and a lens?
3.32 What are the dissimilarities between a zone plate and a lens?
3.33 Derive an expression for the intensity distribution of Fraunhofer single slit diffraction
pattern.
3.34 Derive an approximate expression for the intensity of the secondary maxima in case of
Fraunhofer’s single slit diffraction.
3.35 Graphically show the intensity distribution due to Fraunhofer’s single slit diffraction.
3.36 Franhofer diffraction cannot occur if the slit width is less than the wavelength. Explain.
3.37 What is a plane grating?
3.38 What does inverse of a grating element give?
3.39 How will you know with the naked eye whether the given specimen is a glass piece or
a grating?
 Diffraction 265

3.40 Derive an expression for intensity of the diffracted beam diffracted by a plane grating
on normal incidence.
3.41 Derive an expression for the principal maxima of the diffracted beam diffracted by a
plane grating on normal incidence.
3.42 Derive an expression for the direction of the principal maxima of the diffracted beam
diffracted by a plane grating on normal incidence.
3.43 Derive an expression for the direction of minima of the diffracted beam diffracted by
a plane grating on normal incidence.
3.44 Derive an expression for direction principal maxima of the diffracted beam diffracted
by a plane grating on oblique incidence.
3.45 Explain why higher order principal maxima have lesser angular width.
3.46 The grating element of a grating is 3.5 × 10–5 cm. Can violet light be diffracted by this
grating? Justify your answer.
3.47 Explain why grating spectral lines of shorter wavelengths are sharper than the longer
wavelengths.
3.48 Show that the third order grating spectrum of violet light (l = 4000 Å) always overlaps
the second order grating spectrum of orange color light (l = 6000 Å).
3.49 Differentiate between grating spectrum and a single-slit spectrum of a monochromatic
light.
3.50 What is the maximum value of wavelength to obtain a grating spectra in a grating?
3.51 Explain why in general, x-ray cannot be diffracted by optical grating.
3.52 What is the implication of angular width of the principal maxima in spectroscopy?
3.53 Derive an expression for the angular width of the principal maxima.
3.54 What are the factors on which the angular width of the principal maxima depends?
3.55 What do you mean by dispersive power of a grating?
3.56 Derive an expression for dispersive power of a grating?
dθ tan θ
3.57 Derive the relation =
dλ λ
3.58 What are the factors on which the dispersive power of a grating depends?
3.59 Prove that for lower order spectral lines the half angular width dq in doublet lines is
ndλ
given by dθ = .
e +b
3.60 What are the characteristics of grating spectra?
3.61 What is the maximum value of the order of grating spectra that can be obtained by a
grating?
3.62 In a grating, opaque space is three times the slit width. What will happen to the
spectra?
3.63 Describe an experiment to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light.
3.64 Describe an experiment to determine the grating element of a grating.
266 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.65 Describe an experiment to determine the number of lines on one cm of a given grating
surface.

Problems

3.1 The principal focal length of a positive zone plate is 1.5 m for a light of wavelength
6500 Å. Determine the radii of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd opaque zones of the zone plate.
[Ans 0.140 cm, 0.198 cm, 0.242 cm]
3.2 What is the radius of the first zone of a zone plate with focal length 20 cm for a light of
wavelength 5000 Å? [Ans 0.0316 cm]
3.3 A point source of light of wavelength 6000 Å is placed on the axis of a zone plate. The
strongest and next strongest images of the source are formed on the other side of
the zone plate at distances of 30 cm and 6 cm respectively. Calculate (a) the distance
of the point source from the zone plate, (b) the radius of the first zone, and (c) the
principal focal length of the zone plate. [Ans –30 cm, 3 × 10–2 cm, 15 cm]
3.4 A zone plate is constructed by taking the print of Newton’s ring formed by a plano-
convex lens of radius of curvature 2 m on a thin glass plate. Find the principal focal
length of the zone plate constructed in this way. [Ans 200 cm]
3.5 The radius of the first half period zone of a zone plate is 0.05 cm. What should be the
position of a screen so that the brightest spot is formed on the screen when a plane
monochromatic light of wavelength 6500 Å is incident normally on the zone plate.
[Ans 38.46 cm]
3.6 The diameter of the central zone of a zone plate is 0.24 cm. If a point source of light
of wavelength 6000 Å is placed at a distance of 60cm from the zone plate find the
positions of the strongest image and other weaker images.
[Ans 240 cm, 80 cm, 48 cm, 34.29 cm, …, etc.]
3.7 A single slit of width 14 × 10 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic
–5

light of wavelength 7000 Å. Calculate the angular width of the central maximum.
[Ans 30°]
3.8 A slit of width 0.04 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. A
screen is placed at a distance of 1m from the converging lens to obtain the diffraction
pattern. Calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light if the first minima lie at
0.15 cm on either side of the central maximum. [Ans 6000 Å]
3.9 A single slit is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength
5600 Å. Calculate the slit width if the angular width of the central maximum is 10°.
[Ans 6.42 × 10–4 cm]
3.10 A slit of width 0.04 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
wavelength 5890 Å. The diffracted beam is focused on a screen by a converging lens
of focal length 80 cm to obtain the diffraction pattern. Calculate the distance between
the centre of the first minima and the central maximum on the screen.
[Ans 0.118 cm]
 Diffraction 267

3.11 For what value of slit width will the first minimum for red light of wavelength 6500 Å
fall at q = 30°? [Ans 1.3 × 10–4 cm]
3.12 In a single slit diffraction pattern, the distance between the first minimum on the left
to the first minimum on the right is 0.052 cm for a light of wavelength 5460 Å.
Calculate the slit width if the distance of the screen from the slit is 80 cm.
[Ans 0.0168 cm]
3.13 A single slit of width 0.04 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic
light of wavelength 5900 Å. A converging lens is placed behind the slit to focus the
diffraction pattern on a screen placed at a distance of 70 cm. What is the distance of
the first minimum and second minimum from the centre of the central maximum?
[Ans 0.103 cm, 0.206 cm]
3.14 What is the half width of the central diffraction pattern due to a single slit when slit
width is 5l? [Ans 10.16°]
3.15 A single slit of width 0.04 cm is illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light
of wavelength 5900 Å. What is the half width of the central maximum? [Ans 0.075°]
3.16 What is the maximum wavelength of the visible spectrum so that the fifth order
spectrum can be observed by a grating having 4000 lines/cm? [Ans 5000 Å]
3.17 What are the angles at which a maximum intensity beam occurs when a
monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 Å is incident normally on a diffraction grating
having 4000 lines/cm? [Ans 0°, ± 11.54°, ± 23.58°, ± 36.87°, ± 53.13°]
3.18 A sodium vapour light is incident on a grating with 10000 lines/inch. Find the angles
of diffraction for the principal maxima of the two lines of the sodium light 5890 Å and
5896 Å in the second order spectrum. [Ans 27.63°, 27.66°]
3.19 A parallel beam of light is incident normally on a grating surface having
11800 lines/cm. The first order spectral line is observed to be diffracted through an
angle 30°. Calculate the wavelength of the monochromatic light. [Ans 4237 Å]
3.20 A parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 6300 Å is incident normally on
a grating surface having 4000 lines/cm. What is the highest order spectrum that can
be observed? [Ans fourth]
3.21 Calculate the angle of separation of sodium lines 5896 Å and 5890 Å in the second
order spectrum when a parallel beam of helium light is incident normally on a grating
containing 5000 lines/cm. [Ans 0.043° = 0°2¢35≤]
3.22 A plane transmission grating having 6000 lines/cm is used to obtain a spectrum of
light from sodium lamp in the second order. Calculate the angle of separation of
sodium lines 5896 Å and 5890 Å. [Ans 0.057° – 0°3¢25≤]
3.23 A helium light containing two wavelengths 5048 Å and 5016 Å is incident normally on
a grating having 8000 lines/cm. A lens of focal length 150 cm is used to observe the
spectrum on a screen. Calculate the separation in cm of the two lines in the second
order spectrum. [Ans 3.68 cm]
3.24 A monochromatic light of wavelength 5000 Å is incident normally on a plane
transmission grating having 6000 lines/cm. Calculate the difference between the
diffraction angles of the first order and third order spectra. [Ans 46.7° = 46°42¢2≤]
268 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3.25 In a plane transmission grating, the angle of diffraction for the second order principal
maximum is 20° for a wavelength of 6000 Å. Calculate the number of lines in one cm
of the grating surface. [Ans 2850 lines/cm]
3.26 How many orders of diffraction bands will be visible theoretically if the wavelength of
incident radiation is 5000 Å and the number of lines per cm on the grating surface is
5000? [Ans 4]
3.27 How many orders of diffraction bands will be visible theoretically if the wavelength of
incident radiation is 5000 Å and the number of lines per inch on the grating surface is
2620? [Ans 19]
3.28 A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to fall incident normally on a grating
having 6000 lines/cm and the first order spectral line is found to be diffracted through
an angle 20°. Calculate the wavelength of the light used. [Ans 5700 Å]
3.29 A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a line with wavelength 6000 Å in
a certain order superimposed on another line of wavelength 4500 Å of the next higher
order. If the angle of diffraction for the two wavelengths is 30º, how many lines are
there in one cm of the grating? [Ans 2778 lines/cm]
3.30 A plane transmission grating has 6000 lines/cm. Show that the angular separation
between two wavelengths 5890 Å and 5896 Å of sodium vapour light for a second
order spectrum is approximately 3 minutes of an arc.
3.31 Light, which is a mixture of two wavelengths 5500 Å and 5555 Å, is incident normally
on a plane transmission grating having 10000 lines/cm. A lens of focal length 150 cm
is used to observe the spectrum on a screen. Calculate the separation in cm of the two
lines in the first order spectrum. [Ans 1.43 cm]
3.32 A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a green line 5400 Å in a certain
order superimposed on the violet line 4050 Å of the next higher order. If the angle of
diffraction for the two lines is 30°, how many lines are there on the one centimeter
grating surface. [Ans 3086 lines/cm]
3.33 Design a grating that will spread the first order visible spectrum through an angular
range of 20º if the range of visible spectrum is 4300 Å to 6800 Å.
[Ans 10900 lines/cm]
3.34 What is the expected dispersion D for a sodium line 5896 Å in the first two orders in a
grating having 3000 lines/cm? [Ans 3.05 × 10–5 rad/Å, 6.42 × 10–5 rad/Å]
3.35 Calculate the dispersive power of a grating in the third order spectrum in the
wavelength region 5000 Å having 4000 lines/cm for normal incidence.
[Ans 1.5 × 10–4 rad/Å]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What type of wavefront is incident in the case of Fresnel’s class of diffraction?

(i) plane (ii) spherical
(iii) cylindrical (iv) elliptical
 Diffraction 269

2. What type of wavefront is incident in the case of Fraunhofer’s class of diffraction?

(i) plane (ii) spherical
(iii) cylindrical (iv) elliptical
3. Who gave the correct interpretation of rectilinear propagation of light?
(i) Fresnel (ii) Fraunhofer
(iii) Newton (iv) Maxwell
4. What is the phase difference between two waves originating from the inner and outer
perimeter of Fresnel’s half period zones?
(i) 2p (ii) p
π
(iii) (iv) 0
2
5. What is the phase difference between two waves originating from two consecutive
Fresnel’s half period zones
π
(i) 0 (ii)
2
(iii) p (iv) 2p
6. The amplitude at a pole point due to a half period zone depends only upon
(i) area of the half period zone
(ii) average distance of the half period zones from the pole point
(iii) obliquity factor/inclination factor
(iv) all the above
7. What is (are) the factor(s) on which intensity due to any Fresnel’s half period zone at an
axial point depends?
(i) area of the half period zone
(ii) average distance of the half period zones from the pole point
(iii) obliquity factor/inclination factor
(iv) all the above
8. In a positive zone plate, central zone is opaque.
(i) True (ii) False
9. In a negative zone plate, central zone is opaque.
(i) True (ii) False
10. The shape of the central zone in a zone plate is
(i) square (ii) rectangle
(iii) circular (iv) elliptical
11. The intensity of foci decreases as we move towards the zone plate.
(i) True (ii) False
270 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

12. The radii of half period zones of a zone plate are proportional to the square root of
(i) even natural numbers (ii) odd natural numbers
(iii) integers (iv) natural numbers
13. The focus of the first order of a zone plate is situated at a point
(i) nearest to the zone plate
(ii) farthest from the zone plate
(iii) mid-way between nearest and farthest points
14. The principal, i.e., primary focal length of a zone plate does not depend upon
(i) wavelength of the light (ii) radius of the first half period zone
(iii) frequency of the light (iv) none of the above
15. I1, I3 and I5 are the intensities of the first three foci of a zone plate. Which of the following
relations is correct?
(i) I5 > I3 > I1 (ii) I1 < I3 < I5
(iii) I5 < I3 < I1 (iv) I3 > I5 > I1
16. In single slit diffraction, the intensity of the first secondary maximum is less than that of
the principal maximum by
(i) 20 times (ii) 21 times
(iii) 22 times (iv) 23 times
17. For the 5th order grating spectrum of the following lights which angle of diffraction is
more?
(i) violet (ii) green
(iii) yellow (iv) red
18. What is the unit of dispersive power of a grating?
(i) radian (ii) watt
(iii) radian/cm (iv) radian/degree
19. When white light is incident on a grating, which of the following colors deviates most?
(i) violet (ii) blue
(iii) orange (iv) yellow
20. The maximum order spectrum produced in a grating is
(i) directly proportional to the grating element
(ii) inversely proportional to the grating element
(iii) directly proportional to the wavelength
(iv) directly proportional to the order of the spectrum
21. In single slit diffraction pattern, orange light is replaced by red light without changing
the experimental setup. The diffraction pattern will
(i) disappear (ii) be unchanged
(iii) be wider (iv) be narrower
 Diffraction 271

22. A CD gives a sensation of rainbow colors because of

(i) interference (ii) polarization
(iii) diffraction (iv) scattering
23. The maximum number of orders produced by grating is
(i) directly proportional to both the grating element and the wavelength
(ii) inversely proportional to both the grating element and the wavelength
(iii) directly proportional to the grating element and inversely to the wavelength
(iv) directly proportional to the wavelength and inversely to the grating element
24. When white light is incident on a grating which of the following colors deviates least?
(i) violet (ii) blue
(iii) orange (iv) yellow
25. In a grating, the grating element is three times the slit width. Which order of spectrum
will be absent
(i) 1 (ii) 2
(iii) 3 (iv) 4

Answers

1 (ii) 2 (i) 3 (i) 4 (ii) 5 (iii) 6 (iii) 7 (iii) 8 (ii)

9 (i) 10 (iii) 11 (i) 12 (iv) 13 (ii) 14 (iv) 15 (iii) 16 (iii)
17 (iv) 18 (iii) 19 (iii) 20 (i) 21 (iv) 22 (iii) 23 (iii) 24 (i)
25 (iii)
 4 Polarization

4.1 Introduction
The phenomena of interference and diffraction proved successfully the wave character
of light. However, it cannot confirm whether light is a transverse wave or a longitudinal
wave. Interference and diffraction occur in transverse as well as longitudinal waves. The
transverse nature of light was first confirmed by an optical phenomenon called polarization.
Polarization is defined as a process of restricting the vibrations of a transverse wave to one
direction or one plane only.

4.2 Polarization of Waves

The appearance of a longitudinal wave is the same when viewed along any direction. It
is perfectly symmetrical about the direction of propagation. However, this is not so with
transverse waves. All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. Light is an electromagnetic
wave consisting of mutually perpendicular electric vector and magnetic vector. The electric
vector is also called light vector. In case of transverse waves, the particles of the medium
vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation. If vibration of electric vectors of the
light wave is confined to the XY plane, (i.e., the wave is plane polarized/linearly polarized
with the plane of vibration along the XY plane) and the views taken along the X, Y, and Z
direction will be different from each other. Ordinary light behaves in such a manner that
it appears perfectly symmetrical about the direction of propagation, though there is no
doubt about its transverse character – this is due to the fact that millions of light vectors
undergo rapid changes in their direction within a metre length; not only does the direction
of the transverse vibrations of the light wave change, but the character of the vibration also
changes. The transverse vibration of the light wave may undergo changes from linear to
circular, circular to elliptical. By using suitable devices, the light vector may be constrained
 Polarization 273

to describe linear, circular, elliptical patterns of fixed orientation transverse to the direction
of propagation.

4.2.1 Mechanical demonstration of polarization of waves

A simple mechanical experiment can be designed to demonstrate polarization of mechanical

transverse waves. Suppose as shown in Fig. 4.1, a loosely stretched thin string AB passes
through two narrow rectangular slits N1 and N2, each a little wider than the diameter of the
string. Let end B be fixed to a rigid wall and transverse waves be produced in it by shaking
the free end A. The direction of shaking, i.e., vibration can be varied in an arbitrary manner.
The portion of the string within AN1 vibrates in an arbitrary direction implying that the
wave in this portion of the string is not polarized. The slit N1 allows those vibrations which
are parallel along its length.

Figure 4.1 Mechanical experiment to demonstrate the polarization of a wave. In Fig. 4.1(a), the two
slits N1 and N2 are parallel to each other, whereas in Fig. 4.1(b) they are perpendicular to
each other

The wave along the string between the two slits N1 and N2 is confined along a plane passing
through the two slits as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). Thus, the wave between the two slits N1 and
N2 is plane polarized or linearly polarized. In this experiment, slit N1 is called a polarizer.
The polarized wave can be completely transmitted through slit N2 only if it is parallel to N1.
It cannot be transmitted through slit N2 if N2 is perpendicular to N1 as shown in Fig. 4.1(b).
In this case, there is no wave along the string beyond N2. Slit N2 acts as the analyzer or
detector of polarization of incoming waves. The transmission of longitudinal waves remain
unaffected either to the presence of the slits or to the relative orientation of the two slits N1
and N2.
274 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

4.2.2 Demonstration of optical polarization of waves

An optical experiment similar to the mechanical one described earlier can be designed
which throws considerable light on the nature of vibration of light vector in a light wave.
When a ray of ordinary light is allowed to fall on a tourmaline plate N1 cut with faces
parallel to its vertical axis, only a part of the light is transmitted and is found to be plane
polarized. No remarkable changes in the transmitted light are observed when tourmaline
plate N1 is rotated. If this transmitted light from N1 is further passed through a second
similar tourmaline plate N2 kept with its vertical axis parallel to the vertical axis of N1, no
change in intensity occurs. Moreover, no change is observed in the intensity of light coming
out of N2 when both N1 and N2 are rotated together. If N1 is kept fixed and N2 is rotated, the
light coming out of N2 becomes dimmer and dimmer and vanishes completely when two
vertical axes are perpendicular to each other. With further rotation of N2, the light intensity
increases and becomes maximum when both the vertical axes are parallel to each other.
This is depicted in Fig. 4.2. The experiment conclusively proves the transverse nature of
light; otherwise, light coming out of N2 could never have been extinguished simply by
rotating the tourmaline plate N2. The tourmaline crystal possesses some properties similar
to that of the slits described in the previous section.

Figure 4.2 Optical demonstration of a polarization of a light wave in tourmaline crystal. (a) the two
vertical axes are parallel to each other and no decrease of light occurs when it comes
out of N2. (b) the two vertical axes are not parallel to each other and some light comes
out of N2. (c) the two vertical axes are perpendicular to each other and no light comes
out of N2

4.2.3 Pictorial representation of light

Light is an electromagnetic wave. It consists of millions of electromagnetic waves of mutually
perpendicular vibrating electric and magnetic vectors. The planes of vibration of light vectors
have random orientations due to the random emissions of radiations from excited atoms
or molecules of the source. The light vectors are therefore arranged symmetrically about
the direction of propagation. The end-on view of the unpolarized beam of light is shown in
Fig. 4.3. In this figure, a beam of light is coming out of the plane of the paper perpendicularly.
 Polarization 275

Figure 4.3 End-on view of an unpolarized ray of light coming out of the plane of the paper
perpendicularly

4.2.4 Few definitions

The transverse electric vectors of light waves (electric vectors of electromagnetic waves are
perpendicular or transverse to the direction of propagation of the wave) are called light
vectors since electric vectors are responsible for almost all types of optical phenomena.
The plane passing through the direction of propagation, on which the light vectors of the
light wave are confined, is called the plane of vibration. The plane passing through the
direction of propagation and perpendicular to the plane of vibration is called the plane
of polarization. Therefore, we can define the plane of polarization as the plane passing
through the direction of propagation on which magnetic vectors of the light wave are
confined. The plane of vibration and the plane of polarization are shown in Fig. 4.4. The
plane passing through the incident ray and the the normal drawn at the point of incidence
is called the plane of incidence. The plane passing through the reflected ray and the normal
drawn at the point of incidence is called the plane of reflection. The plane passing through
the refracted ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence is called the plane of
refraction. The electric vectors of the light wave which are vibrating in the plane of incidence
are called parallel vibrations and the light vectors which are vibrating perpendicular to the
plane of incidence are called perpendicular vibrations.

4.3 Classification of Polarized Light

Generally, there are three different types of polarization states: linear, circular and elliptical.
Each of these commonly encountered states is characterized by differing motion of the
electric field vector with respect to the direction of propagation of the light wave.
276 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.4 Unpolarized light after passing through tourmaline crystal become plane polarized.
The EFGH plane along the vertical axis of the tourmaline crystal is the plane of vibration
and the ABCD plane is the plane of polarization

4.3.1 Plane polarized light

Plane polarized light is also called linearly polarized light. In plane polarized light, the
vibrating electric vectors of the light wave are confined to a single plane called the plane of
vibration and the corresponding magnetic vectors are confined in the plane of polarization.
This is depicted in Fig. 4.5.

Figure 4.5 Instantaneous snapshot of a plane polarized light wave showing the electric vectors,
magnetic vectors and propagation vector. The plane containing the vibrating electric
vector E and the propagation vector k is called the plane of vibration and the plane
containing the vibrating magneticvector
 B and the propagation vector k is called the
plane of polarization. The vectors E , B , and k are mutually perpendicular to each other
at any instant of time
 Polarization 277

4.3.2 Circularly polarized light

Circularly polarized light is defined as the polarized light in which the vibrating light
vectors of the light wave are confined to the plane of vibration, on which tips of the light
vectors move in a circular path. The corresponding magnetic vectors are confined in the
plane of polarization. This is depicted in Fig. 4.27 later in the chapter.

4.3.3 Elliptically polarized light

Elliptically polarized light is defined as the polarized light in which vibrating light vectors
of the light wave are confined to the plane of vibration, on which tips of the light vectors
move in an elliptical path and the corresponding magnetic vectors are confined in the plane
of polarization. This is depicted in Fig. 4.29 later in the chapter.

4.4 Polarization by Reflection

The simplest way to produce a plane polarized light is by the process of reflection. When
ordinary light is allowed to fall on the polished surface of transparent dielectric media,
for certain angles of incidence, the reflected light wave is plane polarized with the plane
of polarization perpendicular to the reflecting surface and passing through the incident
direction. The angle of incidence (equal to the angle of reflection) for which the reflected
light is most completely plane polarized is called polarizing angle jp as shown in Fig. 4.7
later. It depends upon the nature of the interface and the wavelength of the light wave. For
air and glass interface, this polarizing angle is 57.5°.
Consider Fig. 4.6. AB is the ordinary light wave incident on the glass surface N1 with
angle of incidence 57.5° and BC is the reflected light wave incident on the glass surface N2
at the same angle of incidence 57.5°. This is possible when surfaces of N1 and N2 are parallel.
When N2 is rotated about BC, the intensity of CD is seen to be maximum when N1 and
N2 are parallel (Fig. 4.6(a)) or anti-parallel (Fig. 4.6(b)). This means that the intensity of
CD is maximum when two planes of incidence are parallel to each other. The intensity of
CD is seen to be minimum when two planes of incidence are perpendicular to each other
(Fig. 4.6(c)). The variation of intensity of CD due to rotation of N2 about BC proves that
for 57.5° the angle of incidence, light vectors in the reflected light wave are confined to a
certain direction transverse to the direction of propagation. This means that the reflected
light wave is plane polarized. The lower plate N1 is called the polarizer and the upper plate
N2 is called the analyzer.

4.4.1 Explanation of polarization by reflection

In the following, a most simplified explanation of polarization by reflection is given. The
light vectors in the unpolarized light wave can be resolved at the point of incidence into
two components, one component perpendicular to the plane of incidence and the other
278 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.6 Polarization by reflection from glass surface. (a)The intensity of CD is maximum when
N1 and N2 are parallel or (b) anti-parallel and (c) the intensity of CD is minimum when N1
and N2 are perpendicular to each other implying that reflected light wave is plane
polarized

component parallel to the plane of incidence. At the polarizing angle, the angle between
the reflected ray and the refracted ray is 90°. The light vectors which are in the plane of
incidence will become parallel to the direction of reflected ray to produce longitudinal
waves. However, light is a transverse wave having no longitudinal components of light
vector. Therefore, we conclude that the light vectors in the plane of incidence of the incident
wave are absent in the reflected wave and hence, are 100% present in the refracted wave.
The light vectors perpendicular to the plane of incidence are partly transmitted and partly
reflected. Therefore, we conclude that the reflected wave is completely plane polarized with
low intensity whereas the refracted wave is partially polarized with comparatively high
intensity. All this happens only if the angle of incidence is equal to the polarizing angle.
The intensity of the wave CD as said in Section 4.4 depends upon the relative orientation
of N1 and N2. The reason is as follows. In Fig. 4.6, wave BC contains light vector perpendicular
to the plane of incidence containing the incident wave AB. When N1 and N2 are parallel or
anti-parallel to each other, their planes of incidence are the same. Therefore, light vectors
perpendicular to the plane of incidence are partly reflected along CD and partly refracted
by N2 making the intensity of CD maximum.
However, when N1 and N2 are perpendicular to each other, their planes of incidence
become perpendicular to each other. Therefore, light vectors perpendicular to the plane
of incidence in N1 become parallel to the plane of incidence in N2. Light vectors parallel to
the plane of incidence of N2 can only be refracted and cannot be reflected, and the intensity
of the wave CD becomes minimum. Therefore, we can conclude that the intensity of CD
depends on the angle between two planes of reflection.
 Polarization 279

4.4.2 Brewster’s law

Brewster’s law states that, ‘the tangent of the angle of polarization is equal to the refractive
index of the refracting medium’. Mathematically,

tan ϕ p = µ

where
jp = Polarizing angle.

m = Refractive index of the medium.

Figure 4.7 Illustration of Brewster’s law. AO, OC and OB are the direction of incident, refracted
and reflected wave. AO, OB, OD, OC, and CT all lie in a single plane. NN¢ is the normal
drawn at the point of incidence O. ∠BOC = 90°. The reflected light OB is plane polarized
with the plane of vibration passing through the reflected ray and perpendicular to the
plane of incidence/plane of reflection. The refracted or transmitted light OC is plane
polarized to some extent with the plane of incidence/plane of refraction as the plane of
vibration

At the polarizing angle, it is found experimentally that the angle between the reflected ray
and the refracted ray is 90°. Thus from Fig. 4.7, we have

∠BOC =
90°

or ∠BOD + ∠DOC =90°

280 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

or 90° − ∠NOB + 90° − ∠NOC =90°

or ∠NOB + ∠NOC =90°

or ∠NOA + ∠NOC =90°

or ϕ p + θT =90° (4.1)

At the polarizing angle, Snell’s law becomes

sin ϕ p
=µ
sin θT

or sin ϕ p = µ sin θT

Putting the value of qT from Eq. (4.1) into the above equation we have

(
sin ϕ p µ sin 90° − ϕ p
= )

or tan ϕ p = µ (4.2)

Example 4.1
A glass plate of refractive index 1.7 is to be used as a polarizer. Calculate the polarizing angle
and angle of refraction.
Solution
From Eq. (4.2), we have

ϕp
= tan −1=
1.7 59.54°

θT= 90° − ϕ p= 90° − 59.54°= 30.46°

 Polarization 281

Example 4.2
When a light ray is incident on water surface at an angle 53°, it is found that reflected and
refracted rays are perpendicular to each other. Find the polarizing angle and the refractive
index of water.
Solution
According to the question, the reflected ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray. Therefore,

Angle of polarization = Angle of incidence = angle of polarization = 53°

Applying Brewster’s law, we have

=µ tan=
53° 1.33

Hence, the polarizing angle and refractive index of water are 53° and 1.33 respectively.

4.5 Polarization by Refraction

As shown in Fig. 4.7, if ordinary light wave is incident on the surface of a glass of refractive
index 1.5 at polarizing angle 57.5°, 100% of light vectors vibrating parallel to the plane of
incidence and 85% of light vectors vibrating perpendicular to the plane of incidence are
refracted, whereas only 15% light vectors vibrating perpendicular to the plane of incidence
is reflected. Therefore, ordinary light wave incident on the surface of the first glass plate in
a pile of glass plates at the polarizing angle, 15% vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
incidence are reflected and the rest containing 100% parallel vibrations and 85% transverse
vibrations are refracted. The refracted wave containing 100% parallel and 85% transverse
vibrations incident on the first surface of the second plate of the pile of glass plates at
polarizing angle with all parallel vibrations and 85% of 85% perpendicular vibrations are
refracted and 15% of 85% are reflected. Thus, by each reflection and refraction phenomena
occurring at each glass plate at the polarizing angle, 15% of perpendicular vibrations are
sieved out from the refracted light wave. Hence, the perpendicular vibrations contained in
the refracted wave are decreased at the rate of 15% per plate. The process continues and
when light wave has travelled through a pile of glass plates containing around 35 plates,
the transmitted light wave is nearly free of perpendicular vibrations and contains only
parallel vibrations. Thus, we get a plane polarized light with the help of a pile of glass plates,
vibrations being in the plane of incidence.
The degree of polarization of the refracted wave is small for a single surface. If the
number of plates in the pile is more, we can quench out the perpendicular vibrations from
the refracted wave, making the refracted wave more completely plane polarized containing
light vectors parallel to the plane of incidence. The degree of polarization P is defined as

I ll − I ⊥ N
=P =
I ll + I ⊥ 2µ 2 (4.3)
N+
1− µ2
282 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

where
I ll = sum of intensities of vibrations parallel to the plane of incidence.
I ⊥ = sum of intensities of vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
N = number of glass plates in the pile of glass plates.
µ = refractive index of the glass plate.

4.5.1 Malus’s law

If a light wave plane polarized by reflection at one plane surface (polarizer) is incident at the
polarizing angle on the second plane surface (analyzer), the intensity of the twice-reflected
light wave (CD in Fig. 4.6) varies with the angle between the planes of the two surfaces. The
same is also true for twice the transmitted wave from polarizer to analyzer. The Malus law
states that, ῾The intensity of the polarized light transmitted through the analyzer varies as
the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of refraction of the analyzer and the
plane of the polarizer’.
Any polarized vibration can be resolved into two rectangular components – one
component parallel to the plane of refraction and the other component perpendicular to
the plane of refraction as shown in Fig. 4.8.
Let
r = OP be the amplitude of the vibrations transmitted by the polarizer.
q = angle between the planes of the polarizer and the analyzer.

Figure 4.8 Resolution of amplitude of light vector of plane polarized light when the angle between
the polarizer plane and the analyzer plane is q
 Polarization 283

The component of OP along OA = OP cos q = r cos q

The component of OP along OB = OP sin q = r sin q

The component of OP along OA = r cos q is transmitted/refracted through the analyzer.

The intensity of the light transmitted through the analyzer is directly proportional to the
square of the amplitude component of OP along OA = r cos q. Mathematically, we have

I ∝ r 2 cos2 θ

or I = cr 2 cos2 θ (4.4)

where c is the proportionality constant.

I = cr2 = I0 = maximum intensity for q = 0

Putting this value of cr 2 = I 0 into Eq. (4.4), we get

I = I 0 cos2 θ (4.5)

Equation (4.5) is the mathematical form of the Malus law.

In Eq. (4.5), I0 is the intensity of the plane polarized light incident on the analyzer. The
intensity transmitted by the polarizer is found to be exactly one-half of the intensity of the
unpolarized light incident on the polarizer. This is explained as follows. The light incident
on the polarizer is a random mixture of all states of polarization. The average values of
the resultants of the amplitudes parallel to the principal section and perpendicular to the
principal section of the polarizer are equal. Therefore, the intensity of the light transmitted
by the polarizer is exactly one-half of the intensity of the incident light.

Example 4.3
What should be the angle between the polarizer and the analyzer so that intensity is reduced
to one-fourth of its maximum value?
Solution
I0
According to the question, I = . Putting this value in Eq. (4.1), we get
4

I0
= I 0 cos2 θ
4
284 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1
or cos2θ =
4

or θ= 60°

Example 4.4
The plane of vibration of the incident ray makes an angle of 60° with the optic axis. Compare
the intensities of the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray (explained later in this chapter).
Solution
Intensity of ordinary ray is given by

I 0 = r 2 sin2 θ

Intensity of extraordinary ray is given by

I E = r 2 cos2 θ

I0
Hence, = tan2 θ
IE

According to the question, q = 60°

I0 2
∴ = tan= 60° 3
IE

Thus, the intensity of an ordinary ray is three times the intensity of an extraordinary ray.

4.6 Polarization by Scattering

The transverse electric vector in the light wave is responsible for all optical phenomena.
Let unpolarized sunlight be allowed to fall on an air molecule present in the atmosphere.
An air molecule is neutral, containing equal amounts of opposite charges. The vibrating
light vector of the light wave will exert force in opposite directions on the positive and the
negative charges of the molecule. The direction of the forces on the positive and negative
charges changes rapidly since light vector in the light wave is vibrating. Since the charges in
the molecule are not rigidly bound to it, oscillations of charges occur synchronously with
the vibrating light vectors. The frequency of the oscillation of charges and the vibration
frequency of light vectors of the light wave is the same. Thus, the vibrating light vectors of
 Polarization 285

the light wave produce accelerations of the charges. According to electromagnetic theory,
accelerated charges emit radiations which form the scattered light.
Suppose unpolarized sunlight consisting of two polarized components is incident on an
air molecule along the X-axis as shown in Fig. 4.9. If the light vector of the incident light
wave is vibrating in the XY plane, it will make the charge of the air molecule to vibrate
along the Y-axis. The vibrating charge of air molecule will emit radiations in the form of
scattered light in all directions except along the Y-axis. To emit the radiation along the
Y-axis, light wave would have to be a longitudinal wave.

Figure 4.9 The polarization of sunlight by scattering from the fine particles present in the
atmosphere. O is the observer looking upward

Again assume that the incident light vector is vibrating along the Z-axis. The vibrating
charge of air molecule will emit radiations in the form of scattered light in all directions
except along the Z-axis. To emit the radiation along the Z-axis light, the wave would have to
be a longitudinal wave. Therefore, an observer at O looking vertically upward will find the
blue light plane polarized with light vectors vibrating parallel to the Z-axis. No air molecule
at P can be set to vibrate along the X-axis, since this would contradict the transverse nature
of the light wave.

4.7 Double Refraction

If we place a calcite, a crystallized form of calcium carbonate CaCO3, on a point marked
on paper and look through the calcite, we will see two images of the point simultaneously.
286 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Again, if we rotate the calcite crystal on the paper over the point, out of the two images
of the point, one image rotates about the other. The appearance of two images of a single
point is due to the double refraction or bi-refringence phenomenon. The light reflected from
the point on the paper while passing through the calcite is divided into two beams and these two
beams enter into our eyes as a result of which we are able to see two images of the point.
The phenomenon of splitting of a ray of ordinary light incident on calcite into two beams
after refraction, out of which one obeys the laws of refraction whereas the other does not,
is called double refraction. The two beams emerge from the calcite parallel to each other,
the distance between the two emergent beams being proportional to the thickness of the
crystal. The refracted ray obeying the laws of refraction is called ordinary ray or O-ray. The
refracted ray not obeying the ordinary laws of refraction is called extraordinary ray or E-ray.
The velocity of the ordinary ray in doubly refracting crystals is the same in all directions
whereas the velocity of extraordinary ray in the doubly refracting crystals is different in
different directions. Doubly refracting crystals are anisotropic substances, because the
velocity of extraordinary ray in doubly refracting crystals is different in different directions.
The phenomenon of double refraction is depicted in Fig. 4.10.

Figure 4.10 Splitting of ordinary light into two beams of plane polarized light by a doubly refracting
crystal

Suppose a point source of light is embedded inside a doubly refracting crystal. We will have
two sets of wavefronts – one for extraordinary ray and the other for ordinary ray. Since the
speed of ordinary ray is the same in all directions, the wavefront of ordinary ray will be
spherical. Again, since the speed of extraordinary ray is different in different directions, the
wavefront of the extraordinary ray will be ellipsoidal or an ellipsoid of revolution, the axis of
revolution being the optic axis. In negative crystals like calcite, the ellipsoidal wavefront of
the extraordinary ray encompasses the spherical wavefront of the ordinary ray, as the speed
 Polarization 287

of the extraordinary ray is more than that of the ordinary ray in negative crystals. In positive
crystals like quartz, the ellipsoidal wavefront of the extraordinary ray is encompassed by
the spherical wavefront of the ordinary ray, as speed of the ordinary ray is more than that
of the extraordinary ray in positive crystals. These observations are depicted in Fig. 4.11.
After the discovery of the phenomenon by Dutch philosopher Erasmos Bartholinus in the
year 1669, Huygens, in the year 1690, proved that the two beams are plane polarized with
the plane of polarization being perpendicular to each other.

Figure 4.11 Wavefronts of a light source embedded inside a doubly refracting crystal. (a) In negative
crystals ellipsoidal wavefronts of the extraordinary ray cover spherical wavefronts of
the ordinary ray. (b) In positive crystals, spherical wavefronts of the ordinary ray cover
ellipsoidal wavefronts of the extraordinary ray

4.7.1 Few terms connected with the double refraction phenomenon

Crystals which exhibit double refraction phenomenon are called doubly refracting crystals.
An anisotropic substance is defined as a substance which has different properties along
different directions. A refracted ray which obeys the laws of refraction is called an ordinary
ray or O-ray. A refracted ray which does not obey the laws of refraction is called an
extraordinary ray or E-ray. A negative crystal is defined as a doubly refracting crystal in
which the speed of the extraordinary ray along the optic axis is greater than or equal to
the speed of the ordinary ray. A positive crystal is defined as a doubly refracting crystal in
which the speed of the ordinary ray along the optic axis is greater than or equal to the speed
of the extraordinary ray. The two diagonally opposite solid angles of calcite are formed
288 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

by the junction of three obtuse angles of three faces. A line into the crystal at one of these
corners and equally inclined to these three faces is called the crystallographic axis. The
optic axis of a doubly refracting crystal is defined as the direction along which a light ray
falling on the crystal face is not separated out into O-rays and E-rays as they have the same
speed. A uniaxial crystal is defined as a doubly refracting crystal in which the speed of
the extraordinary ray and the ordinary ray is the same along only one direction. A biaxial
crystal is defined as a doubly refracting crystal in which the speed of the extraordinary ray
and the ordinary ray is the same along two directions. Any direction in the crystal parallel
to the crystallographic axis is an optic axis. The principal section of a crystal is defined as
a plane passing through the optic axis and perpendicular to any cleavage faces. This plane
cuts the surfaces of the crystal in a parallelogram with angles 109° and 71° as shown in
Fig. 4.12. As the crystal has six faces, for every point inside the crystal, there are three
principal sections. The principal plane of the ordinary ray is defined as the plane in the
crystal passing through the O-ray and the optic axis. The principal plane of the extraordinary
ray is defined as the plane in the crystal passing through the E-ray and the optic axis.
The principal planes of the two refracted rays coincide only when the plane of incidence
coincides with the principal section of the crystals.

Figure 4.12 Rhombohendral structure of calcite. ACHF is the principal plane, AH is the crystallo
graphic axis and the direction AH and YY are the optic axes
 Polarization 289

Figure 4.13 Principal sections in a calcite crystal

Example 4.5
A parallel beam of linearly polarized light of wavelength 5890 Å (in vacuum) is incident on a
calcite crystal. Find the wavelengths of ordinary and extraordinary waves in the crystal.

=
Given: for calcite, µO 1.658,
= µE 1.486.
Solution
The refractive index m0 of calcite crystal for O-ray is defined as

Speed in vacuum c λ
µO = = =
Speed of the O-ray v0 λ0

Thus, we have the wavelength of ordinary wave

λ
λ0 = (A)
µ0

In a similar manner, we have wavelength of extraordinary wave

λ
λE = (B)
µE

In Eqs (A) and (B), l is the wavelength of the light in vacuum.

According to the question, for calcite,

=µO 1.658,
= µ E 1.486 and λ = 5890 Å.
290 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting these values in Eq. (A), we have the wavelength of ordinary wave as

5890 Å
=λO = 3552 Å
1.658
By using (B), we have the wavelength of ordinary wave as

5890 Å
=λE = 3964 Å
1.486

4.7.2 Difference between ordinary ray and extraordinary ray

Ordinary ray Extraordinary ray

1 A refracted ray obeying the ordinary laws of A refracted ray not obeying the ordinary laws of
refraction is called ordinary ray or O-ray. refraction is called extraordinary ray or E-ray.
2 The image produced by an O-ray does not The image produced by an E-ray rotates upon rotation
rotate upon rotation of the calcite crystal. of the calcite crystal.
3 The speed of an ordinary ray is greater than The speed of an extraordinary ray is greater than an
an E-ray in positive crystals like quartz. O-ray in negative crystals like calcite.
4 O-ray is always in the plane of incidence. E-ray is not necessarily always in the plane of incidence.
5 The speed of O-ray is same in all directions. The speed of E-ray is not the same in all directions.
6 O-ray is polarized in the principal section, i.e., E-ray is polarized perpendicular to the principal
the plane of polarization lies in the principal section, i.e., the plane of polarization is perpendicular
section. to the principal section.
7 The plane of vibration of an O-wave is The plane of vibration of an E-wave lies in the principal
perpendicular to the principal section. section.
8 The ratio (sin i/sin r) is the same for any angle The ratio (sin i/sin r) varies with angles of incidence.
of incidence.
9 The refractive index m0 of the crystal for an The refractive index mE of the negative crystal for an
O-ray is defined as E-ray is defined as
Speed in vacuum Speed in vacuum
µO = µE =
Speed of the O-ray Maximum speed of the E-ray
and the refractive index mE of the positive crystal for an
E-ray is defined as

Speed in vacuum
µE = .
Minimum speed of the E-ray

4.7.3 Polarization by double refraction

When the O-ray and E-ray emerging from the calcite crystal are analyzed by an analyzer,
it is found that as the analyzer is rotated in its own plane, the intensity of either one varies
in the opposite manner. That is, the intensity of one of the ray increases only when the
 Polarization 291

intensity of the other ray decreases on the rotation of the analyzer. When the longer axis
of the analyzer is exactly parallel to the longer diagonal of the end face of the calcite, the
brightness of the O-image maximum and the E-image disappears completely. On rotating
the analyzer by 90° further, the brightness of the E-image becomes maximum and the
O-image disappears completely. In this case, the longer axis of the analyzer is exactly
perpendicular to the longer diagonal of the end face of the calcite. This is possible only
when the O-wave and the E-wave is polarized with the plane of polarization of the O-wave
in the principal section and the plane of polarization of the E-wave perpendicular to it.

4.7.4 Huygens’ experiment on polarization by double refraction

Two calcite crystals C1 (ACHF) and C2 (A¢C¢H¢F¢) of equal thickness are placed in such a
manner that their principal sections are parallel and symmetrical to each other. Ordinary
unpolarized light, after passing through C1, normally is split into O-ray and E-ray and both rays
enter into the calcite crystal C2 as shown in Fig. 4.14. The O-ray emerges from C2 without any
deviation from the direction of incidence of unpolarized light while the E-ray gets deviated and
emerges from C2 parallel to O-ray. We assign the symbols O0 and EE to the images formed by
the O-ray and the E-ray emerging from C2 respectively. Now when C2 is rotated slightly taking

Figure 4.14 Huygens’ experiment with two calcite crystals

292 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

O-ray as an axis, O-ray and E-ray suffer double refraction in C2 giving rise to four images
with two faint old images O0 and EE ; two faint new images OE and E0. On further rotation
of C2, it is found that images O0 and OE remain fixed while image E0 rotates around O0 and
EE rotates around OE. Again, the intensity of O0 images decreases while the intensity of OE
and E0 images increases. The following observations were observed.
i. At 45° rotation of C2, four images have the same intensity.
ii. At 90° rotation of C2, two images O0 and E0 disappear and images OE and E0 have
maximum intensity.
iii. On further rotation of C2, two images O0 and EE reappear and the intensity of images
OE and E0 decreases.
iv. At 135° rotation of C2, four images have the same intensity again.
v. At 180° rotation of C2, the principal sections of the two calcite crystals are parallel
while the optic axes have opposite directions (see Fig. 4.14(a)). Therefore, images OE
and E0 disappear and images O0 and EE coalesce.
The same changes take place in the reverse order when rotation continues from 180° to
360°.

Figure 4.15 Explanations for Huygens’ experiment with two calcite crystals

Consider Fig. 4.15.

PX = principal section of calcite crystal C1
PY = principal section of calcite crystal C2
q = angle between principal sections of calcite crystals C1 and C2
PO = r = amplitude of the O-ray
PE = r = amplitude of the E-ray
PO0 = r cos q = Amplitude of O0 perpendicular to the principal section of C2. This component
gives rise to the ordinary image O0.
 Polarization 293

Intensity of the ordinary image

= 2
O0 kr= cos2 θ I 0 cos2 θ (A)

PE0 = r sin θ = Amplitude of O0 along the principal section of C2. This component gives rise
to the extraordinary image E0.

Intensity of the extraordinary image

= 2
E0 kr= sin2 θ I 0 sin2 θ (B)

PEE = r cos θ = Amplitude of EE along the principal section of C2. This component gives
rise to the extraordinary image EE.

Intensity of the extraordinary image

= 2
EE kr= cos2 θ I 0 cos2 θ (C)

POE = r sin θ = Amplitude of EE perpendicular to the principal section of C2. This component
gives rise to the ordinary image OE.

Intensity of the ordinary image

= 2
OE kr= sin2 θ I 0 sin2 θ (D)

Our observations discussed from (i) to (v) can be explained with the help of equations from
(A) to (D) by putting the values of q = 0°, 45°, 90°, and 135°. At 180°, intensities of OE and E0
become zero and hence, they disappear. Images O0 and EE coalesce at this position because
the separation between the E-ray and the O-ray produced by C1 is exactly compensated by
the separation produced by C2 as they have equal thickness.
From these observations, we conclude that the characteristics of ordinary light are
quite different from that of O-rays and E-rays. Ordinary light on double refraction gives
rise to O-rays and E-rays while double refraction of O-rays and E-rays depends upon the
orientations of the calcite crystal C2. This shows that there is no symmetry in vibrations
about the direction of propagation of O-rays and E-rays in contrast to ordinary light. That
means O-ray and E-ray are polarized.

4.7.5 Huygens’ theory of double refraction

Huygens gave a satisfactory explanation for the origin of O-waves and E-waves with
his secondary wavelets concept of wave theory of light. Accordingly, he put forward the
following postulates
i. Every internal point and surface point of a crystal disturbed by the incident wavefront
must become the source of two type of wavelets – ordinary wavelets and extraordinary
wavelets. This explains the origin of O-waves and E-waves in the doubly refracting
crystals.
ii. The O-ray wavefront is spherical in the doubly refracting crystal. This postulate
explains the constancy of the speed of an O-wave in crystals in all directions and the
validity of Snell’s law for O-waves. The ratio sin i/sin r0 for the O-wave does not vary
with direction of its propagation relative to the optic axis. Hence, the refractive index
294 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

of the doubly refracting crystal is independent of the direction of propagation of the

O-wave relative to the optic axis.
iii. The E-ray wavefront is ellipsoid of revolution about its principal axes in the doubly
refracting crystal. This postulate explains the directional dependence of the speed of
E-waves in the crystals. The speed of propagation of E-waves is different in different
directions of incidence in the crystal. Hence, E-waves do not obey Snell’s law and the
value of the refractive index of the doubly refracting crystal depends upon the angle of
incidence and the angle of refraction. The ratio sin i/sin rE for the E-wave varies with
the direction of its propagation relative to the optic axis. Hence, the refractive index
of the doubly refracting crystal is not independent of the direction of propagation of
the E-wave relative to the optic axis.
iv. The properties of the doubly refracting crystals are symmetric about the optic axis.
The speed of E-waves must be equal along the directions equally inclined to the
optic axis and as a result, the ellipsoid of revolution must be symmetrical about the
optic axis. To account for all these observations, Huygens postulated that the axis of
revolution of the ellipsoid should be along the optic axis through the point of origin of
the wavelets.
v. The last postulate put forward by Huygens is that the spherical wavefront and the
ellipsoidal wavefront touch each other along the extremities of the axis of revolution
(optic axis) of the ellipse generating the ellipsoidal wavefront. That is, the spherical
O-wavefront and the ellipsoidal E-wavefront touches each other at two points on the
optic axis. This explains the equality of speed of O-waves and E-waves along the optic
axis and hence, the absence of the double refraction phenomenon along the optic
axis. Thus, according to Huygens, every point of the doubly refracting crystal surface
disturbed by the incident wave is to be considered as the source of two secondary
wavelets – spherical for ordinary waves and ellipsoid of revolution about the optic
axis for extraordinary waves, the two wave surfaces touching each other along the
extremities of the optic axis.

4.7.6 Phenomenon of double refraction at normal incidence

Suppose a uniaxial crystal slab is cut in such a way that its unique optic axis is neither
parallel nor perpendicular to the crystal surface and the optic axis is shown by the broken
lines in Fig. 4.16(a). Let a beam of parallel light wave be incident normally on the plane
surface of the uniaxial crystal slab as shown in the Fig. 4.16. Here the plane of incidence
is the plane of the page. The optic axis has the direction shown by the broken lines in
Fig. 4.16. WW¢ is the advancing wavefront and AC is the incident wavefront. Three points
A, B, and C on the refracting surface PQ are taken into account as the sources of Huygens’
secondary wavelets. After a short time interval, Huygens’ wavelets entering the crystal from
these points will have the form as shown in Fig. 4.16. In order to construct the ordinary ray
wavefront, we draw spheres of certain radii at points A, B, and C. The common tangent plane
OO¢ to these spheres at points A¢, B¢, and C¢ is the ordinary ray wavefront. When the points A¢,
B¢, and C¢ are joined to the points A, B, and C, the refracted ordinary ray is obtained.
 Polarization 295

Figure 4.16 Huygens’ construction of an ordinary ray wavefront and an extraordinary ray wavefront
of a plane wave incident normally on a negative uniaxial crystal. In figures (a) and (b),
the optic axis is the direction shown by the broken line parallel to the plane of the
page. (c) For a ray incident normally, if the crystal is rotated about a line normal to the
surface of the crystal, the extraordinary ray will rotate making a cone inside the crystal
and if projected on a screen it will rotate making a circular path on the screen. Here, the
vertical section of a negative uniaxial crystal is shown

In order to construct the extraordinary ray wavefront, we draw ellipses centered at A, B,

and C with their minor axes along the optic axis. The ellipsoids of revolution are obtained
by rotating the ellipses about the minor axis along optic axis. The common tangent plane
EE¢ to these ellipsoids of revolution at points a, b, and c is the extraordinary ray wavefront.
When the points a, b, and c are joined to the points A, B, and C, the refracted extraordinary
ray is obtained.
Let
t = time taken by the extraordinary wave front EE¢ to reach the position as shown in the
Fig. 4.16(a). The ray velocity of the extraordinary ray is defined as
Aa Bb Cc
=
ray velocity = =
t t t
and the normal velocity of the extraordinary ray is defined as
Aa′ Bb′ Cc ′
=
normal velocity = =
t t t
The symbols are depicted in Fig. 4.16(a) and (b).
If the uniaxial crystal slab is cut in such a way that its unique optic axis makes a certain
angle with the crystal surface as shown by the broken lines in Fig. 4.16(b), then although
the direction of the ordinary ray will not change, the direction of the extraordinary ray will
change and will propagate in the direction shown in Fig. 4.16(b).
296 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The plane of vibration of an ordinary ray is perpendicular to the principal plane of the
ordinary ray and tangential to the spherical surfaces where as the plane of vibration of an
extraordinary ray is parallel to the principal plane of the extraordinary ray, tangential to the
ellipsoidal surfaces and perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Thus, an ordinary
incident light is split up into two rays propagating in different directions and when they
emerge from the crystal at the other surface, two plane polarized beams are produced.
At the outset of this section, we have assumed that the optic axis is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the crystal surface. We shall discuss special cases where the optic axis is
either parallel or perpendicular to the crystal surface. The ordinary and extraordinary ray
will propagate in the same direction with different speeds when the optic axis is parallel to
the crystal surface as well as to the plane of incidence as shown in Fig. 4.17(a). The ordinary
and extraordinary ray will propagate in the same direction with same speeds when the
optic axis is perpendicular to the crystal surface in the direction of incidence as shown in
Fig. 4.17(b). Figure 4.17(c) describes the case when the optic axis is parallel to the crystal
surface and perpendicular to the plane of the page or plane of the incidence. In this case, the
vertical section of the extraordinary ray wavefront will be circular as that of ordinary rays and
both the rays propagate along the same direction with different speeds as in the Fig. 4.17(a).

Figure 4.17 Illustration of double refraction phenomenon due to a plane polarized wave incident
normally on a negative uniaxial crystal. In Fig. 4.17(a), the optic axis is parallel to the
refracting surface as well as to the plane of incidence. In Fig. 4.17(b), the optic axis is
perpendicular to the refracting surface and parallel to the plane of incidence. In
Fig. 4.17(c), the optic axis is perpendicular to the plane of incidence and parallel to the
refracting surface and is shown as dots. The vertical section of a negative uniaxial crystal
is shown
 Polarization 297

4.7.7 Phenomenon of double refraction at oblique incidence

Suppose a uniaxial crystal slab is cut in such a way that its unique optic axis is neither
parallel nor perpendicular to the crystal surface and the optic axis makes an arbitrary angle
with the crystal surface as shown by the broken lines in Fig. 4.18. Let a beam of parallel
light wave be incident obliquely on the plane surface of the uniaxial crystal slab as shown
in the figure. Here the plane of incidence is the plane of the page. Let BD represent the
incident wavefront. At the instant when the incident wavefront touches the crystal surface
at B, this point on the crystal becomes the source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets for
ordinary and extraordinary rays. As the incident wavefront advances, every point along
the crystal surface PQ between the points B and F successively becomes the source of
Huygens’ secondary wavelets for ordinary and extraordinary rays. All these points would
have advanced different distances till point F on the crystal is just being disturbed by the
advancing wavefront.
Let
c = speed of light in air.

v0 = speed of O-ray in the crystal.

vE = speed of E-ray in the crystal perpendicular to the optic axis.

t = time taken by the wave to reach F from D.

Figure 4.18 Refraction of a plane wave for oblique incidence on a negative uniaxial crystal. The
broken lines represent the optic axes. In this figure, the vertical section of a negative
uniaxial crystal is shown
298 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Hence, we have

DF
t=
c

During this time interval, Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B would acquire a
radius BG within the crystal given by

v0 DF
= v=
BG 0t =
DF
c µ0

where m0 is the refractive index of the crystal for ordinary rays. The section of this spherical
wavelet by the plane of incidence through G is a circle of radius BG. Hence, the circle of
radius BG represents the position of Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B at the
moment when the point F on the crystal becomes a source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets.
The semi-major axis a of Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from B at the moment
when F just becomes the origin of Huygens’ secondary wavelets will be given by

vE DF
= = v=
a BH Et =
DF
c µE

where mE is the refractive index of the crystal for extraordinary rays propagating in a
direction normal to the optic axis. In negative uniaxial crystals, Huygens’ secondary
spherical wavelets from B is enclosed by Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from B.
Hence, the semi-minor axis of the ellipsoidal wavelet is given by

v0 DF
= = v=
b BG 0t =
DF
c µ0

The section of this ellipsoidal wavelet formed by the plane of incidence through G is an
ellipse with semi-minor axis BG and semi-major axis BH. Hence, this ellipse represents the
position of Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from B at the moment when the point
F on the crystal becomes a source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. Huygens’ secondary
spherical wavelets from B and Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from B touch each
other at the point of intersection R with the optic axis through B. This ellipse represents
the ellipsoidal wavelets from B at the moment when F has just become the origin of the
secondary wavelets. Another point J is taken between B and F and Huygens’ secondary
ellipsoidal wavelets and Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets are constructed in a similar
manner.
The position of secondary wavelets originating from all the points between B and F
are obtained in the same manner as described earlier. The common tangential plane FO
perpendicular to the plane of the page to these spheres at points G, G¢, and FO is the
ordinary ray wavefront when F has just become the origin of the secondary wavelets. When
 Polarization 299

the points G and G¢ are joined to the points B and J respectively, the refracted ordinary rays
are obtained from the points B and J on the refracting surface.
In order to construct the extraordinary ray wavefront, we draw ellipses centered at B and
J with their minor axes along the optic axis. The ellipsoids of revolution are obtained by
rotating the ellipses about the optic axis. The common tangential plane FE perpendicular to
the plane of the page to these ellipsoids of revolution at points S and T is the extraordinary
ray wavefront when F has just become the origin of the secondary wavelets. When the
points S and T are joined to the points B and J respectively, the refracted extraordinary rays
are obtained from the points B and J on the refracting surface.
The plane of vibration of the ordinary ray is perpendicular to the principal plane of the
ordinary ray and is tangential to the spherical surfaces, whereas the plane of vibration of
the extraordinary ray is along the principal plane of the extraordinary ray and is tangential
to the ellipsoidal surfaces. Thus, an ordinary incident light splits into two rays propagating
in different directions and when they emerge from the crystal at the other surface, two
plane polarized beams are produced.

4.7.8 Special cases

At the beginning of this section, we have assumed that the optic axis is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the crystal surface. We shall now discuss special cases where the optic axis
is either parallel or perpendicular to the crystal surface in different orientation.

Case 1:
Suppose a uniaxial crystal slab is cut in such a way that its unique optic axis is parallel to the
refracting surface of the crystal and it lies along the plane of incidence. These conditions
are depicted in Fig. 4.19.
Let a beam of parallel light wave be incident obliquely on the plane surface of a uniaxial
crystal slab as shown in Fig. 4.19. Here the plane of incidence is the plane of the page. Let
BD represent the incident wavefront. At the instant when the incident wavefront touches
the crystal surface at B, this point on the crystal becomes the source of Huygens’ secondary
wavelets for ordinary and extraordinary rays. As the incident wavefront advances, every
point along the crystal surface PQ between B and F successively becomes the source of
Huygens’ secondary wavelets for ordinary and extraordinary rays. All these points would
have advanced different distances till the point F on the crystal is just being disturbed by
the advancing wavefront.
During this time interval, Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B would acquire
a radius BG within the crystal. The section of this spherical wavelet formed by the plane
of incidence through G is a circle of radius BG. Hence, the circle of radius BG represents
the position of Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B at the moment when the
point F on the crystal becomes the source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. The position of
secondary spherical wavelets originating from all the points between B and F are obtained
in the same manner as described here. Another point J is taken between B and F and
Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets are constructed in a similar manner.
300 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.19 Refraction of a plane wave for oblique incidence on a negative uniaxial crystal. The optic
axis is parallel to the refracting surface of the crystal and lies along the plane of
incidence. In this figure, the vertical section of a negative uniaxial crystal is shown

The common tangential plane FO perpendicular to the plane of the page to these spheres
at points G and G¢ is the ordinary ray wavefront when F has just become the origin of
secondary wavelets. When the points G and G¢ are joined to the points B and J respectively,
the refracted ordinary ray is obtained from the points B and J on the refracting surface.
According to the given condition, the optic axis is parallel to the refracting surface of
the crystal and lies along the plane of incidence. In this case, the optic axis lies on the
surface of the refracting surface. The semi-major axis of Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal
wavelets from B, at the moment when F just becomes the origin of Huygens’ secondary
wavelets is BH perpendicular to the refracting surface along the plane of incidence. In
negative uniaxial crystals, Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B are enclosed by
Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from B touching each other at the points M and N
on the optic axis through the point B. Hence, the semi-minor axis of Huygens’ secondary
ellipsoidal wavelets from B, at the moment when F just becomes the origin of Huygens’
secondary wavelets is BM = BN (= BG) along the optic axis through the point B lying
along the plane of incidence. The section of this ellipsoidal wavelet formed by the plane of
incidence through G is an ellipse of semi-minor axis BN = BM and semi-major axis BH.
Hence, this ellipse represents the position of Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from
B at the moment when the point F on the crystal becomes a source of Huygens’ secondary
wavelets. Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B and Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal
wavelets from B touch each other at the points M and N on the optic axis through B. This
 Polarization 301

ellipse represents the ellipsoidal wavelets from B at the moment when F has just become
the origin of secondary wavelets.
In order to construct the extraordinary ray wavefront, we draw ellipses centered at B and
J with their minor axes along the optic axis and their major axes perpendicular to the optic
axis. The ellipsoids of revolution are obtained by rotating the ellipses about the semi-minor
axis along the optic axis. The common tangential plane FE perpendicular to the plane of the
page to these ellipsoids of revolution at points S and S¢ is the extraordinary ray wavefront
when F has just become the origin of secondary wavelets. When the points S and S¢ are
joined to the points B and J, the refracted extraordinary ray is obtained.
In this case, the plane of vibration of the ordinary ray is perpendicular to the principal
plane of the ordinary ray and tangential to the spherical surfaces, whereas the plane of
vibration of the extraordinary ray is along the principal plane of the extraordinary ray and
is tangential to the ellipsoidal surfaces. Thus, an ordinary incident light split ups into two
rays propagating in different directions and when they emerge from the crystal at the other
surface, two plane polarized beams are produced.
Case 2:
Suppose a uniaxial crystal slab is cut in such a way that its unique optic axis is perpendicular
to the refracting surface of the crystal and lies along the plane of incidence. These conditions
are depicted in Fig. 4.20.
Let a beam of parallel light wave be incident obliquely on the plane surface of a uniaxial
crystal slab as shown in Fig. 4.20. Here the plane of incidence is the plane of the page. Let
BD represent the incident wavefront. At the instant when incident wavefront touches the
crystal surface at B, this point on the crystal becomes the source of Huygens’ secondary
wavelets for ordinary and extraordinary rays. As the incident wavefront advances, every
point along the crystal surface PQ between B and F successively becomes the sources of
Huygens’ secondary wavelets for ordinary and extraordinary rays. All these points would
have advanced different distances till the point F on the crystal is just being disturbed by
the advancing wavefront.
During this time interval, Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B would acquire
a radius BG within the crystal. The section of this spherical wavelet formed by the plane of
incidence through G is a circle of radius BG. Hence, the circle of radius BG represents the
position of Huygens’ secondary spherical wavelets from B at the moment when the point F
on the crystal becomes Huygens’ secondary wavelets. The position of secondary spherical
wavelets originating from all the points between B and F are obtained in the same manner
as described here. Another point J is taken between B and F and Huygens’ secondary
spherical wavelets are constructed in a similar manner. The common tangential plane FO
perpendicular to the plane of the page to these spheres at points G and G¢ is the ordinary
ray wavefront when F has just become the origin of secondary wavelets. When the points G
and G¢ are joined to the points B and J respectively, the refracted ordinary ray is obtained.
302 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.20 Refraction of a plane wave for oblique incidence on a negative uniaxial crystal. The optic
axis is perpendicular to the refracting surface of the crystal and lies along the plane of
incidence. In this figure, the vertical section of a negative uniaxial crystal is shown

According to the given condition, the optic axis is perpendicular to the refracting surface of
the crystal and lies on the plane of incidence. The semi-major axis of Huygens’ secondary
ellipsoidal wavelets from B, at the moment when F just becomes the origin of Huygens’
secondary wavelets is BM = BN perpendicular to the optic axis on the refracting surface
along the plane of incidence. In negative uniaxial crystals, Huygens’ secondary spherical
wavelets from B are enclosed by Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from B touching
each other at the extremities of the optic axis through the point B. Hence, the semi-
minor axis of Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelets from B, at the moment when F just
becomes the origin of Huygens’ secondary wavelets is BH along the optic axis through the
point B lying along the plane of incidence. The section of this ellipsoidal wavelet by the
plane of incidence through G is an ellipse with semi-minor axis BH and semi-major axis
BM = BN. Hence, this ellipse represents the position of Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal
wavelets from B at the moment when the point F on the crystal becomes a source of
Huygens’ secondary wavelets. This ellipse represents the ellipsoidal wavelets from B at the
moment when F has just become the origin of secondary wavelets. Another point J is taken
between B and F and Huygens’ secondary ellipsoidal wavelet is constructed in a similar
manner.
In order to construct the extraordinary ray wavefront, we draw ellipses centered at B and
J with their minor axes inside the crystal along the optic axis and their major axes on the
refracting surface perpendicular to the optic axis. The ellipsoids of revolution are obtained
by rotating the ellipses about the semi-minor axis along the optic axis. The common
tangent plane FE perpendicular to the plane of the page to these ellipsoids of revolution at
points G and G¢ is the extraordinary ray wavefront when F has just become the origin of
 Polarization 303

secondary wavelets. When the points G and G¢ are joined to the points B and J respectively,
the refracted extraordinary ray is obtained.
In this case, the plane of vibration of the ordinary ray is perpendicular to the principal
plane of the ordinary ray and tangential to the spherical surfaces, whereas the plane of
vibration of the extraordinary ray is along the principal plane of the extraordinary ray and
is tangential to the ellipsoidal surfaces. Thus, an ordinary incident light splits up into two
rays propagating in different directions and when they emerge from the crystal at the other
surface, two plane polarized beams are produced.
Case 3:
Suppose a uniaxial crystal slab is cut in such a way that its unique optic axis is parallel to
the refracting surface of the crystal and perpendicular to the plane of incidence. These
conditions are depicted in Fig. 4.21.
Let a beam of parallel light wave be incident obliquely on the plane surface of the uniaxial
crystal slab as shown in Fig. 4.21. Here the plane of incidence is the plane of the page. Let
BD represent the incident wavefront. At the instant when the incident wavefront touches
the crystal surface at B, this point on the crystal becomes the source of Huygens’ secondary
wavelets for ordinary and extraordinary rays. As the incident wavefront advances, every
point along the crystal surface PQ between B and F successively becomes the source of
Huygens’ secondary wavelets for ordinary and extraordinary rays. All these points would
have advanced different distances till the point F on the crystal is just being disturbed by
the advancing wavefront.
Rotating the ellipse about the minor axis, which in this case is along the optic axis,
forms the ellipsoidal wavelets in the negative uniaxial crystal slab. Therefore, the axis of
revolution in this case is perpendicular to the plane of the page and the other two axes
lie on the plane of the page as shown in Fig. 4.21. Hence, the section of the ellipsoidal
wavelets of the extraordinary wave from the point B are semicircles having radius equal to
the semi-major axis of the ellipsoidal wavelet and the section of the spherical wavelets of
ordinary waves from the point B by the plane of incidence are semicircles having radius
equal to the semi-minor axis of the ellipsoidal wavelet when F has just become the origin
of secondary wavelets. Another point J is taken between B and F and Huygens’ secondary
spherical wavelets and ellipsoidal wavelets are constructed in a similar manner. The
position of secondary spherical wavelets and secondary ellipsoidal wavelets originating
from all the points between B and F are obtained in the same manner as described earlier.
The common tangential plane FO perpendicular to the plane of the page to these spheres
at points G and G¢ is the ordinary ray wavefront when F has just become the origin of
secondary wavelets. When the points G and G¢ are joined to the points B and J respectively,
the refracted ordinary ray is obtained. The common tangential plane FE perpendicular to
the plane of the page to these ellipsoids of revolution at points S and S¢ is the extraordinary
ray wavefront when F has just become the origin of secondary wavelets. When the points S
and S¢ are joined to the points B and, J respectively, the refracted extraordinary ray is obtained.
Thus, we conclude that when the optic axis is parallel to the refracting surface of the
crystal and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, the speed of the extraordinary wave is
304 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

the same along any direction on the plane of incidence and the extraordinary wave travels
perpendicularly to the extraordinary wavefront. Thus, when the optic the axis is parallel
to the refracting surface of the crystal and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, the
refractive index of the crystal for the extraordinary wave is constant. Under this condition,
the extraordinary wave as well as the ordinary wave obeys the two laws of refraction. In
this case, also as evident from Fig. 4.19, the plane of incidence, the principal plane for the

Figure 4.21 Refraction of a plane wave for oblique incidence on a negative uniaxial crystal. The optic
axis is parallel to the refracting surface of the crystal and perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. In this figure, O represents the optic axis perpendicular to the plane of the
paper. Here the vertical section of a negative uniaxial crystal is shown

ordinary wave and the principal plane for the extraordinary wave do not coincide with
each other. The principal plane for the extraordinary wave is perpendicular to the plane
of the page as it is the plane containing the optic axis and the extraordinary refracted ray
BS. The vibrations of the extraordinary wave are tangential to the ellipsoidal wave surfaces
along the principal plane for the extraordinary wave. Hence, the direction of vibrations
of the extraordinary wave is perpendicular to the plane of the page or plane of incidence.
The principal plane for the ordinary wave is perpendicular to the plane of the page as it is
the plane containing the optic axis and the ordinary refracted ray BG. The vibrations of
the ordinary wave are tangential to the spherical wave surfaces and perpendicular to the
principal plane for the ordinary wave. Hence, the direction of vibrations of the extraordinary
wave is parallel to the plane of the page or plane of incidence.
 Polarization 305

4.8 Nicol Prism

The Nicol prism is an optical device designed from a calcite crystal for producing and
analyzing plane polarized light.

4.8.1 Principle

When ordinary light is transmitted through a calcite crystal it splits into an O-ray and an
E-ray plane polarized with the planes of polarization perpendicular to each other. If one
ray is eliminated, the other ray will emerge from the crystal as plane polarized. This is the
principle of the Nicol prism. William Nicol, in the year 1828, eliminated the O-ray by
utilizing the phenomenon of total internal reflection at a thin film of non-doubly refracting
plaster, Canada balsam, separating two pieces of calcite.

4.8.2 Construction

A calcite crystal with length three times its width is taken. The end faces of this crystal is cut
in such a way that the angle in the principal section become 68° and 112°. Now the crystal
is cut into two pieces by a plane perpendicular to the principal section as well as to PR and
P¢R¢ (Fig. 4.22). The two cut pieces are optically polished and cemented together again by a
thin layer of Canada balsam. The end faces of the device are left clear while the remaining
faces are painted black.

Figure 4.22 Illustration of action of a Nicol prism

4.8.3 Action of a Nicol prism

The refractive index of Canada balsam mB is intermediate between the refractive indices of
calcite crystal for O-ray m0 and E-ray mE. For sodium light, having mean wavelength 5893
Å, mE(1.486) < mB(1.550) < m0(1.658). That means for this light
i. Canada balsam is optically more dense than calcite for E-ray.
306 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ii. Canada balsam is optically less dense than calcite for O-ray.
iii. The calcite is less dense for E-ray than O-ray.
Canada balsam behaves as a rarer medium for O-ray and as a denser medium for E-ray
with respect to calcite.
When monochromatic unpolarized sodium light ray AB enters the device through the
face PR at the point B in a direction parallel to the longer side, it splits into polarized O-ray
along BO and E-ray along BE, the latter making the greater angle with the optic axis (see
Fig. 4.22). The plane of vibration of the O-ray is perpendicular to the principal section
and the plane of vibration of E-ray is along the principal section. Passing through a denser
medium (calcite), the O-ray is incident at an angle more than the critical angle on the rarer
medium (Canada balsam) at C. The critical angle of incidence is

µ
θC sin −1 =
= B
69.2°
µ0

for the aforementioned two media, namely Canada balsam and calcite for O-ray. This is
accomplished simply by the way of constructing and dimension of the Nicol prism. After
reflection of the O-ray by the Canada balsam, it follows the path CO to be absorbed by
the blackened sidewall. On the other hand, the E-ray passing through the rarer (calcite)
medium is incident on a denser medium (Canada balsam) and get refracted to emerge
from the face P¢R¢ parallel to the incident ray. Thus, finally the Nicol prism transmits only
the E-ray plane polarized with vibrations confined to the principal section.

4.8.4 Limitations
The refractive index of the calcite crystal for E-ray depends upon its direction of
propagation or angle of incidence. The values of the refractive index of calcite for E-ray
will lie between 1.4864 to 1.6554 in the direction perpendicular to the optic axis and along
the optic axis respectively. (The O-ray and E-ray has the same speed along the optic axis!).
For intermediate directions, the refractive index of the calcite for the E-ray will lie between
these limits. Therefore, beyond a certain angle of incidence, the E-ray will be totally
reflected. The dimensions of the Nicol prism are such that this angle is at about 14°. Thus,
to avoid the total reflection of E-ray and transmission of O-ray by the Canada balsam, the
angle between the extreme rays of light incident on the Nicol is limited to about 28°.

4.8.5 Parallel and crossed Nicol prisms

The Nicol prism can be used as a polarizer and an analyzer. When two Nicol prisms are
placed coaxially end to end, the Nicol prism on which unpolarized light is incident first is
the polarizer N1 and the second Nicol prism on which polarized E-ray is incident is called
the analyzer N2. The vibrations of the polarized E-ray are along the principal section of the
 Polarization 307

polarizer N1. If the two principal sections of the two Nicol prisms are parallel to each other,
then the vibrations of the polarized E-ray emerging from N1 are along the principal section
of the analyzer N2 and hence, the E-ray will be transmitted freely through the analyzer N2.
This combination of two Nicol prisms placed coaxially where the principal sections of the
polarizer and the analyzer are parallel to each other in a single plane is called parallel Nicols
or parallel Nicol prism.
If two Nicol prisms are placed in such a way that the principal sections of the two Nicol
prisms are perpendicular to each other, then the vibrations of the polarized E-ray emerging
from N1 are perpendicular to the principal section of the analyzer N2 and hence, the E-ray
will be incident as an O-ray on the Canada balsam of the analyzer N2 and will be reflected
by the analyzer N2 exactly in the same manner as the O-ray was totally reflected in the
polarizer N1. Thus, no light emerges from the analyzer N2 in case of crossed Nicols. This
combination of two Nicols placed perpendicular to each other so that the principal sections
of the polarizer and the analyzer are perpendicular to each other is called crossed Nicols or
crossed Nicol prism.
When the analyzer N2 is rotated 90° from the parallel position, it becomes a crossed
Nicol where the principal sections of the two Nicols (polarizer N1 and analyzer N2) are
perpendicular to each other. With further rotation of N2 by 90°, the principal sections of
polarizer N1 and analyzer N2 are parallel to each other and the E-ray is transmitted freely
by the analyzer N2. Again with further rotation of N2 through 90°, the principal sections of
polarizer N1 and analyzer N2 are perpendicular to each other and no light is transmitted by
this combination.
In the intermediate position between crossed and parallel settings of the combination,
some E-ray is transmitted. Just on entering into the analyzer N2, the amplitudes of the E-ray
are resolved into two components namely r cosq parallel to the principal section of N2 and
r sin q perpendicular to the principal section of N2. See Fig. 4.23.
The component r cos q parallel to the principal section of N2 is transmitted and r sin q
perpendicular to the principal section of N2 is totally reflected by the analyzer N2. Thus, the
intensity of light coming out for intermediate positions of two Nicols will be given by

I = I 0 cos2 θ (4.6)

where
I0 = Intensity of the transmitted light of parallel Nicols
= Intensity of the transmitted light when q = 0°
q = Angle between principal sections of the two Nicols
308 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.23 Resolutions for amplitudes of the E-ray for intermediate positions of the analyzer N2
and the polarizer N1

Example 4.6
Two adjacent plane polarized waves A and B with planes of polarization perpendicular to
each other, are analyzed by an analyzer. In one orientation of the analyzer, the intensity of the
wave B is zero. When the analyzer is rotated through an angle 60° from this orientation, the
intensities of the two waves are equal. Compare the intensities of the two waves.
Solution
Suppose a plane polarized light is coming from a polarizer and is incident on the analyzer.
According to the question, in one orientation of the analyzer, the intensity of the wave B is
zero. According to Eq. (4.6) in this orientation for the wave B, q = 90° and this implies that
q = 0° for the wave A. Now the analyzer is rotated through an angle 60° as a result of which for
the wave A, q = 60° and for the wave B, q = 30°. The intensities of the two waves are equal.
Hence, from Eq. (4.6), we have

I A = I A0 cos2 60

I B = I B 0 cos2 30

Since IA = IB, we write

I AO cos2 60 = I BO cos2 30
 Polarization 309

1 3
or I A0 × = I B 0 ×
4 4

or I A0 = 3 × I B 0

Thus, the intensity of the wave A is three times the intensity of the wave B.

Example 4.7
Two Nicols are crossed to each other. One of them is rotated through an angle 30°. What
percentage of incident unpolarized light is transmitted through the system?
Solution
We know from Section 4.11 that if I0 is the intensity of the unpolarized light incident on
I0
the polarizer, then only is transmitted through the polarizer. According to the question,
2
one of Nicols is rotated through an angle 30° from the crossed position. Therefore, the angle
between the two planes of the Nicols is 60°. Hence, the intensity of the light transmitted by the
analyzer I is obtained from Eq. (4.6) as

I0
I= cos2 60
2

I 1 3
or = ×
I0 2 4

I
or = 0.375
I0

Hence, the percentage of the incident unpolarized light transmitted through the system is 37.5%.

4.9 Retardation Plates

The speed of the O-ray v0 and speed of the E-ray vE inside a doubly refracting crystal is
in general not the same and v E ≥ v0 . Therefore, a path difference or phase difference is
introduced between the O-ray and the E-ray during their propagation inside the crystal.
The magnitude of the path difference or phase difference introduced between the E-ray
or the O-ray during their propagation inside the doubly refracting crystal depends upon
the thickness of the doubly refracting crystal in the direction of propagation and on its
refractive index.
310 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

A plate cut from a doubly refracting crystal by a plane parallel to the optic axis to
introduce a given phase difference/path difference between the O-ray and the E-ray the
during the normal transmission of light through it is called a retardation plate.
Let

t = thickness of the retardation plate in the direction of propagation of light.

m0 = refractive index of the retardation plate for the O-ray in the direction of propagation
of the O-ray.

mE = refractive index of the retardation plate for the E-ray in the direction of propagation of
the E-ray.

Hence, we have

m0t = optical path of the O-ray in the direction of propagation of the O-ray inside the
retardation plate.

mEt = optical path of the E-ray in the direction of propagation of the E-ray inside the
retardation plate.

The optical path difference D between the O-ray and the E-ray inside the retardation plate
is therefore given by

∆ µ0 t − µ E t
=

or =
∆ ( µ0 − µ E ) t (4.7)

The corresponding phase difference between the O-ray and the E-ray is therefore given by

2π
=δ ( µ0 − µ E ) t (4.8)
λ

The retardation plates are of two types depending upon the phase or path difference
between the O-ray and the E-ray. The retardation plate is said to be a half-wave plate if

λ
=
∆ (2n + 1) or =
δ (2n + 1)π
2

and a quarter-wave plate if

λ π
=
∆ (2n + 1) δ (2n + 1)
or =
4 2
 Polarization 311

4.9.1 Half-wave plate

A plate cut from a doubly refracting crystal by a plane parallel to the optic axis of such a
λ
thickness that a phase difference of (2n + 1)π or path difference of (2n + 1) is introduced
2
between the O-ray and the E-ray during the normal transmission of light through it is
called a half-wave plate. In a half-wave plate, lagging of the O-ray from the E-ray starts from
the point of incidence and goes on increasing continuously throughout their propagation
inside the crystal and finally, when they emerge from the crystal, they have a phase difference
λ
of p or path difference of if the half-wave plate has minimum thickness. See Fig. 4.24.
2
The thickness of the half-wave plate can be calculated from Eqs (4.7) or (4.8) so that
λ
a path difference of (2n + 1) or a phase difference of (2n + 1)π is introduced between
2

Figure 4.24 Illustration of action of a half-wave plate. A half-wave plate rotates the plane of
polarization by 2q when light is incident on the plate at an angle q with the optic axis

the O-wave and the E-wave while they are coming out of the half-wave plate. From the
definition of a half-wave plate, we have

λ
∆ (2n + 1) , n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…
=
2

Putting this value of D into the LHS of Eq. (4.7), we get

λ
(2n + 1) = ( µ0 − µ E ) t
2
312 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1 λ
or t= (2n + 1) (4.9)
µ0 − µ E  2 

Equation (4.9) gives the thickness of the half-wave plate. The minimum thickness of the
half-wave plate is obtained by putting n = 0 in Eq. (4.9) and is given by

1 λ (4.10)
t min =
µ0 − µ E  2 

4.9.2 Quarter-wave plate

A plate cut from a doubly refracting crystal by a plane parallel to the optic axis of such a
π λ
thickness that a phase difference of (2n + 1) or path difference of (2n + 1) is introduced
2 4
between the O-ray and the E-ray during the normal transmission of light through it is
called a quarter-wave plate. In a quarter-wave plate, lagging of the O-ray from the E-ray
starts from the point of incidence and goes on increasing continuously throughout their
propagation inside the crystal and finally, when they emerge from the crystal they have a
phase difference of (p/2) or a path difference of (l/4) if the quarter-wave plate has minimum
thickness. See Fig. 4.25.

Figure 4.25 Illustration of action of a quarter-wave plate

The thickness of the quarter-wave plate can be calculated from Eqs (4.7) or (4.8) so that
λ π
a path difference of (2n + 1) or phase difference of (2n + 1) is introduced between the
4 2
O-wave and the E-wave while they are coming out of the quarter-wave plate. From the
definition of a quarter-wave plate, we have

λ
∆ (2n + 1) , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
=
4
 Polarization 313

Putting this value of D into the LHS of Eq. (4.7), we get

λ
(2n + 1) = ( µ0 − µ E ) t
4

1 λ
or t= (2n + 1) (4.11)
µ0 − µ E  4 

This equation gives the thickness of the quarter-wave plate. The minimum thickness of a
quarter-wave plate is obtained by putting n = 0 in the Eq. (4.11) and is given by

1 λ (4.12)
t min =
µ0 − µ E  4 

Example 4.8
Plane polarized light is incident on a piece of quartz cut parallel to the axis. Find the least
thickness for which the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray combine to form the plane
polarized light. Given: m0 = 1.5442, mE = 1.5533, and l = 5 × 10–5 cm.
Solution
The ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray combine to form the plane polarized light on
λ
emergence if the plate introduces a phase difference of p or a path difference of between
2
the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray. The plate which introduces a phase difference of p
λ
or path difference of between the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray is the half-wave
plate. 2

The data given are

m0 = 1.5442

mE = 1.5533

l = 5 × 10–5 cm.

Here,

1 λ
t=
µ E − µ0  2 

is the least thickness of a half-wave plate in positive crystals

1 5 × 10−5
∴ t= × cm =2.75 × 10−3 cm
1.5442 − 1.5533 2
314 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 4.9
Calculate the thickness of the mica sheet required to make a quarter-wave plate and a half-
wave plate for l = 5460 Å. The indices of refraction for the ordinary and the extraordinary
waves in mica are 1.586 and 1.592 respectively.
Solution
The data given are

m0 = 1.586

mE =1.592

l = 5460 × 10–8 cm.

1 λ
Thickness for the quarter-wave plate is t 4 = in positive crystals
µ E − µ0  4 

1  5460 × 10−8 
or t 4 =  =cms 2.275 × 10−3 cms
1.592 − 1.586  4 

1 λ
Thickness for the half-wave plate is t 2 = in positive crystals
µ E − µ0  2 

1  5460 × 10−8 
t2 =  = 4.55 × 10−3 cms
 cms
1.592 − 1.586  2 

4.10 Production of Circularly Polarized Light

4.10.1 Principle

Circular motion of light results when two mutually perpendicular coherent linear vibrations
π
of equal amplitudes and frequency but differing in phase by , are compounded together.
2
The two mutually perpendicular coherent linear vibrations of equal amplitudes and
π
frequency but differing in phase of can be represented as
2

a  π
=x sin  ωt +  (4.13)
2  2
 Polarization 315

a
y= sin ωt (4.14)
2

Equation (4.13) can be re-written as

a
x= cos ωt
2 (4.15)

From Eqs (4.14) and (4.15), we have

a2 2 a2
y 2=
+ x2 sin ωt + cos2 ωt
2 2

a2
or x2 + y2 = (4.16)
2

a
This is the equation of a circle representing the circular motion of radius .
2

4.10.2 Production

The experimental arrangement for the production of circularly polarized light is shown in
Fig. 4.26. The plane polarized light from Nicol prism N1 is allowed to fall on another Nicol
prism N2 placed at a certain distance in the crossed position. Since two Nicol prisms N1 and
N2 are in the crossed position, the field of view is dark. Now in this position, a quarter-wave
plate mounted in the tube T1 is introduced between the two Nicols and held normal to the
ray of light coming from Nicol N1.

Figure 4.26 Experimental arrangement for the production of circularly and elliptically polarized light

Tube T1 can be rotated about the outer fixed tube T2. Thus, the quarter-wave plate mounted
in tube T1 can be rotated about a horizontal axis through any angle we desire. After the
introduction of a quarter-wave plate between two Nicol prisms N1 and N2, the field of view
316 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

beyond N2 may not be dark. If the field of view is not dark, the tube T1 containing the quarter-
wave plate is rotated so as to make the field of view dark. In this position, the vibrations of
the plane polarized light incident normally on the quarter-wave plate are along the optic
axis of the quarter wave plate and hence, perpendicular to Nicol prism N2. Now the tube T1
containing the quarter-wave plate is rotated through 45° so that the vibrations of the plane
polarized light incident normally on the quarter-wave plate make an angle of 45° with the
optic axis of the quarter-wave plate. At this position, the incident polarized light is split
up into two rectangular components – the O-ray and the E-ray having equal amplitudes
45° cos 45°) and frequency. According to the properties of the quarter-wave plate,
( sin=
there is a phase difference of (p/2) between the emergent O-wave and the E-wave so that
the resultant beam after the quarter-wave plate is circularly polarized. See Fig. 4.27.

Figure 4.27 Conversion of plane polarized light into circularly polarized light by a quarter-wave
plate when the plane polarized light is incident on the quarter-wave plate at an angle
of 45° with the optic axis

4.10.3 Analysis of circularly polarized light

To analyze circularly polarized light, the light is allowed to fall on a Nicol prism. The
intensity of the emergent light beam remains uniform when the Nicol prism is rotated. This
observation is common to both unpolarized and circularly polarized light. Therefore, from
this observation, we cannot determine whether incident light is unpolarized or circularly
polarized.
To conclude whether incident light is unpolarized or circularly polarized, the beam is
allowed to fall first on a quarter-wave plate and then on a Nicol prism. If the beam is
circularly polarized after passing through a quarter-wave plate, it becomes plane polarized.
When this emergent beam from the quarter-wave plate is incident on a rotating Nicol prism,
the field of view becomes dark twice during each complete rotation of the Nicol prism,
which implies that the incident original light is circularly polarized. On the other hand, if
the emergent beam from the quarter-wave plate is incident on a rotating Nicol prism, the
 Polarization 317

field of view does not become dark twice during each complete rotation of the Nicol prism,
which implies that the incident original light is unpolarized. Hence, we can conclude that
if the original beam after passing through the quarter-wave plate is extinguished twice in
each rotation while passing through the rotating Nicol, it is circularly polarized.

4.11 Production of Elliptically Polarized Light

4.11.1 Principle

Elliptical motion of light results when two mutually perpendicular coherent linear vibrations
π
of unequal amplitudes, equal frequency but differing in phase by , are compounded
2
together. The two mutually perpendicular coherent linear vibrations of unequal amplitudes
π
and equal frequency but differing in phase by can be represented as
2
 π (4.17)
x = a cos θ sin  ωt + 
 2

y = a sin θ sin ωt (4.18)

Equation (4.17) can be re-written as

x
= cos ωt (4.19)
a cos θ

Equation (4.18) can be re-written as

y (4.20)
= sin ωt
a sin θ

From Eqs (4.19) and (4.20) (squaring and adding both sides), we have

x2 y2
+ =sin2 ωt + cos2 ωt
a2 cos2 θ a2 sin2 θ

x2 y2
or + =
1 (4.21)
a2 cos2 θ a2 sin2 θ

This is the equation of an ellipse representing elliptical motion.

318 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

4.11.2 Production

The production of elliptically polarized light can be explained with the help of the
experimental arrangement shown in Fig. 4.26. The plane polarized light from the Nicol
prism N1 is allowed to fall on another Nicol prism N2 placed at a certain distance in a crossed
position. Since two Nicol prisms N1 and N2 are in the crossed position, the field of view is
dark. Now in this position, a quarter-wave plate mounted in tube T1 is introduced between
the two Nicols and held normal to the ray of light coming from Nicol N1. Tube T1 can be
rotated about the outer fixed tube T2. Thus, the quarter-wave plate mounted in tube T1
can be rotated about a horizontal axis through any angle we desire. After the introduction
of a quarter-wave plate between two Nicol prisms N1 and N2, the field of view beyond N2
may not be dark. If the field of view is not dark, tube T1 containing the quarter-wave plate
is rotated so as to make the field of view dark. In this position, the vibrations of the plane
polarized light incident normally on the quarter-wave plate are along the optic axis of the
quarter wave plate and hence, perpendicular to Nicol prism N2. Now tube T1 containing the
quarter-wave plate is rotated through 30° (any angle not equal to 45°) so that the vibrations
of the plane polarized light incident normally on the quarter-wave plate make an angle of
30° with the optic axis of the quarter-wave plate. At this position, the incident polarized
light is split up into two rectangular components, the O-ray and the E-ray having unequal
amplitudes ( sin 30° ≠ cos 30°) and equal frequency. According to the properties of the
π
quarter-wave plate, there is a phase difference of between the emergent O-wave and
2
the E-wave so that the resultant beam after the quarter-wave plate is elliptically polarized.
See Fig. 4.28.

Figure 4.28 Conversion of plane polarized light into an elliptically polarized light by a quarter-wave
plate when plane polarized light is incident on the quarter-wave plate at an angle
excluding 0°, 45° and 90° with the optic axis
 Polarization 319

4.11.3 Analysis of elliptically polarized light

To analyze the elliptically polarized light, the light is allowed to fall on a Nicol prism. The
intensity of the emergent light beam varies between minimum to maximum when the Nicol
prism is rotated. This observation is common to both unpolarized and elliptically polarized
light. Therefore, from this observation we cannot determine whether the incident light is
unpolarized or elliptically polarized. The maximum or minimum intensity depends upon
the condition whether the principal plane of the Nicol prism is parallel to the major axis or
minor axis of the ellipse.
To conclude whether incident light is a mixture of unpolarized or polarized light, the
beam is allowed to fall first on a quarter-wave plate and then on a Nicol prism. If the
beam is elliptically polarized after passing through a quarter-wave plate, it becomes plane
polarized. When this emergent beam from the quarter-wave plate is incident on a rotational
Nicol prism, the field of view become dark twice during each complete rotation of the Nicol
prism, which implies that the incident original light is elliptically polarized. On the other
hand, if the emergent beam from the quarter-wave plate is incident on a rotational Nicol
prism, the field of view does not become dark twice during each complete rotation of the
Nicol prism, which implies that the incident original light is a mixture of unpolarized and
polarized light. Hence, we can conclude that if the original beam after passing through the
quarter-wave plate is extinguished twice in each rotation, when studied by a rotational
Nicol, it is elliptically polarized.

Example 4.10
The plane polarized light of wavelength 5890 Å is incident on a thin quartz plate cut with faces
parallel to the optic axis. Calculate
i. The ratio of intensities of the ordinary and the extraordinary ray if the plane of vibration
of the incident light makes an angle of 30° with the optic axis.
ii. The minimum thickness of the plate which introduces a phase difference of 30° between
the ordinary and extraordinary rays.
iii. The minimum thickness of the plate for which the ordinary and extraordinary waves will
combine to produce plane polarized light. Given m0 = 1.586 and mE = 1.592

Solution
i. If q is the angle between the optic axis and the amplitude vector r of the plane of vibration
then the component of the amplitude r perpendicular to the optic axis is r sin q and
the component of the amplitude r parallel to the optic axis is r cos q. Therefore, the
intensities of the ordinary ray I0 and the extraordinary IE ray will be given by

I 0 = cr 2 sin2 θ

I E = cr 2 cos2 θ
320 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

where c is the constant of proportionality.

Hence, we have

I 0 sin2 θ sin2 30 1
= = =
I E cos2 θ cos2 30 3

ii. From Eq. (4.8), we have

2π
=δ ( µ E − µ0 ) t
λ

According to the question, phase difference of

 π
30°  = 
 6

exists between the ordinary and extraordinary rays. Hence, putting this in the
aforementioned equation, we get

π 2π
= ( µ E − µ0 ) t
6 λ

λ
t=
12 ( µ E − µ0 )

Putting the values of l, mE, and m0 into this equation, we get

5890 × 10−8 (Ans.)

t= = 8.18 × 10= 4 cm.
cm
12(1.592 − 1.586)

iii. The ordinary and extraordinary waves will combine to produce a plane polarized
λ
light only if they have a phase difference of p or path difference of . Therefore, the
2
minimum thickness of the plate for which the ordinary and extraordinary waves will
combine to produce plane polarized light is obtained from Eq. (4.8) as

2π
=π ( µ E − µ0 ) t
λ

λ 5890 × 10−8
=or t = cms 4.908 × 10−3 cms.
=
2 ( µ E − µ0 ) 2(1.592 − 1.586)
 Polarization 321

4.12 Analysis of Light

4.13 Optical Rotation

Optical rotation or optical activity was first observed in a quartz crystal in 1811 by a French
physicist Francois Arago. Another French physicist, Jean-Baptiste Biot, found in 1815, that
liquid solutions of tartaric acid or of sugar are optically active, as are liquid or vaporous
turpentine. Louis Pasteur was the first to recognize that optical activity arises from the
dissymmetric arrangement of atoms in crystalline structures or in individual molecules of
certain compounds.
322 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Optical rotation is defined as the phenomenon by virtue of which substances like

quartz, calcite, tourmaline, cinnabar, sodium chlorate, sugar solution, tartaric acid
solution, turpentine, etc., rotate the plane of vibration of the plane polarized light about the
direction of propagation slowly when it passes through it along the optic axis. The plane
of polarization perpendicular to the plane of vibration also rotates by the same amount
as that of the plane of vibration. The angle through which the plane of vibration rotates
till it emerges from the optically active substance is defined as the angle of rotation. The
optically active substance is defined as the substance which exhibits the optical rotation
phenomenon. Optical rotation is depicted in Fig. 4.29.

Figure 4.29 Rotation of plane of the vibration of the incident plane polarized light in an optically
active substance. The optic axis is perpendicular to the YZ plane. The plane of vibration
of the incident plane polarized light is parallel to the XY plane. The plane of vibration
of the emergent plane polarized light is as shown in the figure

4.13.1 Laws of optical rotation

Biot developed the following laws from experimental observations.
i. Optically active substances are of two types – dextro-rotary or right-handed and
levo-rotary or left-handed. The optically active substance which rotates the plane of
vibration in the clockwise direction as seen by the observer looking towards the light
travelling towards him is called dextro-rotary or right-handed. The optically active
substance which rotates the plane of vibration in the anti-clockwise direction as seen
by the observer looking towards the light travelling towards him is called levo-rotary
or left-handed.
ii. For levo-rotary or left-handed optically active substances, the angle of rotation is
taken as positive while for dextro-rotary or right-handed optically active substances,
the angle of rotation is taken as negative.
iii. The angle of rotation q of the plane of vibration produced by the optically active solid
substance for a given wavelength is directly proportional to the length travelled by the
light inside the substance. Mathematically, it is translated as θ ∝ .
iv. The angle of rotation q of the plane of vibration produced by the optically active fluid
for a given wavelength and path length is directly proportional to the concentration C
of the solution or vapour. Mathematically, it is translated as θ ∝ C .
 Polarization 323

v. The angle of rotation q of the plane of vibration produced by the optically active
substance for a given wavelength and path length is approximately inversely
proportional to the square of the wavelength l of the light employed. Mathematically,
1
it is given as θ ∝ 2 . Thus, in the visible spectrum, the angle of rotation q is least for
λ
red and greatest for violet.
vi. The total angle of rotation q produced by a number of optically active chemically non-
reactive substances in a mixture is equal to the algebraic sum of all the angles of rotation
produced by individual specimens separately. Mathematically, it is translated as

θ= θ1 + (−θ2 ) + θ3 + (−θ 4 ) + θ5 + θ6 + (−θ7 ) + (−θ8 ) + ... (4.22)

where q1, q3, q5, and q6 are the angles of rotation due to levo-rotary or left-handed
optically active substances and q2, q4, q7, and q8 are the angles of rotation due to dextro-
rotary or right-handed optically active substances and hence, are taken as negative
in Eq. (4.22). Therefore, a solution containing an equal number of levo-rotary and
dextro-rotary molecules is optically inactive.

4.13.2 Fresnel’s theory of optical rotation

Augustin-Jean Fresnel explained the phenomenon of optical rotation assuming the

following facts
i. A beam of plane polarized light entering into an optically active crystal is broken up
into two circularly polarized vibrations – one right handed and other left handed.
ii. The two circularly polarized vibrations rotate with the same frequency in an optically
inactive crystal.
iii. The two circularly polarized vibrations travel with different velocities in an optically
active crystal. In dextro-rotary substances, the velocity of the right-handed circularly
polarized vibration is greater than the velocity of the left-handed circularly polarized
vibration while in levo-rotary substances, the velocity of the left-handed circularly
polarized vibration is greater than the velocity of the right-handed circularly polarized
vibration.
iv. After emerging from the substance, the two opposite circularly polarized vibrations
recombine to produce a plane polarized wave. In this emerging plane polarized wave,
the plane of vibration is rotated with respect to the plane of the vibration of incident
plane polarized light.

Case 1: Optically inactive substances

Let us consider the case of an optically inactive crystal like calcite, in which according to
Fresnel, plane polarized vibration on entering into the crystal along the optic axis, is resolved
into two circularly polarized vibrations rotating with the same angular frequency. In
Fig. 4.30, OL is the circularly polarized vibration rotating in the anti-clockwise direction
324 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.30 OL is the circularly polarized vibration rotating in the anti-clockwise direction and OR
is the circularly polarized vibration rotating in the clockwise direction. These two vectors
OL and OR rotate with the same frequency in opposite direction in calcite. OA is the
resultant of OL and OR and does not vary with respect to time. This resultant OA is
always in the same plane as that of the incident vibration

and OR is the circularly polarized vibration rotating in the clockwise direction. These two
vectors OL and OR rotate with the same frequency. OA is the resultant of OL and OR and
does not vary with respect to time. This resultant OA is always in the same plane as that
of the incident vibration. Hence, coming out of the crystal, the two circular vibrations will
again combine to give a plane polarized light having the same plane of vibration as that
of the incident plane polarized light along AB. Therefore, an optically inactive crystal like
calcite does not rotate the plane of vibration.
Case 2: Optically active substances
Let us consider the case of an optically active crystal like a right-handed quartz crystal, in
which according to Fresnel, plane polarized vibration on entering into the crystal along
the optic axis is resolved into two circularly polarized vibrations rotating with different
angular frequencies. In a dextro-rotary crystal like quartz, the angular velocity of the right-
handed circularly polarized vibration is greater than the angular velocity of the left-handed
circularly polarized vibration. In Fig. 4.31, OL is the circularly polarized vibration rotating
in the anti-clockwise direction and OR is the circularly polarized vibration rotating in the
clockwise direction. These two vectors OL and OR rotate with different frequency. As a
result on emergence, clock-wise vibrations make a greater angle than the angle made by
anticlock-wise vibrations.
The resultant of OL and OR is OA¢ and varies in direction with respect to time inside
the crystal. Hence, coming out of the crystal, the two circular vibrations will again combine
to give a plane polarized light with the plane of vibration A¢B¢ different from that of the
incident plane polarized light AB. Therefore, an optically active crystal like quartz rotates
the plane of vibration.
 Polarization 325

Figure 4.31 OL is the circularly polarized vibration rotating in the anti-clockwise direction and OR
is the circularly polarized vibration rotating in the clockwise direction. These two vectors
OL and OR rotate with different frequencies in opposite direction in the quartz crystal.
OA is the resultant of OL and OR and its direction varies with respect to time. This
resultant OA is not in the same plane as that of the incident vibration

4.13.3 Mathematical analysis of Fresnel’s theory of optical rotation

Suppose a plane polarized light is travelling inside an optically active crystal along the
positive Z direction. According to Fresnel, it is broken up into two left-handed and right-
handed circularly polarized waves. The plane of vibration of the two circularly polarized
waves will be parallel to the XY plane.
Let

v1 = velocity of the right-handed circularly polarized wave.

v2 = velocity of the left-handed circularly polarized wave.

The equation of the right-handed circularly polarized wave will be

2π  z
=x1 r sin t −  (4.23)
T  v1 

2π  z
=y1 r cos t −  (4.24)
T  v1 
 326 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The equation of the left-handed circularly polarized wave will be

2π  z 
=x2 r sin t −  (4.25)
T  v2 

2π  z  (4.26)
y2 =
−r cos  t − 
T  v2 

By combining Eqs (4.23) and (4.25), the resultant equation of motion along the X-axis will
be given by

x= x1 + x2

2π  z 2π  z 
or=x r sin  t −  + r sin  t − 
T  v1  T  v2 

 2π  z 2π  z 
or
= x r sin  t −  + sin  t −  
 T  v1  T  v2  

2π  z 1 1  π1 1
or=x 2r sin t −  +   cos  −  (4.27)
T  2  v1 v2   T  v2 v1 

By combining Eqs (4.24) and (4.26), the resultant equation of motion along the Y-axis will
be given by

y= y1 + y2

2π  z 2π  z 
or=y r cos  t −  − r cos  t − 
T  v1  T  v2 

 2π  z 2π  z 
or=y r cos  t −  − cos  t − 
 T  v1  T  v2  
 Polarization 327

2π  z 1 1  π1 1
or y=
−2r sin t −  +   sin  −  (4.28)
T  2  v1 v2   T  v2 v1 

Taking the ratio of Eqs (4.26) and (4.25), we have

y π z 1 1 
=
− tan  − 
x T  v2 v1 

y  π z  1 1 
or =tan −  − 
x  T  v2 v1  

y
or = tan θ
x

or=y x tan θ + 0 (=
y mx + c) (4.29)

where

πz  1 1 
θ=
−  − 
T  v2 v1  (4.30)

Equation (4.29) represents a straight line making an angle q with the X-axis. Therefore, the
emergent light is a plane polarized light with the plane of vibration making an angle q with
the X-axis as shown in Fig. 4.32.
Interpretation of Eq. (4.30)
i. v1 > v2, q is negative; rotation of the plane of vibration is clockwise as in the case of
right-handed crystals like quartz.
ii. v1 < v2, q is positive; rotation of the plane of vibration is anti-clockwise as in the case
of left-handed crystals like turpentine.
iii. v1 = v2, q is zero; there is no rotation of the plane of vibration as in the case of optically
inactive crystals like calcite.
iv. The angle of rotation q is directly proportional to the length z of the material travelled
by the light.
328 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.32 The emergent light is a plane polarized light with the plane of vibration making an
angle q with the X-axis

4.13.4 Calculation of the angle of optical rotation

With the help of Eq. (4.30), we can express the angle of optical rotation in terms of the
refractive index of the crystal for the right-handed circularly polarized light mR and the left-
handed circularly polarized light mL. From Eq. (4.30), we have

π l 1 1  (4.31)
=θ  − 
T  vR vL 

where
vR = velocity of the right-handed circularly polarized wave
vL = velocity of the left-handed circularly polarized wave
 = length of the path travelled by the plane polarized light inside the optically active
crystal.

Let
mR = refractive index of the crystal for the right-handed circularly polarized light.
mL = refractive index of the crystal for the left-handed circularly polarized light.
c = speed of light in vacuum.

From the definition of refractive index of a material, we have

c
µR =
vR
 Polarization 329

1 µR
or = (4.32)
vR c

c
and µL =
vL

1 µL
or = (4.33)
vL c

1 1
Putting the values of and from Eq. (4.32) and (4.33) into the Eq. (4.31), we get
vR vL

π   µR
µ 
=θ  − L
T  c c 

π
or θ
= ( µR − µL )
T ×c

π ( λ= T × c)
or=θ ( µ − µL ) (4.34)
λ R

4.13.5 Specific rotation

The specific rotation or rotary power w of an optically active substance at a particular

temperature and at a particular wavelength is defined as the rotation produced by a
10 cm column of liquid containing 1 gm of active substance for every cubic centimetre of
solution. This statement can be stated mathematically as

10θ
ω= (4.35)
×C

where
degree × cm2
w = specific rotation in units of
gm
q = angle of rotation in degree

 = length of the light path in centimetres

330 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

C = number of grammes of optically active substance per cubic centimetre of solution, i.e.,
gm
concentration in .
cm3
The specific rotation or rotary power w of optically active substances varies not only with
the concentration of the optically active substances but also with solvents. Optical rotation
is assigned a negative value if it is clockwise with respect to an observer facing the light
source, positive if counter-clockwise. A substance with a negative specific rotation is
described as dextro-rotatory and denoted by the prefix d or (–); one with a positive specific
rotation is levo-rotatory, designated by the prefix l or (+).

Example 4.11
Calculate the specific rotation of a sugar solution if the plane of polarization is rotated through
28° passing through a length of 0.2 m of 30% sugar solution.
Solution
The data given are

θ = 28O

= = 20cm
 0.2m

C = 0.3 gm/cm3

The specific rotation w is given by

10θ 10 × 28°cm2 cm2

ω
= = = 46.67°
 × C 20 × 0.3gm gm

Example 4.12
The plane of polarization of a plane polarized light is turned through an angle 12.6° passing
through a 10% sugar solution of length 20 cm. Calculate the specific rotation.
Solution
The data given are

q = 12.6°

 = 20cm
 Polarization 331

= = 0.1gm/cm3
C 10%

The specific rotation w is given by

10θ 10 × 12.6
ω= = = 63°cm2 /gm
 × C 20 × 0.1

Example 4.13
An optically active right-handed solution of 20 cm length rotates the plane of polarization
through 40° and a 30 cm length of optically active left-handed solution rotates the plane of
polarization through 24°. These two solutions in the ratio 1 : 2 are contained in a 30 cm tube.
Calculate the angle of optical rotation.
Solution
The angle of optical rotation is directly proportional to the length of the solution. The two
solutions are chemically non-reactive. The right- and left-handed molecules rotate the plane
of polarization separately and their addition gives the resultant rotation. According to the
question, two solutions are mixed in a 1 : 2 volume ratio and contained in a 30 cm tube. Hence,
we can divide the tube of 30 cm in the ratio 1 : 2. The first solution is assumed to be in the first
portion of the tube of length 10 cm and the second solution is assumed to be in the second
portion of the tube of length 20 cm.
According to the question, 20 cm length of the first (right-handed) solution rotates the plane
of polarization through 40°. Hence, 10 cm length of the first (right-handed) solution rotates
the plane of polarization through

10 cms
θ1 =
40° × −20° (–ve since it is right-handed)
=
20 cms

Again according to the question, 30 cm length of the second (left-handed) solution rotates the
plane of polarization through 24°. Hence, 20 cm length of the second (left-handed) solution
rotates the plane of polarization through

20 cms
θ2 = 24°× = +16° (+ve since it is right-handed)
30 cms

Therefore, the total optical rotation q according to Eq. (4.22) is given by

θ= θ1 + θ2

θ = −20° + 16° = −4°

Thus, the mixture behaves as a right-handed solution.

332 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 4.14
The refractive indices for right- and left-handed vibrations are 1.5580 and 1.55821 respectively
for quartz for sodium light of wavelength 5890 Å. Find the optical rotation for the same light
by a plate of quartz of thickness 1.00 mm when its faces are cut perpendicular to the optic axis.
Solution
The angle of rotation of the plane of vibration is given by Eq. (4.34) as

π
=θ ( µ − µL )
λ R

The data given are

= =
 1.00 mm 0.100cm

=λ 5890Å
= 5890 × 10−8 cm

µR = 1.55810

µL = 1.55821

Putting these data into the aforementioned equation, we get the angle of rotation as

π × 0.1
θ= −8
(1.55821 − 1.55810) =
0.5870rad =
33.63°
5890 × 10

4.14 Polarimeter
French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot discovered that in a mixture of optically active
substances and optically inactive substances, the angle of rotation of the mixture is directly
proportional to the concentration of the optically active substance. This discovery has been
exploited extensively in commerce and industry to estimate the percentage of sugar present
in an optically inactive impurity. A number of devices known as polarimeters have been
designed for the purpose.
Polarimeters are devices by virtue of which the angle of rotation of optically active
substances in pure form or in impure form can be measured. The polarimeter calibrated to
read directly the percentage of cane sugar in a solution is called sacharimeter. Polarimeters
 Polarization 333

can be used to estimate the specific rotation or rotary power of a substance or of a mixture
of optically active and optically inactive substances.
The first version of polarimeters as used by Mitcherlich were not very accurate in
determining the angle of rotation as the field of view remained completely dark not for a
single position but for a large range of rotation of the analyzer. This draw-back was removed
by using the half shadow principle in which the field of view was divided into two halves
situated side by side – this was done by inserting a circular disc in a certain orientation
between the polarizer and the analyzer. Half of the circular disc is made of glass and the
other half is made of a specially cut quartz and is known as Laurent half shade. As a result
of this insertion, the analyzer can be accurately set for equal brightness of the two halves
of the field of view. This highly sensitive polarimeter based on the half shadow principle is
called Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter.

4.14.1 Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter

Principle of the polarimeter

When the plane polarized light is allowed to pass along the optic axis of an optically active
substance, its plane of vibration rotates about the direction of propagation and emerges
from the optically active substance rotating through a certain angle known as the angle of
rotation. The angle of rotation is directly proportional to the length travelled by the light
inside the substance, concentration C of the solution, inversely proportional to the square
of the wavelength l of the light employed (approximately). The total angle of rotation q
produced by a number of optically active chemically non-reactive substances in a mixture
is equal to the algebraic sum of all the angles of rotation produced by individual specimens
separately.
Construction
The essential components of Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter are depicted in Fig. 4.33. It
consists of two Nicol prisms N1 and N2. N1 is the polarizer and N2 is the analyzer. The two
Nicol prisms N1 and N2 can be rotated about a common axis. The rotation of N1 and N2 can
be read with help of a circular vernier scale (not shown) having least count of a fraction of
a degree. Behind the polarizer, there is Laurent’s half-shade disc. As mentioned earlier, half
of Laurent’s half-shade disc is made of a semi-circular half-wave plate made of quartz and
the other half is made of semicircular glass. The thickness of the semicircular glass plate
is such that it transmits and absorbs the same amount of light as that of the semicircular
quartz half-wave plate. Behind the analyzer, there is a glass tube having a larger diameter at
its middle portion. The solution containing optically active substance is filled in this glass
tube so that there are no air bubbles and the two ends of the tube are closed by transparent
cover-slips. The air bubble, if any is arrested, is moved into the middle portion having larger
diameter. A convex lens is placed in front of the polarizer N1 so that a monochromatic
source of light is at the focus of the lens. By this arrangement, the monochromatic light
incident on the polarizer N1 is made parallel. The emergent light from the analyzer N2 is
viewed through a short focus telescope.
334 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.33 Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter/sacharimeter

Action of Laurent’s half-shade disc

Let the plane of vibration of the plane polarized light incident normally on the half-shade
disc be along PQ as shown in Fig. 4.34 making an angle q with AC parallel to the optic axis.

Figure 4.34 Action of Laurent’s half-shade disc

AC is the interface between the semi-circular quartz half-wave plate and the semicircular
glass plate. The plane of vibrations of the incident plane polarized light passing through
the glass plate remains unchanged. Hence, the vibrations of the plane polarized light
emerging from the semi-circular glass disc are along the plane PQ as that of the incident
light. However, the incident plane polarized light passing through the semi-circular quartz
 Polarization 335

half-wave plate is divided into its components – the O-ray component of amplitude OM =
r sin q is perpendicular to the optic axis, i.e., X-axis and the E-ray component of amplitude
OL = r cos q is parallel to the optic axis, i.e., Y-axis (see Fig. 4.34). The two components
travel in the same direction but with different speeds. The speed of O-ray is more than
that of E-ray. Hence, on emergence from the semi-circular quartz half-wave plate, a path
difference of (l/2) or a phase difference of p is introduced between the emerging O-ray and
the E-ray. Due to a phase difference of p, the direction of vibrations of the O-ray is reversed
and its amplitude becomes ON = r sin q. The amplitude of vibration of the E-ray, OL = r
cos q, remains unchanged in direction and magnitude. Therefore, the resultant of ON = r
sin q and OL = r cos q as shown in Fig. 4.34 is OR. The magnitudes of OR and OP are the
same. Thus, the plane of vibration of plane polarized light emerging from the semi-circular
quartz half-wave plate in Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter will be along RS (see Fig. 4.34).
Case 1:
Suppose the principal plane of the analyzer N2 is parallel to EOF of Laurent’s half-shade disc.
See Fig. 4.35(a). The component of the amplitude of the vibrations coming out from the
semi-circular glass portion of Laurent’s half-shade disc is ON = r sin q and the component
of the amplitude of the vibrations coming out from the semi-circular quartz portion of
Laurent’s half-shade disc is OM = r sin q. Thus, both these amplitudes are equal. Therefore,
the two halves of the field of view have the same brightness.
Case 2:
If the principal plane of the analyzer N2 is rotated clock-wise until OP is perpendicular
to E¢F¢ (see Fig. 4.35(b)), then the component of the amplitude of the vibrations coming
out from the semi-circular quartz portion of Laurent’s half-shade disc is OM = 0 and the
component of the amplitude of the vibrations coming out from the semi-circular glass
portion of Laurent’s half-shade disc is more than that of Case 1 (ON¢ > ON). Therefore,
in the field of view, the brightness of the glass portion is more than that of Case 1 and the
quartz portion is dark. This has been depicted in Fig. 4.35(b).
Case 3:
If the principal plane of the analyzer N2 is rotated anti-clockwise until OR is perpendicular
to E¢F¢ (see Fig. 4.35(c)), then the component of the amplitude of the vibrations coming
out from the semi-circular glass portion of Laurent’s half-shade disc is ON = 0 and the
component of the amplitude of the vibrations coming out from the semi-circular quartz
portion of Laurent’s half-shade disc is more than that of Case 1. Therefore, in the field of
view, the brightness of the quartz portion is more than that of Case 1 and the glass portion
is dark. This has been depicted in Fig. 4.35(c).
If the principal plane of the analyzer N2 is parallel to AOC of Laurent’s half-shade disc,
then Case 1 is repeated qualitatively and quantitatively. Case 2 is repeated qualitatively
if the principal plane of the analyzer N2 is parallel to ROS of Laurent’s half-shade disc.
Case 3 is repeated qualitatively if the principal plane of the analyzer N2 is parallel to POQ of
Laurent’s half-shade disc (see Fig. 4.34).
336 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 4.35 Principle of Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter/sacharimeter

Thus, the Laurent’s half-shade device described here divides the field of view into two
halves.
Accuracy
To increase the accuracy of the polarimeter, the half-shadow angle q is fixed at the proper
angle by rotating the polarizer N1. The components of vibrations emerging from the semi-
circular quartz half-wave plate and the semi-circular glass plate transmitted through the
analyzer N2 depend upon the angle q on which the accuracy of the polarimeter depends
on. The device is so accurate that if the principal plane of the analyzer is rotated through a
fraction of a degree with respect to EOF, a remarkable change in intensity of the two halves
of the field of view is noticed.
Limitation
Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter or sacharimeter can be used only for that light source
having wavelength for which the quartz half-shade disc behaves as a half-wave plate.
Determination of specific rotation
We know that the specific rotation w from Eq. (4.35) is given by

10 θ
ω= ×
 C
 Polarization 337

where
degree × cm2
w = specific rotation in
gm

q = angle of rotation in degree

 = length of the light path in centimetre

C = number of grammes of optically active substance per cubic centimetre of solution, i.e.,
gm
concentration in .
cm3

From this equation, it is clear that to determine the specific rotation of a solution, the
concentration of the solution must be known priory to the experiment. The length of the
solution  of known concentration filled in the glass tube can be measured directly or can
be taken from the working manual of the polarimeter. In the aforementioned equation, the
only measurable quantity left unmeasured is q, the angle of rotation. The angle of rotation
q can be measured in the following way.
The experimental setup is depicted in Fig. 4.33. First, the experimental tube is filled
with clean water and placed in its proper position. The short focus telescope is focused
on Laurent’s half-shade disc. The analyzer N2 is rotated so that the brightness of the two
halves of the field of view due to the semi-circular glass disc and the semi-circular quartz
disc become equal. At this position, the readings of the two circular verniers attached to the
polarizer and the analyzer are noted. Now the glass tube containing pure water is taken out
and water is drained out. Then the glass tube is dried up and filled with a optically active
solution of known concentration and placed in its proper position without disturbing the
polarizer and the analyzer. When the tube containing optically active solution of known
concentration is placed, the planes of vibrations of the quartz half and the glass half are
rotated. In dextro-rotary substances like cane sugar solution, PQ and RS are rotated
clockwise and in levo-rotary substances like turpentine, PQ and RS are rotated anti-
clockwise. Therefore, the two halves of the field of view now are not equally bright. To
make the two halves of the field of view equally bright, the analyzer is rotated clockwise if
the optically active solution is dextro-rotary; otherwise, it is rotated anti-clock wise. When
the two halves of the field of view are equally bright, the readings of the two circular verniers
attached to the polarizer and the analyzer are noted for the second time. The difference
in the two readings of the same vernier gives the angle of rotation of the optically active
solution of known concentration. The experiment is repeated by taking solutions of the
same solute but of different concentrations. The angle of rotation is measured for each
concentration.
As the rotary power of an optically active substance depends upon its properties, from
Eq. (4.34), it is clear that the angle of rotation of an optically active substance is directly
338 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

proportional to its concentration. Therefore, if we plot the angle of rotation versus

concentration, we shall obtain a straight line passing through the origin as shown in
Fig. 4.36. From the graph, taking the slope of the straight line, the value of the ratio q/c is
determined.

θ
Figure 4.36 Calculation of to be put in Eq. (4.35) to determine the rotary power w of a
c
substance using Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter. (a) is the theoretical plot and (b) is
the experimental curve. Due to various reasons, all the experimental points may not lie
in a straight line. The straight line has been drawn by the least-square method

Putting this value of the ratio q/c in Eq. (4.35), the value of specific rotation or rotary power
w of an optically active substance is estimated.
Determination of concentration of sugar solution
From Eq. (4.35), we have

10θ
C= (4.36)
ω

where

C = number of grammes of optically active substance per cubic centimetre of solution, i.e.,
gm
concentration in
cm3
q = angle of rotation in degree

 = length of the light path in centimetre

degree × cm2
w = rotary power or specific rotation in .
gm
 Polarization 339

Equation (4.36) is the working formula for the determination of strength or concentration
of sugar solution.
The sugar solution is optically active with a dextro-rotary nature. To determine the
concentration of a given sugar solution, the experiment is conducted in the same manner
as described earlier. The length of the solution  and the angle of rotation q are measured.
The specific rotation w of the solution can be taken from the table of specific rotations at
a particular temperature. The concentration of the sugar solution can be calculated using
Eq. (4.36).

Example 4.15
A 20 cm long tube containing sugar solution rotates the sugar solution through an angle 21°.
cm2
If the specific rotation of the solution is 62° , calculate the strength of the sugar solution.
gm
Solution
The data given are

θ= 21°

 = 20 cms

cm2
ω= 62°
gm

From Eq. (4.36), we get the expression for concentration C as

10θ 10 × 21
=
C = = 0.17 gms/cm3 = 17%
ω 20 × 62

Example 4.16
A sugar solution of certain strength is filled in a tube of length 20 cm. Find the strength of the
cm2
solution if the rotary power of the solution is 60° and the optical rotation produced is
12°. gm

Solution
The data given are

θ= 12°

 = 20cm
340 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

cm2
ω= 60°
gm

From Eq. (4.36), we get the expression for concentration C as

10θ 10 × 12
=
C = = 0.10 gms/cm3 = 10%
ω 20 × 60

Example 4.17
A sugar solution was prepared by adding 100 grammes of cane sugar to one litre of water. By
observation, it is found that this gave the solution an optical rotation of 12° when filled in a
cm2
20 cm tube. If the specific rotation of pure sugar is 66° , find the percentage of purity of
the sugar. gm

Solution
The data given are

θ= 12°

 = 20 cms

cm2
ω= 66°
gm

From Eq. (4.36) we get the expression for concentration C as

10θ 10 × 12
=
C = = 0.091 gms/cm3 = 91gms/liter
ω 20 × 66

According to the question, the concentration of the sugar solution is 100 gm/litre. Hence, the sugar
sample (100 gm) dissolved in one litre of water contains 91 gm of pure sugar. That is, 100 gm of
sugar contains 91 gm of pure sugar. Hence, the percentage of purity of the sugar sample is 91%.
 Polarization 341

Questions

4.1 What is polarization?

4.2 Can radio waves be polarized? X-rays? Ultrasonic?
4.3 Explain the statement, ‘Only transverse waves can be polarized’.
4.4 Describe a mechanical experiment to explain polarization.
4.5 Why does light appear perfectly symmetrical about the direction of propagation?
4.6 Distinguish between polarized and ordinary light.
4.7 What is light vector?
4.8 Design an optical experiment to demonstrate polarization of light wave.
4.9 Explain why it is not possible to polarize a longitudinal wave.
4.10 Distinguish between plane of polarization and plane of vibration.
4.11 What is the difference between linearly polarized light and plane polarized light?
4.12 Explain how light is polarized by reflection.
4.13 Can sound waves be polarized?
4.14 What is the plane of transmission?
4.15 What is the plain of incidence?
4.16 State and explain Brewster’s law.
4.17 What is the angle of polarization and on what factors does the angle of polarization
depend upon?
4.18 State and explain Malus’ law.
4.19 Explain how light is polarized by refraction.
4.20 Mention various methods for production of polarized light.
4.21 What do you mean by double refraction?
4.22 Explain what happens when light passes through doubly refracting material.
4.23 Distinguish between positive doubly refracting crystal and negative doubly refracting
crystal.
4.24 What is optic axis? What are its properties?
4.25 Show that when light is incident on a plane parallel plate of glass at the polarizing
angle for the upper surface, the refracted ray strikes the lower surface at an angle of
polarization for that surface.
4.26 What do you mean by the term degree of polarization?
4.27 Explain how light is polarized by scattering.
4.28 What are ordinary and extraordinary rays? Do they obey Snell’s law?
4.29 What is the principal section of a crystal? What is its relation to the optic axis?
4.30 Distinguish between ordinary and extraordinary rays.
4.31 Explain how light is polarized by double refraction.
4.32 What are the postulates in Huygens' theory of double refraction?
342 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

4.33 Describe Huygens' experiment on polarization by double refraction.

4.34 Prove that planes of polarization of the O-ray and the E-ray are perpendicular to each
other.
4.35 Under what condition(s) are the O-ray and the E-ray not separated out?
4.36 What are the three ways that polarized light can be produced other than by using a
polarizing filter?
4.37 How can the optic axis of a calcite block be determined?
4.38 What should be the orientation of the optic axis in a negative uniaxial crystal so that
the E-ray and the O-ray both obey both laws of refraction?
4.39 Explain with a diagram the nature of refracted O-ray and E-ray when the optic axis is
inclined to the refracting surface of the crystal and lying in the plane of incidence.
4.40 Explain with a diagram the nature of refracted O-ray and E-ray when the optic axis is
parallel to the refracting surface of the crystal and lying in the plane of incidence.
4.41 Explain with a diagram the nature of refracted O-ray and E-ray when the optic axis
is perpendicular to the refracting surface of the crystal and lying in the plane of
incidence.
4.42 Explain with a diagram the nature of refracted O-ray and E-ray when the optic axis is
perpendicular to the refracting surface as well as to the plane of incidence.
4.43 Describe the construction and working of a Nicol prism.
4.44 Why should the angle of incidence on a Nicol prism be around 14°?
4.45 Explain the action of a Nicol prism.
4.46 Explain how Nicol prism produces plain polarized light.
4.47 Explain how Nicol prism can be used as a polarizer.
4.48 Explain how Nicol prism can be used as an analyzer.
4.49 What do you mean by parallel Nicol prisms?
4.50 Explain the action of parallel Nicols.
4.51 What do you mean by crossed Nicol prisms?
4.52 A student argued that if a polarizer is inserted in between two crossed Nicols, some
transmission of light may occur. Explain how far the student is correct. How can adding
a polarizer in between two crossed Nicols increase the transmission?
4.53 What is the function of Canada balsam in a Nicol prism?
4.54 Explain the action of a retardation plate.
4.55 Describe the action of a half-wave plate.
4.56 Derive an expression for the thickness of a half-wave plate.
4.57 Describe the action of a quarter-wave plate.
4.58 Derive an expression for the thickness of a quarter-wave plate.
4.59 Why is the half-wave plate so called?
4.60 What is a quarter-wave plate? Derive an expression for its thickness for a given
wavelength in terms of its refractive index.
 Polarization 343

4.61 How many times is the length of a half-wave plate more than that of a quarter-wave
plate for a particular monochromatic light.
4.62 Is it necessary to make a full-wave plate? Derive an expression for the thickness of a
full-wave plate.
4.63 What are the functions of a half-wave plate and a quarter-wave plate?
4.64 Distinguish between a half-wave plate and a quarter-wave plate.
4.65 If you are given a half-wave plate, a quarter-wave plate and a glass plate, how will you
distinguish between them?
4.66 What is a half-wave plate? Derive an expression for its thickness for a given wavelength
in terms of its refractive index.
4.67 What do you mean by a half-wave plate and a quarter-wave plate? How will you
distinguish between the two?
4.68 What is elliptically polarized light? How it is produced?
4.69 How you will distinguish between elliptically polarized light and a mixture of plain
polarized light and unpolarized light?
4.70 What are(is) the condition(s) for production of elliptically polarized light?
4.71 What is circularly polarized light? How it is produced?
4.72 How can you know whether a given light is plain polarized light or circularly polarized
light?
4.73 How can you know whether a given light is elliptically polarized or not?
4.74 A beam of right circularly polarized light is incident normally and get reflected. Is the
reflected beam right or left polarized? Explain.
4.75 How you will distinguish between circularly polarized light and a mixture of plain
polarized light and unpolarized light?
4.76 What are(is) the condition(s) for production of circularly polarized light?
4.77 How you will distinguish between circularly polarized light and elliptically polarized
light?
4.78 How can you know whether a given light is partially plain polarized or not?
4.79 How can you know whether a given light is unpolarized or not?
4.80 How can you obtain circularly polarized light from unpolarized light?
4.81 How would you change a right-handed circularly polarized light into a left-handed
circularly polarized light?
4.82 How would you change a left-handed circularly polarized light into a right-handed
circularly polarized light?
4.83 How would you change a plane polarized light into a circularly polarized light?
4.84 How would you change a plane polarized light into an elliptically polarized light?
4.85 How would you change a circularly polarized light into a plane polarized light?
4.86 How would you change an elliptically polarized light into a plane polarized light?
4.87 What is optical rotation or optical activity?
344 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

4.88 What do you mean by optically active substance? Give examples

4.89 Distinguish between levo-rotary and dextro-rotary substances. Give at least two
examples for each.
4.90 How does optical rotation affect the plane polarized light?
4.91 What is angle of rotation? On what factors does the angle of rotation of the plane of
vibration depend?
4.92 What is rotary power or specific rotation of an optically active substance? On what
factors does the specific rotation of an optically active substance depend?
4.93 What are the laws of optical rotation?
4.94 Apply Fresnel’s theory of optical rotation to explain the behavior of optically active
substances.
4.95 Prove mathematically that the speed of the right-handed circularly polarized wave
and the speed of the left-handed circularly polarized wave are not the same in optically
active substances.
4.96 What is specific rotation? Describe in detail the construction and working of Laurent’s
half-shade polarimeter. Explain how you would use it to determine the specific
rotation of a sugar solution.
4.97 Explain why and how Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter can be used to show that
nature of a sugar solution. On what factors does the angle of rotation depend on?
4.98 What is/are limitation(s) of Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter?
4.99 Explain how Laurent’s half-shade polarimeter can be used to verify the purity of a
liquid or of an optically active dissolvable substance.

Problems

4.1 What is the polarizing angle for a glass surface having refractive index 1.54. [Ans 57°]
4.2 The angle of polarization for diamond is 67.58°. What is the refractive index of
diamond? [Ans 2.424]
4.3 What is the Brewster’s angle of incidence for a light on water with refractive index
1.33? [Ans 53.1°]
4.4 The plane of vibration of an incident ray makes an angle of 30° with the optic axis.
Compare the intensities of the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray. [Ans IE = 3I0]
4.5 Critical angle in a certain substance is 45°. What is the polarizing angle? [Ans 54.74]
4.6 Calculate the range of the polarizing angles for white light incident on crown glass.
Assume that for white light, the wavelength limits are 4000 Å to 7000 Å and the
corresponding refractive indices are 1.5233 (blue) and 1.5146 (red) respectively.
[Ans 56.71° (blue) to 56.57° (red)]
 Polarization 345

4.7 A parallel beam of light is incident at an angle of 68° on a plane glass plate. The reflected
beam is completely plain polarized. Determine the refractive index of the glass and
the angle of refraction for this angle of incidence. [Ans 2.48, 22°]
4.8 A parallel beam of plane polarized light strikes a calcite crystal in such a way that light
vectors makes an angle 60° with the optic axis of the calcite crystal. What is the ratio of
the amplitudes and intensities of the two refracted ray? [Ans 1.732:1, 3:1]
4.9 A parallel beam of linearly polarized light of wavelength 5890 Å (in vacuum) is incident
on a quartz crystal. Find the wavelengths of ordinary and extraordinary waves in the
crystal. Given: for quartz m0 = 1.544, mE = 1.553. [Ans 3815 Å, 3793 Å ]
4.10 A parallel beam of linearly polarized light of wavelength 5890 Å (in vacuum) is incident
on a tourmaline crystal. Find the wavelengths of ordinary and extraordinary waves in
the crystal. Given: for tourmaline, m0 = 1.640, mE = 1.620. [Ans 3591 Å, 3636 Å]
o
4.11 A parallel beam of linearly polarized light of wavelength 5890 A (in vacuum) is incident
on ice. Find the wavelengths of ordinary and extraordinary waves in the crystal. Given:
for ice m0 = 1.360, mE = 1.307. [Ans 4510 Å, 4506 Å]
4.12 The refractive index of a certain glass is 1.65. For what angle of incidence is light
reflected from the surface of this glass completely polarized if the glass is immersed in
water of refractive index 1.33? [Ans 51.1°]
4.13 A polarizer and an analyzer are so oriented that the maximum amount of light is
transmitted. To what fraction of its maximum value is the intensity of the transmitted
light reduced when the analyzer is rotated through 35°, 45°, 60° and 90°.
[Ans 0.75, 0.50, 0.25, 0]
4.14 What minimum thickness of calcite is needed to introduce a phase difference of 45°,
90°, and 180° between the emergent O-ray and E-ray when plane polarized light is
incident normally on it? [Ans 4.28 × 10–5 cm, 8.55 × 10–5 cm, 1.71 × 10–4 cm]
4.15 The refractive indices of quartz for sodium light are 1.544 and 1.533. Calculate the
thickness of the quartz which will give the O-ray and the E-ray a path difference of
1.25 wavelengths. [Ans 8.2 × 10–3 cm]
4.16 The refractive indices of quartz for a light of wavelength 5000 Å are 1.544 and 1.533.
Calculate the thickness of a half-wave plate. [Ans 2.78 × 10–3 cm]
4.17 The refractive indices of quartz for a light of wavelength 5890 Å are 1.55 and 1.54.
Calculate the thickness of a quarter-wave plate. [Ans 1.4725 × 10–3 cm]
4.18 A sugar solution was prepared by adding 80 grammes of cane sugar to one litre of
water. By observation, it is found that it gave an optical rotation of 9.9° when filled into
cm2
a 20 cm tube. If the specific rotation of pure sugar is 66° , find the percentage of
gm
purity of the sugar. [Ans ª 94%]

cm2
4.19 An optically active solution of rotary power 55° causes an optical rotation of 12°
gm
in a tube of 11 cm long. What is the concentration of the solution? [Ans 0.198 gm/cc]
346 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

4.20 How will you orient the polarizer and analyzer so that the intensity of a ray of sunlight
is reduced to (i) 0.5, (ii) 0.25, (iii) 0.75, (iv) 0.125 of its original intensity.
[Ans 45°, 60°, 30°, and 69°]
4.21 Calculate the specific rotation/rotary power of a 20% sugar solution contained in a
20 cm length tube if the plane of polarization of plane polarized light is rotated by an
cm2
angle of 26.4°. [Ans 66° ]
gm

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following phenomena proves the transverse nature of light?

(i) Interference (ii) Refraction
(iii) Diffraction (iv) Polarization
2. What is plane of incidence?
(i) The plane containing the incidence ray and the normal to the surface at the point
of incidence
(ii) The plane containing the light vector and the normal to the plane of incidence at
the point of incidence
(iii) The plane containing the light vector and passing through the direction of
propagation
(iv) The plane on which incidence occurs
3. What is plane of reflection?
(i) The plane containing the incident ray and the refracted ray
(ii) The plane containing the incidence ray and the reflected ray
(iii) The plane containing the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of
incidence
(iv) The plane on which reflection occurs
4. What is plane of refraction?
(i) The plane containing the incident ray and the refracted ray
(ii) The plane containing the incidence ray and the reflected ray
(iii) The plane containing the refracted ray and the normal to the plane of incidence at
the point of incidence
(iv) The plane on which refraction occurs
5. What is light vectors?
(i) The vector which have small values
(ii) The vector which represent light
(iii) The magnetic vector of the light wave transverse to the direction of propagation
(iv) The electric vector of the light wave transverse to the direction of propagation
 Polarization 347

6. What is plane of vibration?

(i) The plane passing through the direction of propagation containing light vectors
(ii) The plane passing through the direction of propagation containing electric
vectors
(iii) The plane passing through the direction of propagation containing magnetic
vectors
(iv) The plain on which vibration occurs
7. The orientation of the plane of vibration of polarized light does not change.
(i) True (ii) False
8. What is polarization of a wave?
(i) Confinement of vibrations of wave into a single plane
(ii) Confinement of vibrations of wave into a small space
(iii) Confinement of vibrations of wave into a single line
(iv) Combination of vibrations of wave into one vibration
9. Polarization is the characteristic of
(i) Only longitudinal wave
(ii) Only transverse wave
(iii) Both transverse and longitudinal waves
(iv) Only light wave
10. What is plane of polarization?
(i) The plane passing through the direction of propagation containing light vectors
(ii) The plane passing through the direction of propagation containing electric
vectors
(iii) The plane passing through the direction of propagation containing magnetic
vectors
(iv) The plain on which vibration occurs
11. The plane of polarization is perpendicular to
(i) The plane of vibration
(ii) Direction of propagation
(iii) Electric vectors of the light wave
(iv) Magnetic vectors of the light wave
12. The plane of vibration and the plane of polarization are perpendicular to each other
(i) True (ii) False
13. What is angle of polarization?
(i) The angle of incidence at which light is slightly polarized
(ii) The angle of incidence at which light is partially polarized
348 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

(iii) The angle of incidence at which light is mostly polarized

(iv) The angle of incidence at which light cannot be polarized
14. The angle of polarization depends upon
(i) angle of incidence (ii) angle of reflection
(iii) nature of the interface (iv) wavelength of the light
15. At angle of polarization, the angle of reflection is not equal to the angle of incidence.
(i) True (ii) False
16. What is the value of the sum of the angle of polarization and the angle of refraction
π π
(i) (ii)
4 3
π π
(iii) (iv) or p
2 1
17. The refractive index of a certain glass is 1.5. What is the polarizing angle for this glass
surface?
(i) 55° (ii) 56°
(iii) 57° (iv) 58°
18. What is the chemical formula of calcite crystal?
(i) CuCO3 (ii) CaCO3
(iii) CoCO3 (iv) CoCO3
19. A calcite crystal cube has how many principal sections?
(i) 1 (ii) 2
(iii) 3 (iv) 4
20. The two beams of light produced due to double refraction do not obey laws of
refraction
(i) True (ii) False
21. Which of the following is incorrect
(i) O-ray obeys the laws of refraction
(ii) E-ray does not obey the laws of refraction
(iii) Separation between the O-ray and the E-ray does not depend upon the thickness
of the doubly refracting crystal
(iv) O-ray and E-ray emerges from the calcite crystal parallel to each other
(v) Speed of O-ray inside a doubly refracting crystal is same in all directions
(vi) Speed of E-ray inside a doubly refracting crystal is same in all directions
(vii) In a doubly refracting negative crystal, the speed of E-ray is more than that of O-ray
(viii) In a doubly refracting positive crystal, the speed of E-ray is less than that of O-ray
(ix) Wavefront of E-ray is spherical
(x) Wavefront of O-ray is spherical
 Polarization 349

22. The optic axis is a line

(i) True (ii) False
23. An isotropic substance is defined as a substance having
(i) the same properties at every point in the substance
(ii) the same properties along every direction in the substance
(iii) different properties at every point in the substance
(iv) different properties along every direction in the substance
24. In a positive crystal, the speed of O-ray is greater than E-ray
(i) True (ii) False
25. In a negative crystal, the speed of O-ray is greater than E-ray
(i) True (ii) False
26. The speed of O-ray and E-ray are the same along the optic axis in positive and negative
crystals
(i) True (ii) False
27. The orientation between the optic axis and the crystallographic axis is
(i) Optic axis and crystallographic axis are parallel to each other
(ii) Optic axis and crystallographic axis are parallel to each other
(iii) Optic axis and crystallographic axis makes 71° with each other
(iv) They can have any orientation with each other
28. The orientation between the plane of polarization of O-ray and the plane of polarization
of E ray is
(i) Plane of polarization of O-ray and plane of polarization of E-ray is parallel to each
other
(ii) Plane of polarization of O-ray and plane of polarization of E-ray is perpendicular to
each other
(iii) Plane of polarization of O-ray makes an angle 109° with plane of polarization of
E-ray
(iv) They can have any orientation with each other
29. Which of the following is correct?
(i) Characteristics of O-ray and E-ray are the same
(ii) Characteristics of ordinary light and O-ray are the same
(iii) Characteristics of ordinary light and E-ray are the same
(iv) None of the above
30. Which of the following is correct?
(i) Refractive indices of a doubly refracting crystal for O-ray and E-ray are the same in all
directions inside the crystal
(ii) Refractive indices of a doubly refracting crystal for O-ray and E-ray are the same in a
particular direction inside the crystal
350 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

(iii) Refractive index of a doubly refracting crystal for E-ray is the same in all direction
but is not the same for O-ray in all directions inside the crystal
(iv) None of the above
31. In a Nicol prism, mE and m0 are the refractive indices for E-ray and O-ray respectively. If mB
is the refractive index of the Canada balsam which of the following is correct
(i) m0 < mB < mE (ii) mB < m0 < mE
(iii) m0 < mE < mB (iv) mE < mB < m0
32. Which of the following is correct
(i) Canada balsam is the rarer medium for E-ray and denser medium for O-ray
(ii) Canada balsam is the rarer medium for E-ray and rarer medium for O-ray
(iii) Canada balsam is the denser medium for E-ray and rarer medium for O-ray
(iv) Canada balsam is the denser medium for E-ray and denser medium for O-ray
33. Which ray emerges out from a Nicol prism?
(i) O-ray (ii) E-ray
(iii) Unpolarized light ray (iv) Both O-ray and E-ray
34. Which ray is absorbed by the blackened side wall in a Nicol prism?
(i) O-ray (ii) E-ray
(iii) Unpolarized light ray (iv) Both O-ray and E-ray
35. No light emerges from crossed Nicol prisms because
(i) In crossed Nicols, the principal sections of the polarizer and the analyzer are
parallel to each other
(ii) In crossed Nicols, the principal sections of the polarizer and the analyzer are
perpendicular to each other
(iii) In crossed Nicols, the polarizer does not allow any light to reach the analyzer
(iv) In crossed Nicols, light cannot enter into the polarizer
36. Which of the following equations is/are correct for a half-wave plate?
π
(i) δ= (ii) δ = π
2
λ λ
(iii) t = (iv) t =
2 ( µ0 − µ E ) 4 ( µ0 − µ E )

37. Which of the following equations is/are correct for a quarter-wave plate?
π
(i) δ= (ii) δ = π
2
λ λ
(iii) t = (iv) t =
2 ( µ0 − µ E ) 4 ( µ0 − µ E )
 Polarization 351

38. Light is incident on a rotational Nicol prism and the intensity of the emergent light
beam becomes maximum and zero periodically. We can conclude that the incident
light is
(i) circularly polarized (ii) elliptically polarized
(iii) unpolarized (iv) linearly/plane polarized
39. Light is incident on a rotating Nicol prism and the intensity of the emergent light beam
remains unchanged. We can conclude that the incident light is
(i) Either circularly polarized or unpolarized
(ii) Either elliptically polarized or unpolarized
(iii) Unpolarized
(iv) Linearly polarized or un polarized
40. Light is incident on a rotating Nicol prism and the intensity of the emergent light beam
becomes maximum and minimum but not zero. We can conclude that the incident
light is
(i) Either circularly polarized or partially polarized
(ii) Either elliptically polarized or partially polarized
(iii) Unpolarized
(iv) Linearly polarized or un polarized
41. The light passing through a quarter-wave plate is analyzed by a rotating Nicol prism.
It is found that the intensity of the emergent light beam from the rotating Nicol prism
becomes maximum and minimum but not zero. We can conclude that the incident
light is
(i) circularly polarized (ii) elliptically polarized
(iii) unpolarized (iv) linearly polarized
42. The light passing through a quarter-wave plate is analyzed by a rotating Nicol prism.
It is found that the intensity of the emergent light beam from the rotating Nicol prism
does not vary. We can conclude that incident light is
(i) circularly polarized (ii) elliptically polarized
(iii) unpolarized (iv) linearly polarized
43. The light passing through a quarter-wave plate is analyzed by a rotating Nicol prism.
It is found that the intensity of the emergent light beam from the rotating Nicol prism
becomes maximum and minimum equal to zero. We can conclude that the incident
light is
(i) circularly polarized (ii) elliptically polarized
(iii) unpolarized (iv) linearly polarized
352 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

44. The light passing through a quarter-wave plate is analyzed by a rotating Nicol prism.
It is found that the intensity of the emergent light beam from the rotating Nicol prism
becomes maximum and minimum not equal to zero. We can conclude that the incident
light is
(i) circularly polarized (ii) elliptically polarized
(iii) partially polarized (iv) linearly polarized
45. Optically active substances are those substances which produce
(i) double refraction phenomenon
(ii) optical rotation phenomenon
(iii) double refraction and optical rotation phenomena
(iv) optical communication action
46. An optically active substance is dextro-rotary if
(i) as seen by an observer looking in the direction of propagation of light, the plane
of vibration is rotated clockwise
(ii) as seen by an observer looking against the direction of propagation of light, the
plane of vibration is rotated clockwise
(iii) as seen by an observer looking in the direction of propagation of light, the plane
of vibration is rotated anti-clockwise
(iv) as seen by an observer looking against the direction of propagation of light, the
plane of vibration is rotated anti-clockwise
47. An optically active substance is levo-rotary if
(i) as seen by an observer looking in the direction of propagation of light, the plane
of vibration is rotated clock wise
(ii) as seen by an observer looking against the direction of propagation of light, the
plane of vibration is rotated clockwise
(iii) as seen by an observer looking in the direction of propagation of light, the plane
of vibration is rotated anti-clockwise
(iv) as seen by an observer looking against the direction of propagation of light, the
plane of vibration is rotated anti clockwise
48. The angle of rotation inside an optically active substance is least for
(i) Blue light (ii) Red light
(iii) Green light (iv) Violet light
49. The angle of rotation inside an optically active substance is greatest for
(i) Red light (ii) Blue light
(iii) Green light (iv) Violet light
50. If q is the angle of rotation of the plane of vibration, t is the length of the optically active
solution, C is the concentration of an optically active substance in the solution and l is
the wave length of the light employed, then which of the following is/are incorrect
 Polarization 353

(i) θ ∝t (ii) θ ∝ C

1
(iii) θ ∝ (iv) None of the above
λ
51. The solution containing equal number of levo-rotary and dextro-rotary molecules is
(i) levo-rotary (ii) dextro-rotary
(iii) optically active (iv) optically inactive

10θ
52. The specific rotation w is defined as ω = . The unit of specific rotation is
C
degree × meter 2 radian × meter 2
(i) (ii)
kg kg

degree × cm2 radian × cm2

(iii) (iv)
gram gram
53. The graph plotted between the angle of the rotation of plane of vibration and
concentration of sugar solution is
(i) Linear (ii) Elliptical
(iii) Hyperbolic (iv) Parabolic
54. The device which measures the percentage of cane sugar in a solution is called
(i) Polarimeter (ii) Sacharimeter
(iii) Barometer (iv) Manometer
55. Polarimeter consists of
(i) One Nicols prism (ii) Two Nicols prisms
(iii) Three Nicols prisms (iv) Four Nicols prisms

Answers

1 (iv) 2 (i) 3 (iii) 4 (iii) 5 (iv) 6 (ii) 7 (ii) 8 (i)

9 (ii) 10 (iii) 11 (i & iii) 12 (i) 13 (iii) 14 (iii & iv) 15 (ii) 16 (iii)
17 (ii) 18 (ii) 19 (iii) 20 (i) 21 (iii, vi & ix) 22 (ii) 23 (ii) 24 (i)
25 (ii) 26 (i) 27 (i) 28 (ii) 29 (iv) 30 (ii) 31 (iv) 32 (iii)
33 (ii) 34 (i) 35 (ii) 36 (ii & iii) 37 (i & iv) 38 (iv) 39 (ii) 40 (ii)
41 (i) 42 (iii) 43 (ii) 44 (iii) 45 (ii) 46 (ii) 47 (iv) 48 (ii)
49 (iv) 50 (iii) 51 (iv) 52 (iii) 53 (i) 54 (ii) 55 (ii)
 5 Electromagnetism

5.1 Introduction
The phenomenon of electromagnetism in any medium is completely described by a set
of four first order partial differential equations called Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s
equations are the relationships between electric and magnetic fields in the presence
of electric charges and currents, whether steady or rapidly fluctuating, in vacuum or in
matter. The equations represent one of the most elegant and concise way to describe the
fundamentals of electromagnetism. Maxwell’s equations are a combination of the works
of Gauss, Faraday, Ampère, Biot, Savart, and others. Remarkably, Maxwell’s equations are
perfectly consistent with the transformation equations of the special theory of relativity. To
be more exact, these equations constitute a complete description of the behavior of electric
and magnetic fields separately or jointly in any medium.

5.2 Vector Calculus

In vector calculus, the spatial derivatives of one types of vector and scalar fields give other
types of vector or scalar fields. Depending upon the requirement, the first order differential
operator (see Eq. 5.2) may be applied to a scalar function to obtain a vector function or
vice versa. It may also give rise to one type of vector field from another type of vector field!
The concept of vector calculus was fully exploited by James Clerk Maxwell in a simple
way in discovering the missing link between the electric field and the magnetic field, thus
establishing the electromagnetic nature of light. Therefore, for complete appreciation of
complexities of electromagnetism, at least a brief explanation of vector calculus would be
highly beneficial.
The field, in vector calculus, is defined as a region within which every physical quantity
can be expressed as a continuous function of the position of a point in the region. The
 Electromagnetism 355

corresponding function is called a point function. Broadly speaking, fields are of two
types – scalar fields and vector fields. All the quantities in a scalar field are scalars and all
the quantities in a vector field are vectors. All quantities in both scalar and vector fields
are functions of positions and times. The vectors in vector fields and the scalars in scalar
fields may change with respect to positions and times. First, we shall discuss what are line
integrals, surface integrals and volume integrals.

5.2.1 Line integrals

The integration of a vector along a curve in a vector field is called a line integral. Let C
be a curve in a vector field connecting any two points situated inside the vector field and
 
F (x , y , z ) a vector function in the vector field. The line integral of F (x , y , z ) along the path
  
C is given by ∫ F .d. If the path is a closed path, then the line integral of F (x , y , z ) along the
C   
closed path is written as ∫ F .d. Here, d is an elemental vector length of the path. The
  C 
integral ∫ F .d is also called the circulation of F (x , y , z ) around the closed path C.
C

Physical significance of a line integral

 
If F (x , y , z ) is a force and d is the elemental vector length or small displacement along the
B  

path of a particle,then line integral ∫ F .d is the work
 done in displacing the particle from
A
A to B. Again if F (x , y , z ) is the electric field and d is the elemental vector length or small
B  

displacement along the path connecting two points A and B, then the line integral ∫ F .dl
A
is the electric potential difference between A and B.

Example 5.1

ˆ + yx
Calculate the circulation of F = xzy ˆ 2 − zz
ˆ 2 around the closed path shown in the unit
cube illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
Solution

Figure 5.1 Evaluation of line integral of a vector function as defined in Example 1.1
356 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


The line integral of F around the closed path EOGDE is given by

         

∫
EOGDE
F ⋅ d = ∫ F ⋅ d  + ∫ F ⋅ d + ∫ F ⋅ d + ∫ F ⋅ d
EO OG GD DE
(A)

 
ˆ + yx
In general, F = xzy ˆ 2 − zz
ˆ 2 and d = xdx
ˆ + ydy
ˆ + zdz
ˆ
  
i. Evaluation of ∫ F ⋅ d : Along the path EO, the values of x = y = 0 and hence, d = zdz
EO
ˆ .

Therefore, we get

  0
1
∫ ∫ (xzy
ˆ + yx
ˆ 2 - zz
ˆ 2 ) ⋅ (zdz
ˆ )= ∫ (− z
2
F ⋅ d = )dz =
EO EO 1 3

  
ii. Evaluation of ∫
OG
ˆ .
F ⋅ d : Along the path OG, the values of y = z = 0 and hence d = xdx

Therefore, we get

  1

∫
OG
F ⋅ d = ∫ (xzy
OG
ˆ + yx
ˆ 2 - zz
ˆ 2 ) ⋅ (xdx
ˆ )= ∫
OG
yzdx = ∫ 0 × 0 dx =
0
0

 
iii. Evaluation of ∫ F ⋅ d : Along the path GD, the values of y = z and x = 1; hence, dy = dz
 GD
and = ˆ + zdz
d ydy ˆ . Therefore, we get

 
∫ F ⋅=
d ∫ (xzy
ˆ + yx
ˆ ˆ 2 ) ⋅ ( ydy
ˆ + zdz
ˆ= ∫ (x dy - z dz )
2 2 2
- zz )
GD GD GD

1 1
2
=∫ (dy - z 2 dz ) =∫ dy − ∫ z dz =3
2

GD 0 0

 
iv. Evaluation of ∫ F ⋅ d : Along the path DE, the values of x = y and z = 1; dx = dy and
 DE
= ˆ + ydy
d xdx ˆ . Therefore, we get

 
∫ ∫ (xzy
ˆ + yx
ˆ ˆ 2 ) ⋅ (xdx
ˆ + ydy
ˆ= ∫ (zydx + x dy)
2 2
F ⋅=
d - zz )
DE DE DE

0
5
∫DE ( ydx + x dy) =
∫DE (xdx + x dx) =
∫1 (xdx + x dx) =
2 2 2
= −
6
 Electromagnetism 357

       

Putting the values of ∫ F ⋅ d , ∫ F ⋅ d , ∫ F ⋅ d 
EO OG GD
and ∫ F ⋅ d
DE
into Eq. (A) we get

  1 2  5 1
EOGDE
∫
F ⋅ d = + 0 + +  −  =
3 3  6 6

5.2.2 Surface integrals

  
 consider the vector field F defined by F = F (x, y, z). Draw a surface S in this field.
Let us 
Let ds be an elemental vector area on this surface. n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular
 to ds
in the outward direction (this is the direction of the elemental vector area ds ). The surface
 
integral of F over the surface S is ∫ F . nds
ˆ . If the surface is a closed surface, then the surface
 S 
integral of F over the surface S is written as ∫ F . nds
ˆ . The surface integral of a vector field
S
gives the total amount of flux passing through the surface S.

Physical significance of surface integral


Let F be the velocity vector of a moving fluid at any point in the fluid, and S a fixed surface

imagined inside the fluid. The surface integral ∫ F . nds
ˆ is the total amount of fluid or fluid
S 
flux passing through the surface S in unit time. If F is the magnetic induction vector and
S the surface through which magnetic flux passes, then the surface integral ∫ F . nds
ˆ is the
total amount of magnetic flux passing through the surface S. S

Example 5.2
  
Evaluate ∫ F ⋅ ds, where F = xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ 2 + zyz
ˆ , S is the surface of the cube bounded by x = 0,
S
x = 1; y = 0, y = 1; z = 0, z = 1 planes.
Solution
For the surfaces of the cube, we have
     
∫ F ⋅ ds= ∫ F .nds
S S
ˆ = ∫∫
ABCD
ˆ
F ⋅ zdxdy + ∫∫
DEOA
ˆ +
F ⋅ yds ∫∫
AOGB
ˆ
F ⋅ xds

  
+ ∫∫
BCFG
ˆ +
F ⋅ yds ∫∫
GOEF
ˆ +
F ⋅ zds ∫∫
FEDC
ˆ
F ⋅ nds (A)
358 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 5.2 Evaluation of surface integral of a vector function over the surface of a unit cube

As shown in the figure, we have

i. For the ABCD surface, ds = dxdy, nˆ = zˆ and z = 1

ii. For the DEOA surface ds = dzdx, nˆ = − yˆ and y = 0

iii. For the AOGB surface ds = dydz, nˆ = − xˆ and x = 0

iv. For the BCFG surface ds = dzdx, nˆ = yˆ and y = 1

v. For the GOEF surface ds = dxdy, nˆ = − zˆ and z = 0

vi. For the FEDC surface ds = dydz, nˆ = xˆ and x = 1

Putting all these values into Eq. (A), we have


F = xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ 2 + zyz
ˆ

      
∫ F ⋅ ds= ∫ F .nds
S S
ˆ = ∫∫
ABCD
ˆ +
F ⋅ nds ∫∫
DEOA
ˆ +
F ⋅ nds ∫∫
AOGB
ˆ +
F ⋅ nds
BCFG
∫∫ ˆ
F ⋅ nds

 
+ ∫∫
GOEF
ˆ +
F ⋅ nds ∫∫
FEDC
ˆ
F ⋅ nds


or ∫ F =
S
ˆ
. nds ∫∫ ABCD
(xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ 2 + zyz
ˆ ). zˆ dxdy + ∫∫
DEOA
(xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ 2 + zyz
ˆ ). (- yˆ ) dxdz
 Electromagnetism 359

∫∫ (xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ 2 + zyz
ˆ ). (− xˆ ) dydz + ∫∫ (xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ ˆ ). yˆ dxdz +
2
+ + zyz
AOGB BCFG

∫∫ (xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ ˆ ).(-zˆ) dxdy + ∫∫ (xˆ 4 xz − yy
ˆ ˆ ). xˆ dzdy
2 2
+ zyz + zyz
GOEF FEDC


or ∫ F .nds
S
ˆ = ∫∫
ABCD
yz dxdy = ∫∫
ABCD
yz dxdy + ∫∫
DEOA
y 2 dxdz + ∫∫
AOGB
(-4 xz ) dydz +

∫∫ (− y ∫∫ (- yz ) dxdy + ∫∫
2
) dxdz + 4 xzdzdy
BCFG GOEF FEDC

Putting the values of x, y and z for all the six surfaces into this equation, we have


∫ F .nds
ˆ= ∫∫ ∫∫ 02 dxdz + ∫∫ ∫∫ (−1 ) dxdz +
2
y × 1 dxdy + (-4 × 0 × z ) dydz +
S ABCD DEOA AOGB BCFG

∫∫ (- y × 0) dxdy + ∫∫
GOEF FEDC
4 × 1 × zdzdy

=
ABCD
∫∫ ydxdy + 0 + 0 − ∫∫
BCFG
dxdz + 0 + 4 ∫∫
FEDC
zdzdy

1 1 3
= + 0 + 0 −1+ 0 + 4 × =
2 2 2

 3
or ∫ F .nds
S
ˆ =
2

5.2.3 Volume integral


If we consider a closed surface in space enclosing a volume V, then ∫ Fdv is defined as the
volume integration. In the Cartesian coordinate system, V

 
∫ Fdv
V
= ∫ ∫ ∫ Fdxdydz
= ∫ ∫ ∫ (xˆ F
XY Z XY Z
X + yˆ FY + zˆ FZ ) dx dy dz
360 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


or ∫ Fdv = xˆ ∫ ∫ ∫ F dxdydz + yˆ ∫ ∫ ∫ F dxdydz + zˆ ∫ ∫ ∫ F dxdydz
V XY Z
X
XY Z
Y
XY Z
Z


Here xˆ , yˆ , and ẑ are the unit vectors along the +X, +Y, and +Z axes, F = xF
ˆ X + yF
ˆ Y + zF
ˆ Z

and FX, FY , and FZ are the X, Y, and Z components of F .

Example 5.3
 
Evaluate ∫ Fdv , where F= xˆ 2zy − yz
ˆ + zx
ˆ 2 , V is the volume bounded by the surfaces z = 6,
V
x = 6, y = z2, and y = 4.
Solution

Figure 5.3 Evaluation of volume integral of a vector function over the given volume


∫ = ∫ ∫ ∫ (xˆ2 yz - yz
V
Fdv ˆ + zx
x y z
ˆ 2 )dxdydz

6 4 2 6 4 2 6 4 2
= xˆ ∫ ∫ ∫ 2 yzdxdydz − yˆ ∫ ∫ ∫ zdxdydz + zˆ ∫ ∫ ∫ x 2 dxdydz
0 z2 0 0 z2 0 0 z2 0

6 2 4 6 2 6 2
y2 4 4
= xˆ 2 ∫ ∫ zdxdz − yˆ ∫ ∫ y z 2 zdxdz + zˆ ∫ ∫ y z 2 x 2 dxdz
0 0 2 z2 0 0 0 0
 Electromagnetism 361

6 2 6 2 6 2
= xˆ ∫ ∫ (16 - z 4 )zdxdz − yˆ ∫ ∫ (4 - z 2 )zdxdz + zˆ ∫ ∫ (4 - z 2 )x 2 dxdz
0 0 0 0 0 0

6 2 6 2 6 2
= xˆ ∫ ∫ (16z - z 5 )dxdz − yˆ ∫ ∫ (4 - z 3 )dxdz + zˆ ∫ ∫ (4 - z 2 )x 2 dxdz
0 0 0 0 0 0

6 2 6 2 6 2
= xˆ ∫ dx ∫ (16z - z 5 )dz − yˆ ∫ dx ∫ (4 - z 3 )dz + zˆ ∫ x 2 dx ∫ (4 - z 3 )dz
0 0 0 0 0 0

2 2 6 2
6 z6 6 z4 x3 z4
= xˆ x 0 × 8z − 2
− zˆ x 0 × 4 z − + zˆ × 4z −
6 0 4 0 3 0 4 0

 64   16  216  16 
= xˆ 6 ×  32 −  − zˆ6 ×  8 −  + zˆ × 8− 
 6   4 3  4

∫ (xˆ2 yz - yz
ˆ + zx
ˆ = 128 xˆ - 24 yˆ + 288zˆ
2
or )dv
V

5.2.4 Gradient of scalar function

Let ϕ (x , y , z ) be a continuous differentiable function in a scalar field (i.e., ϕ (x , y , z ) is a

scalar function). The gradient of ϕ (x , y , z ) , i.e., grad j in the rectangular coordinate system
is defined as
  ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
∇ϕ = xˆ
gradϕ = + yˆ + zˆ  ϕ =xˆ + yˆ + zˆ (5.1)
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z

where xˆ , yˆ , and ẑ are the unit vectors along the +X, +Y, and +Z axes. From Eq. (5.1), we
may have
 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ xˆ
= + yˆ + zˆ (5.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z

  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
and ∇ .∇ = ∇2 = 2 + + (5.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z

where ∇2 is called a Laplacian operator.

362 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The gradient of a scalar function in integral form can also be defined as

 ∫ ϕds
(5.4)
∇ϕ =lim s
V →0 V


where ds is the vector area element on the volume V = ∫ dxdydz . The mathematical steps
V
connecting Eq. (5.1) with (5.4) are beyond the scope of the book. The gradient of ϕ (r ,θ , φ ),
i.e., grad j in the spherical polar coordinates system is defined as
 ∂ϕ 1 ∂ϕ ˆ 1 ∂ϕ
∇ϕ =rˆ
gradϕ = + θˆ +φ (5.5)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
  
where rˆ, θˆ, and φˆ are unit vectors in the direction of r , θ and φ respectively. The gradient
of a scalar function is a vector function. A vector field derived from a scalar field (by taking
the gradient of the field) is called a scalar potential field or lamellar vector field.
Physical significance of gradient of scalar field

∇ϕ is a vector. This vector tells us how j (x, y, z) varies around a point with the change of
x, y, and z. In a scalar field of j, we can connect all the points in the region having the
same values of j. These points will lie on a surface (recollect equi-potential surface in
electrostatics). Since j has the same values at every point on the surface, j does not change
on the surface
 when we move from point to point. That means dj or the magnitude
of ∇ϕ , ∇ϕ = 0 along the surface. The function
 j changes most rapidly in a direction
perpendicular to the surface. The value ∇ϕ is the maximum space rate of change ofj.
This means that  ‘most rapid rate’ at which j changes is the magnitude of the vector ∇ϕ .
The direction of ∇ϕ is the direction along which j increases most rapidly.

Example 5.4
Find the gradient of the scalar function ϕ (x , y , z ) = xy + yz + zx at the point (1, 2, 3).
Solution

  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
)  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  (xy + yz + zx )
∇ϕ (x , y , z=
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 ∂  ∂ ∂
=  xˆ (xy + yz + zx )  + yˆ (xy + yz + zx ) + zˆ (xy + yz + zx )
 ∂x  ∂y ∂z
 Electromagnetism 363


or ∇ϕ (x , y , z ) = xˆ( y + z ) + yˆ (z + x ) + zˆ(x + y )


So ∇ϕ (1,2,3) = xˆ(2 + 3) + yˆ (3 + 1) + zˆ(1 + 2) = 5xˆ + 4 yˆ + 3zˆ

Example 5.5

If a vector function F is a function of space coordinates x, y, z, and time coordinates t, then

   ∂ F
=
prove that dF ( dr ⋅∇ F + )
∂t
dt

Solution
 
According to the question, F = F (x , y , z , t )

   
 ∂ F ∂F ∂F ∂F
∴ dF = dx + dy + dz + dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t


 ∂ ∂ ∂   ∂ F
=  dx + dy + dz  F + dt
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t


 ∂ ∂ ∂    ∂ F
=  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ⋅ ( xdx
ˆ + ydy ˆ ) F +
ˆ + zdz dt
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   ∂t


   ∂ F
(
= ∇ ⋅ dr F +
∂t
)
dt


    ∂ F
or =
dF ( dr ⋅∇ F +
∂t
) dt

Example 5.6
     
( )
If a is a constant vector and r is the position vector, then prove that ∇ a ⋅ r =
a.
364 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
LHS
  
( ) ∇  xa
∇ a ⋅r = (ˆ y + zaz ⋅ ( xx
ˆ + ya
 x
ˆ + yy) ˆ )
ˆ + zz


∇  xa
= (ˆ y + zaz ⋅ ( xx
ˆ + ya
 x
ˆ + yy) ˆ )
ˆ + zz


 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
(
=  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ax x + a y y + az z )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∂ ∂ ∂
= xˆ
∂x
(
ax x + a y y + az z + yˆ)∂y
(
ax x + a y y + az z + zˆ)∂z
(
a x x + a y y + az z )

= ˆ x + 0 + 0 ) + ( 0 + ya
( xa ˆ y + 0 ) + ( za
ˆ z + 0 + 0)

ˆ x + ya
= xa ˆ y + za
ˆ z

   
( )
or ∇ a ⋅ r =
a.

5.2.5 Divergence of a vector function

The divergence of a vector field is defined as the net amount of flux of the vector field
diverging or converging per unit volume. The flux of the vector field F is defined as
  
∫ F .nds
S
ˆ . Therefore, we can define the divergence of a vector F , i.e., div F is the limit of
its surface integral per unit volume as the volume enclosed by the surface goes to zero.
Mathematically,

   ∫ .nds
F ˆ
div F = ∇ ⋅ F = lim S (5.6)
V →0 V

where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular

 to the elemental surface area ds in the outward
direction. F .nˆ is the component of F along n̂, i.e., normal to ds in an outward direction. V
is the volume enclosed by the surface S. The integration ∫ is taken over the closed surface S.
S
 Electromagnetism 365

 
If F (x , y , z ) is a continuous differentiable
  function in a vector field (i.e. F (x , y , z ) is a
vector function), divergence of F , i.e., div F in the rectangular coordinate system is

   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
div F = ∇ ⋅ F =  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ⋅ ( xF
ˆ X + yF ˆ Z)
ˆ Y + zF
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

 ∂F ∂F ∂F
or div F = X + Y + Z (5.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z

where xˆ , yˆ , and ẑ are the unit vectors along the +X, +Y, and +Z axes. Here,
 
ˆ X + yF
F =xF ˆ Y + zF ˆ Z and
 FX, FY, and FZ are the X, Y, and Z components of F . The divergence
of F (r ,θ , φ ) , i.e., div F in the spherical polar coordinates system is given as

 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 1 ∂Fφ
div F =∇.ϕ =2 (r 2 Fr ) + (sin θ Fθ ) + (5.8)
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

where Fr , Fθ , and Fφ are the r, θ , and φ components of the vector F respectively.

Physical significance of divergence of a vector field

The divergence of a vector field is a scalar field because it gives the net amount of flux
coming out of the volume or the net amount of flux going into the volume. Quantitatively,
the divergence of a vector field is the net amount of flux of the vector field diverging or
converging per unit volume. If the divergence of a vector function is positive at a point in
the flux, then either the flux is expanding and its density is falling with time or the flux is
produced at the point. If the divergence of a vector function is negative, then either the flux
is contracting and its density at the point is increasing or the flux is swallowed up at the
point. If the net flux entering
 the volume is exactly balanced by the amount of flux leaving
the volume, then div F = 0. A vector field which satisfies this condition is called a solenoidal
vector field.

Example 5.7
    
( )
If a is a constant vector and r is the position vector, then prove that ∇ ⋅ a × r = 0
Solution

    ∂ ∂ 
( )
∇ ⋅ a=
 ∂x
∂
∂y ∂z  
(
× r  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ⋅  ax x + a y y + az z × ( xx )
ˆ + yy ˆ )
ˆ + zz


 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
∂z  
( ) ( )
=  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ⋅  xˆ a y z − az y + yˆ ( az x − ax z ) + zˆ ax y − a y x 

 ∂x ∂y
366 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

∂ ∂ ∂
=
∂x
( ∂y
)
a y z − az y + ( az x − a x z ) +
∂z
(
ax y − a y x =] 0. )

Example 5.8
  
 ( )
If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇ ⋅  u ⋅ r u  =1

Solution
According to the question, u is a unit vector. Hence, we have

u = xu
ˆ x + yu
ˆ y + zu
ˆ z

or ux2 + u 2y + uz2 = u 2 = 1

where ux, uy, and uz are the X, Y, and Z components of the unit vector u .
As u is a unit vector, we have


(
u ⋅ r = xu
ˆ x + yu
ˆ y + zu )
ˆ z ⋅ ( xx
ˆ + yy ˆ ) = xux + yu y + zuz
ˆ + zz

Now
     
( ) ( ) ( )
LHS= ∇ ⋅  u ⋅ r u = u ⋅∇ u ⋅ r + u ⋅ r ∇ ⋅ u = u ⋅∇ ( u ⋅ r )
 


(
= u ⋅∇ xux + yu y + zuz )

 ∂ ∂ ∂  
(
ˆ x + yu
= xu ˆ y + zu ) (
ˆ z ⋅  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  xux + yu y + zuz  )
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  

 ∂ ∂
(
ˆ x + yu
= xu ˆ z ⋅  xˆ
ˆ y + zu ) ( 
xux + yu y + zuz  + yˆ ) (
xux + yu y + zuz )
 ∂x  ∂y
∂ 
+ zˆ
∂z
(
xux + yu y + zuz 

)
 Electromagnetism 367

= ( xu
ˆ x
ˆ y + zu
+ yu )
ˆ z ⋅ ( xu
 x
ˆ + 0 + 0 ) + 0 + yu (
ˆ y + 0 + ( 0 + 0 + zu )
ˆ z )


=xu(
ˆ x + yu
ˆ y + zu
ˆ z ⋅ xu
ˆ x + yu )(
ˆ y + zu u u =
ˆ z =⋅ u2 =
1. )

Example 5.9
  
If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇ ⋅  u × r × u  = 2
  ( )
Solution
According to the question, u is a unit vector. Hence, we have u = 1.

    
(u × r ) × u =(u ⋅ u ) r − (u ⋅ r ) u =r − (u ⋅ r ) u
LHS
            
 ( )   ( )   ( )  ( )
∇ ⋅  u × r × u  = ∇ ⋅ r − u ⋅ r u  = ∇ ⋅ r − ∇ ⋅  u ⋅ r u  = 3 − ∇ ⋅  u ⋅ r u  = 2.
 

Example 5.10

 r 
Prove that F = 2 is non-solenoidal, where r is the position vector.
r
Solution

   r  xx
ˆ + yy
ˆ + zz
ˆ  ˆ
xx ˆ
yy ˆ
zz 
∇⋅F = ∇⋅ 2 = ∇⋅ 2 2 2
= ∇⋅ 2 2 2
+ 2 2 2
+ 2 2 2 
r x + y +z x + y + z x + y +z x + y +z 

 ∂ ∂ ∂  ˆ
xx ˆ
yy ˆ
zz 
=  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  .  2 + 2 + 2 2 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z   x + y + z
2 2 2 2 2
x + y +z x + y +z 

∂ x ∂ y ∂ z
= + +
∂x x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ∂y x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ∂z x 2 + y 2 + z 2

1 2x 2 1
= − + −
x2 + y2 + z2 ( )
2
x2 + y2 + z2 x + y2 + z2
2
368 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2 y2 1 2z 2
+ −
(x ) ( )
2
2
+ y2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2 x2 + y2 + z2
2

= 2
3
−
2 x2 + y2 + z2 (
= 2
3
− 2
2 1
= 2
)
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x + y +z 2 2
x + y +z 2 x + y +z x + y +z r

  1
Thus, we have ∇ ⋅ F = 2 which is a non-zero quantity, implying that the vector function is
non-solenoidal. r

5.2.6 Curl of a vector function

 
The curl of a vector curl F , is itself a vector quantity. To find the component of curl F
along any chosen direction, draw a small closed path of area S lying in the plane normal to
 
that direction, and evaluate the line integral ∫ F .d around the closed path. As the closed
path  is shrunk in size, (i.e., S Æ 0) the integral diminishes with the area, and the value of
C

C∫ F .d 
as S Æ 0 is the component of curl F in the chosen direction. The direction in which
S   
the vector curl F points is the direction in which ∫ F . d is largest. Thus, we can define the
curl of a vector function in the following way. C


The component of curl F in the direction of the unit vector n̂ (i.e., nˆ ⋅ curl F ) is the limit of
a line integral per unit area as the enclosed area goes to zero, this area being perpendicular
to nˆ. Mathematically, the statement translates

   ∫ ˆ 
F . rd
n ⋅ curl F = ∇ × F = lim C (5.9)
S→ 0 S
 
Here r is a unit vector in the direction of d (i.e., direction in which d is travelling). The
curve C encloses the surface S. We can also define the same function in another equivalent
way.
The curl of a vector is the limit of the ratio of the integral of its cross product with the
outward drawn normal, over a closed surface, to the volume enclosed by the surface as the
volume goes to zero. Mathematically, the statement is translated as

   ∫ nˆ × Fds
curl F = ∇ × F = lim S
(5.10)
V→ 0 V

Equations (5.9) and (5.10) are absolutely equivalent.

 Electromagnetism 369

 
If F (x , y , z ) is a continuous differentiable function in a vector field. (i.e. F (x , y , z ) is a
 
vector function), the curl of F , i.e., curlF in the rectangular coordinate system is

   ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F 
curl F = ∇ × F = xˆ  Z − Y  + yˆ  X − Z  + zˆ  Y − X  (5.11)
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

xˆ yˆ zˆ
  ∂ ∂ ∂
or curl F = ∇ × F = (5.12)
∂x ∂y ∂z
FX FY FZ

Here xˆ , yˆ , and ẑ are the unit vectors along the +X, +Y, and +Z axes, F = xF ˆ X + yFˆ Y + zF
ˆ Z
  
and FX, FY and FZ are the X, Y, and Z components of F . The curl of F (r ,θ , φ ) i.e., curlF (i.e.,

∇ × F ) in the spherical polar coordinates system is given by

   1  ∂ ∂F 
curl F = ∇ × F =  (sin θ Fθ ) −  rˆ +
r sin θ  ∂θ ∂φ 

1  1 ∂Fφ ∂(rFφ )  ˆ 1  ∂(rFθ ) ∂Fr  ˆ

 − θ +  − φ (5.13)
r  sin θ ∂φ ∂r  r  ∂r ∂θ 

where rˆ, θˆ, and φˆ are the unit vectors along rˆ, θˆ, and φ axes. Fr , Fθ , and Fφ are the rˆ, θˆ,
 
and φ components of the vector F (r ,θ , φ ) respectively.
Physical significance of curl of a vector field
The value of a line integral around a closed path in a vector field is not zero if the vector
field is not the gradient of a scalar field. The vector fields which are not the gradients of
scalar fields are called non-lamellar vector fields. The value of the line integral around a
closed path in non-lamellar vector fields depends upon the orientation of the small vector
area enclosed by the path. There is a certain orientation of the elemental vector area for
which the value of the line integral around the path enclosing the elemental vector area
is maximum. This greatest line integral when computed for unit area is the curl of the
vector field. The curl of a vector field is a vector quantity directed along the normal to the
elemental vector area which is in a position giving this line integral the greatest value.
The curl is associated with rotation of flux at a point. The curl of the velocity vector
provides a measure of the angular velocity of the fluid at any point in the flow field. The
curl of linear velocity of a particle in the flow field is equal,both
 inmagnitude and direction,
to two times the angular velocity of the particle (i.e., ∇ × v = 2ω ). The physical quantity
obtained by multiplying 2 with the angular velocity is defined as vorticity. When the curl
370 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 
of the velocity vector of the particles in the flow field is zero ∇ × v = 0 at every point of ( )
the region, the flow is irrotational i.e., the flow has no vertex or turbulence at any point in
the flow. In physics of fluid flow, hydrodynamics, and aerodynamics the concept of curl is
of central importance. Finally, we conclude that curl and rot (short form of rotation) are
synonymous with each other. Even now in German, the word ‘rot’ is used for curl.

Example 5.11
   
If vector A and B are irrotational, prove that A × B is solenoidal.
Solution
 
According to the question, vector A and B are irrotational. Hence, we have
   
∇ × A = 0 and ∇ × B = 0.
    
As vector A × B is solenoidal, we have to prove that ∇ ⋅ A × B = 0 ( )
Now
        
( ) ( ) (
∇ ⋅ A × B = B ⋅ ∇ × A − A ⋅ ∇ × B = B ⋅ 0 − A ⋅ 0= 0)
   
Since divergence of A × B vector is zero, A × B is solenoidal under the given condition.

Example 5.12
     
If a is a constant vector and r is the position vector, then prove that ∇ × a × r = 2a. ( )
Solution

    ∂ ∂ 
( )
∇ × a=
 ∂x
∂
× r  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ×  ax x + a y y + az z × ( xx
∂y ∂z 
(
ˆ + yy ˆ )
ˆ + zz
 )

 ∂ ∂ ∂ 
( )
=  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ×  xˆ a y z − az y + yˆ ( az x − ax z ) + zˆ ax y − a y x 
∂z    ( )
 ∂x ∂y

∂ ∂  ∂ ∂
= xˆ  ( )
ax y − a y x − ( az x − ax z )  + yˆ  a y z − az y − (
ax y − a y x ) ( )
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x
∂ ∂ 
+ zˆ  ( az x − ax z ) − a y z − az y ( )
 ∂x ∂y 

= xˆ [ax + ax ] + yˆ a y + a y  + zˆ [az + az ]

 Electromagnetism 371

  
( ) ( ˆ x + ya
or ∇ × a × r = 2 xa ˆ y + za
ˆ z = 2 xa
ˆ x + ya
ˆ y + za ) (
ˆ z = 2a. )

Example 5.13
  
If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇ ×  u ⋅ r u  = 0.
  ( )
Solution

      
 ( )
∇ ×  u ⋅ r u =
 (u ⋅ r ) ∇ × u − u × ∇ (u ⋅ r =) (u ⋅ r ) × 0 − u × u= 0.

Example 5.14
  
If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇ ×  u × r × u  = 0.
  ( )
Solution

    
(u × r ) × u =(u ⋅ u ) r − (u ⋅ r ) u =r − (u ⋅ r ) u
Hence, we have
          
 ( )    ( )
∇ ×  u × r × u  = ∇ × r − u ⋅ r u  = ∇ × r − ∇ × u ⋅ r u = 0 ( )

Example 5.15
    
Show that ∇ × v = 2ω , where v is the linear velocity and ω is the angular velocity.
Solution
We know that
  
( )
v = ω × r = xˆ ω y z − ωz y + yˆ (ωz x − ωx z ) + zˆ ωx y − ω y x( )

or v = xˆω1 + yˆω2 + zˆω3 where

ω1 ω y z − ωz y
=

ω2 ωz x − ωx z
=

ω3 ωx y − ω y x
=
372 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

x y z
  ∂ ∂ ∂
∇×v =
∂x ∂y ∂z
ω1 ω2 ω3

 
or ∇= ( )
× v xˆ (ωx + ωx ) + yˆ ω y + ω y + zˆ (ωz + ωz )

( )
= xˆ ( 2ωx ) + yˆ 2ω y + zˆ ( 2ωz )

  
or = (
∇ × v 2 xˆωx + yˆω y +=
zˆωz 2ω )

2ω is called vorticity in fluid dynamics. Since the curl of the velocity vector is non-zero, the
velocity function is rotational in this case.

Example 5.16

 r
Prove that F (r ) = 2 is irrotational where r is the position vector.
r
Solution


   r  xx ˆ + yy
ˆ + zz
ˆ
∇ × F (r ) = ∇ × 2 = ∇ × 2
r x + y + z2
2

  ˆ
xx ˆ
yy ˆ
zz 
= ∇×  2 2 2
+ 2 2 2
+ 2 2 2 
x + y + z x + y +z x + y +z 

 ∂ ∂ ∂    ˆ
xx ˆ
yy ˆ
zz 
=  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ∇ ×  2 + 2 + 2 2 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  2 2 2 2 2
x + y + z x + y +z x + y +z 

 ∂ z ∂ y   ∂ x ∂ z 
= xˆ  −  + yˆ  − 2 
 ∂y x + y + z ∂z x + y + z
2 2 2 2 2 2
 ∂z x + y + z ∂x x + y + z 
2 2 2 2 2


 ∂ y ∂ x 
+ zˆ  − 2 
 ∂x x + y + z ∂y x + y + z 
2 2 2 2 2
 Electromagnetism 373

 2 yz 2 yz   2zx 2 xz 
xˆ  − 2
= 2 2
+ 2  + yˆ  − 2 + 2 2 
 x + y + z x + y2 + z2 
2
 x + y +z
2 2
x + y +z 

 2 xy 2 yx 
+ zˆ  − 2 2 2
+ 2 =0
 x + y +z x + y2 + z2 

 →
Thus, we have ∇ × F (r ) = 0 implying that the vector function defined by the equation

 r
F (r ) = 2 is irrotational
r

Example 5.17
 
Prove that F (r )r is irrotational, where r is the position vector and F(r) is a scalar differentiable
function.
Solution

        dF (r )
∇ × F (r )r = F (r )∇ × r − r × ∇F (r ) = F (r )0 − r × ∇F (r ) = 0 − r × rˆ, rˆ
dr

is a unit vector in the direction of the position vector r . Thus we have

  dF (r )
∇ × F (r )r = 0 − r sin 0 = 0
dr

implying that F (r )r is irrotational.

5.2.7 Gauss's divergence theorem

Gauss's divergence theorem enables us to go from volume integral to surface integral

and vice versa. The theorem states that volume integral of divergence of a vector field F
taken over any volume V is equal to the surface integral of F taken over the closed surface
enclosing the volume V. Mathematically, this statement translates as
 

∫ div Fdv = ∫ F .nds
V S
(5.14)

 
Here n̂ is a unit vector normal to ds in an outward direction. F .nˆ is the component of
 
F along n̂ , i.e., normal to ds in an outward direction.
374 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 5.18

ˆ 2 + yy
Verify Gauss' divergence theorem for the vector F = xx ˆ 2 + zz
ˆ 2 taken over the cube
0 ≤ x , y , z ≤ 1.

Solution
Consider the cube as shown in Fig. 5.4.

Figure 5.4 Verification of Gauss's divergence theorem


Given F = xx
ˆ 2 + yy
ˆ 2 + zz
ˆ 2

   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
Hence, ∇ ⋅ F=  xˆ
∂x
+ yˆ + zˆ  . xx
∂y ∂z
(
ˆ 2 + yy
ˆ 2 + zz
ˆ =2
)
2(x + y + z )
 

Now, the values of x, y, and z vary from 0 to 1 and therefore, the volume of the cube,

 1 1 1

∫ div=
V
Fdv ∫ ∫ ∫ 2(x + y + z )dxdydz
0 0 0

1
1 1
 z2 
= 2 ∫ ∫  xz + yz +  dxdy
0 0  2 0
 Electromagnetism 375

1 1
 1
= 2 ∫ ∫  x + y + dxdy
0 0  2

1
1
 y2 1 
= 2 ∫  xy + + y  dx
0 
2 2 0

1 1
 1 1
= 2 ∫  x + + dx
= 2 ∫ (x + 1)dx
= 3 (A)
0 2 2 0

For the surfaces (a cube has six surfaces) of the cube, we have
    
∫ .nds
S
F ˆ = ∫∫
ABCD
ˆ +
F ⋅ nds
BFGC
∫∫ ˆ +
F ⋅ nds ∫∫
FGHE
ˆ +
F ⋅ nds
EHDA
∫∫ ˆ
F ⋅ nds

 
+ ∫∫
CDHG
ˆ +
F ⋅ nds
ABFE
∫∫ ˆ
F ⋅ nds
(B)

As shown in Fig. 5.3, we have

i. For the ABCD surface, ds = dydz, nˆ = xˆ and x = 1

ii. For the BFGC surface, ds = dzdx, nˆ = yˆ and y = 1

iii. For the FGHE surface, ds = dydz, nˆ = − xˆ and x = 0

iv. For the EHDA surface, ds = dzdx, nˆ = − yˆ and y = 0

v. For the CDHG surface, ds = dxdy, nˆ = zˆ and z = 1

vi. For the ABFE surface, ds = dxdy, nˆ = −zˆ and z = 0

Putting all these values into Eq. (B), we have

   
∫ .nˆ=
S
F ds ∫∫
ABCD
ˆ
F .xdydz +
BFGC
∫∫ ˆ
F . ydxdz + ∫∫
FGHE
F .(− xˆ )dzdy +

  
∫∫
EHDA
F .(− yˆ )dxdz +
CDHG
∫∫ ˆ
F .zdxdz + ∫∫ F .(−zˆ)dxdy
ABFE

∫∫ ( xx
ˆ ˆ 2 + zz
ˆ 2 .xdydz
ˆ ) ∫∫ ( xx
ˆ ˆ 2 + zz )
ˆ 2 . ydxdz
ˆ
2 2
= + yy + + yy +
ABCD BFGC
376 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

∫∫ ( xx
ˆ ˆ 2 + zz )
ˆ 2 . ( − xˆ ) dydz + ∫∫ ( xx
ˆ )
ˆ 2 . ( − yˆ ) dxdz
ˆ 2 + zz
2 2
+ yy + yy
FGHE EHDA

∫∫ ( xx
ˆ ˆ 2 + zz
ˆ 2 .zdxdz
ˆ ) ∫∫ ( xx
ˆ ˆ 2 + zz )
ˆ 2 . ( −zˆ ) dxdy
2 2
+ + yy + + yy
CDHG ABFE

∫∫ x 2 dydz + ∫∫ y 2 dxdz + ∫∫ ( −x ) dydz + ∫∫ ( − y ) dxdz

2 2
=
ABCD BFGC FGHE EHDA

∫∫ z 2 dxdz + ∫∫ ( −z ) dxdy
2
+
CDHG ABFE

Putting the values of x, y, and z for all the six surfaces into this equation, we have

∫ F .nds
S
ˆ = ∫∫ 1 × dydz + ∫∫ 1 × dxdz + ∫∫
ABCD BFGC FGHE
0 × dydz + ∫∫
EHDA
0 × dxdz

+
CDHG
∫∫ 1× dxdz + ∫∫ 0 × dxdy
ABFE

= ∫∫
ABCD
dydz + ∫∫ dxdz + 0 + 0 + ∫∫
BFGC CDHG
dxdz + 0

Since each side of the cube is of unit length, the area of each face is 1, i.e., the area of
ABCD = 1, area of BFGH = 1, area of CDHG = 1. Hence, we have

∫ .nds
S
F ˆ =3 (C)

Therefore, (A) = (C)

Thus, LHS = RHS.
 
or ∫
V
div Fdv = ∫ .nds
F
S
ˆ

5.2.8 Stokes’ theorem

This theorem states that the tangential line integral of a vector function F around any
closed path is equal to the normal surface integral of the curl of that function over an
enclosed surface which has the curve for its bounding edge. Mathematically, this statement
translates as
 Electromagnetism 377

  
∫ F .rd
C
ˆ = ∫ (∇ × F ).nds
S
ˆ (5.15)


Here n̂ is a unit vector normal to ds in an outward direction and r̂ is a unit vector in the
   
direction of d (i.e., direction in which d is travelling). F ⋅ rˆ is the component of F along
     
the vector length d or F ⋅ rˆ is the component of F tangential to d where as (∇ × F ).nˆ is
  
the component of ∇ × F along n̂ , i.e., normal to ds in an outward direction.

Example 5.19

ˆ 2 + yˆ 5x + zˆ0 taken over a square defined by
Verify Stokes’ theorem for the vector F =xz
0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1; z =1.
Solution
According to Stoke’s theorem
   
∫ ⋅ d=
C
F ∫ × F ⋅ nds
S
∇ ˆ

 
The LHS of the mathematical expression of Stokes’s theorem is ∫ ⋅ d
C
F


The circulation of the given vector function F around the closed path OABCO is given by
           
(A)
∫ F ⋅ d = ∫
C OABCO
F ⋅ d = ∫ F ⋅ d + ∫ F ⋅ d + ∫ F ⋅ d + ∫ F ⋅ d
OA AB BC CO

Figure 5.5 Verification of Stokes’ theorem

 378 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 
ˆ 2 + yˆ 5x + zˆ0 and =
Given that F =xz ˆ + ydy
d xdx ˆ
  
i. Evaluation of ∫ F ⋅ d . Along the path OA, the value of y = 0 and hence, ˆ .
d = xdx
Hence, we get OA

  1 1

∫ ∫ ( xz
ˆ )
+ yˆ 5x + zˆ0 ⋅ ( xdx
ˆ )= ∫ ∫ dx = z
2
F ⋅ d = z 2 dx = z 2 2
=1
OA OA 0 0

  
ii. Evaluation of ∫ F ⋅ dl . Along the path AB, the value of x = 1 and hence, ˆ .
d = ydy
Hence, we get AB

  1

∫
AB
F ⋅ d=
 ∫(
AB
xz )
ˆ 2 + yˆ 5x - zˆ0 ⋅ ( ydy
ˆ = ) ∫ 5xdy
AB
= 5x ∫ dy
0
= 5

  
iii. Evaluation of ∫ F ⋅ d . Along the path GD, the value of y = 1 and hence,
BC
ˆ .
d = xdx
Therefore, we get

  0

∫ F ⋅ d =∫ xz (
ˆ 2 + yˆ 5x + zˆ0 ⋅ ( xdx
ˆ )= 2
)
∫ z dx =z
2
∫ dx =−z 2 =−1
BC BC BC 1

  
iv. Evaluation of ∫ ˆ . Hence, we
F ⋅ d . Along the path CO, the value of x = 0 and d = ydy
get DE

 
∫ F ⋅ d= ∫ ( xz
ˆ )
+ yˆ 5x + zˆ0 ⋅ ( ydy
ˆ = ) ∫ 5xdy
2
= 0
CO CO CO

       

Putting the values of ∫
OA
F ⋅ d, ∫ F ⋅ d, ∫ F ⋅ d and
AB BC
∫ F ⋅ d into Eq. (A), we get
CO

   
∫ F ⋅ d= ∫
C OABCO
F ⋅ d=
 5

LHS of Stokes’ theorem becomes

 
∫ F ⋅ d =
C
5.
(A)
 
RHS of Stokes’ theorem is ∫ ∇ × F ⋅ nds
S
ˆ
 Electromagnetism 379

xˆ yˆ zˆ
   ∂ ∂ ∂
Now ∇ × F = ∇ × (xz
ˆ 2 + yˆ 5x + zˆ0) =
∂x ∂y ∂z
 
or ∇ ×=F yˆ 2z + zˆ5 z 2 5x 0

 
Putting this value of ∇ × F into the RHS of Stokes’ theorem, we get

 
∫ ∇ × F=
S
ˆ
⋅ nds ∫ ( yˆ 2z + zˆ5) ⋅ zdxdy
S
ˆ

 
or ∫ ∇ × F ⋅ nds
S
ˆ = ∫ 5dxdy =
S
5 × ∫ dxdy = 5
S
(B)

Thus, (A) = (B)

LHS of Stokes’ theorem = RHS of Stokes’ theorem
Thus, Stokes’ law is verified.

5.2.9 Green’s theorem

This theorem enables us to express an integral taken over the surfaces of a number of bodies
as an integral taken through the space between them. If there are two scalar functions of
space f and g, then Green’s theorem is used to change the volume integral into a surface
integral. Thus, the theorem is expressed analytically as
  
∫( f
V
)
∇2 g − g ∇2 f dv
= ∫( f
S
)
∇g − g ∇ f ⋅ ds (5.16)

where volume V is enclosed by the surface S.

Green’s theorem in the plane

The theorem states that, if S is a closed region in the x–y plane bounded by a closed curve
C and if M and N are continuous functions of x and y having a continuous derivative in S,
then

 ∂N ∂M 
∫ ( Mdx + Ndy ) = ∫  ∂x −
C S
 dxdy
∂y 
(5.17)

where C is travelled in the positive (counter-clockwise or outward) direction.

380 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 5.20

∫ ( xy + y ) dx + x dy ) where C is the closed curve

2 2
Verify Green’s theorem in the plane for
C
of the region bounded by y = x and y = x2.
Solution
y = x and y = x2 intersect at (0,0) and (1,1). The positive direction in traveling C is shown in
Fig. 5.6.

Figure 5.6 Verification of Green’s theorem

LHS :
Along y = x2

1 1
19
( 2
) 2
) 2 4
( 2
)
∫  xy + y dx + x dy  = ∫ xx + x dx + ∫ x (2x)dx = 20 (A)
C 0 0

Along y = x from (1,1) to (0,0) (see Fig. 5.6)

0 0

( 2
)
∫  xy + y dx + x dy  =
2
) ( )
∫ x + x dx + ∫ x dx =
2 2 2
−1
C 1 1

The line integral around the closed path

19 1
C= + ( −1)=
20 20
 Electromagnetism 381

RHS :

 ∂N ∂M   ∂
 ∂ 
∫  ∂x − ∫  ∂x ( x )) − ∂y ( xy + y ) dxdy
2 2
=dxdy
S
∂y  S

x
1 X 1
1
= ∫ ∫ ( x − 2 y ) dydx =
∫ (x − 2 y)dxdy = ∫ xy − y ( 2
) dx =
−
20
(B)
S 0 X2 0 x2

(A) = (B)
Thus, LHS = RHS.

Example 5.21
  
If f and g are the scalar functions of x, y, and z, prove that ∇ ⋅ ∇ f × ∇g = 0. ( )
Solution

        
( ) ( ) (
∇ ⋅ ∇ f × ∇g = ∇g ⋅ ∇ × ∇ f − ∇ f ⋅ ∇ × ∇g = ∇g ⋅ 0 − ∇f ⋅ 0 = 0. )

Example 5.22
 
Prove that ∫ ∇ fdv =
∫ f ds if f is a scalar function of x, y, and z.
V S

Solution
From Gauss’s law, we have
   
∫ ∇ ⋅ F dv= ∫ F ⋅ ds
V S

  
Let F = A f , where A is a constant vector.
Hence, Gauss’s law becomes

   
∫ ⋅ Af =
V
∇ dv ∫ A f ⋅ ds
S

     
or ∫ ( A ⋅∇ f
V
)
− f ∇ ⋅ A dv= A ⋅ ∫ f ds
S

   
or ∫ ( A ⋅∇ f
V
)
− 0 dv= A ⋅ ∫ f ds
S
382 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

   
or A ⋅ ∫ ∇ f dv − A ⋅ ∫ f ds =0
V S

    
or A ⋅  ∫ ∇ f dv − ∫ f ds  =0
V S 


Since the constant vector A is an arbitrary constant, we can have from this equation

 
∫ ∇ fdv =
V
∫ f ds S

Example 5.23
 
Prove that ∫ fdr= ∫ nˆ × ∇ fds
C S
if f is a differentiable scalar function of x, y, and z and r is the
position vector.
Solution
  
Let us define a vector F = k f , where k is a non-zero constant vector and f is a differentiable

scalar function of x, y, and z and r is the position vector. Let us consider the integral

 
∫ ( k f ) ⋅ dr.
C

Applying Stokes’ theorem to this integral, we get

       
∫ ( k f ) ⋅ dr = ∫ ∇ × ( k f ) ⋅ nds
C S
ˆ = ∫ ( f ∇ × k − k × ∇ f ) ⋅ nds
S
ˆ

     
= ∫ ( −k × ∇ f ) ⋅ nds
S
ˆ = ∫ ( ∇ f × k ) ⋅ nds
ˆ = ∫ k ⋅ ( nˆ × ∇ f ) ds
S S

   
or ∫ ( k f ) ⋅ dr − k ⋅ ∫ nˆ × ∇ fds = 0
C S

    
or k ⋅  ∫ f dr − ∫ nˆ × ∇ fds  = 0
C S 

 
or ∫ f dr= ∫ nˆ × ∇ fds
C S
 Electromagnetism 383

5.2.10 Useful vector relations

General relations

 
1. A=× B xˆ ( AY BZ − AZ BY ) + yˆ ( AZ BX − AX BZ ) + zˆ ( AX BY − AY BX )

 
2. A=⋅ B AX BX + AY BY + AZ BZ

        
3. A ⋅ B ×C = A × B ⋅C = C × A ⋅ B

        
4. ( ) ( ) (
A × B ×C = A ⋅C B − A ⋅ B C )
        
5. ( ) ( )
A× B ×C + B × C × A + C × A× B =
0 ( )
               
6. ( A × B ) ⋅ (C × D ) =A ⋅  B × (C × D ) =( A ⋅ C )( B ⋅ D ) − ( A.D )( B.C )
           
7. ( A × B ) × (C × D ) = ( A × B ⋅ D ) C − ( A × B.C ) D

Operator ∇ in rectangular coordinates (x, y, z)

 ∂ ∂ ∂
8. =
∇ xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z

  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
9. ∇ .∇ = ∇2 = 2 + +
∂x ∂y ∂z


Operator ∇ in circular cylindrical coordinates (r , θ , z )

 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂
∇ rˆ + θˆ
10. = + zˆ
∂r r ∂θ ∂z

1 ∂  ∂  1 ∂ 1 ∂2 ∂2
11. ∇2
= r + + +
r ∂r  ∂r  r ∂r r 2 ∂θ 2 ∂z 2
 384 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


Operator ∇ in spherical polar coordinates (r, q, f)

 ∂ 1 ∂ ˆ 1 ∂
∇ rˆ + θˆ
12. = +φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

1 ∂ 2 ∂  1 ∂  ∂  1 ∂2
=
13. ∇
2
 r  + 2  sin θ +
 2 θ ∂φ 2
r ∂r  ∂r  r sin θ ∂θ 
2
∂θ  r sin

  
14. ∇(ϕΨ )= ϕ ∇Ψ + Ψ∇ϕ

     
( )
15. ∇ ⋅ ϕ A = A ⋅∇ϕ + ϕ ∇ ⋅ A

     
( )
16. ∇ × ϕ A = ϕ ∇ × A − A × ∇ϕ

        
( ) ( )
17. ∇ ⋅ A × B = B ⋅ ∇ × A − A ⋅ ∇ × B ( )
              
( ) ( ) ( ) (
18. ∇ × A × B= A ∇ ⋅ B − B ∇ ⋅ A + B ⋅∇ A − A ⋅∇ B ) ( )
              
( ) ( ) ( ) (
19. ∇ × A ⋅ B = A × ∇ × B + B × ∇ × A + B ⋅∇ A + A ⋅∇ B ) ( )
 
20. ∇2ϕ = ∇ ⋅∇ϕ

      
( ) (
21. ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ ∇ ⋅ A − ∇2 A)
 
( )
22. ∇ × ∇ϕ = 0

  
( )
23. ∇ ⋅ ∇ × A = 0

Special Relations
  
ˆ + yy
If r = xx ˆ + zz
ˆ r and k = constant vector, then

 
24. ∇ ⋅ r = 3
 Electromagnetism 385

 
25. ∇ × r = 0


  r
26. ∇ r =
r


  1  r
27. ∇    =− 3
r 
  r

  
 r 1 
28. ∇  3 = −∇2    = 0 if r ≠0
r 
r  

        
  k  1 k ⋅r
29. ∇ ⋅    = k ⋅ ∇     = −   3 
r    r   
       r 
 

    
   r    k ⋅ r  
30. ∇ × k ×   3   = −∇   3  if r ≠ 0
 
  r 

 r 
 

     
k 1 
31. ∇  2
 =k∇2    =
0 if r ≠ 0
 r  r 
   

           
( ) ( )
32. ∇ × k × B = k ∇ ⋅ B + k × ∇ × B − ∇ k ⋅ B ( ) ( )
Integral relations
   
33. ∫ F ⋅ ds= ∫ (∇ ⋅ F )dv
S V
(Gauss’s divergence theorem)

    
34. ∫ F ⋅ dr= ∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ ds
C S
(Stokes’ theorem)


35. ∫ ϕ ds=
S
∫ ( ∇ϕ ) dv
V
386 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

   
36. ∫ × F=
S
ds ∫ ( ∇ × F ) dv
V

If S is an open surface bounded by the curve C of which ds is the line element, then

  
37. ∫ ϕ dr
C
= ∫ × ∇ϕ
S
ds


38. ϕ2 − ϕ1 = ∫ ∇ϕ ⋅ dr
C

In rectangular coordinates (x, y, z)

 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
39. ∇ϕ= xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z

  
  ∂ F ∂ F ∂ F
40. ∇ ⋅=
F + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

   ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F 
41. =
∇ × F xˆ  Z − Y  + yˆ  X − Z  + zˆ  Y − X 
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

In circular cylindrical coordinates (r, q, z)

 ∂ϕ 1 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
42. ∇=ϕ rˆ + θˆ + zˆ
∂r r ∂θ ∂z

  ∂F 1 ∂Fθ ∂F
43. ∇=⋅ F rˆ r + θˆ + zˆ Z
∂r r ∂θ ∂z

   1 ∂F ∂F   ∂F ∂F   ∂F F 1 ∂Fr 
∇ × F rˆ 
44. = Z
− θ  + θˆ  r − Z  + zˆ  θ + θ − 
 r ∂θ ∂z   ∂θ ∂r   ∂z r r ∂θ 

In spherical polar coordinates (r, q, f)

 ∂ϕ 1 ∂ϕ ˆ 1 ∂ϕ
45. ∇=ϕ rˆ + θˆ +φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
 Electromagnetism 387

  1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Fφ
46. ∇ ⋅ F 2
=
r ∂r
r Fr + (
r sin θ ∂θ
)
( sinθ Fθ ) +
r sin θ ∂φ

  1  ∂ ∂F   1 ∂F ∂ ( rFφ )  φˆ  ∂ ( rF ) ∂F 
47. ∇ × F = rˆ  ( sinθ Fθ ) − θ  + θˆ  r
− +  θ
− r
r sin θ  ∂θ ∂θ   sin θ ∂φ
2
∂r  r  ∂r ∂θ 


5.3 Gauss’s Law

5.3.1 Gauss’s law of electrostatics in free space

Gauss’s law states that the surface integral of electric field intensity E at a point P on the
1
closed surface S is equal to times the total charge q enclosed by the surface S (This
εO 
hypothetical surface S passes through the point P at which the electric field intensity E is
found out and is called a Gaussian surface). Mathematically, Gauss’s law is given by
 q
Electric flux = ϕ E = ∫ E ⋅ nds
ˆ = (5.18)
S
εO

where n̂ is the unit vector normal to ds in an outward direction and ε O is the permittivity
of free space. In terms of the volume charge density function ρ , the total charge contained
in the volume is given by

 dq 
=q ∫=
V
dq ∫ ρ dv
V
 ρ = dv 
 
(5.19)

Hence, the mathematical formulation of Gauss’s law in terms of charge density function r
becomes
 1
∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =∫ ρ dv
ε 0 V
(5.20)

Here, ∫ ρ dv is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface S.

The differential form of Gauss’s law, as obtained by applying the divergence theorem to
Eq. (5.20), is
 ρ
∇⋅E = (5.21)
ε0

Equation (5.21) is the differential form of Gauss’s law of electrostatics in free space.
388 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

5.3.2 Gauss’s law of electrostatics in a dielectric medium

Gauss’s law in a dielectric medium can be expressed as

 q′
∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =
ε


or ∫ ε E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ = q′

Here q′ is not the total charge but the free charge only. The details have been discussed in
Chapter 9, ‘Dielectric Materials’ in Part II (Principles of Engineering Physics II).
 
Since ε E = D, the previous equation becomes

∫ ⋅ nds
S
D ˆ = q′


or ∫ D ⋅ nds
S
ˆ = ∫ ρ ′dv
V
(5.22)

Here r¢ is the free charge density only and polarization charges or induced surface charges
are excluded. e is the permittivity of the dielectric medium. Equation (5.22) is the integral
form of Gauss’s law of electrostatics in the dielectric medium.
The differential form of Gauss’s law in a linear dielectric medium, as obtained by
applying the divergence theorem to Eq. (5.22), is

∇ ⋅ D =ρ′ (5.23)

where ρ ′ is the free charge density.

5.3.3 Applications of Gauss’s law

Gauss’s law can be used to find out the electric field intensity if the charge distribution is
so symmetrical that we can easily evaluate the integral in Eq. (5.20) by a proper choice of
the hypothetical surface or Gaussian surface S. Now we shall consider some electrostatic
problems where Gauss’s law is applicable. First of all, we shall calculate the total charge
enclosed by the Gaussian surface and shall put this value in the place of

∫ ρdv
V

to calculate the electric field intensity. One example of a spherically symmetric charge
distribution will make it clear.
 Electromagnetism 389

A spherically symmetric charge distribution is defined as the distribution of charge where

volume charge density at any point depends only on the radial distance – not upon the
direction. In this case, we can calculate the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface
by evaluating the integral

∫ ρ (r )dv = ∫ ρ (r )4π r dr.

2

As an example to evaluate this integral (i.e., to calculate the total charge enclosed by the
spherical Gaussian surface), let us consider the case where a spherically symmetric charge
distribution of radius R is characterized by the following volume charge density function

 r2 
ρ=
(r ) ρ0  1 −  for r ≤ R (i.e., inside the sphere)
 R2 

and

ρ (r ) = 0 for r ≥ R (i.e., outside the sphere, there is no charge)

Consider a thin spherical shell of radius x (the value of x varies from 0 to R) and thickness
dx (just like coconut shell) concentric with the spherically symmetric charge distribution.
The volume of this shell (elemental shell) will be the surface area of the spherical shell ×
thickness of the shell (this is the definition of volume!), i.e.,

dv 4π x 2 × dx
=

The charge on this shell (elemental charge) will be given by

dQ= ρ (x ) × dv= ρ (x ) × 4π x 2 dx

The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface will be given by

Q = ∫ ρ (x )dv
V

R
 x2 
∫ ρ0  1 −  × 4π x dx
2
=
0  R2 

R R 2
x 
= 4πρ0  ∫ x 2 dx − ∫ 2 x 2 dx 
0 0 R 
390 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

8
or Q= πρ0 R3
15

If charge is uniformly distributed throughout the sphere, then the volume charge density
function r will be independent of the radial distance and will be a constant which can be
easily taken outside the integral sign. The calculation will be easier and the total charge
enclosed by the Gaussian surface will simply be equal to rV, where V is the volume enclosed
by the Gaussian surface.
Thus, what we have described here is the method of calculating total charge enclosed by
a Gaussian surface. In all our discussions, P will be the point where electric field intensity
is to be found out.
Electric field due to a point charge
Consider a point charge Q is placed at the point O. We have to determine the electric field
intensity E at a point P situated at a distance r from the point charge Q.
Imagine a spherical Gaussian surface through the point P with the centre at the charge
Q. By symmetry, E has same magnitude at any point on this Gaussian surface and its
direction is always perpendicular to the surface, i.e., the angle between E and n̂ is 0° at any
point on the Gaussian surface. See Fig. 5.7. In a number of cases, we shall use Eq. (5.20) and
rewriting it, we have
 1
∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =∫ ρ dv
ε 0 V
(A)

Figure 5.7 Application of Gauss’s law to a point charge

 Electromagnetism 391

Here ∫ ρdv = ∫ dQ is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface. In this case, ∫ ρ dv
V V
is equal to Q. Putting this value in Eq. (A), we have

Q
∫ E nˆ cos 0ds = ε
S 0

Q
or ∫ Eds = ε
S 0
.


The magnitude of E is constant everywhere on the Gaussian surface. Hence, we can take E
outside the integral sign. We have

Q
E ∫ ds = ε
S 0
(B)

Here ds is the magnitude of the elemental vector surface area of the spherical Gaussian
∫ ds = total surface area of the spherical Gaussian surface = 4π r
2
surface. Hence, (surface
S
area of a sphere). Putting this value in (B), we have

Q
E 4π r 2 =
ε0

1 Q
or E=
4πε 0 r 2

 1 Q
E= r
4πε O r 3

is the electric field intensity due to the point charge Q at a point situated at a distance r from
the charge Q.
Electric field due to spherically symmetric charge distribution
In the calculation involved in determining the electric field intensity at any point in case of
spherically symmetric charge distribution, three possible cases may arise.
Case 1: The point P lies outside the charge distribution.
Case 2: The point P lies inside the charge distribution.
Case 3: The point P lies on the surface of the charge distribution
392 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

We shall discuss Case 2 in great detail and the other two cases are left as exercises to the
readers. In Case 2, the point P lies inside the charge distribution and we are to determine
the electric field intensity at an internal point.
Let P be an internal point at a distance r from the centre of the spherically symmetric
charge distribution of charge Q. R is the radius of the spherically symmetric charge
distribution. Through the point imagine a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r with the
centre at the centre of the spherically
 symmetric charge distribution. This has been depicted
in Fig. 5.8. By symmetry, E has the same magnitude at any point on this spherical Gaussian
surface ofradius r and its direction is always perpendicular to the surface S, i.e., the angle
between E and n̂ is 0° at any point on this Gaussian surface.
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius x (the value of x varies from 0 to r) and thickness
dx concentric with the spherically symmetric charge distribution. The volume of this shell
will be

dv 4π x 2 × dx
=

The charge on this shell (elemental charge) will be given by

dq =ρ × dv =ρ × 4π x 2 dx (See Fig. 5.8(b))

4π R3
The volume of the spherically symmetric charge distribution of radius R = . This
3
spherically symmetric charge distribution of radius R contains Q charge. Therefore, volume
charge density r will be given by

Q 3Q
=ρ =
4π R 3
4π R3
3

Figure 5.8 (a) Electric field intensity due to spherically symmetric charge distribution when point
P is situated inside the charge distribution. The broken line circle represents the spherical
Gaussian surface. (b) Calculation of dv = 4px2dx
 Electromagnetism 393

Hence, the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface will be given by

r
4π r 3 4π r 3 3Q Q r3
q =∫ ρ dv =ρ ∫ 4π x 2 dx = ρ= × =
V 0 3 3 4π R3 R3

In this case, ∫ ρ dv , is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface S is equal to q.
Putting this value in Eq. (5.20), we have

q
∫ E
S
nˆ cos 0ds =
ε0

q
or ∫ Eds = ε
S 0
.


The magnitude of E = E is constant everywhere on the Gaussian surface. Hence, we can
take E outside the integral sign. We have

q
E ∫ ds = ε
S 0
(A)

Here ds is the magnitude of the elemental vector surface area of the spherical Gaussian
surface. Hence, ∫ ds = total surface area of the spherical Gaussian surface = 4pr2. Putting
S
this value in Eq. (A), we have

q
E 4π r 2 =
ε0

1 1 1 1 Q r3
or E= × × q= × × 3
4π r ε 0
2
4π r ε 0 R
2


 1 Qr
or E=
4πε 0 R3

is the electric field intensity due to the spherically symmetric distribution of charge Q
at an internal point situated at a distance r from the centre of the spherically symmetric
distribution charge (r < R).
All the three cases are regarding the location of P represented graphically in Fig. 5.9.
394 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 5.9 The variation of electric field intensity in case of a spherically symmetric distribution of
charge. The curves marked EE, EI , and ES represents Case 1, Case 2, and Case 3 respectively

Electric field due to a linear charge of uniform distribution

Let us consider a wire of infinite length placed horizontally to be charged uniformly.
Hence, the wire has uniform linear charge density l (charge per unit length measured in
C/m). P is a point situated above the wire at a distance r from the wire where electric field
intensity is to be found out. The Gaussian surface passing through this point P will be a
right cylinder of radius r. Let its length be L. See Fig. 5.10. The electric flux will come out
radially from the charged wire. Hence, no flux passes through the two circular faces of the
cylindrical Gaussian surface. Because of axial symmetry of the cylindrical Gaussian surface,
the magnitude of the electric field at any point on the curved surface will be the same and
will be directed radially outward. For the curved surface S1, the angle between E and the
unit vector n̂1 is zero and for circular faces S2 and S3 of the cylindrical Gaussian surface, the
angle is 90°. By putting these conditions into Eq. (5.20), we have
   1
∫ E ⋅ nds
S1
ˆ + ∫ E ⋅ nds
S2
ˆ + ∫ E ⋅ nds
S3
ˆ =∫ λdx
ε 0 C

Since the wire is uniformly charged, l is constant and we can take it outside the integral
sign. The previous equation becomes

   1
L

∫ E ⋅ nds
S1
ˆ + ∫ E ⋅ nds
S2
ˆ + ∫ E ⋅ nds
S3
ˆ =
ε 0
× λ ∫ dx
0
 Electromagnetism 395

Figure 5.10 Electric field intensity due to an infinite line of positive charge. The central thick line is the
positively charged wire. Broken line represents the cylindrical Gaussian surface

1
or ∫ E nˆ cos 0ds + ∫ E nˆ cos 90°ds + ∫ E nˆ cos 90°ds =
S1 S2 S3 ε
× λL
0

λL
or E ∫ ds = (B)
S1 ε0

Now ∫ ds is the total curved surface area of the cylindrical Gaussian surface which is equal
S1
to 2π rL (the curved surface area of a cylinder). Putting this value in Eq. (B), we have

λL
E × 2π rL =
ε0

 λ 
or E= r
2πε 0 r 2

is the electric field intensity due to the charged wire with linear charge density l of infinite
length at any point situated above the wire at a distance r from the wire. The direction of

vector E is radially outward for a line of positive charge and radially inward for a line of
negative charge.
Electric field due to a cylindrically symmetric charge distribution
In the calculation involving the determination of the electric field intensity at any point in
case of a cylindrically symmetric charge distribution, three possible cases may arise.
396 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Case 1: The point P lies outside the charge distribution.

Case 2: The point P lies inside the charge distribution.
Case 3: The point P lies on the surface of the charge distribution
We shall discuss Case 2 in great detail and other two cases are left as an exercise to the
readers. In Case 2, the point I lies inside the charge distribution and we are to determine
the electric field intensity at an internal point.
Let us consider a uniformly charged cylinder of infinite length and radius R. Hence, the
cylinder has uniform volume charge density q. P is the point situated inside the cylinder at
a distance r from the centre of the cylinder where the electric field intensity is to be found
out. The Gaussian surface passing through this point P will be a right circular cylinder of
radius r. Let its length be L. See Fig. 5.11. The electric flux will come out radially from the
uniformly charged cylinder. Hence, no flux passes through the two circular faces of the
cylindrical Gaussian surface. Because of the axial symmetry of the cylindrical Gaussian
surface, the magnitude of the electric field at any point on the curved surface will be the

same and will be directed radially outward. For curved surface S1, the angle between E and
unit vector n̂1 is zero and for circular faces S2 and S3 of the cylindrical Gaussian surface, the
angle is 90°. Under these conditions, we have
 1
∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =∫ ρ dv
ε0 V
(A)

Here, ∫ dQ = ∫ ρdv is the total charge enclosed by the cylindrical Gaussian surface of length L
V V
and radius r. In this case, ∫ ρ dv = Q. Putting this value in Eq. (A), we have
V

   1
∫
S1
E ⋅ ˆ
nds + ∫
S2
E ⋅ ˆ
nds
S3
+ ∫ E ⋅ nds
ˆ = ×Q
ε0

Figure 5.11 Electric field intensity due to the cylindrical symmetric distribution of charges when the
point lies inside the charge distribution. The broken line represents the cylindrical
Gaussian surface
 Electromagnetism 397

   Q
or ∫ E ⋅ nds
S1
ˆ + ∫ E ⋅ nds
ˆ + ∫ E ⋅ nds
S2
ˆ =
ε
S3 0

Since the angle between S1 and the unit vector n̂ is 0° and that between S2 and nˆ, S3 and
n̂ are 90° each, this equation becomes

Q
∫ E nˆ cos 0ds + ∫ E nˆ cos 90°ds + ∫ E nˆ cos 90°ds =
S1 S2 S3 0 ε

Q
or E ∫ ds = (B)
S1
ε0

Now ∫ ds is the total curved surface area of the cylindrical Gaussian surface which is equal
S1
to 2π rL. Q is the total charge enclosed by the cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and
length L. Since π r L is the volume of the cylinder of length L and radius r and ρ is the
2

uniform charge density, we have Q= ρ × π r 2 L. Putting these two values in Eq. (B), we have
1
E × 2π rL = ρ ×π r2L
εO

 ρ r
or E=
2ε O

is the electric field intensity due to the charged cylinder of infinite length with volume
charge density ρ at any point situated inside the cylinder at a distance r from the centre

of the cylinder. The direction of vector E is radially outward for a cylinder of positive
charge and radially inward for a cylinder of negative charge. The result is independent of
the radius of the charged cylinder and depends on the distance r between the point P and
the centre of the cylindrical charge distribution.
Electric field due to charges on a non-conducting infinite sheet
Let electric charge be uniformly distributed over the plane surface of a thin non-conducting
infinite sheet. Let the surface charge density (i.e., the charge per unit surface area) be σ .
We have to calculate the electric field intensity at any point at a distance r from the surface
charge. To find the result we shall first show that the electric field intensity has the same
magnitude near the sheet. For this purpose consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface on one
side of the charged sheet bounded by two flat surfaces A and B each of area S parallel to the
sheet with the cylindrical surface perpendicular to the sheet. See Fig. 5.12. By symmetry,
the electric field strength everywhere is normal to the flat bases and parallel to the curved
 
surface. Let E1 and E2 be the electric field strength at the flat bases A and B respectively.
398 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 5.12 Electric field intensity has the same magnitude on both sides of a non-conducting
infinite plane sheet of charges

As the electric field strength is parallel to the curved surface, the contribution to electric
flux due to the curved surface is zero.
The contribution to electric flux due to flat surface A

∫ E1 ⋅ nds
=
S
ˆ = + E1S

The contribution to electric flux due to flat surface B


∫ E2 ⋅ nds
=
S
ˆ = − E2 S

From Gauss’s law Eq. (5.20), we have

 1
∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =∫ ρ dv
ε 0 V

 1
or ∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =
ε 0
× (charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface)

In this case, we have

1
− E2 S + E1S = ×0 = 0
ε0

or E1 = E2

That means the electric field intensity is the same at all points near the sheet.
 Electromagnetism 399

To calculate the electric field intensity at any point near the sheet, consider the cylindrical
Gaussian surface bounded by two plane faces A and B lying on the opposite sides of and
parallel to the charged sheet with the cylindrical surface perpendicular to the sheet as
depicted in Fig. 5.13.

Figure 5.13 Electric field intensity calculation due to an infinite non-conducting plane sheet of
charges

As already explained the electric field intensity at every point on the flat surfaces is the
same. By symmetry, the electric field intensity E is normal outward at the points on the two
plane surfaces and parallel to the curved surface. Thus, the contribution to the total electric
flux due to, curved surface is zero.
The contribution to the electric flux due to the flat surface A is equal to

∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ = ES

The contribution to the electric flux due to the flat surface B is equal to

∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ = ES

Thus, the total electric flux = ES + ES = 2ES

According to Gauss’s law,

 1
∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =
ε 0
× (charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface)

or Total electric flux =

1
× (Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface)
ε0
400 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1
or = 2 ES
2 ES = × (σ S)
ε0

σ
or E=
2ε 0

Thus, the electric field intensity due to an infinite flat sheet of charge is independent of the
distance of the point and is directed normally away from the sheet. If the surface charge
density r is negative, the electric field intensity is directed towards the surface charge
normally.
5.3.3F Electric field due to charges on a plane conductor of infinite extent

Figure 5.14 Electric field intensity calculation due to an infinite conducting plane sheet of charges

Figure 5.14 represents a portion of a charged infinite plane conductor sheet. By symmetry,
the electric field strength everywhere is directed normally away from the plane of the
sheet. To find the electric field intensity at any point near the sheet, consider a cylindrical
Gaussian surface bounded by two plane bases P and Q each of area S parallel to the plane
of the conductor with the cylindrical surface normal to the conductor. As the electric field
intensity at every point inside the conductor is zero, the electric flux due to the base Q is
zero. Moreover, as the curved surface is parallel to the electric flux, its contribution is zero.
Therefore, it is only the plane base P that contributes to the total electric flux. Thus, we have

Total electric flux = contribution to electric flux due to base P = ∫ E ⋅ nds
ˆ = ES
S
 Electromagnetism 401

According to Gauss’s law

 1
∫ E ⋅ nds
S
ˆ =
ε 0
× (charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface)

1
or Total electric flux = × (Total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface)
ε0

1
or =
ES × (σ S)
ε0

σ
or E=
ε0

Thus, the electric field intensity due to a charged infinite plane conductor is independent
of the distance of the point and is directed normally away from the charge. Electric field
intensity in front of an infinite plane conductor is twice the electric field intensity in front
of a non-conducting infinite thin sheet of charge.

5.4 Magnetic Induction

The magnetic field around a magnet is defined as the space within which magnetic effects
can be realized. Magnetic field may be represented by magnetic lines of induction, in the
same manner as the electric field is represented by electric lines of force. We can define the
magnetic lines of induction as the imaginary lines drawn in a magneticfield in such a way
that tangent to it at any point gives the direction of magnetic induction B at that point. The
magnitude of magnetic induction is more at the places where concentration of magnetic
lines of induction is more. With this background information, we shall discuss magnetic
induction quantitatively in the following way.
When a charge moves in a magnetic field, in addition to the Coulomb force between

charges, a new force will act on the moving the charge. This force F depends upon the
charge q, velocity of the charge v and most importantly on a property of the magnetic field

called magnetic induction B given by
  
=
F q v×B ( ) (5.24)


If in the concerned space, there is an electric field of intensity E as well as a magnetic field of

induction B , then the total force acting on the moving charge will be
  
qE + q v × B ( )
402 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The magnetic induction B can also be defined in the following way. When charges move
in
 a conductor placed in a magnetic field, a new force will act on the conductor. This force
F depends upon the electric current i, length of the conductor
 and most importantly on a
property of the magnetic field called magnetic induction B given by

   
=
F ∫ id × B
0
(5.25)


where d is the elemental vector length of the conductor, its direction being the direction
of current. id is called a current
 element.
The magnetic induction B can also be defined as the magnetic flux or magnetic lines of
induction f per unit area of the surface perpendicular to B. This has been depicted in Fig. 5.15.
Mathematically, we can write the relation as

dϕ (5.26)
B=
dS

 
or ϕ
= ∫ B ⋅ dS.
S
(5.27)

For uniform distribution of magnetic lines of induction or magnetic flux and for plane area
Eq. (5.27) becomes
 
ϕ = B ⋅ S = BS cos θ

Figure 5.15 Magnetic flux through a plane area making an angle q with the flux
 Electromagnetism 403

5.4.1 Units of magnetic induction

N Wb
The SI unit of magnetic induction is found out to be from Eq. (5.25) and 2 from
Am m
Eq. (5.26), Weber being the unit of magnetic flux. In cgs emu (electromagnetic unit),
the unit of magnetic flux is Maxwell and so the unit of magnetic induction becomes
Maxwell dyne
or . Hence, we have
cm2 abAcm

1Nm
1 Weber =
A

1dyne cm
1 Maxwell =
abA

1 Weber = 108 Maxwell

1 abA = 10A

1N 1Wb
= = 1Tesla (SI units)
Am m2

1dyne 1Maxwell
= =1gauss (cgs emu )
abAcm cm2

1T = 104 gauss

5.4.2 Special cases of magnetic induction

In the following, we are directly citing formulae for magnitude of magnetic induction in
different current configuration. The direction of magnetic induction and the symbols used
in the formulae are depicted in the figures.

µ0 I 0
i. Magnetic induction due to a long straight wire = ( sinθ2 − sinθ1 ) (5.28)
4π r

µ 0 I0
ii. Magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight wire = (5.29)
2π r
 404 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 5.16 (a) Magnetic induction due to a long straight wire carrying a steady current I0. If the wire
π π 
is infinitely long then θ1 = and θ2 = − . The direction of B at P is into the paper
2 2
perpendicularly. (b) Shape and direction of the magnetic field due to a long current
carrying wire

µ0nI 0 r 2
iii. Magnetic induction at any point on the axis of a circular coil = 3
(5.30)
2(r 2 + x 2 ) 2

µ0nI 0
iv. Magnetic induction at the centre of a circular coil = (5.31)
2r
µ0 nI 0 r 2
v. Magnetic induction at any point on the axis of a circular coil if x >>> .r = (5.32)
2 x3

vi. Magnetic induction at any point on the axis of a solenoid = m0nI0 (5.33)

Figure 5.17 Magnetic induction at any point on the axis of a circular coil of n turns carrying current
I0. At the centre of the coil x = 0. If the point is very far away
 from the centre of the coil,
then we can neglect r in comparison to x. The direction of B is along the axis away from
the centre of the coil
 Electromagnetism 405

Figure 5.18 Magnetic induction at any point on the axis of a solenoid having n turns per unit length
carrying current I0. The direction of B is along the axis of the solenoid

5.5 Magnetic Field Strength (Intensity)

The magnetic field generated by currents
 
 µ id × r
4π ∫ r 3
BO = O


passing through wires wound over magnetic materials, result in the materials becoming 
magnetized. Thus, it contributes to the total
 magnetic field and the total magnetic
 field B
inside the material will be different from B0 . We shall now discuss what part of B comes
from the external currents

    
 µ0 id × r 
 BO = 4π ∫  3 
 r 
 

and what part comes from the material itself.

If the interior
 of a solenoid is filled with a material
 with non-zero magnetization, the
total field B inside the solenoid will be greater than B0 . The total field B inside the material
    
will be B= B0 + Bm , where Bm is the field contributed by the material. The component Bm

is proportional to the magnetization vector M (total magnetic dipole moments per unit
volume). Thus, we have
  
= B0 + µ0 M
B (5.34)
406 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

m0 is the magnetic permeability of vacuum. For analysis of magnetic fields that arise from
magnetization, it is convenient to introduce another vector
 field within the substance called
the magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength H , defined by

  
 B   1 id × r 
H = − M= ∫  3 
0
(5.35)
µ0  4π r 
 

The same vector H is also called the magnetizing field intensity. The magnetic field strength
represents the magnetic effect of the conduction currents in wires on nearby substances.
Thus, Eq. (5.34) can be written as
  
=B µ0 H + M ( ) (5.36)

 
H and M will have the same units Am–1. According to Eq. (5.36) the total magnetic field
 
B (= µ H , µ being the magnetic permeability of the material) inside the material can be
 
devided into two parts µ0 H is due to external factors such as the current and µ0 M is due
to the specific nature of the magnetic material.

5.6 Ampere’s Circuital Law


Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic induction B around a closed
path C is equal to m0 times the total electric current I enclosed by the path C when there is
no magnetic materials present. Mathematically, Ampere’s circuital law is given by
 
∫ B.d = µ I
C
0 (5.37)

 
where d is an elemental vector length of the path C. The direction of d is the direction
in which the 
magnetic
 flux will encircle the current carrying wire. If r̂ is a unit vector in the
direction of d, Eq. (5.37) becomes

∫ B ⋅ rd
C
ˆ =
µI 0 (5.38)

Taking the magnitude of the scalar product, Eq. (5.38) becomes

∫ Bd cos θ = µ I
C
0 (5.39)


where q is the angle between the direction of magnetic induction Band the unit vector rˆ.
The magnitude of r̂ is 1 since it is a unit vector in the direction of d.
 Electromagnetism 407


The direction of magnetic induction B near a wire carrying current is given by the right-
hand rule. According to the rule, if the wire is held with the right, thumb
 pointing in the
direction of the current, then the direction of the magnetic intensity B will be the direction
in which the other fingers are curled towards. This is depicted in the Fig. 5.19.


Figure 5.19 Right-hand rule to find out the direction of magnetic induction B produced by electric
current

We can also find out the direction of magnetic induction by the rotation of a right-hand
screw. Place the screw perpendicularly on the cross-section of the current carrying wire.
The direction of magnetic induction will be the direction of rotation of the right-hand screw
so that the screw will move in the direction of the current. This is shown in Fig. 5.20. In
dI
terms of current density, J (i.e., J = current per unit cross-sectional area), total electric
current is given by ds

   
∫ J ⋅ ds  dI =
I=
S
(
J ⋅ ds ) (5.40)

Hence, mathematical formulation of Ampere’s circuital law becomes

   
∫
C
B ⋅ d =
 µ 0 ∫ ⋅ ds
S
J (5.41)

where n̂ is the unit vector normal to the cross-sectional area in the outward direction.
408 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


Figure 5.20 Maxwell’s corkscrew rule to find out the direction of magnetic induction B produced by
electric current

5.6.1 Ampere’s circuital law in differential form

Applying Stokes’ theorem to the LHS of Eq. (5.41), we get

    
∫ ∇ × B=
C
⋅ ds µ0 ∫ J ⋅ ds
S

  
or ∇ × B = µO J (5.42)

5.6.2 Applications of Ampere’s circuital law

Magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight current carrying wire

Let us consider an infinite length of straight
 wire carrying a steady current I0. Let P be
the point at which magnetic induction B is to be found out. The perpendicular distance
between the wire and the point P is r. Now imagine a circular path C through the point P so
that the wire is normal to the plane of the circular path C at the centre of the circular path
C. Thus, the circular path C encloses the current carrying wire with the centre at the wire.
This is shown in Fig. 5.21.
Then from Ampere’s law, we have

∫ B ⋅ rˆ d =
C
µI0 0
 Electromagnetism 409

Figure 5.21 Magnetic induction dueto an infinitely long straight wire carrying current I0. The direction
of magnetic induction B at P is normal into the plane of the paper and at P’ it is normal
out of the paper

Here the path C encloses the current I0 flowing through the wire. In this case, the direction
of B and dl (or unit vector r̂ ) are the same, i.e., angle between the magnetic induction
B and the unit vector r̂ is 0 at any point on the path C. In this case, the shapes of the
magnetic fluxes are concentric circles. Figure 5.16(b) may be consulted. The previous
equation becomes

∫ Bd = µ I
C
0 0


Now the magnitude of the magnetic induction B is the same, i.e., it is constant at any point
on the circular path C. Hence, we can take it outside the integration sign. The previous
equation becomes

B ∫ d = µ0 I 0 (A)
C

Here ∫ d is the total length of the path C. The radius of the circular path C is r (equal to
C
the perpendicular distance between the wire and the point P). Hence, the total length of the
circular path C will be equal to 2pr, i.e.,

∫ d = 2π r
C

Hence, from (A) we have

µ0 I 0
B=
2π r

is the magnitude of magnetic induction B at a point situated at a perpendicular distance r
from the wire carrying a steady current I0.
410 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight current carrying

cylinder
In the calculation involved in determining the magnetic induction at any point in case of a
cylindrical conductor carrying current by applying Ampere’s circuital, three possible cases
may arise.

Case 1: The point P lies outside the cylindrical conductor.

Case 2: The point P lies inside the cylindrical conductor.
Case 3: The point P lies on the surface of the cylindrical conductor.

We shall discuss the Case 2 in detail. The other two cases are left as exercises to the readers.
In Case 2, the point P lies inside the charge distribution and we are to find out electric field
intensity at an internal point.
The point P at which magnetic induction is to be found out lies inside at a perpendicular
distance of r from the central axis of the cylindrical conductor of radius R. This is shown
in Fig. 5.22.

Figure 5.22 Magnetic induction due to an infinitely long straight wire carrying current
 I0 when point
P is situated inside the cylinder. The direction of magnetic induction B at P is normal into
the plane of the paper and at P¢ it is normal out of the paper
 Electromagnetism 411

Let us consider an infinite length straight cylindrical conductor carrying a steady current
I0 distributed uniformly  throughout the cross-sectional area. Let P the point at which the
magnetic induction B is to be found out be situated inside the cylindrical conductor. The
perpendicular distance between the central axis of the cylindrical conductor and the point
P is r. Now imagine a circular path C through the point P so that the cylindrical conductor
is normal to the plane of the circular path C at the centre of the circular path C. See
Fig. 5.22. Then according to Ampere’s circuital law, we have

C
∫ B ⋅ rd
ˆ =
µ0 I 0 (A)

Here I0 is the current flowing through the cross-sectional area of the cylindrical conductor
enclosed by the circular path C. However, in our present case, the amount of current
flowing through the cross-sectional area of the cylindrical conductor is not the same as the
amount of current flowing through the cross-sectional area enclosed by the circular path C.
Therefore, we shall first calculate the amount of current flowing through the cross-sectional
area enclosed by the circular path C. The cross-sectional area of the cylindrical conductor
is pR2 since the radius of the cylindrical conductor is R. Through the cross-sectional area
pR2, the amount of current flowing is I0. Therefore, the amount of current flowing per unit
cross-sectional area will be given by
I0
π R2
The cross-sectional area enclosed by the circular path C is pr2 since r is the radius of the
path C. Therefore, the amount of current flowing through the cross-sectional area pr2 will
be given by

I0 r2
× π r 2
=×
I 0
π R2 R2

r2
or I= I 0 ×
R2

is the amount of current enclosed by the circular path C. Putting this value of current in
Eq. (A), we have
  r2 
C∫ B ⋅ ˆ
rd =
 µ 0 

I 0 × 
R2 
 
In this case, the direction of B and
 d  (or unit vector r̂ ) are the same, i.e., the angle
between the magnetic induction B and the unit vector r̂ is 0 at any point on the path C.
The previous equation becomes
 r2 
∫=
C
Bd µ0  I 0 ×


R2 
412 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


Now the magnitude of the magnetic induction B is the same, i.e., is constant at any point
on the circular path C. Hence, we can take it outside the integration sign. The previous
equation becomes

r2 (B)
B ∫=
d  µ0 I 0 ×
C R2

Here ∫ d
C
is the total length of the path C. The radius of the circular path C is r. Hence, the
total length of the circular path C will be equal to 2pr, i.e.,

∫ dl = 2π r
C

Hence, from (B), we get

µ0 I 0
=B ×r
2π R2

is the magnitude of the magnetic induction B at a point situated inside the cylindrical
conductor at a perpendicular distance r from the central axis of the cylindrical conductor

carrying a steady current I0. In this case, the variation of the magnetic induction B with
r is not absurd. The magnetic induction at any point on the central axis of a cylindrical
conductor carrying a current I0 is zero.
All the previously mentioned three cases are represented graphically in Fig. 5.23.

Figure 5.23 The variation of magnetic induction in case of a cylindrical current carrying conductor.
The curves marked BE , BI , and BS represents Case 1, Case 2, and Case 3 respectively
 Electromagnetism 413

5.7 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the induced emf in a circuit is equal
to the negative rate at which the magnetic flux j through the circuit is changing. The
mathematical statement of the law is

dϕ
Induced emf = − (5.43)
dt

The negative sign appears in Eq. (5.43) due to the fact that the direction of induced emf is
such that it opposes the very cause which causes it. This statement for the negative sign is
called Lenz’s law. The magnetic flux linked with a coil can be changed either by moving
the coil through the magnetic filed or by changing the magnetic field it self. Whenever
magnetic flux is linked with the coil changes, induced emf is produced in the coil. The
induced emf exists in the coil as long as the magnetic flux is linked with the coil changes.
More rapid is the change of magnetic flux more is the magnitude of induced emf.
The time-varying magnetic flux

 dϕ 
 dt ≠ 0 
 

sets up induced electric field E at various points around the coil. The induced electric field
is non-conservative whereas the electric field produced by static charge is conservative.
This induced electric field is as real as the electric field produced by static charges. The
electric force (i.e., Coulomb force) exerted on a test charge q0 due to this induced electric
field will be q0E. Thus, we can say that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field.
If the time-varying magnetic flux is perpendicular to the plane of the paper, the electric flux
produced will be concentric circles. The concept is depicted in the Fig. 5.24.
The induced emf will be equal to the amount of work done (work done = force
× length of the path in the direction of force) in circulating a unit positive charge
around the path. For a circular path of radius r, the amount of work done in moving a
unit positive charge around the circle is E2pr and is equal to the induced emf. For any
other path the induced emf is given by line integral of the induced emf. Thus, we have
 
=
Induced emf ∫ E ⋅ dr
C
(5.44)
414 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 5.24 Induced electric fields are produced by time-varying increasing magnetic fields. The
time-varying magnetic flux are into the plane of the paper in a perpendicular direction

  dϕ
or ∫ E ⋅ dr =
C
−
dt
(5.45)

5.7.1 Integral form of Faraday’s law

From Eq. (5.45), we have

  dϕ d  
∫ E ⋅ dr =
C
−
dt
− ∫ B ⋅ ds
=
dt S

Since surface S does not change its position or shape with time, we have

  dB 
C∫ E ⋅ dr =
− ∫
S dt
⋅ ds. (5.46)

Equation (5.46) is the integral form of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

 Electromagnetism 415

5.7.2 Differential form of Faraday’s law


  dB 
Now applying Stokes' theorem to the LHS of ∫ E ⋅ dr =
− ∫ ⋅ ds, we have
C S dt


   dB 
∫S ∇ × E ⋅ ds + ∫S dt ⋅ ds = 0

The total time derivative is to be replaced by partial derivative since we are only concerned
with changes in the field B, keeping other things constant.

   ∂B  
∫S  ∇ × E + ∂t  ⋅ ds = 0


  ∂B
or ∇× E = − (5.47)
∂t

Equation (5.47) is the differential form of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

The vector field is defined to be conservative (work done is independent of path; electric
field is produced by static charges; gravitational field of earth) if curl of the vector field is
zero. Otherwise, it is non-conservative. Equation (5.47) shows that the electric field has a
non-conservative part due to changing magnetic flux density and a conservative part due to
electric charge density. Faraday’s law of induction shows how electric and magnetic fields
are interconnected. Their independent nature vanishes when they become time dependent.
Thus, these two fields are combined as a single field known as electromagnetic field.
Suppose in a region of space, magnetic induction (hence magnetic flux) B is changing
dB
at the constant rate . Imagine a circular path of radius r, whose plane is perpendicular
dt
to magnetic flux. An electric field of constant magnitude will be produced at all the points

on
 this path with its direction
 tangent

 to the path. In this case, the angle between B and
ds is zero and that between E and dr is zero. Under these conditions, Eq. (5.46) becomes

dB
E ∫ dr = −
dt ∫S
ds
C

dB
or E × length of the circular path = – × cross-sectional area of the circular path.
dt
1 dB
E= − r .
2 dt
416 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Here, the minus sign indicates the direction of electric field intensity. The direction of
electric field intensity is such that it opposes the change of magnetic intensity or change of
magnetic flux (Lenz’s law).

Example 5.24
A wire of length 2 m perpendicular to X-Y plane is moving with a constant velocity
  Wb
v = 2 xˆ + 3 yˆ + zˆ m/s through a region of uniform magnetic field of induction B= xˆ + 2 yˆ 2 .
Calculate the potential difference between the two ends of the wire. m

Solution
When a rod moves in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts q(v × B)force on the moving
rod. For the constancy of the velocity of the rod, this magnetic force has to be balanced. The
 
( )
magnetic force q v × B is balanced by the electric force qE developed by the internally
produced electric field. Thus, we have
  
(
qE + q v × B =
0 )
  
(
or E =− v × B = )
( xˆ + 2 yˆ ) × ( 2xˆ + 3 yˆ + zˆ ) =( 2xˆ − yˆ + zˆ )

If L is the length of the rod, then the potential difference developed between the two ends of
the rod will be

e = E ⋅ L = ( 2 xˆ − yˆ + zˆ ) ⋅ 2zˆ = 2V

( L = 2zˆ because its length is along the Z-axis)

Example 5.25
The magnetic flux j through a coil perpendicular to its plane is varying with time t obeying
the equation j = 5t 2 + 7t + 9 Wb. Calculate the emf induced in the coil at time = 2 seconds.
Solution
The induced emf produced in the coil, according to Faraday’s law of induction, is given by

dϕ
e= −
dt

d Wb
e= (5t 2 + 7t + 9) = (10t + 7)V
dt s

At t = 2 seconds induced emf = 27 V.

 Electromagnetism 417

5.8 Displacement Current

 
According to Ampere’s circuital law, ∫ .d = µ0 I if there are no magnetic materials present
C
B
in the vicinity of the current carrying wire. In the presence of magnetic materials, Ampere’s
law is modified and given by
 
∫ B=
C
.d µ0 I C + µ0 I M (5.48)

where IC is the conduction current and IM is the magnetizing current.

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic field
dϕ  
produces electric field ( − =
dt C ∫ E.d , ϕ is the magnetic flux). Nature loves symmetry.
Therefore, we may expect the reverse concept to be true. That means a changing electric
field produces magnetic field, i.e.,

dϕ E  
µO ε O = ∫ B.d (5.49)
dt C

where jE is the electric flux or electric line of force. Students should verify that

dϕ E
ε0
dt

has the dimension of current. Though there is no motion of charge, we name

dϕ E
ε0
dt

as displacement current Id . Thus, we have

dϕ E (5.50)
Id = ε 0
dt

Equation (5.50) can also be derived by differentiating Eq. (5.18) with respect to time.
The magnetic field can be set up by (a) magnetizing bodies, (b) electric current and
(c) time-varying electric field. Ampere’s circuital law, which gives the quantitative
determination of magnetic induction, can be expressed with full generality as
 
∫ B.d =µ I
C
0 C + µ0 I M + µ0 I d (5.51)
418 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 5.25 (a) The production of induced magnetic field in the gap between two plates of a parallel
plate capacitor due to a time-varying electric field. The time-varying electric field is
established between the two plates of the capacitor during its charging and discharging.
In both the cases, the variation of the electric flux is exponential in nature. (b) Here, the
induced magnetic field is produced due to increasing electric field The induced
magnetic flux is circular with its plane perpendicular to the electric flux

The displacement current density Jd is defined as the displacement current per unit cross-
sectional area. Hence, mathematically, the displacement current density is given as

dI d
Jd = (5.52)
ds

Putting the value of displacement current Id from Eq. (5.50) into Eq. (5.52), we get

d  dϕ E  d  dϕ E 
=Jd = ε  ε  (5.53)
ds  dt  dt  ds 
 
Now Gauss’s law can be re-written here as ϕ=
E ∫ ⋅ ds
S
E

dϕ E
or =E (5.54)
ds
 Electromagnetism 419

dϕ E
Putting this value of into Eq. (5.53), we have
ds
d
Jd = (ε E ) (5.55)
dt

Electric displacement is defined by

 
D =εE

This equation holds good even for time-varying fields. Putting this value of D into
Eq. (5.55), we have

 dD
Jd = (5.56)
dt

There are possibilities that the electric displacement may be a function of more than one
variable. Therefore, we modify Eq. (5.56) and obtain

 ∂D
Jd =
∂t

5.8.1 Physical significance of displacement current

Equation (5.50) gives the magnitude of the displacement current. Unlike conduction
current, which is produced due to the motion of the charges, displacement current
is produced due to the time variation of the electric flux. Like conduction current, the
displacement current is continuous. However, conduction current is not continuous across
the capacitor gap whereas displacement current is continuous across the capacitor gap,
i.e., displacement current flows through the capacitor gap. Otherwise, the capacitor plates
cannot be charged by steady conduction current. The magnitude of the displacement
current flowing through the capacitor gap is equal to the conduction current flowing in the
wires connecting the plates of the capacitor. This is depicted pictorially in Fig. 5.25.
420 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

5.8.2 Distinction between conduction current and displacement current

Conduction current Displacement current

1 Conduction current is produced due to the actual Displacement current is produced due to time-
flow charge carriers in conductors. varying electric flux.
2 The flow of conduction current is possible only in The flow of displacement current is possible in any
a conducting material medium. medium, even in vacuum.
3 The magnitude of conduction current depends The magnitude of displacement current depends
upon the applied potential difference and upon the rate of change of electric flux with respect
resistivity of the conductors. to time and permittivity of the medium.
4 Conduction current obeys Ohm’s law. Displacement current does not obey Ohm’s law.
5 In almost all conductors, conduction current In almost all conductors, displacement current is
dominates displacement current normally. dominated by conduction current normally.
6 Thus, conduction current lags behind Thus, displacement current leads the conduction
π π
displacement current by a phase difference of current by a phase difference of when an
2 alternating electric field is applied. 2
when an alternating electric field is applied.
7 Potential difference dϕ E
IC = Id = ε
Resistance dt

Example 5.26
The electric field intensity between two circular plates each of radius R of a parallel plate
dE
capacitor is increasing at the rate of . Calculate the induced magnetic field B at various
dt
points x on the vertical section. Figure 5.25 may be referred.

Solution
According to Eq. (5.49), we have

  dϕ
C∫ ⋅ d =
B ε 0 µ0 E .
dt


where d is an elemental length on the circular path C. C is a circular path imagined on
the vertical section passing between the two plates of the capacitor so that the electric flux
are perpendicular to the plane of this circular path and the centre of the circular plate lie on
a straight line perpendicular to the plates of the capacitor. Since the path is circular, angle
 
between magnetic induction B and d is 0°. Hence, the previous equation becomes

dϕ E
∫ Bd = ε µ
C
0 0
dt
(A)
 Electromagnetism 421

Case 1: Suppose x ≤ R (i.e., the point lies inside the two circular plates). Here, x is the
distance of the point at which the induced magnetic induction is to be found out. Through
this point, the circular path C is imagined. Obviously, the radius of this circular path will
be x. The magnitude of the induced magnetic induction at any point on the circular path is
constant. Hence, Eq. (A) becomes

2π x dϕ E
B∫ d  = ε 0 µ0
0 dt

Since the electric field intensity E is uniform between two plates of the capacitor, the
amount of flux passing through a circular path of radius x is jE = px2E and putting this vale
of jE in the previous equation, we have

d π x2 E
or B × 2π x =
ε 0 µ0
dt

ε 0 µ0 x dE
or =B × .
2 dt

Case 2: Suppose x ≥ R (i.e., the point lies outside the two circular plates). Here, x is the
distance of the point at which the induced magnetic induction is to be found out. Through
this point, the circular path C is imagined. Obviously, the radius of this circular path will
be x. The magnitude of the induced magnetic induction at any point on the circular path is
constant. Hence, Eq. (A) becomes
2π x
dϕ E
B ∫
0
d  = ε 0 µ0
dt
.

Since the electric field intensity E is uniform between two plates of the capacitor, the
amount of flux passing through a circular path of radius R is ϕ E = π R2 E and putting this
vale of ϕ E in the previous equation, we have

d π R2 E
B × 2π x =
ε 0 µ0
dt

ε 0 µ0 R2 dE
or B=
2x dt
422 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 5.27
The electric field intensity E between two circular plates each of radius R of a parallel plate
dE
capacitor is increasing at the rate of . Calculate the displacement current. Figure 5.25 may
be seen. dt

Solution
According to Eq. (5.50), we have

dϕ E
Id = ε 0
dt

Since the electric field intensity E is uniform between the two circular plates of the capacitor,
the amount of flux passing between the two circular plates, each of radius R, will be jE = pR2E.
Putting this vale of jE in the previous equation, we have

d π R2 E
Id = ε 0
dt

dE
or I d = ε 0π R2
dt

The displacement current can be expressed in another form in the following way for any
capacitor.
Let A be the area of each plate. Hence, from the previous equation, we have

dE
Id = ε 0 A (A)
dt

The uniform electric field intensity between the two plates of the capacitor is given by

σ,
E=
ε0
q
where s is the surface charge density = .
Hence, we have A

q CV
=
E =
Aε 0 Aε 0

where C is the capacitance of the capacitor and V is the potential difference between the two
plates of the capacitor at any time t.
 Electromagnetism 423

Putting this value of E into Eq. (A), we have

d  CV 
Id = ε 0 A  
dt  Aε 0 

dV
or I d = C .
dt

Example 5.28
Prove that the displacement current flowing between the two plates of the capacitor is equal to
the conduction current utilized in charging the capacitor.
Solution
Figure 5.25(a) may be consulted. According to Eq. (5.50), the displacement current Id is given
by

dϕ E
Id = ε 0
dt

Since the electric field intensity E is uniform between the two plates of the capacitor, the
amount of flux passing between the two plates each of area A, will be jE = AE and putting this
vale of jE in the previous equation, we have

dAE
Id = ε 0
dt

dE
or I d = ε 0 A (A)
dt

The uniform electric field intensity between the two plates of the capacitor is given by

σ
E= ,
ε0
q
where σ= = surface charge density
A
Hence, we have

q
E=
Aε 0
424 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Now putting this value of E into Eq. (A), we have

d q 
I=
d I=
d ε0 A  
dt  Aε 0 

dq
or I=
d = I=
C conduction current.
dt

Example 5.29
In a certain silicon rod of resistivity 2000 Wm carrying a current, the electric field varies with
time according to the equation E = E0 sin wt. Calculate (a) the maximum conduction current
density and (b) the maximum displacement current density if e = e0. Given, E0 = 0.1 V/m, w
= 2p × 60 Hz.
Solution
The conduction current IC, is given by Ohm’s law as

V VA EA
I=
C = =
R ρ ρ

where
V = Potential difference between the two ends of the conductor.

R = Resistance of the conductor.

A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor.

E = Electric field intensity applied to the conductor.

 = Length of the conductor.

ρ = Resistivity of the material of the conductor.

From this equation, the conduction current density JC is given by

E
JC =
ρ

According to the question, this equation becomes

E0 sin ωt
JC = .
ρ
 Electromagnetism 425

Hence, the maximum value of the conduction current density from this equation will be

E0
J CMAX =
ρ

Since maximum value of sin ωt = 1

Putting the numerical values of different quantities from the question into this equation,
we get

0.1Vm −1
J CMAX = = 5 × 10−5 Am −2
2000 Ωm

According to Eq. (5.50), displacement current density is given by

dD dε 0 E
=
Jd =
dt dt

dE
Jd = ε0
dt

According to the question, this equation becomes

dE0 sin ωt
Jd = ε0 = ε 0ω E0 cos ωt
dt

Hence, the maximum value of displacement current density from this equation will be

J dMAX = ε 0ω E0

Putting the numerical values of different quantities from the question into this equation, we
get

J dMAX = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 N −1m −2 × 2π × 60 Hz × 0.1Vm −1 = 3.34 × 10−10 Am-2 .

Example 5.30
In Example 5.29, (a) what is the phase difference between the conduction current and the
displacement current? (b) At what frequency would the maximum conduction current density
and the maximum displacement current density becomes equal.
426 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
(a) In Example 5.29, we have obtained

E0 sin ωt
JC = and J d = ε 0ω E0 cos ωt
ρ

for the same specimen having constant area of cross-section A. Hence, the above two equations
can be written as

AE0 sin ωt  π
IC = and I d = Aε 0ω E0 cos ωt = Aε 0ω E0 sin  ωt + 
ρ  2
π
Thus, displacement current leads the conduction current by a phase difference of .
2
(b) From Example 5.29, the conduction current density is 5 × 10–5Am–2 and the displacement
current density is obtained as e0wE0. According to the question, these two current densities are
to be equal. Hence, we have

ε 0ω E0 = 5 × 10−5 Am −2

5 × 10−5 Am −2
or 2πν =
ε 0 E0

5 × 10−5 Am −2
or ν = = 9.0 MHz
2π × 8.85 × 10−12 Co2 N −1m −2 × 0.1Vm −1

Example 5.31
Find the displacement current density next to your radio set in air where the local radio station

H 0.2 cos(6 × 108 t − 2 x )zˆ A/m.
provides a carrier wave having =
Solution
The magnetic field component is given as

H 0.2 cos(6π × 108 t − 2 x )zˆ A/m
=

  
We know that εω E= H × k

or =
Hk H  ω 
E =  =v
εω ε c  k 
 Electromagnetism 427

We know that the displacement current density is given by

dE 1 dH 1 d
Jd = ε = = (0.2 cos(6π × 108 t − 2 x )
dt c dt c dt

1
= (0.2sin(6π × 108 t − 2 x ) × 6π × 108 yˆA/m2
3 × 108

or J d (0.4π sin(6π × 108 t − 2 x ) yˆA/m2 .

=

5.9 Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Equations

Maxwell’s equations represent mathematical expressions of certain experimental results.
They are applicable to all macroscopic situations. Like conservation principles (conservation
of energy, conservation of linear momentum and conservation of angular momentum are
three pillars of physics) they are the fundamental principles of electromagnetic waves.

5.9.1 Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in differential form

   
The four equations which the field vectors E , D, B, and H satisfy everywhere are:
 
i. ∇⋅D =ρ (5.57)

 
ii. ∇ ⋅ B =0 (5.58)


  ∂B
iii . ∇ × E = − (5.59)
∂t


   ∂D
iv. ∇ × H = J + (5.60)
∂t

These four equations are the fundamental equations in the electromagnetic field and are
well known as Maxwell’s equations in differential form.
428 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 5.32
For a dielectric medium= σ 0,= µr 10, and ε r = 2.5. Examine whether the pair of fields
E = 3 yyˆ and H = 7 xxˆ satisfy Maxwell’s equation.
Solution
For a perfect dielectric ( ρ = 0 ), Maxwell’s first equation becomes

∇ ⋅ E =0

Now LHS of this equation is

  ∂E ∂E y ∂E ∂3 y
∇⋅E= x
+ + z = 0+ + 0= 3
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y

 
Thus, we get ∇ ⋅ E ≠ 0 implying that the given electric field does not satisfy Maxwell’s first
equation.
From Maxwell’s second equation, we get
 
∇ ⋅ H =0

Now LHS of this equation is

  ∂H ∂H y ∂H z ∂7 x
∇ ⋅=
H x
+ + = +0=
+0 7
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x

 
Thus, we get ∇ ⋅ H ≠ 0 implying that the given magnetic field does not satisfy Maxwell’s
second equation.
Maxwell’s third equation is

  ∂B
∇× E = − .
∂t

The LHS of this equation is

   ∂E ∂E   ∂E ∂E   ∂E ∂E X 
∇ × E xˆ  Z − Y  + yˆ  X − Z  + zˆ  Y − =
=  0
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

The RHS of Eq. (A) is

∂B ∂H ∂7 x
− −µ
= −µ
= =
0.
∂t ∂t ∂t

Thus, LHS = RHS

 Electromagnetism 429

Maxwell’s third equation is satisfied by the given fields.

Maxwell’s fourth equation is
 
   ∂D  ∂E
∇ × H= J + = σE +ε
∂t ∂t

For a perfect dielectric, σ = 0. Hence, this equation becomes


  ∂E
∇ × H =ε (A)
∂t

The LHS of this equation is

   ∂H ∂H   ∂H X ∂H Z   ∂HY ∂H X 
∇ × H xˆ  Z − Y
=  + yˆ  −  + zˆ  −=  0
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

The RHS of Eq. (A) is


∂E ∂3 y
ε
= ε= 0
∂t ∂t

Thus, LHS = RHS

Therefore, we conclude that the given fields do not satisfy all the four Maxwell’s equations.

5.9.2 Special cases

Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation in free space

In free space, the volume charge density ρ = 0 and current density J = 0. Therefore
Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation in free space are given by
 
i. ∇ ⋅ D = 0 (5.61)

 
ii. ∇ ⋅ B = 0 (5.62)


 
iii. ∇ × E = − ∂B (5.63)
∂t


  ∂D
iv. ∇ × H = (5.64)
∂t
 430 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in linear isotropic media

  
 B
In linear isotropic media, electric displacement D = ε E and magnetic field intensity H =
µ
Therefore, Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation in linear isotropic media are given by
  ρ
i. ∇⋅E = (5.65)
ε

 
ii. ∇ ⋅ H = 0 (5.66)


  ∂H
iii. ∇ × E = − µ (5.67)
∂t


  
iv. ∇ × H = J + ε ∂E (5.68)
∂t

Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations for a harmonically varying field

 
If the magnetic field and electric field vary harmonically obeying the equations D = D0 e iωt
 
and B = B0 e iωt , which is in complex form, then Maxwell’s equations become
 
i. ∇⋅D =ρ (5.69)

 
ii. ∇ ⋅ B = 0 (5.70)


    ∂B 
iii. ∇ × E + iω B = 0  = iω B  (5.71)
 ∂t 


     ∂D 
iv. ∇ × H − iω D = J  = iω D  (5.72)
 ∂t 

Example 5.33
 
      ∂B    ∂D
Prove ∇ ⋅ D = ρ and ∇ ⋅ B = 0 from equations ∇ × E = − and ∇ × H = J + .
∂t ∂t
 Electromagnetism 431

Solution

  ∂B , we get
Now taking the divergence of both sides of the equation ∇ × E = −
∂t

   ∂B
∇ ⋅∇ × E = −∇ ⋅
∂t

However, we know that the divergence of curl of any vector function is always zero. Hence,
this equation becomes

∂  
−
∂t
( )
∇ ⋅ B =0


If at each point in space in the past or in the future ∇ ⋅ B = 0, Eq. (A) will give
 
∇ ⋅ B =0 (Proved)

   ∂D
Now taking the divergence of both sides of the equation ∇ × H = J + , we get
∂t

      ∂D 
( )
∇ ⋅ ∇× H = ∇ ⋅ J +


∂t 

However, we know that the divergence of curl of any vector function is always zero. Hence,
this equation becomes

   ∂D (B)
∇⋅J +∇⋅ =0
∂t
     ∂ρ 
Putting the value of ∇ ⋅ J from the equation of continuity  ∇ ⋅ J + ∂t = 0  into Eq. (B), we
have  

∂  
∂t
(
−ρ + ∇ ⋅ D =0) (C)
 
If at each point in space in the past or in the future ∇ ⋅ D − ρ = 0, equation (C) will give
 
∇⋅D =ρ (Proved)

Example 5.34
Derive Coulomb’s law of electrostatic force from Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation
 
∇ ⋅ D = ρ.
432 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
 
We know ∇ ⋅ D = ρ (Maxwell’s first equation)
Integrating both sides of this equation over the volume V, we have

V
∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv = ∫ ρdv


or ∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv = q
V

Applying Gauss’s divergence theorem to the LHS of this equation, we have

 
q= ∫ D ⋅ ds = D ∫ ds =
S S
D 4π r 2 = ε E 4π r 2

q
or E =
4πε r 2

The force on a test charge q0 will be

1 q0 q
= =
F Eq0 , Coulomb’s law.
4πε r 2

5.9.3 Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in integral form


Case 1: The integral form of the first equation ∇ ⋅ D = ρ is given by

 
∫ D ⋅ ds= ∫ ρdv=
S V
q (5.73)

where q is the net charge contained in the volume V, S is the surface bounding the volume
V. The integral form of Maxwell’s first equation states that the total electric displacement
through the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the total charge within the volume.
 
Case 2: The integral form of the second equation ∇ ⋅ B = 0 is given by
 
∫ B ⋅ ds =
S
0 (5.74)

which signifies that, the total outward flux of magnetic induction B through any closed
surface S is equal to zero.’
 Electromagnetism 433


  ∂B
Case 3: The integral form of the third equation ∇ × E = − is given by
∂t
  ∂  
∫ E.d = − ∂t ∫ B.ds
C S
(5.75)

which signifies that the electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the time
derivative of the magnetic displacement through any surface bounded by the path.

   ∂D
Case 4: The integral form of fourth equation ∇ × H = J + is re-written in integral
form as ∂t


    ∂D  
∫ H ⋅ d=
C
∫S  J + ∂t  ⋅ ds (5.76)

which signifies that the magnetomotive force around a closed path is equal to the conduction
current plus the time derivative of the electric displacement through any surface bounded
by the path.

Questions

5.1 What is the characteristic of a vector in a vector field?

5.2 What is the characteristic of a scalar in a scalar field?
5.3 What is a line integral? Give a few physical examples of line integrals.
5.4 What is circulation of a vector field?
5.5 What is a surface integral? Give a few physical examples of surface integrals.
5.6 What is the gradient of a scalar function? What is its direction?
5.7 What is a lamellar vector field? What is a non-lamellar vector field?
5.8 What is the physical significance of divergence of a vector function?
5.9 What is flux of a vector function?
5.10 Define gradient of a scalar function in terms of integrals.
5.11 Define divergence of a vector function. Is the resultant a vector or a scalar?
5.12 Define irrotational vector field. Give examples.
5.13 Which theorem transforms surface integrals to volume integrals? State it.
5.14 State Gauss’s law in the electrostatic field in integral form.
5.15 Write down Gauss’s law in the gravitational field of a body.
434 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

5.16 How do you define magnetic flux linked with a surface in case of non-uniform magnetic
field?
5.17 Write down the conditions for the validity of Ampere’s circuital law.
5.18 Derive the relation between displacement current and electric displacement.
5.19 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation, which is a consequence of Gauss’s law in
electrostatics.
5.20 Explain why the electric field due to static charges is a lamellar vector field.
5.21 Evaluate the gradient of the magnitude of a position vector. [Ans. Unit vector]
5.22 What is the physical significance of a gradient of a scalar function?
5.23 Define divergence of a vector function in terms of integrals.
5.24 Define curl of a vector function. Is the resultant a vector or a scalar?
5.25 What is the physical significance of curl of a vector function?
5.26 Define curl of a vector function in terms of integrals.
5.27 How can you get a scalar function from a vector field and how can you get a vector
function from a scalar field? Give physical examples of both the cases.
5.28 Define solenoidal vector field. Give examples.
5.29 Define conservative vector field. Give examples.
5.30 Define rotational vector field. Give examples.
5.31 Define non-conservative vector field. Give examples.
5.32 Which theorem transforms line integrals to surface integrals? State it.
5.33 State Green’s theorem in a plane.
5.34 Evaluate the divergence of a position vector.
5.35 Evaluate the gradient of a position vector.
5.36 What is the gradient of a scalar function in terms of rectangular coordinates?
5.37 What is the divergence of a vector function in terms of rectangular coordinates?
5.38 What is the curl of a vector function in terms of rectangular coordinates?
5.39 Define electric field intensity in terms of electric flux.
5.40 Can you define electric field intensity in terms of electric potential?
5.41 What are polar and non-polar molecules of a dielectric? Give some examples.
5.42 What do you mean by electric displacement?
5.43 Distinguish between electric field intensity vector and electric displacement vector.
5.44 With what charges are electric field intensity vector, electric displacement vector and
electric polarization vector related to?
5.45 What is the inherent meaning of Gauss’s law?
5.46 What is a Gaussian surface?
5.47 Transform Gauss’s law in electrostatic field in the integral form into its corresponding
differential form.
 Electromagnetism 435

5.48 State Gauss’s law in electrostatic field in differential form.

5.49 State Gauss’s law in magnetic field in differential form.
5.50 State Gauss’s law in magnetic field in integral form.
5.51 Use Gauss’s divergence theorem to transform the integral form of Gauss’s law in
magnetic field into its differential form.
5.52 State Gauss’s law in electrostatic field in the integral form for a dielectric medium.
5.53 State Gauss’s law in electrostatic field in differential form for a dielectric medium.
5.54 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due to a point charge.
5.55 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due a spherically symmetric charge
distribution of uniform density when the point lies inside the charge distribution.
5.56 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due a spherically symmetric charge
distribution of uniform density when the point lies outside the charge distribution.
5.57 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due a spherically symmetric charge
distribution of uniform density when the point lies on the surface of the charge
distribution.
5.58 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due a cylindrically symmetric charge
distribution of uniform density of infinite length when the point lies inside the charge
distribution.
5.59 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due a cylindrically symmetric charge
distribution of uniform density of infinite length when the point lies outside the
charge distribution.
5.60 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due a cylindrically symmetric charge
distribution of uniform density of infinite length when point lies on the surface of the
charge distribution.
5.61 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity due a linear distribution of charge of
infinite length.
5.62 Plot the variation of electric field intensities in case of a cylindrically symmetric charge
distribution of charge of uniform density.
5.63 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity at nearby points of both sides of a
uniformly charged non-conducting sheet of infinite extension.
5.64 Using Gauss’s law, calculate the field intensity at a nearby point over a uniformly
charged conducting body of infinite extension.
5.65 What will be Gauss’s law for magnetic field?
5.66 Prove Coulomb’s law in electrostatics from Gauss’s law.
5.67 A certain region of space bounded by an imaginary closed surface (Gaussian surface)
contains no charge. Is the electric field intensity always zero everywhere on the
surface? If not, under what circumstances is it zero on the surface?
5.68 Would Gauss’s law hold true if the exponent in Coulomb’s law were not exactly 2?
5.69 Would Gauss’s law hold true if the surface area of a sphere is not 4π r 2 ?
436 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

5.70 Plot the variation of electric field intensities with respect to radial distance in case of a
spherically symmetric charge distribution of uniform density.
5.71 What is magnetic induction? What are its units?
5.72 What are the dimensions of magnetic induction in the SI system?
5.73 What is magnetic field intensity vector? What are its units?
5.74 What are the dimensions of the magnetic intensity vector in SI system?
5.75 Is there any relation between magnetic induction vector and magnetic intensity
vector? If yes, write it for different media.
5.76 What is Maxwell’s corkscrew rule? Explain it.
5.77 What is the right-hand rule for finding the direction of magnetic induction near a wire
carrying current?
5.78 What is the effect of magnetic field on a moving charge?
5.79 Discuss the motion of a charge under the combined effects of electric and magnetic
fields.
5.80 Is magnetic induction constant for points that lie on a given line of induction? Explain.
5.81 Current is flowing from down to up in a vertical wire. Depict the direction of the
magnetic induction and magnetic intensity at different points on a fixed horizontal
plane.
5.82 What is the inherent meaning of Ampere’s circuital law?
5.83 Write down Ampere’s circuital law in integral and differential form due to a current
carrying wire.
5.84 Compare Gauss’s law and Ampere’s circuital law.
5.85 A certain closed path encloses no electric current. Is the magnetic induction always
zero everywhere on the closed path? If not, under what circumstances is it zero on the
path?
5.86 Would Ampere’s law hold true if the exponent in Biot–Savart's law were not exactly 2?
5.87 Would Ampere’s law hold true if the perimeter of a circular path is not 2pr?
5.88 In a current carrying circular loop of wire is the magnetic induction uniform for all the
points inside the loop?
5.89 Using Ampere’s circuital law, calculate the magnetic induction at a nearby point due
to a current carrying wire of infinite extension.
5.90 Using Ampere’s circuital law, calculate the magnetic induction due a cylindrical
current carrying conductor of infinite length when the point lies inside the conductor.
5.91 Using Ampere’s circuital law ,calculate the magnetic induction due a cylindrical current
carrying conductor of infinite length when the point lies outside the conductor.
5.92 Using Ampere’s circuital law, calculate the magnetic induction due a cylindrical
current carrying conductor of infinite length when the point lies on the surface of the
conductor.
 Electromagnetism 437

5.93 Plot the variation of magnetic induction in case of a cylindrical current carrying
conductor with respect to radial distance.
5.94 What is displacement current?
5.95 How can displacement current be produced? Explain.
dϕ E
5.96 Why is the quantity ε O referred to as (displacement) current?
dt
5.97 State and prove the relation between displacement current density and electric
displacement.
5.98 What are the different ways of setting up of magnetic fields?
5.99 Generalize Ampere’s circuital law taking into consideration the conduction current,
magnetizing current and displacement current.
5.100 State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
5.101 State Lenz’s law.
5.102 Is induced electric field conservative or non-conservative?
5.103 Is static electric field conservative or non-conservative?
5.104 Compare static electric field and induced electric field.
5.105 Can induced magnetic field like induced electric field be produced? If yes explain
how?

5.106 Can electric field for which ∇ × E ≠ 0 be produced? If yes how can it be produced?
5.107 State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in integral form.
5.108 State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction in differential form.
5.109 What does equation of continuity in electromagnetism represent?
5.110 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in differential form.
5.111 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in integral form.
5.112 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in free space/vacuum.
5.113 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in a medium containing charges and
currents.
5.114 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in a medium containing no charges and
currents.
5.115 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in a linear and isotropic medium containing
charges and currents.
5.116 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations in a linear and isotropic medium containing
no charges and currents.
5.117 Write the Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations, which are not changed due to the
presence of currents and charges.
5.118 Write Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations, which are changed due to the presence
of currents and charges.
438 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

5.119 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation which follows from the generalized
Ampere’s circuital law.
5.120 State Maxwell’s equation which supports the concept of non-existence of magnetic
monopole.
5.121 State Maxwell’s electromagnetic equation which is a consequence of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
5.122 Write down Maxwell’s
 electromagnetic
  equations for a harmonically varying field
defined by D = D0 e iωt and B = B0 e iωt .

Problems
 
5.1 Evaluate ∇ × (∇ϕ ) where ϕ is a scalar function. [Ans Zero]
     
5.2 What is the value of ∇ × (∇ × A) if ∇ ⋅ A = 0. [Ans −∇2 A ]
 
5.3 If r is the position vector, then prove that ∇r =rˆ.
 
5.4 If r is the position vector, then prove that ∇ ⋅ r = 3.
 
5.5 If r is the position vector, then prove that ∇ × r = 0.
    
5.6 Evaluate ∇(a.r ), where a and r are the constant vector and position vector
respectively.
kq
5.7 Evaluate the line integral for the vector function F (x ) = 2 xˆ from infinity to x0 if k and
x
kq
q are constants. [Ans ]
x0

5.8 Evaluate the line integral for the vector function F = xˆ(3x + 6 y ) − yˆ (14 yz ) + zˆ(20 xz 2 )
along the straight line from (0,0,0) to (1,1,1). [Ans 13/3]

5.9 Evaluate the surface integral for the vector function F = 4 xzxˆ − y 2 yˆ + yzzˆ over the
surface of the cube bounded by x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1, z = 0, z = 1 planes. [Ans 3/2]
5.10 Electric potential j on the X–Y plane is given by = ϕ ax − by , where a and b are
2 2

constants. Find the components of the electric field intensity. [Ans –2ax, –2ay]
5.11 Electric potential j in a region is represented by ϕ = 2 x + 3 y − z . Obtain the expression
for gradient and electric field intensity. [Ans 2 xˆ + 3 yˆ − zˆ, − 2 xˆ − 3 yˆ + zˆ ]

5.12 If ϕ (x , y=
, z ) 3x 2 y − 2 y 2 z 3 , find ∇ϕ at the point (1, –2, –1). [Ans −(12 xˆ + 5 yˆ + 24 zˆ) ]
  
5.13 If k is a constant scalar, prove that ∇(k ) = 0.
  
5.14 If k is a constant vector, prove that ∇ ⋅ k = 0.
  
5.15 If k is a constant vector, prove that ∇ × k = 0.
     
5.16 If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇(u ⋅ r ) = u.
     
5.17 If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇ ⋅[(u × r ) × u] = 2.
 Electromagnetism 439

     
5.18 If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇ ×[(u × r ) × u] = 0.
    
5.19 If u is a unit vector and r is a position vector, prove that ∇ ×[(u ⋅ r )u] = 0.
 
5.20 If u is a constant scalar, prove that ∇u =0.
 

5.21 If u is a constant vector, prove that ∇ ⋅ u = 0.
  
5.22 If u is a constant vector, prove that ∇ × u = 0.

 1
5.23 If r is a position vector, prove that ∇2 =0.
r
  
5.24 Prove that when B is solenoidal (i.e., ∇ ⋅ B = 0 ), then there exists a vector such that
  
B = ∇×A .
 
5.25 If r is a position vector, prove that r n r is an irrotational vector for any value of n
whereas it is solenoidal only when n = –3.
5.26 A parallel plate capacitor having plate area 100 cm2 and plate separation 1.4 cm is
charged to a potential difference of 100 volts. Calculate the electric field intensity,
electric displacement and electric polarization vector in the empty space between the
two plates of the capacitor. [Ans 1.000 × 104 V/m, 8.85 × 10–8 C/m2, 0]
5.27 In Problem 26, a dielectric slab of thickness 0.5 cm and dielectric constant 7.0 is
introduced between the two plates of the capacitor. Calculate the electric field
intensity, electric displacement and electric polarization vector in the dielectric slab.
[Ans 1.43 × 103 V/m, 8.85 × 10–8 C/m2, 7.5 × 10–3 C/m2]
5.28 Current is flowing in an infinity length wire placed on the plane of the page. Calculate
the total magnetic flux passing through a strip of paper of length b and width w with
the closer side at r distance from the wire. r +w
  r + w   µ i  w 
[Hints and Ans ϕ M= ∫ B ⋅ ds= ∫ B(x ) ⋅ bdx= 0 ln  1 +  ]
r r 2π  r

5.29 A current is flowing in a long circular conductor of radius a. The current is distributed
in the wire in such a way that the current density at a distance r from the axis is given by
 r
=J J 0  1 +  . Find the total current in the wire and the magnetic induction at both inside
 a
5 5µ0 J 0 a2 µ0 J 0b  2b 
and out-side points of the conductor. [Ans J 0π a 2 , , 1+ ]
3 6b 2  3a 
5.30 A current is flowing in a long circular conductor of radius 2 cm. The current is distributed
in the wire in such a way that the current density at a distance r from the axis is given
 r2 
=
by J 0.8  1 +  . Find the total current in the wire and the magnetic induction at
 4
points 3 cm and 1 cm from the axis of the conductor.
[Ans 15.1 Amp., 1.01 × 10–8 T, 5.65 × 10–9 T ]
440 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

5.31 Calculate the magnetic induction at a perpendicular distance a from the centre of a
µ0 i w
strip of width w and infinite length, carrying a current i. [Ans tan −1 ]
πw 2a
5.32 Calculate the magnetic induction at a perpendicularly large distance a from the centre
µ0 i
of a strip of width w and infinite length, carrying a current i. [Ans ]
2π a
5.33 A metal rod of length L moves in a magnetic field of magneticinduction
  B with velocity
v. Show that the ends of the rod are at potential difference B ⋅ L × v .
5.34 A copper rod of length L rotates about an axis passing through one end of the rod
with an angular frequency w in a uniform magnetic field of induction B. Calculate the
potential difference (emf) developed between the two ends of the rod.
1
[Ans Bω L2 ]
2
5.35 The magnetic flux linked through a loop perpendicular to the plane of the coil and
directed out of the paper is varying according to equation j = 5t2 + 10t + 17. What is
the magnitude and direction of the induced emf at time t = 3 second.
[Ans 40V, anticlockwise ]
5.36 A plane circular disc of radius r rotates at n revolutions per second about an axis
perpendicular to it at its centre. A uniform magnetic field B exists parallel to the axis.
Prove that there is an emf between the centre of the disc and its rim of magnitude
nπ Br 2 .
5.37 A spatially uniform magnetic field B = B0 sin ωt is directed at an angle q to the normal
of the plane of a circular loop. Calculate the emf induced in the field.
[Ans B0π r 2ω cos θ cos ωt ]
5.38 Electric field of strength 1013 V/m normal to an area 0.01 m2 is doubled in one second.
Find the displacement current. [Ans 0.89 Ampere]
5.39 The parallel plate capacitor has plates each of area 2 m and the plates are separated
2

by a dielectric of thickness 1 mm, dielectric constant 3. The potential difference and

conduction current at certain instant of time is 100 V and 2 mA, respectively. Find the
displacement current flowing between the two plates of the capacitor.
[Ans 2 mA]
5.40 In a certain copper conductor of resistivity 2 × 10 Wm carrying a current, the electric
–8

field varies with time according to the equation E = E0 sin ωt . Calculate (a) the
maximum conduction current density and (b) the maximum displacement current
density if ε = ε 0 . Given, E0 = 0.1 volt/meter, w = 2p × 60 Hz.
[Ans (a) 5.0 × 106 Am–2 (b) 3.34 × 10–10 Am–2]
5.41 Two metallic rods of same metal and same radii were joined by a special type of gum
of dielectric constant k resulting in a parallel plate capacitor. The thickness of the gum
t is comparatively small in comparison to the radius r of the rod. There is a current I in
 Electromagnetism 441

each rod. Calculate (a) the conduction current density, (b) the displacement current
density and (c) the electric field intensity in the gum.
I I q
[Ans (a) , (b) 2 , (c) ]
πr 2
πr ε 0 kπ r 2
5.42 A voltage 50 sin 103 t is applied to the plates of a parallel plate capacitor with a
plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation 3 mm. Calculate the displacement current
and conduction current assuming the dielectric to have permittivity two times the
permittivity of free space. [Ans 147.4 × 10–9 cos 103 t A]
5.43 In free space E = yˆ 20 cos(ωt - 50 x )V/m. Calculate the displacement current density,
magnetic field intensity vector and angular frequency of the wave.
[Ans − yˆ 20ωε 0 sin(ωt − 50 x )A/m2 , zˆ 0.4ωε 0 cos(ωt − 50 x )A/m, 1.5 × 1010 rad/s ]
5.44 Consider a charge moving with a uniform velocity along the axis of a circle and
calculate the displacement current that flows through the circle. Next, calculate the
conduction current through the circle and show that the two results are identical.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. In Fig. 5.26 which shows a differential volume, match the items in the left side to those
in the right side.

Figure 5.26


(i) d from A to B (a) − x̂dydz

(ii) d from A to G (b) ŷdxdz

(iii) d from A to C (c) ẑdxdy

(iv) ds for face ABDC (d) − ŷdxdz

(v) ds for face AGOC (e) x̂dx
442 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


(vi) ds for face OEFG (f) − ŷdy

(vii) ds for face ABFG (g) −ẑdz

2. If r is the position vector of the point (x, y, z), then which of the following is incorrect?
 r  
(i) ∇r = (ii) ∇ ⋅ r =1
r
  r
(iii) ∇ r =  (iv) ∇2 (r ⋅ r) =
6
r
3. Which of the following is a meaningless combination?
(i) grad div (ii) div curl
(iii) curl grad (iv) div grad
(v) div curl (vi) grad curl
(vii) curl div
4. Which of the following is zero?
(i) grad div (ii) div curl
(iii) curl grad (iv) div grad
(v) div curl
5. Which of the following is solenoidal?
   
(i) ∫ F ⋅ d =
C
0 (ii) ∫ F ⋅ ds =
S
0
   
(iii) ∇ ⋅ F = 0 (iv) ∇ × F = 0
  
(v) ∇ × F ≠ 0 (vi) ∇2 F =0

6. Which of the following is a lamellar vector field?

    
(i) ∇ϕ = A (ii) ∇ ⋅ F =B
    
(iii) ∇ × F = A (iv) ∇ × F ≠ 0
 
(v) ∇2 F = A
7. Which of the following is a conservative field?
   
(i) ∫ F ⋅ d =
C
0 (ii) ∫ F ⋅ ds =
S
0
   
(iii) ∇ ⋅ F = 0 (iv) ∇ × F = 0
  
(v) ∇ × F ≠ 0 ∫ Fdv ≠ 0
(vi) 
S
 Electromagnetism 443

8. Which of the following is an irrotational vector?

   
(i) ∫ ⋅ d =
C
F 0 (ii) ∫ ⋅ ds =
S
F 0
   
(iii) ∇ ⋅ F = 0 (iv) ∇ × F = 0
  
(v) ∇ × F ≠ 0 ∫ Fdv ≠ 0
(vi) 
S

9. The electric flux density on the surface of a sphere is the same for a point charge q
located at the centre and for the charge q uniformly distributed throughout the sphere.
(i) Yes (ii) No
(iii) Not necessarily
10. By saying that electrostatic field is conservative, we do not mean that
(i) It is the gradient of a scalar potential
(ii) Its circulation is identically zero
(iii) Its curl is identically zero
(iv) The work done in a closed path inside the field is zero
(v) The potential difference between any two points is zero
11. Sea water has the relative permittivity 80. Its permittivity is
(i) 81 (ii) 79
(iii) 7.08 × 10 –10
Coul / Newton . meter
2 2
(iv) 70.08 × 10–10 Coul2 / Newton . meter2
12. Both permittivity and electric susceptibility are dimensionless
(i) True (ii) False
(iii) Cannot be said
       
13. If ∇ ⋅ D = ε ∇ ⋅ E and ∇ ⋅ J = σ ∇ ⋅ E in a given material, the material is said to be
(i) Linear (ii) Isotropic
(iii) Homogeneous (iv) Linear and homogeneous
(v) Linear isotropic (vi) Isotropic and homogeneous
   
14. If D = ε E and B = µ H in a given material, the material is said to be
(i) Linear (ii) Isotropic
(iii) Homogeneous (iv) Linear and homogeneous
(v) Linear isotropic (vi) Isotropic and homogeneous
15. One of the following is not a source of magnetostatic fields
(i) A dc in a wire (ii) A permanent magnet
(iii) An accelerated charge
(iv) An electric field linearly changing with time
(v) A charged disc rotating at uniform speed
444 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

16. Identify the configuration in Fig. 5.27 that is not a correct representation of current I
and magnetic induction B .

Figure 5.27

17. Which of the following statements is not characteristic of a magnetostatic field?

(i) It is solenoidal
(ii) It is conservative
(iii) It has no sinks or sources
(iv) Magnetic flux lines are always closed
(v) Total number of flux lines entering a given region is equal to the total number of
flux lines leaving the region
18. One of the following equations is not Maxwell’s equation for a static electromagnetic
field in a linear homogeneous medium.
   
(i) ∇ ⋅ B =0 (ii) ∇ × D =0
    
∫ B ⋅ d =
(iii) 
C
µ0 J ∫ ⋅ ds =
(iv)  D q
S
 
(v) ∇ A=µ0 J
2

19. The flux through each turn of a 100-turn coil is (t3 – 2t) × 10–3 Wb, where t is in seconds.
The induced emf at t = 2 seconds is
(i) 1 volt (ii) –1 volt
(iii) 4 milli volt (iv) 0.4 volt
(v) –0.4 volt
 Electromagnetism 445

Figure 5.28

20. Assuming that each loop is stationary and the time-varying magnetic field B induces
current I, which of the configurations in Fig. 5.28 are incorrect?
21. The concept of displacement current was a major contribution attributed to
(i) Faraday (ii) Lenz
(iii) Maxwell (iv) Lorentz
22. Identify which of the following equations are not Maxwell’s equations for time-varying
fields
  ∂ρ  
(i) ∇⋅J + =0 (ii) ∇⋅D =ρ
∂t
 
  ∂B     ∂E  
(iii) ∇ ⋅ E = −
∂t
∫ H ⋅ d=
(iv) 
C
∫S  σ E + ε ∂t  ⋅ ds
 
(v)  ∫ B ⋅ ds =
S
0

23. An electromagnetic field is said to be non-existent or not Maxwellian if it fails to satisfy

Maxwell’s equations and the wave equations derived from them. Which of the following
fields in free space are not Maxwellian?
   z 
(i) H = xˆ cos x cos106t (ii) H = xˆ10 cos  105 t − 
 10 
 
(iii) E = xˆ100 cos ωt (iv) D = zˆ e −10 y sin(105 − 10 y )
 
(v) B = zˆ 0.4 sin104 t B zˆ(1 − ρ 2 )sin ωt
(vi) =
446 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

24. Match the equations in the left side to the corresponding figures in the right side.
       
(i) ∇ ⋅ F= 0, ∇ × F= 0 (ii) ∇ ⋅ F ≠ 0, ∇ × F =0
       
(iii) ∇ ⋅ F= 0, ∇ × F ≠ 0 (iv) ∇ ⋅ F ≠ 0, ∇×F ≠ 0

Figure 5.29

25. Poynting’s vector physically denotes the power density leaving or entering a given
volume in a time-varying field.
(i) True (ii) False

26. For electrostatic field, ∇ × E = 0
(i) True (ii) False

27. In an anisotropic dielectric, like crystalline quartz, the direction of ε 0 E and the
polarization vector are the same.
(i) True (ii) False

Answers

1 (i – e, ii – f, iii – g, iv – b, v – a, vi – d, vii – c) 2 (ii) 3 (vi, vii) 4 (iii, v) 5 (ii)

6 (i) 7 (i) 8 (iv) 9 (i) 10 (v) 11 (iii) 12 (ii) 13 (iv)
14 (i) 15 (v) 16 (iii) 17 (ii) 18 (v) 19 (ii) 20 (ii) 21 (iii)
22 (i) 23 (iii) 24 (i – a, ii – b, iii – c, iv – d) 25 (i) 26 (i) 27 (ii)
 6 Electromagnetic Waves

6.1 Introduction
In 1865, James Clark Maxwell laid the foundation stone for the grand unification theory
(GUT) by combining electric and magnetic phenomena. He showed, mathematically,
that electric and magnetic fields fluctuating together could form a propagating wave,
appropriately called an electromagnetic wave. In the previous chapter, we have established
Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations. Sunlight is a mixture of electromagnetic waves
having different wavelengths. Each wavelength corresponds to a unique color in the visible
range. An electromagnetic wave in a vacuum consists of mutually perpendicular and
oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The wave is a transverse wave since the fields are
mutually perpendicular to the direction along which the wave travels. In general, waves are
the means of transporting energy or information. A wave is a function of both space and
time. This chapter examines the general properties of electromagnetic waves.

6.2 Electromagnetic Energy Density

Energy is transported through space by means of electromagnetic waves obeying Maxwell’s
electromagnetic equations. We assume that space is linear, isotropic, homogeneous
characterized by constant permeability m, constant permittivity e, and constant
conductivity s.
Maxwell’s equations taken from Chapter 5 are
 
∇ ⋅ B =0 (6.1)

 
∇⋅D =ρ (6.2)
448 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


  ∂B
∇× E = − (6.3)
∂t


   ∂ D
∇×H= J + (6.4)
∂t

Taking into consideration these equations, we can have

        
∇ ⋅ (E × H )= H ⋅∇ × E − E ⋅∇ × H=

   
 ∂ B   ∂D   ∂ B    ∂ D
−H ⋅ − E ⋅  J +  =−H ⋅ −E⋅J −E⋅ (6.5)
∂t  ∂t  ∂t ∂t

For a linear isotropic medium,

   
B = µ H and D = ε E. (6.6)

Therefore, Eq. (6.5) for a linear isotropic medium becomes

    ∂   ∂   

∇ ⋅ (E × H ) = −H ⋅ (µ H ) − E ⋅ (ε E ) − J ⋅ E
∂t ∂t

 ∂   ∂   
=− µ H ⋅ (H ) − ε E ⋅ (E ) − J ⋅ E
∂t ∂t

1 ∂ 1 ∂
=− (µ H 2 ) − (ε E 2 ) − J ⋅ E
2 ∂t 2 ∂t

1 ∂   1 ∂    
=− (µ H ⋅ H ) − (ε E ⋅ E ) − J ⋅ E
2 ∂t 2 ∂t

∂  1   1     
=− B ⋅ H + D ⋅ E − J ⋅ E
∂t  2 2 

  ∂  1   1     
or we have J .E +  B ⋅ H + D ⋅ E  = −∇ ⋅ (E × H ) (6.7)
∂t  2 2 
 Electromagnetic Waves 449

Now integrating both sides over the volume V enclosed by the surface S, we have

  ∂  1   1      
∫ J .Edv + ∫ ∂t  2 B ⋅ H + 2 D ⋅ E  dv = −∫ ∇ ⋅ (E × H )dv
V V V

Applying Gauss’s divergence theorem to the RHS of this equation, we have

  ∂  1   1     
∫ J .Edv + ∫ ∂t  2 B ⋅ H + 2 D ⋅ E  dv =−∫ (E × H )ds
V V S
(6.8)

6.2.1 Interpretation of the left-hand side of Eq. (6.8)

 
The LHS of Eq. (6.8) consists of two terms. The first term in the LHS of Eq. (6.8) is ∫ J .Edv.
V

Suppose a charged particle q moves with constant velocity under the combined influence
   
of the mechanical F M , electrical qE and magnetic forces q(v × B). Since the charged

particle q moves with constant velocity v , we have from Newton’s laws of motion
   
F M + qE + q(v × B) =
0

   
or FM =−q  E − (v × B) (6.9)

  
Now F M ⋅ v is the rate at which mechanical force F M does work on the charged particle
  
and it is equal to the rate at which the electromagnetic force q  E + (v × B) does work on it.
From Eq. (6.9), we have
            
F M ⋅ v =−q  E (v × B) ⋅ v =−qE ⋅ v − q(v × B) ⋅ v =−qE ⋅ v (6.10)

Let r be the charge density of the medium. If r charges move with velocity v , then the rate

at which the mechanical  force FM does work on the unit volume (containing r charges
moving with velocity v ) will be given by, from Eq. (6.10),

F M ⋅ v =− E ⋅ ρ v (6.11)

The volume passing through the cross-sectional area ds with velocity v in unit time is vds.
 
See Fig. 6.1. This volume vds contains charge ρ v ⋅ ds. The amount of charge passing through
 
the cross-sectional area ds per unit time is ρ v ⋅ ds. By definition of current, we have
 
I ρ v ⋅ ds
=
450 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 6.1 The calculation of the amount of charge passing through the cross-sectional area ds per
unit time

I 
or = ρv
ds

 
or J = ρ v is the electric current density. (6.12)


Putting this value J in Eq. (6.11), we get
     
F M ⋅ v =− E ⋅ J =− J ⋅ E (6.13)

This is the rate at which mechanical force does work on unit volume and is called power
density. The amount of energy transferred to unit volume of the electromagnetic field per

unit time is J ⋅ E. The amount of energy transferred to dv volume of electromagnetic field
 
per unit time is J ⋅ E dv. The total amount of energy transferred per unit time to the entire
 
electromagnetic field of volume V is equal ∫ J .Edv.
V
The second term in the LHS of Eq. (6.8) is

∂  1   1    1  
∫ ∂t  2 B ⋅ H + 2 D ⋅ E  dv.
V 2
B⋅H

1  
is the magnetic energy density (magnetic energy per unit volume) and D ⋅ E is the electric
energy density (electric energy per unit volume). Therefore, the term 2

1   1  
B⋅H + D⋅E
2 2

is the electromagnetic energy density in space. The term

∂  1   1   
B ⋅ H + D ⋅ E
∂t  2 2 
 Electromagnetic Waves 451

is the time rate of increase of electromagnetic energy density. Therefore, the second term
of Eq. (6.8),

∂  1   1   
V∫ ∂t  2 B ⋅ H + 2 D ⋅ E  dv ,

will be the time rate of increase of electromagnetic energy in the volume V.

Combining all the discussions here, we arrive at the conclusion that left side of Eq. (6.8)
represents the sum of the power expended by the field due to motion of charges and the
time rate of increase of stored electromagnetic energy in fields.

6.2.2 Interpretation of the right-hand side of Eq. (6.8)

  
The term in the RHS of Eq. (6.8) is − ∫ (E × H ) ⋅ ds
S
Since the left side of Eq. (6.8) represents the sum of the power expended by the field
due to motion of charges and the time rate of increase of stored electromagnetic energy in
fields, the right side of the same equation must represent the power flow into the volume V
through the surface S or power flow out of the volume V through the surface S. The term
 
E × H must represent the flow of energy density flux per unit time associated with the
electromagnetic field.

6.3 Poynting’s Vector

One of the important equations of propagation of electromagnetic energy is the Eq. (6.8),
re-written here as
  ∂  1   1      
∫ J .Edv + ∫ ∂t  2 B ⋅ H + 2 D ⋅ E  dv =−∫ (E × H ) ⋅ ds
V V S
(6.14)

  
The vector E × H is called Poynting’s vector P . It is the power density associated with

electromagnetic field. Poynting’s vector P must be the energy that flows out of or into the
boundary through unit surface area per unit time. This fact can be checked by dimensional
analysis of Poynting’s vector. The dimensional formula of Poynting’s vector is given by

[P ] = [E][H ]

We know that the dimensional formula for electric field intensity E is given by

[F ] [F ] [ MLT -2 ]
[=
E] = =
[q] [It ] [ AT ]
452 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

or [E] =  MLT -3 A−1 

We know that the dimensional formula for magnetic field intensity H is given by

[Id sin θ ] [I ][d]  Idl sin θ 

=[H ] =  H = ∫ 
[r 2 ] [r 2 ]  C r2 

[ A][L]
or =
[H ] = 2
[ AL−1 ]
[L ]

Therefore, dimensional formula of Poynting’s vector becomes

ML2T −2  energy 
= ][H ] [ MLT −3 A−1 ][=
[P ] [E= AL−1 ] [ MT
= −3
] =
2 1  
LT  time × area 

watt
or [P ] =
meter 2

Thus, the dimension of Poynting’s vector is same as that of power per unit area or power
density. Hence, we can say that Poynting’s vector is the power density associated with
electromag.netic field.
  
As discussed earlier, the vector E × H is called Poynting’s vector P . Hence, we have
  
P= E × H (6.15)

Its direction can be found out by the rule of cross-product of two vectors. For a plane
wave, the direction of propagation of the wave is the direction of Poynting’s vector. The
magnitude of Poynting’s vector for electromagnetic wave is

P = EH (6.16)
 
since the angle between the electric vector E and the magnetic vector H is 90°.

Example 6.1
Calculate the value of Poynting’s vector on the surface of the sun if the power radiated by the
sun is 4 × 1026 W while its radius is 7 × 108 m.
 Electromagnetic Waves 453

Solution
Poynting’s vector is the power passing through the unit surface area. The surface area of the
sun is

22
4π r 2 =4 × × 49 × 1016 m2 =616 × 1016 m2
7

4 × 1026 W W
Hence, Poynting’s vector = 16
=2
6.5 × 107 2 .
616 × 10 m m

Example 6.2
An electromagnetic wave is propagating in free space with electric vector
E(z , t ) 50 cos(ωt − kz )xˆ. How much average energy is crossing a circular area of radius
=
2 m on the XY plane in unit time.
Solution
The electromagnetic wave is propagating along the +Z direction. The average energy passing
perpendicularly through the unit area in unit time (i.e., average value of Poynting’s vector) is
given by

1 ε 1
< P >= × E02= × 2.654 × 10−3 × 2500W/m2= 3.318W/m2
2 µ 2

Therefore, the amount of energy passing perpendicularly through π r 2= 3.14 × 4= 12.56 m2

area per unit time will be

= 3.318W/m2 × 12.56m=
2
41.67W

Example 6.3
An electromagnetic wave is propagating in free space with electric vector
=E(z , t ) 150 cos(ωt − kz )xˆ. How much average energy passes through a rectangular hole of
length 3 cm and width 1.5 cm on the XY-plane in one minute time.
Solution
The electromagnetic wave is propagating along the +Z direction. The average energy passing
perpendicularly through unit area in unit time (i.e., average value of Poynting’s vector) is
given by

1 ε 2 1 2 1
<P=
> × E0= × E0= × 1502 W/m=
2
29.84W/m2
2 µ 240π 240π
454 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Therefore, the amount of energy passing perpendicularly through 3 × 10–2 × 1.5 × 10–2 = 4.5 ×
10–4 m2 area in unit time will be

= 29.84 W/m2 × 4.5 × 10–4 m2 = 1.34 × 10–2 W

Therefore, the amount of energy passing perpendicularly through 3 × 10–2 × 1.5 × 10–2 = 4.5 ×
10–4 m2 area in 60 seconds will be

= 1.34 × 10–2 × 60 J = 0.81 J

6.4 Poynting’s Theorem

One of the important equations of propagation of electromagnetic energy is the Eq. (6.8),
re-written here as

∂  1   1        

− ∫ B ⋅ H + D ⋅ E =dv ∫ J .Edv + ∫ (E × H ) ⋅ ds (6.17)
V ∂t  2 2  V S

The left-hand side of Eq. (6.17) is the decrease (due to negative sign) in electromagnetic
energy per unit time in a certain volume V. The first term in the right-hand side of Eq. (6.17)
  
is the work done by the field forces (Lorentz force = electromagnetic force = q[E + (v × B)],
(see Eqs (6.9), (6.10)) per unit time on the charges contained in volume V. The second term
in the RHS is the outward (due to positive sign before the term) energy flux flow per unit
time. This is the interpretation of Eq. (6.17) and is called Poynting’s theorem. Thus, we can
express Poynting’s theorem in the following way.
Poynting’s theorem states that decrease of electromagnetic energy per unit time in a
certain volume V is equal to the sum of the work done by the field forces per unit time
and the outward energy flux per unit time. Poynting’s theorem is the law of conservation
of energy in electromagnetic fields. Equation (6.17) is the mathematical formulation of
Poynting’s theorem.

6.5 Vector Potential and Scalar Potential

6.5.1 Magnetic scalar potential

In electrostatics, there is a physical quantity called electrostatic potential ϕ E gradient

which with a negative sign gives a vector quantity called electric field intensity, i.e.,
 
E = −∇ϕ E (6.18)
 Electromagnetic Waves 455

 
If ∇ × E = 0, E can be expressed as a gradient of a scalar function. We shall search and try
 
to find out if there is a similar expression in magnetostatics. We know that ∇ × B = 0 when

current density J is zero. With the analogy from electrostatics, we chose a scalar function

ϕ M to express B in the following form
 
B = −∇ϕ M (6.19)

and call ϕ M as the magnetic scalar potential or scalar potential. Taking the divergence of
both sides of Eq. (6.19), we have
   
−∇ ⋅∇ϕ M = ∇ ⋅ B = 0

or ∇2ϕ M =
0 (6.20)

Thus, ϕ M satisfies Laplace's equation. The magnetic scalar potential is only meaningful in
the region where there is no current.

6.5.2 Magnetic vector potential

We know that divergence of any curl is zero, i.e.,

  
∇ ⋅∇ × A = 0 (6.21)

Maxwell’s equation for magnetic induction vector B is
 
∇ ⋅ B =0 (6.22)

Comparing Eq. (6.22) with Eq. (6.21), we have

  
B = ∇× A (6.23)


The vector A satisfying Eq. (6.23) is called a magnetic vector potential. To make the

calculation easier, the vector potential A has to satisfy the gauge

  ∂ϕ
∇ ⋅ A = −εµ E (6.24)
∂t

Equations (6.23) and (6.24) completely define the vector potential A . Equation (6.24) is
called the Lorentz gauge. Taking the curl of both sides of Eq. (6.23), we have
        
∇ × B = ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇(∇ ⋅ A) − ∇2 A
456 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


In magnetostatics, a convenient condition that A has to satisfy is the Coulomb gauge
 
condition, i.e., ∇ ⋅ A = 0. Under this condition, the previous equation becomes

 
∇2 A =− µ0 J since ∇ × B = µ0 J (6.25)

Equation (6.25) is Poisson's equation for the magnetic vector potential A. Poisson's
equation for electrostatic potential V is

ρ
∇2ϕ E =
− . (6.26)
ε0

Example 6.4

A current distribution gives rise to magnetic vector potential A = x 2 yxˆ + y 2 xyˆ − 4 xyzzˆ.
Calculate the magnetic induction at the point (–1, 2, 3).
Solution

xˆ yˆ zˆ
  ∂ ∂ ∂
∇× A = −4 xzxˆ + 4 yzyˆ + ( y 2 − x 2 )zˆ
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
x2 y y 2 x - 4 xyz


or B =12 xˆ + 24 yˆ + 3zˆ

Example 6.5

Obtain an expression for magnetic vector potential A at a point due to an infinite length
straight current carrying straight conductor.
Solution

Method 1:
Outside the conductor

We know that in circular cylindrical coordinates (r , θ , z ) , the magnetic induction vector B
due to an infinite length straight current carrying straight conductor is given by

 µ I
B = 0 θˆ
2π r
 Electromagnetic Waves 457

Here the length of the straight conductor is along the z-axis.


Using the definition of the magnetic vector potential A , we have

  µ I
∇ × A = 0 θˆ
2π r
 
Since B has only the θ component ∇ × A has only the θ component. Hence, this equation
can be expressed as

∂Ar ∂Az µ0 I
− =
∂z ∂r 2π r

Since the length of the wire is along the z-axis, A cannot be a function of z. Hence, the
aforementioned equation becomes

dAz µ0 I
− =
dr 2π r

Integrating this equation, we get

µI
AZ =
− 0  nr + C
2π

If the magnetic vector potential A is zero on the surface of the wire, the value of C will be

µ0 I
C=  na
2π

where a is the radius of the wire. Putting this value of C in the previous expression for AZ, we
get

µ0 I µI
=AZ  na − 0  nr
2π 2π r

 µ I  a 
or A = 0  n   zˆ
2π  r 

 µ0 I  a 
Thus, A = n zˆ is the magnetic vector potential at a point ‘r’ due to an infinite length
2π  r 
straight current carrying wire.
458 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Method 2:
(A) Inside the straight conductor
The magnetic vector potential can also be found out with help of Poisson’s Eq. (6.24). Each
 
component of vector A satisfies Eq. (6.24). In our case, vector A has only the z-component.
Therefore, Eq. (6.24) becomes

−µ J z
∇2 Az =

I
where Jz is the z-component of the current density vector. Hence, putting J z = 2 into this
equation, we get πa

µI
∇2 Az =
− (A)
π a2
In circular cylindrical coordinates, Eq. (A) becomes

1 ∂  ∂Az  1 ∂Az 1 ∂ 2 Az ∂ 2 Az µI
r + + 2 + 2 = − 2
r ∂r  ∂r  r ∂r r ∂θ 2
∂ z π a

From physical intuition of the problem, we know that Jz is independent of z and q and is a
function of only r. Hence, the aforementioned equation reduces to

1 d  dAz  µI
r = − 2
r dr  dr  π a

Integrating this equation, we get

dAz µ Ir 2
r =
− + C1
dr 2π a2

This equation is correct for all values of r. Putting r = 0 into this equation, we get C1 = 0. Hence,
the equation becomes

dAz µ Ir 2
r = −
dr 2π a2

or dAz = − µ Ir
dr 2π a2

Integrating this equation, we get

µ Ir 2
Az =
− + C2 (B)
4π a2
 Electromagnetic Waves 459

We know that AZ = 0 at r = a, i.e., on the surface of the current carrying straight conductor.
Under this condition, Eq. (B) gives

µ Ia2 µ I
=
C2 =
4π a2 4π

Putting this value of C2 into Eq. (B), we get

µ Ir 2 µ I
Az =
− +
4π a2 4π

µI  r2 
or=
Az  1 −  at an inside point.
4π  a2 

(B) Outside the conductor

0. Hence, we have
Poisson’s equation outside the conductor is ∇2 Az =

1 d  dAz 
r =0
r dr  dr 

=
Az C1 n r + C2 (C)

At r = a, i.e., on the surface of the conductor, Az = 0 . Hence, Eq. (C) under this condition gives

C2 = −C1 n a

Putting this value of C2 into Eq. (C), we have

=
Az C1 n r − C1 n a

 r
or A = C1 n   zˆ
a

Putting C1 =
µ0 I into this equation, we get
2π

 µ I  a 
A = 0  n   zˆ at an out-side point.
2π  r 
460 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 
6.6 Electromagnetic Wave Equations for E and B
The most important consequence of Maxwell’s equations is the equation for electromagnetic
wave propagation. We shall now derive the electromagnetic wave equation for linear,
isotropic, homogeneous space characterized by constant permeability m, constant
permittivity e and constant conductivity s .

6.6.1 Electromagnetic wave equations for E

The wave equation for the electric field vector E , is derived by taking the curl of both sides
of Maxwell’s Eq. (6.3). Thus, we have
 
    ∂ B ∂   ∂   ∂D 
∇ × (∇ × E ) = −∇ × = − µ (∇ × H ) = − µ  J + 
∂t ∂t ∂t  ∂t 

 
    ∂E ∂2 E
or ∇(∇ ⋅ E ) − ∇ E = −σµ
2
+ µε 2
∂t ∂t

 
  ρ   ∂E ∂2 E
or ∇   − ∇ E = −σµ
2
+ µε 2
ε  ∂t ∂t

Re-arranging this equation, we get

 
 ∂2 E ∂E ρ
∇ E − µε 2 − µσ
2
=
∇  (6.27)
∂t ∂t ε 

For a charge-free space, charge density ρ = 0. Under this condition, Eq. (6.27) becomes
 
 ∂2 E ∂E
∇ E − µε 2 − µσ
2
=
0 (6.28)
∂t ∂t


6.6.2 Electromagnetic wave equations for H

The wave equation for the magnetic field vector H is derived by taking the curl of both
sides of Maxwell’s Eq. (6.4). Thus, we have
  
      ∂ D   ∂    ∂B  ∂  ∂B 
∇ × (∇ × H ) = ∇ ×  J +  = σ (∇ × E ) + ε (∇ × E ) = σ  −  + ε  −  (6.29)
 ∂t  ∂t  ∂t  ∂t  ∂t 
 Electromagnetic Waves 461

 
    ∂H ∂2 H
or ∇(∇ ⋅ H ) − ∇ H = − µσ
2
− µε 2
∂t ∂t

 
 ∂H ∂2 H
or −∇ H = − µσ
2
− µε 2 (6.30)
∂t ∂t

Re-arranging Eq. (6.30), we get

 
 ∂2 H ∂H
∇ H − µε 2 − µσ
2
=
0 (6.31)
∂t ∂t

Equations (6.28) and (6.31) are the electromagnetic wave equations in terms of vector E

and vector H governing the propagation electromagnetic waves in homogeneous, linear,
isotropic, charge-free space whether the space is conducting or non-conducting. The
important point to note here is that any function satisfying Eqs (6.28) and (6.31) may not
satisfy Maxwell’s equations.

6.6.3 Electromagnetic wave equations for B

Now multiplying both sides of Eq. (6.31) with µ , we have

 
 ∂2 µ H ∂µ H
∇ µ H − µε
2
− µσ µ 0
=×
∂t 2 ∂t

 
 ∂2 B ∂B
or ∇ B − µε 2 − µσ
2
=
0
∂t ∂t

This equation is the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of the magnetic induction

vector B .

6.7 Wave Equation in Terms of Scalar and Vector

Potentials
The wave Eqs (6.28)
 and (6.31) are derived on the assumption that space is free of sources,
i.e., ρ = 0 and J = 0. However, electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated sources
and propagation of waves occuring in the presence of sources. The equations governing the
propagation of electromagnetic waves are expressed in terms of scalar potential ϕ M and vector
potential A defined by Eqs (6.19) and (6.23). Re-writing Eq. (6.23), we have
  
B = ∇ × A. (6.32)
462 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Equation(6.32) gives the magnetic fields in terms of vector potential A . Now putting this
value of B from Eq. (6.32) into Maxwell’s Eq. (6.3), we have
  ∂  
∇ × E = − (∇ × A)
∂t

  ∂ A 
or ∇× E +  =0 (6.33)
 ∂t 


We know that if the curl of a vector function is zero, then the vector function can be
expressed as a gradient of a scalar function. Thus, we can express the bracketed term of
Eq. (6.33) as the gradient of a scalar function. In our case, let that scalar function be jE.
Thus, we have

 ∂ A 
E+ = −∇ϕ E
∂t

 ∂ A 
or E=− − ∇ϕ E (6.34)
∂t

Equation (6.34) gives the electric fields in terms of scalar potential ϕ E .


6.7.1 Wave equation in terms of vector potential A

From Maxwell’s Eq. (6.4), we have


  ∂ D
∇×H= J +
∂t

    ∂ε E 
or ∇
= × B µ  σ E + 
 ∂t 

Putting the value of B from Eq. (6.32) into this equation, we have

    ∂E
A) µσ E + µε
∇ × (∇ ×=
∂t

Putting the value of E from Eq. (6.34) into this equation, we have
 
     ∂A  ∂   ∂A 
A) µσ  −∇ϕ E −
∇ × (∇ ×=  + µε  −∇ϕ E − 
 ∂t  ∂t  ∂t 

 Electromagnetic Waves 463

 
     ∂A  ∂ϕ ∂2 A
or ∇(∇ ⋅ A) - ∇ A = − µσ ∇ϕ E − µσ
2
− µε ∇ E
− µε 2
∂t ∂t ∂t

Re-arranging this equation, we get

 
 ∂ 2 A     ∂ϕ   ∂A 
−∇ A + µε 2 + ∇(∇ ⋅ A) + µε ∇ = µσ  −∇ϕ −
2 E

∂t ∂t  ∂t 



 ∂ 2 A     ∂ϕ 
or −∇ A + µε 2 + ∇(∇ ⋅ A) + µε ∇ E = µσ E
2

∂t ∂t


 ∂ 2 A     ∂ϕ 
or −∇ A + µε 2 + ∇(∇ ⋅ A) + µε ∇ E = µ J
2

∂t ∂t


 ∂ 2 A     ∂ϕ  
or −∇ A + µε 2 + ∇  ∇ ⋅ A + µε E  = µ J
2
(6.35)
∂t  ∂t 

Now the Lorentz gauge condition for electromagnetic field is

  ∂ϕ
∇ ⋅ A + µε E = 0. (6.36)
∂t

Therefore, under the Lorentz gauge condition, Eq. (6.35) becomes


 ∂2 A 
∇ A − µε 2 =
2
−µ J (6.37)
∂t

Equation (6.37) is the wave equation in terms of vector potential A.

6.7.2 Wave equation in terms of scalar potential ϕE

From Maxwell’s Eq. (6.2), we have


   ∂A 
ρ = ∇ ⋅ ε  −∇ϕ E −  (6.38)
 ∂t 

  ∂   ρ
o.r ∇ ⋅∇ϕ E + (∇ ⋅ A) = − (6.39)
∂t ε
464 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

  ∂ϕ
Now putting Lorentz gauge condition ∇ ⋅ A + µε E = 0 for electromagnetic field into this
equation, we get ∂t

∂ 2ϕ E ρ
∇2ϕ E − µε =
− (6.40)
∂t 2
ε

Equation (6.40) is the wave equation in terms of scalar potential ϕ E.

6.8 Plane Electromagnetic Waves

The fields produced by accelerating charges leave the sources and travel through space in
the form of electromagnetic waves. A plane wave is defined as a wave whose phase is the
same at a given instant at all the points on each plane perpendicular to some specified
direction. A monochromatic wave is defined as a wave characterized by a single frequency.
For a plane monochromatic wave propagating in the +Z direction, ωt − kz is constant. The
surface passing through the points having the same phase is called a wavefront. In case of a
plane wave, the wavefront is a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In the
plane wave, the field vector component is constant (of course, in magnitude) over all the
points on the wavefront. These field vector components on a wavefront are the functions of
the perpendicular distance of the wavefront from the origin and are also functions of time.
In most cases, we choose our coordinate system in such a manner that wave propagates in
the +Z direction. Therefore, in most cases,

∂ ∂ ∂
= = 0; ≠0 (6.41)
∂x ∂y ∂z

and
 
E(z , t ) = E 0 e i (ωt − kz ) (6.42)

 
H (z , t ) = H 0 e i (ωt − kz ) (6.43)

where (ωt − kz ) is the phase angle. the symbols have their usual meanings.
 
The electric fields E(z , t ) and magnetic field H (z , t ) have the same phase. If possible,
let α be the phase difference between the electric field and the magnetic field. Under this
condition, Eq. (6.42) and Eq. (6.43) become
 
E(z , t ) = E 0 e i (ωt − kz ) (6.44)

 
H (z , t ) = H 0 e i (ωt − kz +α ) (6.45)
 Electromagnetic Waves 465

 
The fields E(z , t ) and H (z , t ) have to satisfy Maxwell’s equation

  ∂B
∇× E = − . (6.46)
∂t

Taking the y-component of both sides of Eq. (6.46), we have

  ∂B
(∇ × E )Y = − Y
∂t

∂E X ∂EZ ∂HY
or − −µ
=
∂z ∂x ∂t

Taking the help of Eq. (6.41), from this equation, we have

∂E X ∂HY
= −µ
∂z ∂t

∂ ∂
or EOX e i (ωt − kz ) = − µ H OY e i (ωt − kz +α )
∂z ∂t

or ikEOX e i (ωt − kz ) = iωµ H OY e i (ωt − kz +α )

We know that
Real part of LHS = Real part of RHS

or =
kEOX cos(ωt − kz ) ωµ H OY cos(ωt − kz + α ) (6.47)

(Imaginary part of LHS = Imaginary part of RHS; imaginary parts may be taken)
 is possible only when a is equal to
 values of z and t which
Equation (6.47) is true for all
zero. Therefore, electric field E and magnetic field H have the same phase (a = 0 ). Hence,
Eq. (6.47) becomes

=
kEOX cos(ωt − kz ) ωµ H OY cos(ωt − kz )

or kEOX = ωµ H OY (6.48)

Since plane electromagnetic waves are a good approximation of the actual waves generated
by moving charges, most of our discussions will be limited to plane monochromatic waves.
466 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

6.9 Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic Waves

 
We shall
 determine the relative orientation of vector E , vector H and the propagation
vector k . Suppose, electromagnetic
 wave is propagating in any arbitrary direction defined
by the propagation vector k . We can represent the electromagnetic wave by the complex
equations
   
E(r , t ) = E O e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (6.49)

   
H (r , t ) = H 0 e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (6.50)

  
Here, the vectors E 0 and H 0 are constants in time, k is the propagation vector whose
2π
magnitude is equal to and its direction is the direction of propagation of wave and
λ
i= −1. Equations (6.49) and (6.50) consisting of two parts, real part and imaginary part
can be expanded using the formula= e iθ cos θ + i sin θ . The real parts of Eqs (6.49) and
(6.50) are taken to represent electromagnetic waves. The imaginary parts may be used to
represent electromagnetic waves without any difficulties. However, care must be taken not
to intermix the real part and imaginary part during calculation.

6.9.1 Transverse nature of vector E
  
The field vector E(r , t ) = E 0 ei (ωt − k ⋅r ) of Eq. (6.49) must satisfy Maxwell’s Eq. (6.2). Thus, we
have for charge free regions
  
∇ ⋅ E(r , t ) = 0

 ∂ ∂ 
∂
( )
  
or  ˆ
x + ˆ
y + ˆ
z  ⋅ ˆ
xEOX e i (ωt − k ⋅r )
+ ˆ
yEOY e i (ωt − k ⋅r )
+ ˆ
zEOZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r )
=
0
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 


∂   
∂  
or iEOX e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (ωt − k ⋅ r ) + iEOY e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (ωt − k ⋅ r ) +
∂x ∂y

∂  
iEOZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (ωt − k ⋅ r ) =0
∂z

  
or iEOX e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) k X + iEOY e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) kY + iEOZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) kZ =
0
 Electromagnetic Waves 467

or i(E X k X + EY kY + EZ kZ ) =
0

 
or E ⋅k =0 (6.51)

 
Hence, the dot product of two vectors E and k is zero. Therefore, they are perpendicular to
each other. That means the field vector E is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

6.9.2 Transverse nature of vector H
   
The field vector H (r , t ) = H 0 ei (ωt − k ⋅r ) of Eq. (6.50) must satisfy Maxwell’s Eq. (6.1). Thus, we
have
  
∇ ⋅ H (r , t ) = 0

 ∂ ∂ 
∂
( )
  
or  xˆ + yˆ + zˆ  ⋅ xH
ˆ OX e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) + yH
ˆ OY e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) + zH
ˆ OZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) =
0
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 


∂   
∂  
or iH OX e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (ωt − k ⋅ r ) + iH OY e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (ωt − k ⋅ r ) +
∂x ∂y

∂  
iH OZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) (ωt − k ⋅ r ) =0
∂z
  
or iH OX e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) k X + iH OY e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) kY + iH OZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) kZ =
0

 
or H ⋅k =0 (6.52)
 
Hence, the dot product of two vectors H and k is zero. Therefore, they are perpendicular to

each other. That means the field vector H is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 
By combining Eqs (6.51) and (6.52), we conclude that field vectors E and H are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Such types of waves are called transverse
waves. Therefore, electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
 
6.9.3 Relative orientation of E and H
       
The field vectors E(r , t ) = E 0 ei (ωt − k ⋅r ) and H (r , t ) = H 0 ei (ωt − k ⋅r ) must satisfy Maxwell’s Eq. (6.3).
Thus, we have
 
   ∂µ H (r , t )
∇ × E(r , t ) = −
∂t
468 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

∂  

( ) ∂
( )

or xˆ  EOZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) − EOY e i (ωt − k ⋅r )  +
 ∂y ∂z 

∂
( ) ∂
( ) 
 
yˆ  EOX e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) − EOZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r )  +
 ∂z ∂x 

 
∂ i (ωt − k ⋅r ) 
( ) ∂
( ) ∂ H (r , t )
 
zˆ  EOY e i (ωt − k ⋅r )
− EOX e =−µ
 ∂x ∂y  ∂t

or i  xˆ ( EZ kY − EY kZ ) + yˆ ( E X kZ − EZ k X ) + zˆ ( EY k X − E X kY ) 


− µi(−ω )H 0 e i (ωt − k ⋅r )
=

  
or k×E =µω H (6.53)

  
Equation (6.53) implies that the vector
 H is perpendicular to both the vectors k and E.
Again, the field vectors E and H of Eqs (6.49) and (6.50) must satisfy Maxwell’s Eq. (6.4)
in a source-free medium ( J = 0 ). Thus, we have
 
   ∂ε E(r , t )
∇ × H (r , t ) =
∂t

∂  

( ) ∂
( )

or xˆ  H OZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) − H OY e i (ωt − k ⋅r )  +
 ∂y ∂z 

∂
( ) ∂
( )

 
yˆ  H OX e i (ωt − k ⋅r ) − H OZ e i (ωt − k ⋅r )  +
 ∂z ∂x 

 
∂ i (ωt − k ⋅r ) 
( ) ∂
( ) ∂ E(r , t )
 
zˆ  H OY e i (ωt − k ⋅r )
− H OX e =ε
 ∂x ∂y  ∂t

or i  xˆ ( H Z kY − HY kZ ) + yˆ ( H X kZ − H Z k X ) + zˆ ( HY k X − H X kY ) 
 Electromagnetic Waves 469


= ε i(−ω )E0 e i (ωt − k ⋅r )

  
−iεω E
i(k × H ) =

  
or H ×k =εω E (6.54)

  
Equation (6.54) implies that the vector E is perpendicular to both the vectors k and  H . 
Therefore, by combining Eqs (6.53) and (6.54), we conclude that field vectors E and H

are perpendicular to each other and to the propagation vector k . Equation (6.51) shows
  
 vector k and E are perpendicular to each other andEq.(6.52) shows that vector k and
that
H are perpendicular to each other. Poynting’s vector E × H points along the direction of
  
propagation
 
 (i.e., E × H and k have the same direction). Therefore, we conclude that the
vectors E , H , and k form a right-hand orthogonal set. This is depicted in Fig. 6.2.

 
Figure 6.2 Relative orientation of the magnetic field vector H , the electric field vector E , and the
propagation vector k – together they three form a right-hand orthogonal set

Taking the magnitude of both sides of Eq. (6.53), we get

kE sin 90° = µω H

E µ  1 
or = µ=
v = η  v =  (6.55)
H ε  µε 

In Eq. (6.55), E/H has the dimension of impedance and is called intrinsic impedance η of
the medium. Here, v is the speed of the electromagnetic wave in the medium. For vacuum,
470 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

E
= µ=
0c 376.7Ω .
H

See what happens if you take Eq. (6.54) instead of Eq. (6.53) in this calculation. Interesting!

Example 6.6

If the electric field in free space is given by E = yˆ 80 cos(108 t + β x )V/m , then calculate the
value of b and the time it takes to travel a distance of λ / 2 . Determine the direction of wave
propagation. Also calculate the wavelength.
Solution
a) The value of b is given by

ω
β= .
v

In free space, this equation becomes

ω
β=
c

Comparing the given wave equation with the standard wave equation, we get ω = 108 rad/s
Therefore,

108 1
=β = 8
rad/s
3 × 10 3

b) From the definition of time period, we have

2π
ω=
T

2π 2π
or =
T = = s 62.83 × 10−9 s
ω 10 8

In one time period, wave travels a distance of one wavelength. Hence, in 62.83 × 10–9 s, wave
travels a distance of l. Therefore, the time taken to travel a distance of l /2 is 31.42 × 10–9 s
c) The given electric field has no components other than the Y-component.
   Due to
the positive

sign in the expression (108 t + β x ) and due to the equations k × E =µω H and H × k = µε E ,
 Electromagnetic Waves 471

we conclude that the electromagnetic wave is propagating along the negative X-axis. The
equation can now be written as

 x
=EY 80 cos  108 t +  V/m.
 3

d) The wavelength of the wave is given by

λ ==
cT 3 × 108 m/s × 62.83 × 10−9 s =
18.85m

Example 6.7
The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air is given
= by E 800 cos(ωt − kz )xˆ. If
the wavelength of the wave is 2.0 feet, find (a) frequency, (b) time period, (c), value of k, and
(d) amplitude of magnetic vector H.
Solution
It is given that wavelength l = 2vt = 2 × 0.3048 m = 0.61 m and speed c of the wave is
3 × 108 m/s
a. We know that

c = λν

c 3 × 108
or ν= = Hz= 4.92 × 108 Hz
λ 0.61

1 −9
b. The time period is given by= 2.03 × 10 s
ν

2π 2π
c. The value of k is given by = = 10.31m/s
λ 0.61
d. We know that
  
H ×k =εω E

or Hk sin 90° =εω E

or Hk = εω E

or H 0 k = εω E0
472 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

εω E0  ω 
or =
H0 = ε cE0  =v
k  k 

Hence, we have H=
0 8.85 × 10−12 × 3 × 108 × 800 A/m
= 2.12 A/m.

Example 6.8
The amount of electromagnetic energy received by earth in the form of light from the sun is
1300 W/m2. Calculate the root mean square value of the electric vector and the magnetic
vector of the light wave on the earth surface.
Solution
The amount of electromagnetic energy received by earth from the sun is 1300 Watt/m2. This
is nothing but the magnitude of Poynting’s vector. We know that the average magnitude of
Poynting’s vector is given by

1 ε
<=
P> × E02
2 µ

E02  µ
or < P >= η = 
2η  ε 

where η is the intrinsic impedance of the medium. For vacuum or air medium, if η0 is the
intrinsic impedance then this equation becomes

E02
< P >=
2η0

or E0 = 2 < P > η0

Putting the values of <P> and η0 into this equation, we get

E0 = 2 × 1300 × 377 V/m =990 V/m

Hence, the root mean square value of the electric vector of the light wave will be

E0
=
Erms = 700 V/m
2
 Electromagnetic Waves 473

The root mean square value of the magnetic vector of the light wave will be obtained from

H rms ε=
= cErms 1.858 A/m .

6.10 Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

For charge-free non-conducting medium
= and σ 0), Eqs (6.28) and (6.31) become,
( ρ 0=
respectively

∂2 E
∇2 E − µε =
0 (6.56)
∂t 2

∂2 H
∇2 H − µε =
0 (6.57)
∂t 2

These equations are of the same form as that of the wave equations we are familiar with.
The general wave equation in a lossless medium is given by

1 ∂2 Ψ
∇2 Ψ − =0 (6.58)
v 2 ∂t 2

where v is the phase speed or the speed of the wave.

Now comparing electromagnetic wave Eqs (6.56) and (6.57) for a charge-free non-
conducting medium with the general wave Eq. (6.58), we get

1
µε =
v2

1
or v= (6.59)
µε

which is the phase speed or speed of electromagnetic waves in a linear, isotropic,

homogeneous, charge-free non-conducting medium characterized by constant permeability
m and constant permittivity e. For vacuum, Eq. (6.59) becomes

1
c= (6.60)
µ0 ε 0
474 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

where m0 and e0 are the permeability and permittivity of the vacuum respectively and c is
the phase speed or simply speed of electromagnetic wave in vacuum. The values of m0 and
e0 are given by

Wb N
µ0 =
4π × 10−7 4π × 10−7 2
=
Am A

C2 2 2
−12 A s
ε0 =
8 ⋅ 8547 × 10−12 =
8 ⋅ 8547 × 10
Nm2 Nm2

Putting these values of m0 and e0 in Eq. (6.60), the phase speed of electromagnetic wave is
found to be

1
=c = 2.99784 × 108 m/s ≈ 3 × 108 m/s.
µ0 ε 0

This is the speed of light in vacuum. Therefore, we conclude that light is a form of
electromagnetic radiation or wave. γ -rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, radio waves, T.V.
waves, microwaves and so on are all electromagnetic waves or radiations differing only in
the order of magnitude of their wavelengths.
The refractive index n of the medium with respect to vacuum is defined by

c
n= (6.61)
v

where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in the medium whose
refractive index is n.
Putting the values of c and v in this equation, we get the expression for refractive index
of the medium as

µε µ ε
n= = × = µr × ε r
µ0 ε 0 µ0 ε 0

µ ε
where µr = is called the relative permeability and ε r = is called the relative permittivity.
µ0 ε0
The synonyms of relative permittivity are specific inductive capacity, dielectric constant
and dielectric coefficient. Here it is important to mention that n, mr, and er are determined
at the same frequency.
 Electromagnetic Waves 475

Example 6.9
A non-magnetic medium is characterized by relative permitivitty er = 80. Calculate the speed
of an electromagnetic wave in the medium and the refractive index of the medium.
Solution
Since the medium is non-magnetic, mr = 1. The speed of the electromagnetic wave is given by
the expression

1 c
=v =
µε µr ε r

of ε r 80,
Putting the values= = µr 1, and c = 3 × 108 m/s into this equation, we get

3 × 108
=v = 3.35 × 107 m/s
m/s
1 × 80

The refractive index n of the medium is given by

n = µr ε r = 1 × 80 = 8.94 .

6.11 Average Value of Poynting’s Vector

  
Poynting’s vector P= E × H represents the instantaneous rate at which energy radiates
across unit area. We shall calculate Poynting’s vector in linear, isotropic, homogeneous
space characterized by constant permeability m, constant permittivity e and constant
conductivity s. Re-writing Eq. (6.15), we have
  
P= E × H (6.62)
  
The vectors E , H , and k are mutually perpendicular to each other. Hence, Eq. (6.62)
becomes

ˆ
P = kEH (6.63)


where k̂ is a unit vector in the direction of the vector k. From Eq. (6.55), we get

E
H=
µv
476 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

where v is the speed or phase speed of the wave. By putting this value of H in Eq. (6.63),
we get

 E ε  1 1 ε 
= ˆ=
P kE kˆ E2  v= ⇒ =  (6.64)
µv µ  µε µv µ 

Equation (6.64) is Poynting’s vector in terms of magnitude of electric vector E. In a similar
way, wecan derive the expression for Poynting’s vector in terms of magnitude of magnetic
vector H . It is left as an exercise to the readers. If the real part of Eq. (6.49) represents the
electric component of the electromagnetic waves, then we have
   
=E E 0 cos(ωt − k ⋅ r )

Putting this value of E in Eq. (6.64), we get

 ε  
P = kˆ E02 cos2 (ωt − k ⋅ r ) (6.65)
µ

This is the instantaneous flow of energy per unit area

 per unit time (i.e., Poynting’s vector)
at a point r and at any time t. The average value of P at a point r, over a complete period of
oscillation will be given by

 ε 2 2  
P = kˆ E0 cos (ωt − k ⋅ r )
µ

Since kˆ, ε , µ , and E0 are constants in time, this equation is boiled down to

 ε 2  
P = kˆ E0 cos2 (ωt − k ⋅ r )
µ (6.66)

The average value of any function f(x) over the interval (a, b) is given by the expression

∫ f (x)dx
f (x ) = a
b

∫ dx
a
 Electromagnetic Waves 477

  
Hence, the average value of cos2 (ωt − k ⋅ r ) at a point ‘ r ’, over a complete period of
oscillation will be given by

2π  
  ∫ cos2 (ωt − k ⋅ r )d(ωt )
cos2 (ωt − k ⋅ r ) = 0
2π

∫
0
d(ωt )

2π 2π  
∫ d(ωt ) + ∫ cos 2(ωt − k ⋅ r )]d(ωt ) 1
= 0 0
=
4π 2

 
Now putting the value of cos2 (ωt − k ⋅ r ) in Eq. (6.66), we have

 1 ε 2ˆ
P = E k
2 µ 0 (6.67)

The total electromagnetic energy U from the second term of Eq. (6.8) is given by

 1   1   
=
U ∫  2 B ⋅ H + 2 D ⋅ E  dv
V

The time-averaged energy density over a complete period of oscillation U d associated

with electromagnetic wave will be given by

ε (6.68)
Ud = E02
2

2
or E02 = Ud
ε

Putting this value of E02 in Eq. (6.67), we get

1
P = U d kˆ = v U d kˆ (6.69)
µε

where
 v is the phase speed of the wave and k̂ is a unit vector in the direction of the vector
k or in the direction of propagation of electromagnetic waves.
478 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

This shows that the time-averaged energy flow per unit area is in the direction of
propagation of the wave and flows with the speed or the phase speed of propagation of the
wave. Thus, we conclude that energy flows in the electromagnetic field with the same speed
as the wave itself.

6.12 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasma

Medium
The fourth state of matter is the plasma state which is defined as the state in which matter
is ionized. Hence, plasma consists of ions and free electrons distributed over a region in
space. One example of plasma is the ionosphere of upper atmosphere. In the undisturbed
condition, plasma is neutral. If some how it is disturbed, the density of electrons increases
at some point, as a result of which they will repel each other by electro-static forces and
move to the equilibrium position. As the electrons move to their original position, they
gain kinetic energy and overshoot the equilibrium position. Again, they move backward to
reach the equilibrium position, but overshoot. Thus, they will oscillate back and forth. The
angular frequency with which they make this oscillation is called plasma angular frequency
wp. Consider a hypothetical rectangular volume in a plasma medium of infinite extension.
Suppose the neutral plasma is disturbed due to the propagation of electromagnetic waves
and the positive and negative charges are displaced through a distance x from each other as
shown in Fig. 6.3. Due to electromagnetic disturbance, at a certain instant, positive charges
are present inside a width x on the left side of the rectangular volume, whereas negative
charges are present inside a width x on the right side of the rectangular volume. Thus,
neutral plasma is confined between two charged layers of width d.
Let N be the number of charged particles per unit volume and s¢, the surface charge
density of the two sides of the rectangular volume containing positive charges (left side)
and negative charges (right side). The volume of unit surface area [unit depth × unit length]
and x width of the rectangular volume is 1 × x = x. This volume will contain Nx number of
charged particles as N is the number of charged particles per unit volume. The charge of a
single particle is e in magnitude. The charge contained in the volume 1 × x = x is therefore,
Nex. This is also the charge contained in the aforesaid unit surface area. Therefore, we have
σ ′ = Nex (6.70)

The neutral plasma is confined between two charged layers of width d. If the width of the
neutral plasma is small, then the electric field intensity E between the two charged layers of
width d will be given by

σ ′ Nex
=
E = (6.71)
ε0 ε0
 Electromagnetic Waves 479

Figure 6.3 Visualization of idealized plasma medium. Due to ideal electromagnetic disturbance,
positive and negative particles are separately displaced through a distance x. Neutral
plasma is confined between two charged layers of width d.

The restoring force F on the electrons will be

Ne 2 x
F=
−eE =
− (6.72)
ε0

Equation (6.72) shows that the restoring force is proportional to x, the displacement of
the positive or negative charges in opposite direction. This implies that displaced charges
execute simple harmonic oscillation. Applying Newton’s law of motion to Eq. (6.72), we
have

d2 x Ne 2
me = − x
dt 2 ε0

d 2 x Ne 2
or + x=
0
dt 2 me ε 0

d2 x
or + ω p2 x =
0 (6.73)
dt 2
480 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Therefore, from Eq. (6.73), plasma angular frequency wp can be defined as

1
 Ne 2  2
ωp =   (6.74)
 ε 0 me 

and is a function of the properties of the medium. For the ionosphere, N is of the order of
 ω 
1011 electrons/m3. Taking this value of N, the plasma frequency  = p  is calculated to be
 2π 
2.84 × 106 Hz approximately.  

6.12.1 Conductivity of ionized medium

In ionized gas, current arises due to motion of free electrons and ions under the influence
of the electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic waves. As the pressure is low, we can
assume that there is no collisions of charged particles (collision frequency = 0) and hence,
no energy loss.
The expression for the complex conductivity of an ionized medium s is given here
without proof as

Ne 2
σ = −i (6.75)
ω me

where

N = no. of electrons per unit volume

E = charge of an electron

w = angular frequency of the electromagnetic wave

me = mass of a electron

 
Since J = σ E , we can write

 Ne 2  Ne 2  −i π
J=−i
ωme
E =E e 2
ωme
(=
e iθ
cos θ + i sin θ ) (6.76)

This equation shows that current density vector or simply current lags behind the electric

field vector
 E by a phase angle of p/2 in the ionized medium. Equation (6.76) also shows
that J ⋅ E will be imaginary implying that there is no energy loss in the ionized medium.
 Electromagnetic Waves 481

6.12.2 Wave equation in ionized medium


The equation of propagation for the electric vector E is obtained from Eq. (6.27) as
 
 ∂2 E ∂ E   ρ 
∇ E − µε 2 − µσ
2
=
∇  (6.77)
∂t ∂t ε 

For a charge-free region, the space charge density ρ = 0. In the undisturbed condition,
plasma is neutral. Under this condition, Eq. (6.77) becomes
 
 ∂2 E ∂E
∇ E − µε 2 − µσ
2
=
0 (6.78)
∂t ∂t

Suppose a plane electromagnetic wave is travelling in the +Z

 direction so that its electric
vector E is parallel to the X-axis and magnetic vector H parallel to the Y-axis (i.e.,
electromagnetic wave is plane polarized). Under this condition, Eq. (6.78) becomes

∂2 EX ∂2 EX ∂E
− µε − µσ X =0 (6.79)
∂ z2 ∂t 2 ∂t

We assume that EX varies sinusoidally with time so that we may take E X = E0 e iωt . Putting
this value of EX into Eq. (6.79), we get

∂2 EX
2
− (iωµσ − ω 2 µε )E X =
0
∂z

∂2 EX
or − γ 2 EX =
0 (6.80)
2
∂z

γ 2 iωµσ − ω 2 µε .
where= (6.81)

Here g is called propagation constant. Equation (6.80) is the wave equation for the electric
vector E in one dimension though time t does not appear explicitly. We have already
assumed time variation of EX.
The solution of Eq. (6.80) is given by

E X = E0 e − γ z (6.82)

Since the propagation constant g is complex, we can express it in the form of a complex
number as

γ= α + iβ (6.83)
482 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Here a is called the attenuation constant and b is called the phase constant. In a lossless
medium, the wave does not attenuate and so a = 0 and b is a measure of the radian phase
shift per metre. That is, for unit length, phase shift is b and for l length, the phase shift
will be bl; however, by definition, for l length, the phase shift (or change) will be 2p.
Therefore, we have

βλ = 2π

2π
or λ= (6.84)
β

The phase speed v by definition is given by

λ λω
v= = (6.85)
T 2π

Here T is the time period of the electromagnetic wave. Putting the value of l from
Eq. (6.84) into Eq. (6.85), we get

ω
v= (6.86)
β

Now putting the value of g from Eq. (6.83) into Eq. (6.82), we have

E X = E0 e − α z e − i β z

In this equation, e −α z is called the attenuation factor and e −iβ z is called the phase factor. It is
important to know that the real part of propagation constant g appears in the attenuation
factor and the imaginary part of g appears in the phase factor of the solution.

Similarly, the equation of propagation for the magnetic field vector H may be obtained
from Eq. (6.31).

6.12.3 Propagation constant in an ionized medium

The propagation constant g is defined from Eq. (6.81) as

=γ iωµσ − ω 2 µε (6.87)

and in ionized medium this relation becomes

=γ iωµ0σ − ω 2 µ0ε 0 (6.88)

 Electromagnetic Waves 483

Putting the value of s from Eq. (6.75) into Eq. (6.88), we have

Ne 2 µ
=γ − ω 2 µ0 ε 0 (6.89)
me

From Eq. (6.74), we have

Ne 2
ω p2ε 0 =
me

Putting this value in Eq. (6.84), we get

=γ ω p2 µ0ε 0 − ω 2 µ0ε 0

1  1 
or γ=
ω p2 − ω 2  c =  (6.90)
c  µ ε 
 0 0 

which is the propagation constant in an ionized medium. It’s value depends upon the
values of wp and w.
Case 1: Wave propagation in an ionized medium at high frequency (ω > ω p )
If the angular frequency of the electromagnetic wave w is higher than the plasma angular
frequency wp, then the propagation constant g will be purely imaginary. The value of a in
Eq. (6.83) will be zero and the value of b can be determined from Eq. (6.90) in the following
manner. From Eq. (6.90), we have

1
=γ ω p2 − ω 2
c

1
or γ=
0 + i ω 2 − ω p2
c

This is in the form of γ= α + iβ with

a=0

1
and β= ω 2 − ω p2 ≠ 0 (6.91)
c

Non-zero value of b indicates that there is a radian phase shift per metre of the electromagnetic
wave. The electromagnetic wave motion exists in the ionized medium. That is, there is a
484 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

possibility that the electromagnetic wave can propagate through an ionized media without
any attenuation since a = 0.
Putting the value of b from Eq. (6.91) into Eq. (6.86), we have
ω
v=
1
ω 2 − ω p2
c

c
or v= (6.92)
ω p2
1− 2
ω
which is the speed at which the electromagnetic wave propagates in the ionized medium
when its angular frequency is greater than the plasma angular frequency of the medium.
The refractive index of the medium is defined as the ratio of speed of the electromagnetic
wave in vacuum to the speed of the electromagnetic wave in the medium. The refractive
index of the ionized medium is found out from the Eq. (6.92) to be

c ω p2
= 1−
v ω2

Putting the value of ω p2 from Eq. (6.74) into equation, we get

c Ne 2 1
=1 − × 2 2 ( ω = 2πν )
v ε 0 me 4π ν

c 1 Ne 2 1
or =
1− × 2
v 4πε 0 me πν

Putting the values of known constants into this equation, we get the expression for
refractive index of the ionized medium when the electromagnetic wave propagates at a
higher frequency than the plasma frequency as

c N
= 1 − 80.54 × 2 (6.93)
v ν

From this equation, we come to know that with increase of ionization density N, the
refractive index of the ionized medium decreases and vice versa. That is, as ionization
density N increases continuously, the medium becomes more and more rarer for the
electromagnetic wave. Therefore, when an electromagnetic wave propagates in an ionized
medium with continuous increase in ionization density, the wave will deviate away from
 Electromagnetic Waves 485

the normal to the layer as if the electromagnetic wave is passing from a denser medium
to a rarer one. This shows the possibility of reflection of the electromagnetic wave with
appropriate frequency from a particular layer inside the ionized medium.
Case 2: Wave propagation in an ionized medium at very high frequency (ω >> ω p )
When an electromagnetic wave propagates in an ionized medium at very high frequency,
ω p2
i.e., ω >> ω p , we can neglect the term 2 in Eq. (6.92) to obtain
ω
c
= v = c.
1− 0

This equation shows that the refractive index of the ionized medium for very high frequency
electromagnetic wave is unity. Such a type of electromagnetic wave propagates undeviated
in the ionized medium. That is why laser frequencies penetrate through the ionosphere
without being deviated.
Case 3: Wave propagation in an ionized medium at cut-off frequency (ω = ω p )
The cut-off frequency wc is defined as the frequency of the electromagnetic wave when the
electromagnetic wave is propagating in an ionized medium with plasma frequency wp of
the ionized medium. If the angular frequency of the electromagnetic wave is equal to the
plasma angular frequency wp, then the propagation constant g will be zero. The values of
a and b will both be zero in Eq. (6.83). Since the phase factor b is zero, the electromagnetic
wave is not propagating in the ionized medium at this particular frequency called the cut-
off frequency wc.
The cut-off frequency of an ionized medium is the characteristic of the ionized medium
and depends only upon the ionization density N of the medium. The expression for the
cut-off frequency wc is obtained in the following way.
1
 Ne 2  2
ω=
c ω=p  
 ε 0 me 

1
1  Ne 2  2
or νc =   (6.94)
2π  ε 0 me 

nc is the cut-off frequency of the ionized medium.

Therefore, for a particular ionization density, electromagnetic waves with a frequency
more than the cut-off frequency can be propagated through the ionized medium, whereas
if a wave has a frequency less than the cut-off frequency as we shall see in the next case, it
cannot be propagated in that particular ionized medium.
486 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Case 4: Wave propagation in an ionized medium at low frequency (ω < ω p )

If the angular frequency of the electromagnetic wave w is less than the plasma angular
frequency wp, then the propagation constant g will be purely real. The value of b in
Eq. (6.83) will be zero and the value of a will be found out from Eq. (6.90) in the following
manner. From Eq. (6.90), we have

1
γ= ω p2 − ω 2 + i0
c

This is in the form of γ= α + iβ with

1
=α ω p2 − ω 2
c

and
b=0

Zero value of b indicates that there is no radian phase shift as the electromagnetic wave
progresses through the medium. This is impossible. That means no electromagnetic wave
motion exists in the medium. In other words, there is no possibility that an electromagnetic
wave can propagate through an ionized media at frequency less than the plasma frequency.

Example 6.10
In the photosphere of the sun, if there are 6 × 1016 electrons per unit volume, then calculate the
minimum frequency of the electromagnetic wave to pass through the photosphere.
Solution
The minimum frequency of the electromagnetic wave to pass through an ionized medium, as
explained earlier, is called the cut-off frequency. The cut-off frequency nC is given by

1 1
1  Ne 2  2 1  6 × 1016 × 1.62 × 10−38  2
νC =   =  −31 
= 2.2 × 109 Hz
Hz
2π  ε 0 me  2π  8.85 × 10 −12
× 9.11 × 10 

Example 6.11
In ionosphere there are approximately 1011 electrons per unit volume. Calculate the plasma
frequency of the medium. Also calculate the speed of the electromagnetic wave having
300 MHz.
 Electromagnetic Waves 487

Solution
The plasma frequency of the ionosphere is

1
1  Ne 2  2
νp =   = 2.84 MHz
2π  ε 0 me 

The speed of electromagnetic wave in the ionosphere is given by

c
v= = 3 × 108 m/s
ω 2
p
1−
ω 2

6.13 Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves

at Non-conducting and Conducting Boundaries
In order to discuss the behavior of electromagnetic waves at the boundary during the
phenomena of reflection, and refraction, we shall first determine the boundary conditions
which the field vectors must satisfy at the surface of discontinuity between the two media.
Without giving the proofs, we shall write  down
  the boundary
 conditions which time-
dependent electromagnetic field vectors B , E , D , and H satisfy at the interface between
two different media.

i. Boundary condition for B

The normal component of the magnetic induction vector  B is continuous across the
boundary. If B1n and B2n are the normal components of B on the interface in the first
medium and the second medium respectively, then

B1n = B2n (6.95)


ii. Boundary condition for E

The tangential component of the electric vector E is continuous across the interface.
If E1t and E2t are the tangential components of E on the interface in the first medium
and the second medium respectively, then

E1t = E2t (6.96)


iii. Boundary condition for D

The normal component of the electric displacement vector D is not continuous across
the interface and changes by an amount equal to the free surface charge density s at
 488 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


the interface. If D1n and D2n are the normal components of D on the interface in the
first medium and the second medium respectively, then

σ
D1n − D2n = (6.97)


iv. Boundary condition for H :

The tangential component of the magnetic field vector H is continuous across
the interface separating
 the two dielectric media. If H1t and H2t are the tangential
components of H on the interface in the first medium and the second medium
respectively, then

H1t = H 2t (6.98)

6.13.1 Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at a non-

conducting surface

Consider the case of a plane interface separating two different isotropic, homogeneous,
charge-free (r = 0), linear (D = e E and B = m H) non-conducting (s = 0) media of
infinite extension. Let the first side of the interface be characterized by permittivity e1 and
permeability m1; the second side by e2 and m2.
Consider that an electromagnetic wave propagating in the first medium is incident
obliquely on the interface separating two non-conducting media. In general, a reflected
and transmitted wave will be produced. The incident and reflected wave will lie in the first
medium and the transmitted wave will lie in the second medium. See Fig. 6.4.
Let
EI = Electric field component of the incident electromagnetic wave in the first medium.

ER = Electric field component of the reflected electromagnetic wave in the first medium.

ET = Electric field component of the transmitted electromagnetic wave in the second

medium.

The electric field vectors of the incident, reflected and transmitted electromagnetic waves
at the point of incidence are given by
 
EI = EOI e i (ωI t − k I ⋅r ) (6.99)

 
ER = EOR e i (ωRt − k R ⋅r ) (6.100)

 
ET = EOT e i (ωT t − kT ⋅r ) (6.101)
 Electromagnetic Waves 489

Figure 6.4 Reflection and refraction/transmission of plane electromagnetic waves at a plane

interface. The Y-Z plane is the plane interface. The X-Y plane is the plane of incidence. WI ,
WR and WT are the incident, reflected and refracted plane wavefronts

Here,
EOI = Time-independent amplitude of the electric field component of the incident
electromagnetic wave.

EOR = Time-independent amplitude of the electric field component of the reflected

electromagnetic wave.

EOT = Time-independent amplitude of the electric field component of the transmitted

electromagnetic wave.

k I = Propagation vector of the incident electromagnetic wave in the first medium.

k R = Propagation vector of the reflected electromagnetic wave in the first medium.

kT = Propagation vector of the transmitted electromagnetic wave in the second medium.
490 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ωI = Angular frequency of the incident electromagnetic wave in the first medium.

ωR = Angular frequency of the reflected electromagnetic wave in the first medium.

ωT = Angular frequency of the transmitted electromagnetic wave in the second medium.


r and t are the position vector of the point of incidence and the time function respectively.

The electric field vectors of the incident, reflected and transmitted electromagnetic waves
must satisfy the boundary conditions described in Section 6.13 for all the time  and for
 all
the points on the interface. The tangential components of the field vectors E and H are
continuous across the boundary at all points and for all times. This is possible only if
     
i (ωI t − k I ⋅r ) i (ωR t − k R ⋅r )
e= e= e i (ωT t − kT ⋅r )

     
or ωI t − k I ⋅ r= ωR t − k R ⋅ r= ωT t − kT ⋅ r (6.102)

This relation is valid for all the points on the interface including r = 0 at any time
t. Putting r = 0 into the relation, we have

ω=
It ω=
Rt ωT t

or ν=
I ν=
R νT

This shows that reflected and transmitted electromagnetic waves have the same frequency
as that of the incident electromagnetic wave when incident on the dielectric surface.
Equation (6.102) is also true for t = 0. Hence, we have putting t = 0 into Eq. (6.102),
     
k I ⋅ r = k R ⋅ r = kT ⋅ r (6.103)

  

This equation shows that all the three vectors kI , kR , and kT lie in a single plane. This
proves the first law of reflection and refraction.
Now suppose the position vector r lies on the interface along the positive y-axis.
Let
 
θ I′ = Angle between the position vector r and the propagation vector k I .
 
θ R′ = Angle between the position vector r and the propagation vector k R .
 
θT′ = Angle between the position vector r and the propagation vector kT .
 Electromagnetic Waves 491


k ’s are the propagation vectors whose magnitude is by definition given as

2π 2πν
=
k = ( v = λν )
λ v

ω
or=k ω=
µε
v

Hence, we have

k I = Propagation vector of the incident electromagnetic wave in the first medium
ω
= ω= µ1ε1 in magnitude. (6.104)
v1

k R = Propagation vector of the reflected electromagnetic wave in the first medium
ω
= ω=
µ1ε1 in magnitude. (6.105)
v1

kT = Propagation vector of the transmitted electromagnetic wave in the second medium
ω
= ω=
µ2 ε 2 in magnitude. (6.106)
v2

(since ω=
I ω=R ω=T ω)
Taking the magnitude of Eq. (6.103), we have [See Fig. 6.4]

′ k=
I r cos θ I
k= ′ kT r cos θT′
R r cos θ R

π  π  π 
or θ I  kR cos  −=
kI cos  −= θ R  kT cos  − θT 
2  2  2 

I sin θ I R sin θ R kT sin θT

or k= k= (6.107)

From Eq. (6.107), we get

kI sin θ I = kR sin θ R

However, according to Eq. (6.104) and Eq. (6.105), kI = kR . This equation becomes

sin θ I = sin θ R
492 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

or θI = θR

or Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

This proves the second law of reflection.

Also from Eq. (6.107), we get

kI sin θ I = kT sin θT

c
or sin θ I kT v1 v2 n2 2
= = = = = n
sin θT kI v2 c n1
1

v1

In this equation
c = speed of electromagnetic wave in free space.
v1 = speed of electromagnetic wave in the first medium.
v2 = speed of electromagnetic wave in the second medium.
n1 = refractive index of the first medium.
n2 = refractive index of the second medium.
2
1 n = refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium

This proves the second law of refraction and is the well-known Snell’s law.
Case 1: Electric vector normal to the plane of incidence
The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the propagation vector kI and
normal to the interface at the point of incidence (In ray optics, the plane of incidence is
defined as the plane passing through the incident ray and the normal). In our case, the X-Y
plane will be the plane of incidence and the Y-Z plane is the interface separating the two
non-conducting media. See Fig. 6.5. All the field vectors of the electromagnetic wave obey
the boundary conditions described earlier. The tangential components of the electric vector
are continuous along the interface. In our case, since electric vectors are perpendicular to
the plane of incidence in the inward direction (i.e., along the –Z-axis), they are at the same
time tangential to the interface. Hence, we have
  
EI + ER = ET
Since the exponential parts of Eqs (6.99) to (6.101) are the same, we can write the
aforementioned equation as

EOI + EOR =
EOT (6.108)
 Electromagnetic Waves 493

Figure 6.5 Reflection and refraction of an electromagnetic wave on a dielectric interface with the
electric vector normal to the plane of incidence

Since electric vectors are perpendicular to the plane of incidence along the –Z-axis, magnetic
vectors are parallel to the plane of incidence so that the following vector equations, obtained
from Eq. (6.53), are not violated.
 
 k I × E I
HI = (6.109)
ωµ1

 
 kR × ER
HR = (6.110)
ωµ1
 
 kT × E T
HT = (6.111)
ωµ2

(since ω=
I ω=
R ω=
T ω)
494 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Now the tangential components of the magnetic vector are continuous along the interface.
Hence, we have from Fig. 6.5,

H I cos θ I − H R cos θ R =
HT cos θT

Since the exponential parts are the same, we can write this equation as

H OI cos θ I − H OR cos θ R =
H OT cos θT (6.112)

Taking the magnitude of the magnetic vectors in Eqs (6.109) to (6.111), we get

kI EI sin 90°
HI =
ωµ1

kI EOI ε1  ω 1 
or =
H OI = E =
v =  (6.113)
ω µ1 µ1 OI  k µε 

Using the definition of η , we have

EOI
H OI = (6.114)
η1

Similarly, we have

EOR
H OR = (6.115)
η1

EOT
and H OT = (6.116)
η2

Now putting the values of HOI, HOR, and HOT from Eqs (6.114) to (6.116) into Eq. (6.112),
we have

EOI EOR EOT

cos θ I − cos θ R = cos θT (6.117)
η1 η1 η2

Putting the value of EOT from Eq. (6.108) into Eq. (6.117), we get

EOI EOR cos θT

cos θ I − cos θ R = (EOI + EOR )
η1 η1 η2

EOR cos θT cos θ1 cos θT

or cos θ R + EOR =EOI − EOI
η1 η2 η1 η2
 Electromagnetic Waves 495

cos θ I cos θT
−
 EOR  η1 η2
or   = (6.118)
 EOI N cos θ cos θT
I
+
η1 η2

The subscript N in this equation or in the following equations refers to the fact that the
electric field vector is normal to the plane of incidence.
Again putting the value of EOR from Eq. (6.108) into Eq. (6.117), we get

EOI EOT − EOI EOT

cos θ I − cos θ R = cos θT
η1 η1 η2

EOI EOT EOI EOT

or cos θ I − cos θ I + cos θ I = cos θT
η1 η1 η1 η2

cos θ I
2
 EOT  η1
or   = (6.119)
 EOI N cos θ I + cos θT
ηI η2

Equations (6.118) and (6.119) are called Fresnel’s equations.

If the two media are dielectrics, then, µ=
1 µ=
2 µ0 . The intrinsic impedance η defined
µ
by η = becomes
ε
µ µ
η
= = µ=
v c
µε n

Here c is the speed of light in vacuum and n is the refractive index of the medium.
Thus, we have for two dielectric media
µ0
η1 = c
n1
and
µO
η2 = c
n2

By taking the ratio of η1 and η2 , we get

η1 n2
= (6.120)
η2 n1
496 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

η1
Putting the value of from Eq. (6.120) into Eq. (6.118), we get one of Fresnel’s equations
η2
E 
in the form  OR 
 EOI N

η n
cos θ I − 1 cos θT cos θ I − 2 cos θT
 EOR  η2 n1
  = = (6.121)
 EOI N cos θ + η1 cos θ n
cos θ I + 2 cos θT
I T
η2 n1
η1
Again putting the value of into Eq. (6.119), we get the second Fresnel’s equation in the form
η2
 EOT  2 cos θ I 2 cos θ I
  = =
η
 EOI N cos θ + 1 cos θ n (6.122)
I T cos θ I + 2 cos θT
η2 n1

Applying Snell’s law to Eq. (6.121), we have

 EOR  sin θT cos θ I − sin θ I cos θT sin(θ I − θT )

  = = (6.123)
 OI N sin θT cos θ I + sin θ I cos θT sin(θ I + θT )
E

Again applying Snell’s law to Eq. (6.122), we have

 EOT  2 sin θT cos θ I 2 sin θT cos θ I

  = = (6.124)
 EOI N sin θT cos θ I + sin θ I cos θT sin(θ I + θT )

Interpretation of Eq. (6.121)

If an electromagnetic wave is passing from a denser medium (first medium) to a rarer
medium (second medium) with n1 > n2 and qI < qT or cos qI > cos qT then the numerator of
Eq. (6.121) is always positive, thereby implying that

 EOR 
 
 EOI N
is to be positive. The positive values of

 EOR 
 
 EOI N
indicate that reflected wave is in phase with the incident wave.
 Electromagnetic Waves 497

If an electromagnetic wave is passing from a rarer medium (first medium) to a denser

medium (second medium) with n1 < n2 and qI > qT or cosqI < cosqT , then the numerator of
Eq. (6.121) is always negative, thereby implying that

EOR
EOI

is to be negative. The negative values of

 EOR 
 
 EOI N

indicate that the reflected wave is out phase with the incident wave. That means the phase
difference between the incident wave and the reflected wave is p.
Interpretation of Eq. (6.122)
Whether the electromagnetic wave is passing from a rarer medium to a denser medium or
vice versa, the ratio

 EOT 
 
 EOI N
is always positive for all possible values of qI and θ T (0 ≤ θ I , θT ≤ 90). The positive values of

 EOT 
 
 EOI N

indicate that refracted or transmitted wave is in phase with the incident wave.
If the plane polarized electromagnetic wave with its electric vector perpendicular to the
plane of incidence is incident normally (qI = 0) on the interface separating two different
dielectric media, we have from Eqs (6.121) and (6.123)

n2
1−  EOT  2
 EOR  n1
  = and   = respectively.
n
 EOI N 1 + 2  EOI N 1 + n2
n1 n1

Case 2: Electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence

In our case, the X-Y plane will be the plane of incidence and the Y-Z plane is the interface
separating the two non-conducting media. See Fig. 6.6. The tangential components of the
498 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

electric vector are continuous along the interface. In our case, since electric vectors are
parallel to the plane of incidence, we have

EI cos θ I − ER cos θ I =
ET cos θT ( θR = θI )

Since exponential parts of Eqs (6.99) to (6.101) are the same, we can write the aforementioned
equation as

EOI cos θ I − EOR cos θ I =

EOT cos θT (6.125)

Electric vectors are parallel to the plane of incidence and magnetic vectors are perpendicular
to the plane of incidence so that the following vector equations, obtained from Eq. (6.53),
are not violated.

Figure 6.6 Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic wave on a dielectric interface with the
electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence
 Electromagnetic Waves 499

The boundary condition for the magnetic field vector is that the tangential component of

the magnetic field vector H is continuous across the interface separating the two dielectric
media. Making use of this boundary condition, we have
  
HI + HR =HT

or H OI + H OR =
H OT

Putting the values of HOI , HOR, and HOT from Eqs (6.114) to (6.116) into this equation, we
have

EOI EOR EOT

+ =
η1 η1 η2

η
or EOI + EOR =1
EOT
η2

η1
Putting the value of from Eq. (6.120) into the aforementioned equation, we get
η2

n2
EOI + EOR = EOT (6.126)
n1

The ratio of the reflected amplitude to the incident amplitude is obtained by putting the
values of EOT from Eq. (6.126) into Eq. (6.125). Thus, we have

n1
EOI cos θ I − EOR cos θ=
I cos θT (EOI + EOR )
n2

n1 n
or EOR cos θ I + EOR cos θT − EOI cos θT 1 + EI cos θOI
=
n2 n2

n
cos θ I − 1 cos θT
 EOR  n2
or   = (6.127)
 EOI P cos θ + n1 cos θ
I T
n2

The subscript P in Eq. (6.127) or in the following equations refers to the fact that the electric
field vector is parallel to the plane of incidence.
500 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

n1
Putting the value of from Snell’s law into this equation, we get
n2

 EOR  sin θ I cos θ I − sin θT cos θT sin 2θ I − sin 2θT

  = =
 EOI P sin θ I cos θ I + sin θT cos θT sin 2θ I + sin 2θT

2 cos(θ I + θT )sin(θ I − θT )
=
2sin(θ I + θT )cos(θ I − θT )

 EOR  tan(θ I − θT )
or   = (6.128)
 EOI P tan(θ I + θT )

The ratio of the transmitted amplitude to the incident amplitude is obtained by putting the
values of EOR from Eq. (6.126) into Eq. (6.125). Thus, we have

n 
EOI cos θ I − cos θ I  2 EOT − EOI  =
EOT cos θT
 n1 

 EOT  2 cos θ I
or   = (6.129)
 EOI P cos θ + n2 cos θ
T I
n1

n1
Putting the value of from Snell’s law into this equation, we get
n2

 EOT  2 cos θ I
  =
 OI P cos θ + sin θ I cos θ
E
T I
sin θT

 EOT  2 cos θ I sin θT

or   = (6.130)
 EOI P sin(θ I + θT )cos(θ I − θT )

Equations (6.128) and (6.130) are called Fresnel’s equations.

 Electromagnetic Waves 501

Interpretation of Eq. (6.127)

If an electromagnetic wave passes from a denser medium (first medium) to a rarer medium
n
(second medium) with n1 > n2 or 1 > 1 and θ I > θ T or cos θ I < cos θT , then the numerator
n2
of Eq. (6.127) is always negative thereby implying that
 EOR 
 
 EOI P
is to be negative. The negative values of
 EOR 
 
 EOI P
indicate that the reflected wave is out phase with the incident wave. That means the phase
difference between the incident wave and the reflected wave is p.
If an electromagnetic wave passes from a rarer medium (first medium) to a denser
n
medium (second medium) with n1 < n2 or 1 < 1 and θ I > θT or cos θ I < cos θT , then the
n2
numerator of Eq. (6.125) is always positive thereby implying that
 EOR 
 
 EOI P
is to be positive. The positive values of
 EOR 
 
 EOI P
indicate that the reflected wave is in phase with the incident wave.

Interpretation of Eq. (6.129)

Whether the electromagnetic wave is passing from a rarer medium to a denser
E 
medium or vice versa, the ratio  OT  is always positive for all possible values of qI and qT
 EOI P  EOT 
(0 ≤ θ I , θT ≤ 90). The positive values of   indicate that the refracted or the
 EOI P
transmitted wave is in phase with the incident wave.
If the plane polarized electromagnetic wave with its electric vector parallel to the plane
of incidence is incident normally (qI = 0) on the interface separating two different dielectric
media, we have from Eqs (6.127) and (6.129)
n2
1−  EOT  2
 EOR  n1   =
  = and  EOI  n respectively.
 EOI P 1 + n2
P 1+ 2
n1
n1
The phenomena in Case 1 and in Case 2 are the same for normal incidence.
502 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 6.12
An electromagnetic wave is refracted from a dielectric medium to free space. Calculate the
dielectric constant of the dielectric medium if the angle of incidence is the critical angle 18°.
Solution
The refractive index n of the medium from the given data is

1 1
=n = = 3.24
sin θC sin18

However, we know that refractive index n is

1
c µ0 ε 0 µε µ0 ε
n= = = =
v 1 µ0 ε 0 µ0 ε 0
µε

( µ = µ0 for dielectric medium)

ε
or=n = εr
ε0
Hence, the dielectric constant of the dielectric medium will be

ε=
r
2
n= 10.5

Example 6.13
A plane electromagnetic wave with electric vector = EI 10 cos(ωt − z ) yˆV/m propagating in
air medium is incident normally on the surface
 of a lossless dielectric medium characterized

by er = 3 and mr = 1. Find (a) l, (b) w, (c) ET (transmitted electric vector), and (d) H I (incident
magnetic vector).
Solution
2π
a. is λ
The wavelength l of the electromagnetic wave = = m 6.28m
1
b. The speed of the electromagnetic wave in air medium is

λ λ
c λν
= = 2πν
= ω
2π 2π
 Electromagnetic Waves 503

2π
or ω = c = 3 × 108 rad/s
λ

c. The field of the electromagnetic wave we can have

EOT 2
=
EOI n
1+ 2
n1

Putting the values of n1 and n2 into this equation, we get the amplitude of transmitted electric
vector as

EOT =
10 ×
2
3
=
7.32 V/m (n = ε ) r

1+
1

Hence, the electric vector of the transmitted electromagnetic wave is given by

=ET 7.32 cos(ωt − z ) yˆ V/m.

d. The transmitted electric vector can be obtained from

ET µ
= η=
2
=
HT ε

εrε0
or HT = ET
µr µ0

Putting the values of er e0 mr m0, and ET into this equation, we get the amplitude of the
transmitted electric vector as

3 × 8.85 × 10−12
HT = 7.32 × ˆ / mH T
cos(ωt − z )xA
4π × 10−7

1.49 × 106 cos(ωt − z )xˆ A/m

=

Example 6.14

An electromagnetic wave with the amplitude of electric vector as 1.5 × 10−3 V/m propagates in
a dielectric medium having ε r = 8.5 and µr = 1. It is incident normally on the interface between
the dielectric medium and the air medium and simultaneously gets reflected and refracted.
Calculate the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic vectors of the reflected electromagnetic
wave and refracted electromagnetic wave.
504 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
For the normal incidence of the electromagnetic wave on the dielectric interface inside the
denser side, we get from Eq. (6.127)

η1
1−
EOR η2
= (A)
EOI η
1+ 1
η2

Similarly, from Eq. (6.129), we get

EOT 2
=
EOI η1 (B)
1+
η2

As for the given information, we have

EOI= 1.5 × 10−3 V/m, µr1 = 1, ε r1 = 8.5, µr 2 = 1, ε r 2 = 1

Now we can calculate h1 and h2 as

µ0 µr 1
η=
1 = 129Ω
ε 0ε r 1

µ0 µr 2
and η
= 2 = 377Ω
ε 0ε r 2

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into the Eq. (A), we get

EOR 1 − 0.3422
= = 0.4901
EOI 1 + 0.3422

or EOR = 0.4901 × 1.5 × 10−3 V/m = 7.35 × 10−4 V/m .

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into Eq. (B), we get

EOT 2
= = 1.490
EOI 129
1+
377

or EOT = 1.4901 × 1.5 × 10−3 V/m = 2.24 × 10−3 V/m

 Electromagnetic Waves 505

From Eq. (6.55), we have

EOI
H OI = (C )
η1
Putting the values of h1 and EOI into Eq. (C), we get

1.5 × 10−3 V/m

H OI = = 1.163 × 10−5 A/m
129Ω

For the amplitude of the magnetic field of the electromagnetic wave, we can have

η1
−1
H OR η (D)
= 2
H OI η1
+1
η2
and

H OT 2
=
H OI η2 (E)
1+
η1

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into Eq. (D), we get

H OR 0.3422 − 1
=
H OI 0.3422 + 1

−5.70 × 10−6 A/m

or H OR =

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into the Eq. (E), we get

H OT 2
= = 0.51
H OI 1 + 2.92

or H OT =0.51 × 1.163 × 10−5 A/m =5.93 × 10−6 A/m

Example 6.15
An electromagnetic wave, with the amplitude of electric vector as 1.0 V/m, propagating in free
space is incident normally on the surface of a dielectric medium characterized by er = 18.5 and
mr = 198.4. It simultaneously gets reflected and refracted. Calculate the amplitudes of the electric
506 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

and magnetic vectors of the reflected electromagnetic wave and the refracted electromagnetic
wave.
Solution
For the normal incidence of the electromagnetic wave on the dielectric surface, we get from
Eq. (6.127)

η1
1−
EOR η2
= (A)
EOI η
1+ 1
η2

Similarly, from Eq. (6.129), we get

EOT 2
=
EOI η1 (B)
1+
η2

As for the given information, we have

EOI = 1.0V/m, µr1 = 1, ε r1 = 1, µr 2 = 198.4, ε r 2 = 18.5

Now we can calculate h1 and h2 as

µ0 µr 1
η
=1 = 377Ω
ε 0ε r 1

µ0 µr 2
=
and η2 = 1234.6Ω
ε 0ε r 2

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into the Eq. (A), we get

EOR 1 − 0.3055
= = 0.5320
EOI 1 + 0.3055

or EOR =0.5320 × 1.0 V/m =0.5320 V/m

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into the Eq. (B), we get

EOT 2
= = 1.532
EOI 377
1+
1234
 Electromagnetic Waves 507

or EOT =
1.532 × 1.0 V/m =
1.532 V/m

From Eq. (6.55), we have

EOI
H OI = (C )
η1

Putting the values of h1 and EOI into Eq. (C), we get

1.0V/m
H=
OI = 2.65 × 10−3 A/m
377Ω

For the amplitude of the magnetic field of the electromagnetic wave, we can have

η1
−1
H OR η2
=
H OI η1 (D)
+1
η2

H OT 2
=
and H OI η2 (E)
1+
η1

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into Eq. (D), we get

H OR 0.3055 − 1
=
H OI 0.3055 + 1

or H OR =
−0.53 × 2.65 × 10−3 A/m =
−1.41 × 10−3 A/m

Putting the values of h1, h2, and EOI into the Eq. (E), we get

H OT 2
= = 0.47
H OI 1 + 3.27

or H OT = 0.47 × 2.65 × 10−3 A/m = 1.25 × 10−3 A/m

508 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Reflection and transmission coefficient

The reflection coefficient RR is defined as the square of the ratio of the amplitude of the
reflected wave to the amplitude of the incident wave. Mathematically,
2
E 
RR =  OR  (6.131)
 EOI 

The transmission coefficient or refraction coefficient RT is defined as the square of the ratio
of the amplitude of transmitted wave to the amplitude of the incident wave. Mathematically,
2
E 
RT =  OT  (6.132)
 EOI 
It can be checked for surety that the sum of the reflection coefficient and the transmission
coefficient is unity both in Case 1 (Electric vector normal to the plane of incidence) and
Case 2 (Electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence). RRN and RTN are the reflection
and transmission coefficients respectively in the case where the electric vector of the
electromagnetic wave is normal to the plane of incidence. RRP and RTP are the reflection
and transmission coefficients respectively in the case where the electric vector of the
electromagnetic wave is parallel to the plane of incidence.

Example 6.16
The phase constant of a certain good conducting material at a certain frequency is 3.75 ×
105 rad/m. Calculate the frequency of the electromagnetic wave. Given s = 58 × 106 Siemen/m
and m r = 1.
Solution
The phase constant b of a good conductor is given by

ωµσ
β=
2

Hence, the expression for angular frequency comes out to be

2β 2
ω=
µσ
2β 2
or the linear frequency will be ν =
2πµσ
Putting the given values of b, m, and s into this equation, we get the value of frequency n of
the electromagnetic wave as

2(3.75 × 105 )2
ν= Hz = 614.2 MHz .
2π × 4π × 10−7 × 58 × 106
 Electromagnetic Waves 509

Example 6.17
The fraction of energy transmitted through the interface of two dielectric media in case of
normal incidence is half of the fraction of the energy reflected. Calculate the ratio of refractive
indices of the two media.
Solution
According to the condition given in the problem,

1
RT = RR
2

2
n  n1 
4 1
n2  1− 
1  n2 
=
 n1 
2
2  n1 
 + 1 1+ n 
n
 2   2 

n1
With x = , we have
n2

1
4=
x (1 − x )2
2

or x= 5 + 2 6

n1
or = 5+2 6
n2

The ratio of refractive indices of the two media is found to be 5 + 2 6 .

Brewster’s angle
Brewster’s angle or the polarizing angle qB is defined as the angle of incidence for which the
π π
angle of transmission qT is equal to − θ B . That means, θ I = θ B = if θT= − θ B . Taking the
square of Eq. (6.128), we have 2 2

tan2 (θ I − θT ) tan2 (θ B − θT )
RRP = = =0
tan2 (θ I + θT ) ∞

 EOR 
or   =0
 EOI P
510 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

or EOR = 0

Thus, the electromagnetic wave with the electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence is
made to be incident on the surface of the dielectric medium at Brewster’s angle, the electric
vector parallel to the plane of incidence is not present in the reflected ray. The reflected
electromagnetic wave contains the electric vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
Now putting this condition into Snell’s law, we have
n2 sin θ B sin θ B
= =
n1 π  cos θ B
sin  − θ B 
 2 

n2
or tan θ B =
n1

 n2 
or θ B = tan −1   (6.133)
 n1 

Brewster’s angle depends of the only on the refractive indices of the first and second media.
Knowing the values of refractive indices of the first and second media, we can calculate
Brewster’s angle. Therefore, we conclude that the unpolarized light (an electromagnetic
wave) is made to be incident on an interface with the angle of incidence equal to Brewster’s
angle, the reflected light will contain the electric vector perpendicular to the plane of
incidence, whereas the electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence will be absent and
the transmitted light is also plane polarized with the electric vector parallel to the plane of
incidence. Thus, reflected light is plane polarized with the electric vector perpendicular
to the plane of incidence. The transmitted/refracted light is also plane polarized with the
electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence.  The plane of polarizationis defined as
the plane containing the propagation vector k and the magnetic vector  H . The plane
of vibration
 is defined as the plane containing the propagation vector k and the electric
vector
 E . The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the propagation vector
k and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence. The plane polarized light with
its electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence is incident at Brewster’s angle and
will be refracted without reflection, whereas plane polarized light with its electric vector
perpendicular to the plane of incidence is incident at Brewster’s angle and will be reflected
without transmission. This is depicted in Fig. 6.7.
It is an experimental fact that the unpolarized light incident at Brewster’s angle is
reflected predominately polarized with electric vectors perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. The degree of polarization dP is defined as

RRN − RRP
δP = (6.134)
RRN + RRP
 Electromagnetic Waves 511

Figure 6.7 Polarization on reflection and refraction

where

sin2 (θ I − θT )
RRN = (6.135)
sin2 (θ I + θT )

tan2 (θ I − θT )
RRP = (6.136)
tan2 (θ I + θT )

Example 6.18
Calculate the degree of polarization for ordinary light incident at an angle 60° on a glass
having refractive index 1.5
Solution
From Snell’s law, from Eq. (6.108), we have

n1
sin θT = sin θ I
n2

or θT 35.3°
=

sin2 (θ I − θT )
RRN =
sin2 (θ I + θT )

Putting the values of qI and qT into this equation, we have

RRN = 0.176
512 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

tan2 (60° − 35.3°)

RRP = = 1.82 × 10−3
tan2 (60° + 35.3°)

The degree of polarization dP is defined by

RRN − RRP
δP =
RRN + RRP

Putting the values of RRN and RRP into this equation, we get

δ P = 98%

Example 6.19
Calculate the critical angle and Brewster’s angle for an electromagnetic wave passing through
non-magnetic quartz of relative permitivitty 5.
Solution
The refractive index of quartz is given by

=n µr ε r 2.24
=

The critical angle for an electromagnetic wave passing through non-magnetic quartz will be
obtained from

1
sin θC =
2.24

or =
θC 26.5°

Brewster’s angle for an electromagnetic wave passing through non-magnetic quartz will be
obtained from

tan θ B = n

θ B tan −1 2.24
or = = 65.9°

6.13.2 Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at a cond-

ucting surface

Let us consider the case where there is reflection and refraction at the boundary of the
dielectric and the conducting media. Let the first medium be a dielectric medium
 Electromagnetic Waves 513

characterized by constant permittivity e1, constant permeability m1, refractive index n1,
intrinsic impedance h1 and conductivity s1 = 0; and the second medium be a conducting
medium characterized by constant permittivity e2, constant permeability m2, refractive
index n2, intrinsic impedance h2 and non-zero constant conductivitys2. Both the media

are assumed to be isotropic, homogeneous, charge free (r = 0), linear (D = ε E and B = µ H )
of infinite extension.
Consider that an electromagnetic wave propagating in the first medium is incident
obliquely on the interface separating the conducting medium from the non-conducting
medium. In general, a reflected and a transmitted wave will be produced. The incident and
reflected wave will lie in the first medium and the transmitted wave will lie in the second
medium. See Fig. 6.8. The laws of reflection and refraction can be proved by the methods
discussed earlier. 
The propagation vector kT in the second conducting medium is in general found out to
be complex. In the charge-free conduction medium, the field vectors ET and HT satisfy the
following wave equations

∂ 2 ET ∂E
∇2 ET − µ2ε 2 2
− µ2σ 2 T =0 (6.137)
∂t ∂t

∂ 2 HT ∂HT
∇ 2 H T − µ2 ε 2 2
− µ2σ 2 =
0 (6.138)
∂t ∂t

The solution of the wave Eq. (6.137) is given by

   
ET (r , t ) = E OT e i (ωT t − kT ⋅r ) .

Substituting this back into Eq. (6.137), we have

−kT2 ET (r , t ) + ε 2 µ2ω 2 ET (r , t ) + iσ 2 µ2ω ET (r , t ) =

0

or −kT2 + ε 2 µ2ω 2 + iσ 2 µ2ω =

0

 σ 
=
or kT2 ε 2 µ2ω 2  1 + i 2  (6.139)
 ε 2ω 

The first term corresponds to the displacement current and the second term corresponds
to the conduction current. The relation between propagation vector k and frequency w
is called the dispersion relation. Equation (6.139) shows that the propagation vector
 in a
conducting medium is complex. Hence, we can express the propagation vector k in the
form
514 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


kT= α + iβ (6.140)

Squaring both sides of this equation, we have

kT2 = α 2 + i 2 β 2 + i2αβ = α 2 − β 2 + i2αβ

Comparing this equation with Eq. (6.139), we have

α2 − β2 =
ε 2 µ 2ω 2

and 2αβ = σ 2 µ2ω


Solving the two equations given here, we have the real part of kT as
1
 1
2
µ2 ε 2 
   σ2 
 
2 2

α= ω  1 +    + 1 (6.141)
2    ε 2ω   
 
 

and the imaginary part of kT as
1
 1
2
µ2ε 2    σ 2  
2 2

β= ω  1 +    − 1
2    ε 2ω   
 
  (6.142)


The same value of kT will be obtained if we consider Eq. (6.138) instead of Eq. (6.137).
σ
For a very good conducting medium or metallic medium, 2 >> 1. Hence, neglecting 1
2 ε 2ω
in comparison to  σ 2  in Eqs (6.141) and (6.142), we have respectively
 
 ε 2ω 

µ2 ε 2 σ2 µ2σ 2ω
α =ω =
2 ε 2ω 2 (6.143)

µ2σ 2ω
β= (6.144)
2
 Electromagnetic Waves 515

σ2
Thus, for a very good conducting medium or metallic medium, >> 1 and the
 ε 2ω
propagation vector kT in the metallic medium is found out by putting these values of a and
b in Eq. (6.140) as

µ2σ 2ω µ2σ 2ω µ2σ 2ω

kT = +i = (1 + i ) (6.145)
2 2 2

The refractive index n2 of the second conducting medium is given by

c
n2 = kT
ω

Putting the value of kT from Eq. (6.145) into this equation, we get the expression for the
refractive index of the second conducting medium as

c µ2σ 2ω µ2σ 2 (6.146)

n2 = × (1 + i ) = c (1 + i)
ω 2 2ω

The refractive index of the conducting medium is very large in comparison to that of a
non-conducting medium. From Snell’s law, we have

n 
sin θT =  1  sin θ I
 n2 
1
  n 2 2
or cos θT= 1 −  1  sin2 θ I  (6.147)
  n2  

The refractive index of a conducting medium n2 is very large in comparison to that of a

2
n 
non-conducting medium n1. Hence,  1 sin θ I  becomes negligibly small in comparison
 n2 
to 1 in Eq. (6.147). Therefore, we have from Eq. (6.147),

cos θT ≈ 1

or θT ≈ 0 (6.148)

Equation (6.148) shows that the angle of refraction when the electromagnetic wave is
incident on the surface of a metallic medium is very close to zero irrespective of the angle
of incidence. Thus, in a metallic medium, the electromagnetic wave is transmitted along
the normal direction.
516 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Case 1: Electric vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence

The plane of incidence,
 as mentioned earlier, is defined as the plane containing the
propagation vector k I and the normal to the interface at the point of incidence. In our case,
the X-Y plane will be the plane of incidence and the Y-Z plane is the interface separating the
conducting medium from the non-conducting medium. See Fig. 6.8. All the field vectors
of the electromagnetic wave obey the boundary conditions described in Section 6.13. The
tangential components of the electric vector are continuous along the interface. In our case,
since the electric vectors are perpendicular to the plane of incidence in the inward direction
(i.e., along the –Z axis), they are at the same time tangential to the interface. Hence, we have
  
EI + ER = ET

  
or E OI + E OR =
E OT (6.149)

Figure 6.8 Reflection and refraction of an electromagnetic wave on the surface of a conducting medium with
the electric vector normal to the plane of incidence
 Electromagnetic Waves 517

Now the tangential components of the magnetic vector are continuous along the interface.
Hence, we have from Fig. 6.8,

H I cos θ I − H R cos θ R =
HT cos θT

or H OI cos θ I − H OR cos θ R =
H OT cos θT (6.150)

Also we know the following relations

kI EOI
H OI = (6.151)
ω µ1

kI EOR
H OR = (6.152)
ωµ1

kT EOT
H OT = (6.153)
ωµ2

From Eq. (6.150), we have

kI EOI kI EOR kT EOT

cos θ I − cos θ R = cos θT (6.154)
ωµ1 ωµ1 ωµ2

Putting the value of EOT from Eq. (6.149) into Eq. (6.154), we get

kI EOI kI EOR kT cos θT

cos θ I − cos θ R = (EOI + EOR )
ωµ1 ωµ1 ωµ2

 k cos θT kI cos θ R   kI cos θ I kT cos θT 

or EOR  T + = EOI  − 
 ωµ2 ωµ1   ωµ1 ωµ2 

kI cos θ I kT cos θT
−
 EOR  µ1 µ2
or   =
k cos θ k cos θT
( θR = θI )
E
 OI N I I
+ T
µ1 µ2
518 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Applying the condition for a good conductor, this equation becomes

kI cos θ I kTkT µ1
− cos θ I −
 EOR  µ1 µ2 kI µ2
  = = (6.155)
 EOI N kI cos θ I + kT cos θ + kT µ1
I
µ1 µ2 kI µ2

Again putting the value of EOR from Eq. (6.149) into Eq. (6.154), we get

kI EOI kI cos θ R kT EOT

cos θ I − (EOT − EOI ) = cos θT
ωµ1 ωµ1 ωµ2

kI EOI kI cos θ I kI cos θ I kT EOT

or cos θ I − EOT + EOI = cos θT
µ1 µ1 µ1 µ2

kI cos θ I
2
 EOT  µ1
or   =
 EOI N kI cos θ I + kT cos θT
µI µ2

Applying the condition for a good conductor, this equation becomes

k cos θ I
2 I
 EOT  µ1 2 cos θ I
  = = (6.156)
 EOI N kI cos θ I + kT cos θ + kT µ1
I
µI µ2 k I µ2

Equations (6.150) and (6.156) are called Fresnel’s equations in a conducting medium.
Now taking the values of k I , kT from Eqs (6.104) and (6.145), we get the expression for
kT µ1
as
k I µ2

kT µ1 (1 + i) µ2σ 2ω µ1
=
k I µ2 2 ω µ1ε1 µ2

kT µ1 (1 + i) µ2σ 2ωµ1
2

or =
k I µ2 2µ ε ω 2 µ 2
1 1 2
 Electromagnetic Waves 519

kT µ1 µ1σ 2
or = (1 + i) (6.157)
k I µ2 2 µ2ε1ω

kT µ1
Putting this value of in Eq. (6.155), we get
k I µ2

µ1σ 2
cos θ I − (1 + i)
 EOR  2ωµ2ε1
  =
 EOI N cos θ + (1 + i) µ1σ 2
I
2ωµ2ε1

µ1σ 2
The value of is very large in comparison to cos qI for a good conductor. Hence,
2 µ2ε1ω
µ1σ 2
we can neglect cos qI in comparison to . Under this condition, the aforementioned
equation becomes 2 µ2ε1ω

µ1σ 2
− (1 + i)
 EOR  2ωµ2ε1
  ≈
 EOI N (1 + i)
µ1σ 2
2ωµ2ε1

 EOR 
or   ≈ −1 (6.158)
 EOI N

This equation shows that the reflected wave is approximately p radians out of phase with
the incident wave and reflection is nearly 100%.
k µ
Putting the value of T 1 from Eq. (6.157) into Eq. (6.156), we get
k I µ2

 EOT  2 cos θ I
  =
 EOI N cos θ + (1 + i ) µ1σ 2
I
2 µ2ε1ω

µ1σ 2
The value of is very large in comparison to cos qI for a good conductor. Hence,
2 µ2ε1ω
µ1σ 2
we can neglect cos qI in comparison to . Under this condition, the aforementioned
equation becomes 2 µ2ε1ω
520 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 EOT  2 cos θ I
  =
E
 OI N (1 + i) µ1σ 2
2 µ2ε1ω

µ1σ 2
Since cosθ I << , the LHS of this equation tends to zero. Hence, we can have
2 µ2ε1ω

 EOT 
  ≈0 (6.159)
 EOI N

Equation (6.159) shows that the refracted wave is approximately in phase with the incident
wave. The attenuation of a transmitted wave is very high.
Case 2: Electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence
In this case the X-Y plane will be the plane of incidence and the Y-Z plane is the interface
separating the conducting medium from the non-conducting medium. See Fig. 6.9. The
tangential components of the electric vector are continuous along the interface. In our case,
since the electric vectors are parallel to the plane of incidence, we have

EI cos θ I − ER cos θ I =
ET cos θT

Since the exponential parts of Eqs (6.137) to (6.139) are the same, we can write this equation
as

EOI cos θ I − EOR cos θ I =

EOT cos θT (6.160)

Electric vectors are parallel to the plane of incidence and magnetic vectors are perpendicular
to the plane of incidence so that the following vector equations, obtained from Eq. (6.53)
are not violated. The boundary conditionfor  the magnetic field vector is that the tangential
component of the magnetic field vector H is continuous across the interface. Making use
of this boundary condition, we have
  
HI + HR =
HT

or H OI + H OR =
H OT

Putting the values of HOI, HOR, and HOT from Eqs (6.151) to (6.153) into this equation, we
have

kI EOI kI EOR kT EOT

+ =
ω µ1 ωµ1 ωµ2
 Electromagnetic Waves 521

Figure 6.9 Reflection and refraction of an electromagnetic wave on the surface of a conducting
medium with the electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence

kT µ1
or EOI + EOR = EOT (6.161)
k I µ2

kT µ1
or
= EOR EOT − EOI
k I µ2

kT µ1
Putting the value of from Eq. (6.157) into this equation, we get
k I µ2

µ1σ 2
EOR = (1 + i) EOT − EOI (6.162)
2 µ2ε1ω
522 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

k I µ2
The value of is found out from Eq. (6.157) to be
kT µ1

k I µ2 1 2 µ2ε1ω 1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω
= = (6.163)
kT µ1 1 + i µ1σ 2 2 µ1σ 2

 1 1−i 1−i 1−i 

 = = =
1 + i (1 + i)(1- i) 1 − i 2 2 


Again from Eq. (6.161), we have

k I µ2
=EOT (EOI + EOR )
kT µ1

k I µ2
Putting the value of from Eq. (6.163) into this equation, we get
kT µ1

1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω
EOT = (EOI + EOR ) (6.164)
2 µ1σ 2

The ratio of the reflected amplitude to the incident amplitude is obtained by putting the
values of EOT from Eq. (6.164) into Eq. (6.160). Thus, we have

 1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω 1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω 
EOI cos θ I − EOR cos θ I =
cos θT  EOI + EOR 
 2 µ1σ 2 2 µ1σ 2 
 

1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω 1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω
= cos θT E + cos θT E
2 µ1σ 2 OI 2 µ1σ 2 OR

1- i 2 µ2ε1ω 1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω
or cos θT EOR + EOR cos θ I =cos θ I EOI − cos θT E
2 µ1σ 2 2 µ1σ 2 OI

 1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω   1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω 
or EOR  cos θT + cos θ I=
 EOI  cos θ I − cos θT 
 2 µ1σ 2   2 µ1σ 2
   
 Electromagnetic Waves 523

1−i 2 µ2ε1ω
cos θ I − cos θT
 EOR  2 µ1σ 2
or   =
 EOI P cos θ + cos θ 1 − i 2 µ2ε1ω
I T
2 µ1σ 2

µ1σ 2
For a good conductor, the value of is very large in comparison to cos qI. Hence,
2 µ2ε1ω
µ1σ 2
we can neglect cos qI in comparison to . Under this condition, the aforementioned
equation becomes 2 µ2ε1ω

 EOR 
  ≈ −1 (6.165)
 EOI P

The subscript P in Eq. (6.165) or in the following equations refers to the fact that the
electric field vector is parallel to the plane of incidence. The ratio of the refracted amplitude
to the incident amplitude is obtained by putting the values of EOR from Eq. (6.162) into
Eq. (6.160). Thus, we have

µ1σ 2
EOI cos θ I − cos θ I (1 + i ) EOT − EOI cos θ I =
EOT cos θT
2 µ2ε1ω

µ1σ 2
or EOI cos θ I + cos θ I EOI= EOT cos θT + cos θ I (1 + i) EOT
2 µ2ε1ω

 EOT  2 cos θ I
or   =
 EOI P cos θ + cos θ (1 + i) µ1σ 2
T I
2 µ2ε1ω

 EOT  2 cos θ I
or   =
 EOI P 1 + cos θ (1 + i) µ1σ 2
I
2 µ2ε1ω

µ1σ 2
For a good conducting medium, θT ≈ 0 and is very large as a result of which the
2 µ2ε1ω
denominator of RHS of the aforementioned equation is very large in comparison to the
numerator. Therefore, the equation becomes

 EOT 
  ≈0 (6.166)
 EOI P
524 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Equations (6.165) and (6.166) show that the reflected wave is approximately out of phase
with the incident wave and the transmitted wave is nearly in phase with the incident wave.
The attenuation of the refracted wave is very high, where as reflection is nearly 100%.
Reflection and transmission coefficients at the metallic surface
The reflection coefficient RR is defined as the square of the ratio of the amplitude of reflected
wave to the amplitude of the incident wave. Mathematically,
2
E 
RR =  OR  (6.167)
 EOI 

The transmission coefficient or refraction coefficient RT is defined as the square of the

ratio of the amplitude of the transmitted wave to the amplitude of the incident wave.
Mathematically,
2
E 
RT =  OT  (6.168)
 EOI 

It can be checked for surety that the sum of the reflection coefficient and the transmission
coefficient is unity both in Case 1 (Electric vector prependicular to the plane of incidence)
and Case 2 (Electric vector parallel to the plane of incidence). RRN and RTN are the reflection
and transmission coefficients respectively in the case where the electric vector of the
electromagnetic wave is normal to the plane of incidence. RRP and RTP are the reflection
and transmission coefficients respectively in the case where the electric vector of the
electromagnetic wave is parallel to the plane of incidence. Reflection and transmission
coefficients at the metallic surface are defined as follows.
2
E 
RRN =  OR 
 EOI N

2
E 
RRP =  OR 
 EOI P

2
E 
RTN =  OT 
 EOI N

2
E 
RTP =  OT 
 EOI P
 Electromagnetic Waves 525

Taking the help of Eq. (6.165), the value of RRP for a good conducting surface is found out
to be RRP ≈ 1. Also taking the help of Eq. (6.158), the value of RRN for a good conducting
surface is found out to be RRN ≈ 1. Since the values of RRP and RRN are very close to unity in
this case, the entire energy incident will be reflected back to the first medium. The values of
RTP and RTN from Eqs (6.166) and (6.159) also complements these facts. Therefore, metals
are opaque for light. The extremely small amount of energy that flows into the metal is
dissipated rapidly by heat loss associated with eddy currents. The skin depths of a good
conducting media (explained in detail later) are very small implying that they absorb
electromagnetic waves very strongly. Therefore, we can conclude that all good conductors
are good reflectors and good absorbers.

Example 6.20
The electric componentvector of a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in a non-magnetic
medium is given by E = yˆ 50 cos(108 t + 2z )V/m. Find the (a) direction of propagation,
(b) frequency (c) wavelength, (d) relative permittivity and (e) magnetic component vector of
the electromagnetic wave.
Solution

 vector E = yˆ 50 cos(10 t + 2z )V/m and the
8
a. By combining the given
 electric
 component

equations k × E = µω H and H × k = µε E , we conclude that the direction of propagation
of the electromagnetic wave is along the negative Z-axis.
b. Comparing the given wave equation with the standard wave equation, we get
w = 108 rad/s. Hence, the frequency of the electromagnetic wave will be obtained as

ω 108 rad/s
ν= = = 15.92 × 106 s = 15.92 × 106 Hz
2π 2π rad
2π
c. The magnitude of the propagation vector k is given in general as k = .
λ
However, comparing the given wave equation with the standard wave equation, we get
k=2
Hence, we have

2π
=2
λ

2π
or
= λ = m 3.142 m.
2
d. The speed of the electromagnetic wave is

v =λν =3.142 m × 15.92 × 106 sv =50.02 × 106 m/s

526 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

It is given that the medium is non-magnetic. Hence, we have µr = 1.

We know that µ = µ0 µr and ε = ε 0ε r . The speed of the electromagnetic wave v is given
by

1
v=
εµ

2 1 1 c2
or v= = =
εµ ε 0 ε r µ0 µr ε r µr

In our case, mr = 1. Hence, from the aforementioned equation, we have

c2 9 × 1016
ε=
r = = 35.97.
v 2 25.02 × 1014
  
e. From the equation k × E =µω H , we have

 xkE
ˆ sin 90 xˆ 2π E xˆ 2π 50 cos(108 t + 2z )
=H = =
µω λµω 3.142 × 4π × 10−7108

or H = xˆ 0.7958sin(108 t + 2z )A/m.

Example 6.21
ε r 3,=
A material is characterized by= µr 3, and σ = 8 × 10−5 Siemen/m at a frequency of
2 MHz. Calculate the values of the (a) loss tangent, (b) attenuation constant and (c) phase
constant.
Solution
a. The loss tangent, tan 2q, is given by

σ σ
=
tan 2θ =
2πνε 2πνε r ε 0

Putting the given values into this equation, we get the loss tangent = 0.240.
b. The attenuation constant a is given by

µε  
2
σ  
=α ω  1+   = − 1 0.150Neper/m
2   ωε 
 

c. The phase constant b is given by b = 0.127 rad/m

 Electromagnetic Waves 527

Example 6.22
A good conducting medium is characterized by conductivity σ= 58 × 106 Seimen/m, relative
magnetic permeability mr = 1 at frequency 108 Hz. Calculate the (a) intrinsic impedance,
(b) propagation constant, (c) attenuation constant, (d) phase constant (f) skin depth and
(g) wave speed.
Solution
It is given that the medium is a good conductor.
a. The intrinsic impedance of a medium is given by

iωµ
η=
σ + iωε

We can neglect we in comparison to s as the medium is a good conductor. Hence, this

expression becomes

iωµ
η=
σ
b
i tan-1
The magnitude of h is given by [Using the formula=
z a 2 + b2 e a
when z = a + ib]

ωµ i π4
=η e Ω
σ

Putting the given values of w, m, and s into this equation, we get the value of the intrinsic
impedance of the medium as

π
i
η=
3.69 × 10−3 e 4
Ω

b. The propagation constant g in a medium is given by

=γ iωµ (σ + iωε )

We can neglect we in comparison to s as the medium is a good conductor. Hence, the

aforementioned expression becomes

γ = iωµσ

The magnitude of g is given by

π
i
γ = ωµσ e 4
528 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting the given values of w, m, and s into this equation, we get the value of propagation
constant in the medium as

π
i
γ 2.14 × 105 e 4 m −1
=

c. The attenuation constant a in a medium is given by

µε  
2
σ  
α= ω  1+   − 1
2   ωε  


We can neglect 1 in comparison to (s/we) as the medium is a good conductor. Hence,

the aforementioned expression becomes

µε σ
=α ω ×
2 ωε

ωµσ
or α =
2

Putting the given values of w, m, and s into this equation, we get the value of the
attenuation constant of the medium as

α 1.51 × 105 Neper/m

=

d. The phase constant b in a medium is given by

µε  
2
σ  
β= ω  1+   + 1
2   ωε  


We can neglect 1 in comparison to (s/we) as the medium is a good conductor. Hence,

the aforementioned expression becomes

µσ ωµσ
=β ω=
2ω 2

Putting the given values of w, m, and s into this equation, we get the value of the phase
constant of the medium as

β 1.51 × 105 rad/m

=
 Electromagnetic Waves 529

e. The skin depth d in a medium (explained in detail later) is given by

1
δ=
α

Putting the calculated value of a into this equation, we get the value of skin depth in the
medium as

d = 6.62 mm

f. The wave speed v in the medium is given by

ω
v=
β

Putting the calculated value of b and the given value of w into this equation, we get the
value of the wave speed in the medium as

=v 4.16 × 103 m/s

Example 6.23
In a partial conducting medium, characterized by er = 18.5, mr = 800, s = 1 Siemen/m, the electric
field component of an electromagnetic wave is given as ET = 50.0e −α z cos(109 t − β z ) yˆ V/m.
Calculate a, b, h, n, and H.
Solution
a. We know that for a partially conducting medium

µε  
2
σ  
α= ω  1+   − 1
2   ωε  


=
Putting the values of µ µ=
r µ0 , ε ε r ε 0 , and ω = 2πν into this equation, we have

or α = 1132 Neper

b. We know that for a partially conducting medium

µε  
2
σ  
β= ω  1+   + 1
2   ωε  

530 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting the values of m = mr m0 , e = er e0, and w = 2pn into this equation, we have

b = 2790 rad/m

c. The intrinsic impedance of a medium is given by

iωµ
η=
σ + iωε

1 1 σ
1 i tan −1
or η = (ω 2 µε )2 + (ωµσ )2  4 e 2 ωε

σ +ω ε
2 2 2

1 1 σ
1 i tan −1
or η = (4π 2ν 2 µε )2 + (2πνµσ )2  4 e 2 ωε

σ 2 + 4π 2ν 2ε 2

1
or η = (4π 2 × 1018 × 1.65 × 10−13 )2 +
1 + 4π × 0.0268
2

1 1
i tan −1 0.972
(2π × 1.005 × 106 )2  4 e 2 Ω

or η 2098.4e i 22.09 Ω
=

or η 2100e i 22.1Ω
=

d. The speed of the electromagnetic wave in the given medium will be obtained from

1 1
=v = = 2.64 × 106 m/s
µε µr µ0 ε r ε 0

e. The magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave is obtained

50.0
HT = e −α z cos(109 t − β z )(− xˆ )
η
 Electromagnetic Waves 531

Putting the value of h into this equation, we get

−2.38 × 10−2 e −α z cos(109 t − 0.368 − β z )xˆA/m

HT =

Skin depth
The electromagnetic wave equation for the electric field vector in a conducting medium is
given by
 
 ∂2 E ∂E
∇ E − µε 2 − µσ
2
= 0 (6.169)
∂t ∂t

∂2 E
The origin
 of the term µε 2 lies in the displacement current while the origin of the term
∂E ∂t
µσ lies in the conduction current. In almost all conducting media, the conduction
∂t
current dominates the displacement current. Therefore, for a good conducting medium,
Eq. (6.169) can be written as

 ∂E
∇ E − µσ
2
=
0 (6.170)
∂t

The solution of this equation may be given as

E(r , t ) = E0 e − β r e i (α r −ωr ) (6.171)


The propagation vector k in a conducting medium is of the form

k= α + iβ (6.172)

µσω µσω
where α = and β =
2 2

1 1 2
Let δ= = = .
α β µσω

Equation (6.171) becomes

r r 
i  − ωr 
−
E(r , t ) = E0 e δ e  δ  (6.173)
532 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

r
−
Equation (6.173) shows that the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave is E0 e δ . When
r = d, the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave decreases in magnitude to 1/e times its
value at the surface. Thus, the quantity d is a measure of the distance of penetration of
electromagnetic waves into the good conducting medium. The quantity d is called skin
depth. It is given by the expression

2
δ= (6.174)
µσω

Equation (6.174) shows that the skin depth is a property of the medium and also depends
upon the frequency of the incident wave. If the frequency of the medium increases, the
skin depth d decreases. The more is the skin depth, the less will be the attenuation of the
electromagnetic waves in the medium and vice versa. The skin depth of seawater is relatively
high for radio waves. This is the reason why radio communication with submarines under
several metres of seawater is difficult.

Example 6.24
An
 electromagnetic wave is propagating in free space with magnetic vector
H (z , t ) = e i (ωt + β z ) xˆ A/m. Obtain an expression for the electric vector.
Solution
The direction of propagation is along the –Z-axis as is obvious from the given equation.
The amplitude of the magnetic component is 1 ampere/metre. The amplitude of the electric
component will be

E0 = µcH 0 = 4π × 10−7 × 3 × 108 × 1V/m= 120π V/m

The direction of the electric vector is along the +Y-axis as the direction of the magnetic vector
is along the +X-axis and the direction of propagation is along the –Z-axis. The expression for
the electric vector will be

E(z , t ) = E0 e i (ωt + β z ) yˆ


or E(z , t ) = 120π e i (ωt + β z ) yˆ

Example 6.25
Aluminum is characterized by = σ 38.2 × 106 Siemen/m and µr = 1. Determine the skin
depth for aluminum at the frequency 2.6 MHz. Also calculate the propagation constant and
the wave speed in the given aluminum.
 Electromagnetic Waves 533

Solution
a. The expression for skin depth d is given by

2 2 1
=δ = =
ωσµ 2πνσµ πνσµ

Putting the given values into this equation, we get the skin depth as

1
δ= m
3.14 × 2.6 × 10 × 38.2 × 106 × 4 × 3.14 × 10−7
6

= 50.53 × 10−6 m

b. The propagation constant, in this case, is given by

1 1
γ = + i =2.799 × 104 × e i 45
δ δ

Therefore, the phase constant b is given by β = 1

The speed of the wave is given by δ

ω
=
v = 2πνδ= 825.5m/s
β

Example 6.26
An electromagnetic wave propagating in air is allowed to fall incident normally on the surface
of a dielectric with er = 4. Calculate the reflection and transmission coefficients.
Solution
For normal incidence of the electromagnetic wave on a dielectric surface, the reflection and
transmission coefficients are the same whether the electric vector of the electromagnetic wave
is parallel or perpendicular to the dielectric surface. Therefore, for normal incidence, the
reflection coefficient RR and the transmission coefficient RT are given by

η2
2 4
 η −η  η1
RR =  2 1  and RT = 2
 η2 + η1  η2 
 + 1
η1 
534 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

µ
h1 = intrinsic impedance of first (air) medium = =0
120π Ω
ε0

h2 = intrinsic impedance of second (dielectric) medium =

µ µr µ0 µ
= 120πΩ r =40π 3 Ω
=
ε εrε0 εr

Putting the values of h1 and h2 into the expressions for reflection and transmission coefficients,
we get

2 2
 η2 − η1   40π 3 − 120π  −2
=RR =   = 7.18 × 10
 η2 + η1   40π 3 + 120π 

η
4 2
η1
=RT = 2
0.928
η2 
 + 1
 η1 

Total internal reflection

Total internal reflection is defined as the phenomenon of returning of electromagnetic
waves to the same medium while passing from an electromagnetically denser medium to
a rarer medium. Suppose the electromagnetic wave in the denser medium is incident on
the interface separating the denser medium from the rarer medium. Then, according to
Snell’s law, we have

sin θ I nr
= with θT > θ I
sin θT nd

where nd and nr are the absolute refractive indices of the denser medium and rarer medium
respectively. If the angle of incidence goes on increasing, the angle of refraction goes on
increasing. For a particular angle of incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90° in a
rarer medium. Under this condition, Snell’s law becomes

nr
sin θC =
nd

Here qC is called the critical angle. The critical angle is defined as the angle of incidence in
the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is p/2 in the rarer medium. Let us see
 Electromagnetic Waves 535

Figure 6.10 Total internal reflection occurs when qI > qC. I1, I2, I3, and I4 are the incident waves
whereas T1, T2, T3, and T4 are the corresponding refracted or transmitted waves. qI1, qI2, qI3
and qI4 are the angles of incidence whereas qT1, qT2, qT3, and qT4 are the corresponding
angles of refraction or angle of transmission. The X-axis is the interface between the
denser medium and the rarer medium. The normal at the point of incidence is along the
Y-axis.

what happens if the angle of incidence is more than that of the angle of refraction. When
the angle of incidence in the denser medium goes on increasing, the angle of refraction/
transmission increases up to p/2 in the rarer medium. With still further increase of
the angle of incidence in the denser medium, the angle of refraction becomes more
than p/2 and is reflected back to the denser medium obeying the laws of reflection. See
Fig. 6.10. The phenomenon of total internal reflection is used when it is required to transmit
electromagnetic radiation without loss in its intensity.

Example 6.27
An electromagnetic wave falls on top of a horizontal surface of a glass cuboid at an angle of
incidence 45°. What must be the refractive index of the glass if total internal reflection occurs
at a vertical surface
536 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution

Figure 6.11 Refraction of electromagnetic wave through a glass cuboid at an angle of incidence 45°.

Applying Snell’s law to the top horizontal surface, we have

sin 45
=n (A)
sin θT

Total internal reflection occurs at a vertical surface. Hence, angle of incidence on the vertical
surface is the critical angle. Applying Eq. (6.173) to this surface, we get

1 1 1
=n = =
sin θC sin(90 − θT ) cos θT

1
or cos2 θT = (B)
n2

From Eq. (A), we get

1
sin2 θT =
2n2

1
or cos2 θT = 1 −
2n2
 Electromagnetic Waves 537

Putting this equation into Eq. (B), we get

1 1
2
= 1− 2
n 2n

or n = 1.22

Questions
  
6.1 Explain in detail how ∫ E × H ⋅ ds represents the power flow into/out of the volume
through the surface S. S
6.2 Prove that the amount of energy transferred per unit time per unit volume of the
electromagnetic field is E ⋅ J .
6.3 What is the electromagnetic energy density in a medium?
6.4 What is the electromagnetic energy density in free space?
6.5 What is Poynting’s vector?
6.6 State and explain Poynting’s theorem.
6.7 Obtain Poynting’s theorem for the conservation of energy in an electromagnetic field
and discuss the physical meanings of each term in the resulting equation.
6.8 Establish the law of conservation of energy for electromagnetic fields.
6.9 What does Poynting’s vector represent? Explain.
( )
 1   *
6.10 Prove
 * that the time-average value of Poynting’s vector < P > is Re E × H , where
H is the complex conjugate of H . 2
1 µ
6.11 Prove that the average value of magnitude of Poynting’s vector is < =P> × H 02
  2 ε
6.12 Dimensionally prove that E × H has the dimension of power per unit area.
6.13 Define scalar potential.
6.14 Define vector potential.
6.15 Express electric field in terms of vector and scalar potential.
6.16 Express magnetic field in terms of vector and scalar potential.
6.17 What is the difference between electric potential and magnetic scalar potential?
6.18 What is Laplace’s equation?
6.19 What is Poisson’s equation?
6.20 What is the Lorentz gauge condition?

6.21 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of electric vector E .

6.22 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of magnetic vector H .

6.23 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of electric vector E in vacuum.

6.24 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of magnetic vector H in vacuum.

6.25 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of magnetic induction, vector B .
538 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


6.26 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of electric displacement, vector D .
6.27 Derive a relation between vector potential and scalar potential.

6.28 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of vector potential, A.
6.29 Derive the electromagnetic wave equation in terms of scalar potential, j.
6.30 What do you mean by a plane electromagnetic wave?

6.31 What do you mean by propagation vector k ? What is its magnitude?
6.32 Prove that the propagation constant in a medium is complex.
  
6.33 What is the relation between the three vectors E , H , and k ?
6.34 Find the relation between electric and magnetic components of an electromagnetic
wave if the wave is propagating in a conducting medium along the positive Z-axis in
terms of intrinsic impedance of the medium.
  σ + iωε −γ z
[Ans If E = E0 e −γ z xˆ , then H = E0 e yˆ ]
iωµ
 
6.35 Prove that vector E and propagation vector k are perpendicular to each other.
 
6.36 Prove that vector H and propagation vector k are perpendicular to each other.
 
6.37 Prove that vector E and vector H are perpendicular to each other.
  
6.38 Prove that vector E , vector H and vector k are mutually perpendicular to each other.
6.39 How do you conclude that an electromagnetic wave is transverse?
 
6.40 Derive a relation between amplitudes of vector E and vector H .
6.41 What do you mean by intrinsic impedance of a medium? Derive its unit.
 
6.42 Express intrinsic impedance in terms of the magnitude of vector E and vector H .
1
6.43 Prove that the speed v of an electromagnetic wave is v = .
εµ
6.44 Prove that the refractive index of a dielectric medium is equal to the square root of the
dielectric constant.
6.45 Prove that for a dielectric medium, the propagation vector is real.
6.46 Prove that for any medium, the propagation constant is not real.
6.47 Prove that for a good conducting medium, the propagation vector and the propagation
constant are the same.
6.48 Prove that intrinsic impedance of a medium is complex.
6.49 Prove that for a linear dielectric medium, the refractive index and intrinsic impedance
are inversely proportional to each other.
E
6.50 Prove that B = , where v is the speed of the electromagnetic wave. Other symbols
v
have their usual meanings.
6.51 What result leads you to believe that light is an electromagnetic wave.
6.52 Express refractive index of a medium in terms of relative permeability and dielectric
constant.
 Electromagnetic Waves 539

6.53 Prove that the time-average value of Poynting’s vector is half the product of the
amplitude of the electric vector E0 and the amplitude of the magnetic vector H0.
6.54 Prove that the time-average value of Poynting’s vector is the product of the root-
mean-square value of the electric vector and the root-mean-square value of the
magnetic vector.
1 ε 2 ˆ
6.55 Prove that the time-average value of Poynting’s vector is EO k .
2 µ
6.56 How are the time-average value of Poynting’s vector and electromagnetic energy
density related to each other?
6.57 State and explain Poynting’s theorem.
6.58 Explain how Poynting’s theorem is the law of conservation of electromagnetic energy
6.59 Prove that energy flows in an electromagnetic wave with the same speed and same
direction of the electromagnetic wave.
6.60 What is plasma angular frequency? Derive an expression for it.

6.61 Derive the electromagnetic wave in an ionized medium in terms of the electric vector E .
6.62 Derive
 the electromagnetic wave in an ionized medium in terms of the magnetic vector
H.
6.63 Prove that plasma frequency is 9 n , where n is the electron density in the plasma
medium.
6.64 What is propagation constant? Derive an expression for it in terms of plasma angular
frequency.
6.65 Discuss the electromagnetic wave propagation in an ionized medium at high
frequency ω > ωP .
6.66 Discuss the electromagnetic wave propagation in an ionized medium at very high
frequency ω >> ωP .
6.67 Discuss the electromagnetic wave propagation in an ionized medium at low
frequency ω < ωP .
6.68 What is cut-off plasma frequency? Derive an expression for it.
6.69 What are field vectors of an electromagnetic field?
6.70 What are the boundary conditions for field vectors?
6.71 What is plane of incidence?
6.72 What is plane of reflection?
6.73 What is plane of refraction?
6.74 What is plane of transmission?
6.75 Prove the first and second law of reflection in case of an electromagnetic wave.
6.76 Prove the first and second law of refraction in case of an electromagnetic wave.
6.77 Prove that the frequency of an electromagnetic wave does not change during
reflection.
540 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

6.78 Prove that the frequency of an electromagnetic wave does not change during
refraction.
6.79 Derive the relation between propagation constant, speed and angular frequency of
an electromagnetic wave in a non-conducting medium.
6.80 Derive the relation between propagation constant, speed and angular frequency of
an electromagnetic wave in a conducting medium.
6.81 Derive an expression for reflection coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a non-conducting plane surface with its electric vector tangential to the
surface.
6.82 Derive an expression for reflection coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a non-conducting plane surface with its electric vector perpendicular to
the surface.
6.83 Derive an expression for the magnitude of propagation vector in a non-conducting
medium.
6.84 Derive an expression for the magnitude of propagation vector in a conducting/metallic
medium.
6.85 Derive an expression for reflection coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a dielectric surface at polarizing/Brewster angle. What conclusions are
drawn from this equation?
6.86 Define plane of polarization and plane of vibration?
6.87 Define degree of polarization in terms of reflection coefficients.
6.88 Derive an expression for reflection coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a conducting plane surface with its electric vector tangential to the
surface.
6.89 Derive an expression for reflection coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a conducting plane surface with its electric vector perpendicular to the
surface.
6.90 Derive an expression for transmission coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a non-conducting plane surface with its electric vector tangential to the
surface.
6.91 Derive an expression for transmission coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a non-conducting plane surface with its electric vector perpendicular to
the surface.
6.92 Derive an expression for transmission coefficient when an electromagnetic wave
is incident on a conducting plane surface with its electric vector tangential to the
surface.
6.93 Derive an expression for transmission coefficient when an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a conducting plane surface with its electric vector perpendicular to the
surface.
 Electromagnetic Waves 541

6.94 Show that the reflected electromagnetic wave is in phase with the incident wave
when reflection occurs from a dielectric surface backed by a rarer medium.
6.95 Show that the reflected electromagnetic wave is out of phase with the incident wave
when reflection occurs from a dielectric surface backed by a denser medium.
6.96 Show that the refracted electromagnetic wave is in phase with the incident wave
when refraction occurs from a dielectric rarer medium to a denser medium.
6.97 Show that the refracted electromagnetic wave is in phase with the incident wave
when refraction occurs from a dielectric denser medium to a rarer medium.
6.98 Show that the electromagnetic wave propagates in the conducting medium along
the normal whatever may be the angle of incidence.
6.99 Show that the reflected electromagnetic wave is out of phase with the incident wave
when reflection occurs from a metallic surface.
6.100 Show that the metallic reflection of an electromagnetic wave is nearly 100%.
6.101 Show that the refracted electromagnetic wave is in phase with the incident wave
when refraction occurs on a metallic surface.
6.102 Describe the peculiarities of metallic reflection with the theory behind it.
6.103 How does the magnitude of Poynting’s vector change when a plane electromagnetic
wave is refracted?
6.104 How does the magnitude of Poynting’s vector change when a plane electromagnetic
wave is reflected?
6.105 From the transmission coefficient of an electromagnetic wave in a conducting
medium, show that attenuation of electromagnetic wave is very high in a conducting
medium.
6.106 What do you mean by skin depth? On what factors does it depend?
6.107 Derive an expression for skin depth.
6.108 Explain why for a high frequency electromagnetic wave, the material becomes
transparent.
6.109 Explain why radio communication with submarines under several metres of sea is
difficult.
6.110 Explain why electromagnetic wave can easily penetrate into a dielectric medium but
cannot do so in a conducting medium.
6.111 Maxwell’s equations are the backbone of electromagnetic wave propagation. Justify
the statement.
6.112 Explain: Good conductors are good reflectors of electromagnetic waves.

Problems

6.1 A material is characterized by er = 3, mr = 1.5, and s = 4 × 10–5 Siemen/m at a frequency

of 2 MHz. Calculate the values of (a) loss tangent, (b) attenuation constant, and (c)
phase constant. [Ans (a) 0.120, (b) 5.324 × 10–3 Neper/m, (c) 8.91 × 10–2 rad/m]
542 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

6.2 In free space, the magnetic field vector is given as H = yˆ 0.1 × cos(3 × 108 t − β x ) A/m.
Calculate the value of b and the time it takes for the wave to travel a distance of l/2.
Determine the direction of wave propagation. Also calculate the wavelength.
[Ans b = 1.0 rad/s, 10.47 × 10–9 s along the positive X-axis, 6.28 m]
6.3 The electric component vector of a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in a
non-magnetic medium is given by E = yˆ 40 cos(108 t − 4 z )V/m . Find the (a) direction
of propagation, (b) frequency, (c) wavelength, (d) relative permittivity and (e) magnetic
component vector of the electromagnetic wave.  [Ans Along−9the positive Z-axis,
15.92 × 106 Hz, 1.571 metres, 143.88, H = xˆ11.12 × 10 sin(108 t + 2z )A/m ]
6.4 Calculate the value of Poynting’s vector on the surface of a 200 watts spherical electric
bulb having a radius of 5 cm. [Ans 6366.20 W/m2]
6.5 The average distance between the sun and the earth is 1.5 × 1011 m. The power
radiated by the sun is 3.8 × 1026 W. Show that the average solar energy incident on the
earth is (2 Calorie/cm2 minute) [This is called a solar constant].
6.6 The earth receives energy from the sun at the rate of (2 Calorie/cm2 minute). Calculate
the amplitudes of electric and magnetic field of radiation on the earth’s surface.
[Ans 1027 V/m, 2.73 A/m]
6.7 A 500 watt electric bulb is glowing with full capacity illuminating the space around it
uniformly. Calculate the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic field of radiation at a
distance of 2 m. [Ans 194.64 V/m, 0.5165 A/m]
6.8 A plane electromagnetic wave is travelling in a lossless dielectric medium having
dielectric constant 3 and relative magnetic permeability 1. If amplitude of the electric
field is 6 V/m, calculate the (a) speed of the wave, (b) intrinsic impedance of the
dielectric, (c) amplitude of the magnetic field, (d) maximum value of Poynting’s vector.
[Ans (a) 1.732 × 108 m/s, (b) 217.56 Ω, (c) 0.2887A/m, (d) 0.165 W/m2]
6.9 For a dielectric
 medium s = 0, mr =10, and er = 2.5. Examine whether the pair of
=
fields E 100sin 6 × 107 t sin zyˆ and H =−0.1328 cos 6 × 107 t cos zxˆ satisfy Maxwell’s
equation. [Ans Yes]
6.10
The
 electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air is given by
=E 900 cos(ωt − kz )xˆ . If the wavelength of the wave is 2 m, find (a) frequency,
(b) time period, (c), value of k (d) amplitude of magnetic vector H, and (e) direction of
propagation.
[Ans (a) 1.5 × 108 Hz, (b) 6.67 nanosecond, (c) pm, (d) 2.40 A/m, (e) +Z-direction]
6.11 The
 electromagnetic wave is propagating in free space with electric vector
=E(z , t ) 60 cos(ωt − kz )xˆ . How much average energy crosses a circular area of radius
3 m on the X-Y plane in unit time. [Ans 134.80 W]
6.12 The
 electromagnetic wave is propagating in free space with magnetic vector
H= (z , t ) 0.133cos(4 × 107 t − kz )xˆ A/m . Obtain an expression for the electric vector.
Obtain an expression for E(z, t) along with the value of k.

[Ans E(z ,= t ) 50 cos(4 × 107 t − kz )xˆ V/m, 0.133 rad/m]
 Electromagnetic Waves 543


6.13 ) 3sin(ωt − kz )xˆ − 4 sin(ωt − kz ) yˆ A/m at
Find the magnitude and direction of H (z , t=
3λ
t = 0 and k = . [Ans 5.0 A/m, 0.6 xˆ − 0.8 yˆ ]
4
6.14 The electric field component vector of a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in
a non-magnetic medium is given = by E yˆ a cos(ωt + kz )V/m. What are the direction
of propagation and the magnetic field vector direction? [Ans –Z, +X]
6.15 Aluminum is characterized by s = 38.2 × 10 Siemen/m and mr = 1. Determine the
6

skin depth for aluminum at the frequency 1.6 MHz. Also calculate the propagation
constant and wave speed in the given aluminum.
[Ans 64.4 mm, 2.20 × 104 ei45/m, 647.42 m/s]
6.16 A good conducting medium is characterized by conductivity s = 68 × 106 Seimen/m,
relative magnetic permeability mr = 2.5 at frequency 108 Hz. Calculate the (a) intrinsic
impedance, (b) propagation constant, (c) attenuation constant, (d) phase constant
(f) skin depth, and (f) wave speed. π π
i i
[Ans (a) η = γ 1.59 × 105 e 4 m−1 (c) a = 2.59 × 105 Neper/m
5.39 × 10−3 e 4 Ω (b)=
(d) b = 2.59 × 105 rad/m (e) d = 3.86 mm (f) n = 2.43 × 103 m/s]
6.17 Calculate the frequency of an electromagnetic wave so that the electromagnetic wave
will penetrate a distance of 2 mm into the surface of silver. Given for silver s = 3.0 × 106
Seimen/m. [Ans 21.11 kHz]
6.18 The phase constant of a certain good conducting material at a certain frequency is
3.75 ×105 rad/m. Calculate the skin depth. [Ans 2.67 mm]
6.19 The electromagnetic wave propagating in air is incident normally on the surface
of a dielectric with er = 81 and mr = 1. Calculate the reflection and transmission
coefficients. [Ans 0.64, 0.36]
6.20 An electromagnetic wave of frequency 10 Hz propagating in air is incident on a
8

copper surface having electrical conductivity s = 58 × 106 Siemen/m. Calculate the

depth of the point in the copper metal so that its amplitude becomes e–1 times its
value on the surface. [Ans 6.61 mm]
6.21 The amount of electromagnetic energy received by the earth in the form of light from
a star is 300 Watt/m2. Calculate the root-mean-square value of the electric vector and
the magnetic induction vector of the light wave on the earth’s surface.
[Ans 336 V/m,1.12 × 10–6 Tesla]
6.22 The fraction of energy transmitted and the fraction of energy reflected through the
interface of two dielectric media in case of normal incidence are equal. Calculate the
n1
ratio of refractive indices of the two media. [Hints RT = RR]. [Ans = 3+2 2 ]
n2
6.23 A plane electromagnetic wave with electric vector = ˆ /m
EI 30 cos(ωt − 4 z ) yV
propagating in air medium is incident normally on the surface of a lossless dielectric
medium characterized   er = 4 and mr = 1. Find the (a) l, (b) w, (c) ET (transmitted
by
electric vector), and (d) H I (incident magnetic vector).
[Ans 1.57 m, 12 × 108 rad/s, 20 cos(ωt − 4 z ) yˆ V/m,
56.34 × 105 cos(ωt − 4 z )xˆ A/m ]
544 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

6.24 In a partial conducting medium characterized by er = 8.5, mr = 80, s = 2 Siemen/m,

the electric field component of an electromagnetic wave is given as
ET = 100.0e −α z cos(109 t − β z ) yˆ V/m. Calculate a, b, h, n, and H .
[Ans 707 Neper, 893 rad/s, 555e i 38.35 Ω , 1.15 × 107 m/s,
HT =−18.02 × 10−2 e −α z cos(109 t − 1.34 − β z )xˆ A/m ]

6.25 A current distribution gives rise to magnetic vector potential A = x 2 yxˆ + y 2 xyˆ + 4 xyzzˆ.
Calculate the magnetic induction at the point (–1, 2 –3). [Ans 12 xˆ + 24 yˆ + 3zˆ ]
6.26 A medium is characterized by relative permitivitty er = 45 and relative permeability
mr = 5. Calculate the speed of the electromagnetic wave in the medium and the
refractive index of the medium. [Ans 2 × 107 m/s, 15]
6.27 In the photosphere of a star if there are 8.85 × 1014 electrons per unit volume, then
calculate the cut-off frequency in the photosphere. [Ans 2.7 × 108 Hz]
6.28 In a plasma medium, there are 1012 electrons per unit volume. Calculate the plasma
frequency of the medium. [Ans 8.97 × 106 Hz]
6.29 An electromagnetic wave with the amplitude of the electric vector as 2.5 × 10–3
volt/metre propagating in a dielectric medium having er = 6.5 and mr = 1 is incident
normally on the interface between the dielectric medium and the air medium and
simultaneously gets reflected and refracted. Calculate the amplitudes of the electric
and magnetic vectors of the reflected electromagnetic wave and the refracted
electromagnetic wave. Also calculate the amplitude of the incident magnetic vector.
[Ans EOR = 1.09 × 10–3 V/m, EOT = 3.59 × 10–3 V/m, HOR = –7.37 × 10–6 A/m,
HOT = 9.53 × 10–6 A/m, HOI = 1.69 × 10–5 A/m]
6.30 An electromagnetic wave with the amplitude of the electric vector as 50 volt/meter
and frequency 15 MHZ propagating in free space is incident normally on the plane
conducting surface characterized by er = 1, mr = 1, and s = 81 × 106 Siemen/m and
simultaneously gets reflected and refracted. Calculate the amplitudes of the electric
vector of the reflected and refracted electromagnetic wave.
[Ans –50 V/m, 3.21 × 10–4 e–i1 V/m]
6.31 Calculate the degree of polarization for ordinary light incident at an angle 57.5° on the
glass having refractive index 1.5. [Ans 99.8%]
6.32 Calculate the critical angle and Brewster’s angle for an electromagnetic wave passing
through a non-magnetic glass of relative permitivitty 9. [Ans 19.47°, 71.56°]
6.33 Calculate the critical angle and Brewster’s angle for an electromagnetic wave passing
through water of relative permitivitty 81. [Ans 6.38°, 83.66°]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is not an electromagnetic wave?

(i) seismic wave
(ii) microwave
 Electromagnetic Waves 545

(iii) light wave

(iv) X-rays
(v) ultrasonic wave
(vi) gamma rays
2. Which of the following is/are not the properties of electromagnetic waves?
(i) Electromagnetic waves belong to the transverse wave category
(ii) Energy is carried by electromagnetic waves
(iii) Information is carried by electromagnetic waves
(iv) Electrons play a major role in propagation of electromagnetic waves
(v) Accelerating charges can produce electromagnetic waves
(vi) Electromagnetic waves cannot be propagated through material medium.
3. Which of the following does not mean Poynting’s vector?
(i) the amount of energy flowing per second
(ii) the amount of energy flowing per second per unit area
(iii) the amount of power flowing per second per unit area
(iv) the amount of power flowing per unit area
(v) the amount of energy flowing per second per unit area
4. The conductivity of a medium for electromagnetic waves is independent of the
frequency of the electromagnetic wave
(i) true (ii) false
5. The scalar potential and vector potential are completely independent of each other.
(i) yes (ii) no
6. Any function which satisfies the electromagnetic wave equation for electric and
magnetic vectors must satisfy Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations.
(i) yes necessarily (ii) not necessarily
7. Which of the following is/are not the properties of electromagnetic waves?
(i) Phase of a plane electromagnetic wave is constant throughout the propagation.
(ii) Wavefront of a plane electromagnetic wave is plane
(iii) Propagation vector is perpendicular to the wavefront
(iv) The plane electromagnetic wave does not have a single frequency
8. Which of the following equations are not correct for an electromagnetic wave?
(i) H ×k =εω E
(ii) k×E =µω H
(iii) ∇ × E = 0

E0 µω
(iv) =
H0 k
546 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

E0 k
(v) =
H 0 εω
9. Plasma state of matter in undisturbed condition is neutral.
(i) true (ii) false
10. Which of the following is not a form of the wave EX = cos(wt – bz)
(i) cos(β z − ωt )
 π
(ii) sin  β z − ωt − 
 2
2π t 2π z
(iii) cos −
T λ
i (ω t − β z )
(iv) Re(e )

(v) cos β (z − vt )
11. Identify which of the following functions do not satisfy the wave equation
(i) 50e i (ωt −3 z )
(ii) sin ω (10z + 5t )
2
(iii) (x + 2t )

(iv) cos2 ( y + 5t )

(v) sin x cos t

(vi) cos(5 y + 2 x )
12. Which of the following statements is not true of waves in general
(i) It may be a function of time only
(ii) It may be sinusoidal or co-sinusoidal
(iii) It must be a function of time and space
(iv) For practical reasons, it must be of finite extent
13. The electric field component of a wave in free space is given by E = ŷ 10 cos(107 t + kz) V/m.
It can be inferred that
(i) the wave propagates along the positive y-axis
(ii) the wavelength = 188.5 m
(iii) the wave amplitude = 10 V/m
(iv) the wave number = 0.33 rad/m
(v) the wave attenuates as it travels
 Electromagnetic Waves 547

14. What is the major factor for determining whether a medium is free space, lossless
dielectric, lossy dielectric or a good conductor?
(i) attenuation constants (ii) constitutive parameters (s, m, e)
(iii) loss tangent (iv) reflection coefficient
15. In a certain medium, E = x̂ 10 cos(108 t – 3y) V/m. What type of medium is it?
(i) free space (ii) perfect dielectric
(iii) lossless dielectric (iv) conductor
16. Electromagnetic waves travel faster in conductors than in dielectrics.
(i) true (ii) false
17. In good conductors, E and H are in time phase.
(i) true (ii) false
18. Electromagnetic waves of any frequency can propagate through the ionosphere.
(i) yes (ii) no
19. Does scalar potential has any meaning in a region containing current?
(i) yes (ii) no
20. What is the shape of a wave front in case of plane electromagnetic waves?
(i) spherical (ii) cylindrical
(iii) plane (iv) cannot be said
21. Plasma in undisturbed condition is neutral.
(i) correct (ii) wrong

22.  following in Fig. 6.12, which is the correct representation of vector E and
Out of the
vector H and vector k ?

Figure 6.12

23. In an ionized medium, the current density vector lags behind the electric field vector by
π
a phase difference of .
2
(i) yes (ii) no
548 Principles of Engineering Physics 1


24. Out of the following, which are the incorrect representations of Poynting’s vector P ?
 1  
(i) =
P ( E × B)
µ
 1  
(ii) =
P (E × H )
µ
  
(iii) P= (E × B)
  
(iv) P= (E × H )
  
(v) =
P (H × E )
25. The intrinsic impedance of vacuum is defined as the product of the speed of light in
vacuum and its magnetic permeability.
(i) yes (ii) no
26. An electromagnetic wave is propagating in free space with electric vector E(z, t) = 150
cos(wt – kz) = x̂ V/m. How much average energy is passing through a rectangular hole
of length 3 cm and width 1.5 cm on the Y-Z or X-Z plane in one minute.
(i) 41.67 J (ii) 0.81 J
(iii) 1.8 J (iv) 0.0 J

Answers

1 (i & v) 2 (iv & vi) 3 (i & iii) 4 (i) 5 (ii) 6 (ii) 7 (iv) 8 (iii)
9 (i) 10 (ii) 11 (iv & vi) 12 (i) 13 (ii & iii) 14 (iii) 15 (iii) 16 (ii)
17 (ii) 18 (ii) 19 (ii) 20 (iii) 21 (i) 22 (iii) 23 (i) 24 (ii, iii & v)
25 (i) 26 (iv)
 Elementary Concepts of
7 Quantum Physics

7.1 Introduction
It is correctly told that mathematics is the queen of all sciences; in the same spirit, quantum
physics or quantum mechanics may be called the king of all sciences. Our knowledge in any
field of science is incomplete as long as we remain unacquainted with quantum physics.
The concepts of quantum physics form the basis for our present understanding of physical
phenomena on an atomic and microscopic scale. The concepts of quantum physics can
be applied to most fields of science and engineering starting from biology to quantum
computers to cosmology. Within engineering, important subjects of practical significance
include semiconductor transistors, lasers, quantum optics, and molecular devices where
quantum physics plays the most vital role. As technology advances, quantum concepts
give birth to an increasing number of new electronic and opto-electronic devices. Their
fabrications and functions can only be understood by using quantum physics. Within the
next few years, fundamentally quantum devices such as single-electron memory cells and
photonic signal processing systems may be available commercially. As nano-and atomic-
scale devices become easier to manufacture, these sophisticated manufacturing units will
require an increasing number of individuals with sound knowledge of quantum physics.
Therefore, all universities in the world have included quantum physics as a subject in
their technical course curricula. Quantum physics is no longer a theoretical subject with
mathematical complexities but an engineering subject!

7.2 Need for Quantum Physics

Two time-tested proverbs are, ‘Failure is the pillar of success' and 'Necessity is the mother
of invention’. Classical physics based on Newtonian laws, thermodynamical laws and
550 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

classical laws of electromagnetism explained successfully the macroscopic world. The

macroscopic world is directly observable or can be made observable by relatively simple
devices. However, classical physics failed seriously in explaining the phenomena in the
realm of atoms, nucleons and elementary particles. These failures gave birth to a new
branch in physics called quantum physics. In the following, we mention a few examples of
the failures of classical concepts, though the list is endless.
An accelerated charge emits energy and the electron revolving around a nucleus should
emit energy [its energy then should go to zero] resulting in the collapse of the atom; but
atom is a stable entity! According to classical theory, the excited hydrogen atom should emit
electromagnetic radiations of all the wavelengths continuously. However, the observed fact
is that excited hydrogen atoms emit radiations of certain wavelengths only! When classical
laws are applied to the photoelectric effect, it should take nearly 107 seconds [one year!] in
contradiction to the fact that it is an instantaneous phenomenon. The electrical conductivity
of silver is nearly 1024 times more than that of fused quartz, a phenomenon that cannot be
reasonably explained by classical theories. The magnetic susceptibility of iron is 109 times
more than that of other metals, a fact very hard to digest classically. If the total energy is
calculated by integrating the Rayleigh–Jeans formula over the whole range of wavelength
from zero to infinity, it comes out to be infinity for all temperatures except absolute zero.
This is an absurd result because the energy emitted at any finite temperature should be
finite. Neither the Rayleigh–Jeans formula nor Wien’s displacement formula could explain
the blackbody radiation phenomenon completely over the whole range of wavelengths.
Only the quantum theory of radiation can explain blackbody radiation! To understand the
chemical properties of matter, as summarized in the periodic table of elements, the fact that
not all the states of electrons permitted by the classical model are feasible realistically must
be taken into account. Even cosmological and astrophysical phenomena are not completely
explainable by the laws of classical physics.
The failure of classical concepts to explain the physical phenomena completely forced
the scientific community to search for the missing link. Their attempts to search for the
missing link gave birth to quantum physics and the mathematical modelling of quantum
physics is quantum mechanics. The finer laws of quantum physics are not far away from
the reality of the macro-world or are only means to explain microscopic phenomena; they
are the true laws of nature. Actually, all of physics is quantum physics. All the laws of
quantum physics reduce to the laws of classical physics under certain circumstances. If
quantum physics is a super set, then classical physics is a sub-set. To be specific,

lim Quantum Physics = Classical Physics

n→∞

In this relation, n is the principal quantum number.

7.3 Particles and Waves

Everything in the world is a wave; every thing in the world is a particle. They are the
manifestation of the same thing in different forms. The physical reality we perceive has
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 551

its roots in the world of elementary particles. Electron has mass and charge like a particle
and obeys the laws of particle mechanics as in a CRO tube or picture tube of a television
set but it behaves like a perfect wave in case of an electron microscope. The wave nature of
the electron was confirmed by the Davisson–Germer experiment. According to de Broglie,
all material particles behave like waves. We regard electromagnetic radiations as waves in
case of interference, diffraction or in polarization but in case of the photoelectric effect,
they behave like particles. According to the wave theory, electromagnetic waves leave a
source with their energy spread out continuously through the wave pattern and according
to quantum theory, electromagnetic waves consist of individual photons, each small
enough to be absorbed by an electron. The boundary between particles and waves has all
but disappeared. Together with the theory of relativity, the wave–particle duality is central
to the understanding of all natural phenomena from the elementary particle level to the
cosmological level.

7.4 Particle Aspect of Waves

The particle aspect of radiation is exhibited in the phenomena of blackbody radiation,
photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair production.

7.4.1 Blackbody radiation

The classical wave theory light obeying Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory successfully
explained the phenomena of interference, diffraction, polarizations but lasted just more
than one decade. The spectrum (distribution of energy with respect to wavelength) of
thermal radiation (electromagnetic radiations emitted from a body due to its temperature
only) could not be explained on the basis of the classical wave theory.
A blackbody is defined as a body that absorbs all radiations of all frequencies incident on
it. Since a body at finite temperature is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, it must
absorb energy at the same rate as it emits energy. Hence, a blackbody at finite temperature
emits radiation of all frequencies or wavelengths. Blackbody radiation is defined as the
radiation containing all the wavelengths from zero to infinity.
A blackbody is not necessarily a black body. A hole in the wall of a hollow object having
an inner polished wall is an excellent example of a blackbody. A ray of radiation entering
into the object through the hole in the wall will suffer reflections on the inside polished
surface and cannot come out rendering the hollow object an ideal blackbody. A blackbody
has no definite shape or size. This has been pictorially explained in Fig. 7.1.
The explanation of blackbody radiations came from the German physicist Max Planck
in the year 1900 with the following postulates.
i. The radiation field in a uniform temperature enclosure remains in a state of dynamic
equilibrium by way of emission and absorption. For this to take place, he assumed
that there were harmonic oscillators lined up along the wall of the enclosure and
that they absorbed energy from the radiation field and gave it back to the field in a
characteristic way. The oscillators do not radiate energy until their energy reaches
 552 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 7.1 A perfect blackbody. A ray of radiation at any frequency incident on the hole cannot
escape. A hole on the wall of a hollow object is an excellent approximation of a
blackbody

an integral multiple of a certain minimum called a quantum of energy which is

proportional to the frequency of the oscillators.
ii. An oscillator absorbs energy from the radiation field and delivers it back to the field
in the quanta of 0, e, 2e, 3e, …, etc, where e is a quantum of energy proportional to the
frequency of the oscillator, i.e.,

ε ∝ν
or

ε = hν (7.1)

where the proportionality constant h is called Planck’s constant with a value

h o
6.626 × 10−34 Js;  = 1.0546 10−34 Js; hc =
=× 12400 eV A
2π

iii. The number of oscillators emitting a particular energy obeys the Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution law.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 553

If N is the total number of harmonic oscillators and E is their total energy, then the energy
per oscillator is given by

E (7.2)
< ε >=
N

If N0, N1, N2, N3, …, Nr are the number of oscillators with energy 0, e, 2e, 3e, …, re, …
respectively, then

= N 0 + N1 + N 2 + N 3 +…+ N r +…
N (7.3)

and

E =0 + ε N1 + 2ε N 2 + 3ε N 3 + ... + rε N r + ... . (7.4)

According to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution law, the number of oscillators with

energy re is given by
rε
− (7.5)
N r = N oe kT

where k is called Boltzmann's constant with the value given by

J eV
1.38 × 10−23
k= 8.62 × 10−5
=
K K

Substituting the values of N0, N1, N2, N3 from Eq. (7.5) into Eq. (7.3), we get
ε 2ε 3ε rε
− − − −
N =+
N 0 N 0e kT
+ N 0e kT
+ N 0e kT
+…+ N 0 e kT
+…

N0
or N= ε
(7.6)
−
1− e kT

Substituting the values of N0, N1, N2, N3 from Eq. (7.5) into Eq. (7.4), we get
ε 2ε 3ε rε
− − − −
E = 0 + ε N 0e kT
+ 2ε N 0 e kT
+ 3ε N 0 e kT
+…+ rε N 0 e kT
+…

1
Since = 1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + 4 x 3 +… , this equation boils down to
(1 − x )
2
554 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ε
−
N 0ε e kT
E= 2 (7.7)
 −
ε

 1 − e kT

 

Putting the values of N and E from Eqs (7.6) and (7.7) into Eq. (7.2), the average energy per
oscillator is obtained as

ε
−
εe kT
< ε >=
 −
ε
 (7.8)
 1 − e kT

 

We know that the number of oscillators per unit volume in the frequency range n and
n + dn is given by

8πν 2 (7.9)
N= dν
c3

Endn = the average radiant energy per unit volume with frequency range of dn = N < e >, i.e.
Eν dν = N < ε >

Putting the value of < e > and N from Eqs (7.8) and (7.9) respectively into this equation,
we get

ε
−
8πν 2 ε e kT 8πν 2 ε 8πν 2 hν
Eν dν = 3
dν × ε
= 3
dν × ε = 3
dν × hν
c − c c
1 − e kT e kT − 1 e kT − 1

8π hν 3
Eν dν = dν
or 3
 kT
hν
 (7.10)
c  e − 1
 

Equation (7.10) is Planck’s radiation law in terms of frequency. This expression gives the
amount of radiant energy per unit volume having a frequency interval of dn.
In terms of wavelength, Planck’s radiation law can be expressed in the following way.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 555

c c
We know that ν = or dν = 2 dλ in magnitude. Putting these values of n and dn into
λ λ
Eq. (7.10), we get
3
c
8π h  
 λ  c dλ = 8π hc
Eλ d λ = dλ
 λ kT
hc
λ 2
 λhckT 
3
c  e − 1 λ  e − 1
5

   

8π hc 1
or Eλ d λ = dλ (7.11)
λ5
hc
λ kT
e −1

where El = Intensity of emission. In terms of wavelength, Eq. (7.11) is Planck’s radiation

law. This expression gives the amount of radiant energy per unit volume having wavelength
interval dl.

Example 7.1
How many photons are there in 1.00 cm3 of radiation in thermal equilibrium at 1000 K?
Calculate the average energy of one photon at this temperature.
Solution
Let there be N number of photons per unit volume. The energy of one photon is hn and so the
energy of N number of photons is Nhn and the energy per unit volume will be Nhn. According
to Planck’s law, the energy per unit volume is

8π hν 3
.
3
 kT
hν

c  e − 1
 
Therefore, we can have

8π hν 3
Nhν =
 hν 
c 3  e kT − 1 
 

8πν 2
N=
or  hν 
c 3  e kT − 1 
 
556 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Hence, the number of photons in volume V will be

8πν 2
= = V
n NV
 hν 
c 3  e kT − 1 
 
and the number of photons in volume V with a frequency range dn will be

8πν 2
V dν
3
 kT
hν

c  e − 1
 
The number of photons in volume V having a frequency range of 0 to ∞ will be

∞ ∞
8πν 2 8π V ν2
∫0
V
 hν

dν = 3
c ∫
0  kT
hν

dν
c 3  e kT − 1   e − 1
   

The integral

∞
ν2
∫0  kT
hν

dν
 e − 1
 
can be evaluated by following the procedure as laid down in the Section 7.4.1 (Case 4) and its
value is

3
 kT 
2.404   .
 h 

Therefore, the number of photons in volume V having a frequency range of 0 to • will

be

3 3
8π V  kT   kT 
3
× 2.404   19.232π V 
=  2.02 × 1010.
=
c  h   hc 

According to Planck’s law, the energy per unit volume is

8π hν 3
 hν 
c 3  e kT − 1 
 
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 557

and so the energy in V volume will be

8π hν 3
×V
3
 kT
hν

c  e − 1
 

and the energy in volume V having frequency range dn will be

8π hν 3
× Vdν .
3
 kT
hν

c  e − 1
 

Thus, the energy in volume V having a frequency range of 0 to • will be

∞ ∞
8π hν 3 8π hV ν 3dν 8π (π kT )4 V
∫  hν

× Vdν = 3
c ∫ hν
=
15c 3h3
= 7.54 × 10−10 J
0
c 3  e kT − 1  0
e kT − 1
 

The average energy per photon will be

7.54 × 10−10 J
=3.73 × 10−20 J =0.233 eV
2.02 × 1010

Special cases of Planck’s radiation law

Case 1: Wien’s radiation law

lT is small for low temperatures. As a special case, Wien’s radiation law follows automatically
from Planck’s radiation law at low temperatures.
hc

Aa mentioned earlier, at low temperatures, lT is small and hence, e λ kT >> 1. Hence, in

hc
Eq. (7.11), we can neglect 1 in the denominator in comparison to e λ kT and get
hc
8π hc −
Eλ d λ = e λ kT
dλ (7.12)
λ5
This expression is Wien’s radiation law.
Case 2: Rayleigh–Jeans law
lT is large for high temperatures. As a special case, Rayleigh–Jeans radiation law follows
automatically from Planck’s radiation law at high temperatures.
558 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Rayleigh–Jeans law states that the intensity of emission is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the body and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength. Mathematically, it is given by

AT
Eλ = ,
λ4

A is the proportionality constant.

hc
As mentioned earlier, at high temperatures, lT, i.e., lkT is large and hence, < 1.
Equation (7.11) can be expressed as λ kT

8π hc
Eλ d λ = dλ *
 2
 hc  1  hc  1  hc 
3

λ 1 + 
5
+ + +…− 1 
  λ kT  2!  λ kT  3!  λ kT  
 

2
hc  hc  hc
Since <1 and higher powers of are negligibly small, we get
λ kT  λ kT  λ kT

8π hc
Eλ d λ = dλ
5  hc  
λ 1 +   − 1
  λ kT  

8π kT
or Eλ d λ = dλ (7.13)
λ4

This above expression is Rayleigh–Jean’s law.

Case 3: Wien’s displacement law

Wien’s displacement law states that the wavelength of radiation that is emitted with
maximum intensity lm varies inversely with the absolute temperature T of the body.
Mathematically,

b
λm = , b = Wien’s constant = 2.89 × 10–3 mK
T

As a special case, Wien’s displacement law also follows automatically from Planck’s
radiation law.

x 1
2 31
* e = 1 + x + 2! x + 3! x +…
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 559

dEλ
Applying the principle of maxima and minima function to El, we have =0
dλ λ = λm
because El is to be maximum when l = lm. Putting the value of El from Planck’s formula
(7.11), we get
hc
d
8π hcλ −5 (e λ kT − 1)−1 =
0
dλ λ =λ m

−1 −2
 hc   hc  hc
 hc 
or ( −5) λ  e λmkT − 1 + λm−5 ( −1)  e λmkT − 1 e λmkT  − 2  =
−6
m 0
     λm kT 

hc

hc e λmkT
or =5
λm kT λ hckT
e m
−1
ex hc
This equation is in the form of x x = 5 with x = whose solution is x = 4.965.
hc e −1 λm kT
Hence, we have = 4.965
λm kT

hc
λmT
or = = b
4.965k

or λ=
mT 2.89 × 10−3 Km (7.14)

Case 4: Stefan’s fourth power law

Stefan’s fourth power law states that radiant emittance, i.e., the energy radiated per second
per unit area containing all the wavelengths by a perfect blackbody is directly proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature T . Mathematically,

Radiant emittance = σ T 4
W
where s = Stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10−8
m2 K 4
Stefan’s fourth power law is deduced from Planck’s formula by integrating the expression
for all the wavelengths from 0 to • and hence, we obtain
hc
∞ ∞ ∞ −
8π hc e λ kT

∫ Eλ d λ = ∫  λhckT 
dλ = 8π hc ∫  −
hc

dλ
0 0
λ  e − 1
5 0
λ  1 − e λ kT 
5

   
560 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

−1
∞
−
hc
 −
hc

= 8π hc ∫ λ e  1 − e λ kT  dλ
−5 λ kT

0  

∞
−
hc
 −
hc
−2
hc
−3
hc

= 8π hc ∫ λ −5e λ kT
 1 + e λ kT
+ e λ kT
+ e λ kT
+ ...∞  dλ **
0  

∞
 ∞ −n hc 
= 8π hc ∫ λ −5  ∑ e λ kT  dλ
0  n =1 

∞ ∞ ∞ hc
−n
∫ Eλ dλ = 8π hc ∑ ∫ λ e dλ
−5 λ kT
(7.15)
0 n =1 0

∞ hc
−n
Evaluation of ∫ λ e dλ
−5 λ kT

∞ hc
−n
∫λ e dλ can be evaluated by using the gamma function***.
−5 λ kT

nhc
Let = x . Here x = 0, when l = • and x = •, when l = 0. Hence, we can have
λ kT

nhc
λ=
xkT

nhc
or (i) dλ = − dx
x 2 kT

−5
 nhc 
and (ii) λ =  
−5

 xkT 
∞ hc
nhc −n
, dλ and λ −5 into the integral ∫ λ e λ kT dλ , we get
−5
Putting these values of
λ kT 0

(1 − x )−1 =+
1 x + x 2 + x 3 + ...∞, (1 + x )−1 =−
1 x + x 2 − x 3 +… ∞
**
∞
1
*** Γ(n) =∫ x e dx , Γ   = π ; Γ(n + 1) =nΓ(n).
n −1 − x

0 2
If n is a positive integer then G(n) = (n – 1)!
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 561

∞ hc 0 −5 ∞ −4
−n  nhc  − x nhc  nhc  3 − x
∫λ dλ = − ∫  ∫
−5
e λ kT
 e 2
dx =   x e dx =
0 ∞  xkT  x kT 0  kT 

−4 ∞ 4
 nhc   kT 
∫0 x =
4 −1 − x
 kT  e dx   Γ(4)
   nhc 

∞ hc 4
−n  kT 
or ∫0 λ e = dλ 
−5
 ×6
λ kT

 nhc 

∞ hc 4
−n  kT  1
Thus, we have ∫λ e dλ = 6 
−5 λ kT
 4
0  hc  n

∞ hc
−n
Putting this value of ∫ λ −5e λ kT
dλ into Eq. (7.15), we have
0

∞ ∞
k 4T 4 1 48π k 4T 4  1 1 1  48π k 4T 4 π 4
∫ Eλ dλ = 8π hc ∑ 6
0 n =1 c 4 h 4 n4
=  + +
c 3h3  14 24 34
=
+…∞ 
 c 3h3
×
90

∞
8π 5 k 4 4
or ∫ Eλ d λ =
0 15c 3h3
T (7.16)

This expression gives the amount of radiant energy per unit volume having all the
wavelengths.
Since the enclosure is in thermal equilibrium, according to the kinetic theory of gases,
c
the arrival of photons per second per unit area is times the concentration of photons.
4
Therefore, the energy arrives at the walls per second per unit area, and consequently, the
energy re-radiated per second per unit area is given as

c 8π 5 k 4 4 2π 5 k 4 4
Radiant emittance =× 3 3T = 2 3
T =σT 4
4 15c h 15c h

2π 5 k 4 W
where=
σ = 5.67 × 10−8 2 4 is called Stefan’s constant. Thus, the energy radiated
2 3
15c h mK
per second per unit area containing all the wavelengths by a perfect blackbody is given by

Radiant emittance = σ T 4 . Stefan’s law (7.17)

562 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The energy radiated per second per unit area containing all the wavelengths by any other
body is given by

E = eσ T 4 (7.18)

where e is called emissivity. Emissivity depends upon the nature of the radiating surface
and ranges from 0 for a perfect reflector to 1 for a perfect blackbody. Stefan’s law is also
called the Stefan–Boltzmann law.
All these discussions show that Planck’s law is perfect and all other laws follow as special
cases. Thus, according to Planck’s law, energy changes take place discontinuously and
discretely as an integral multiple of small units of energy hn which are called quanta or
photons.

Example 7.2
Calculate the effective temperature of sun from the following data. Solar constant =
cal
2.297 , radius of the sun = 4.3 × 105 miles, distance of the sun from the earth = 9.3 ×
cm2 min  cal 
107 miles. Assume that the sun is a blackbody. = σ 1.37 × 10−12 2 
 cm sec 
Solution

2 2
 R  S  9.3 × 107 
4 2.279 / 60
=T =   5 
×
 r  σ  4.3 × 10  1.37 × 10
−12

or T = 6001K

Example 7.3
O
Calculate the temperature of sun from the following data. λmT =
2.89 × 10−3 Km, λm =
4753 A.
Solution

2.89 × 10−3
T= = 6080.4 K
4753 × 10−10

Example 7.4
What is the maximum wavelength of thermal radiation emitted by a body at room temperature
27°C. To what temperature must we heat it so that its peak thermal radiation is in the red
region of the spectrum. (l = 6500 Å).
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 563

Solution
According to Wien’s displacement law, lmT = 2.89 × 10–3 mK. Hence,

2.89 × 10−3 mK
λm =
T

T = 27°C = 300 K

−3
Therefore, we have λm = 2.89 × 10 mK = 9.63µm
300K

The temperature we must heat it so that its peak thermal radiation is in the red region of the
o
spectrum (l = 6500 A) is

2.89 × 10−3 mK
T=
λm

2.89 × 10−3 mK
Hence, we have T = = 4446 K
0.65µm

Example 7.5
At what temperature should the filament of a 100 W lamp operate so that it becomes a perfect
blackbody of area 1cm2.
Solution
According to Stefan’s law, the energy radiated per second per unit area of a blackbody is sT4.
Hence, the amount of energy radiated per second from an area A of a perfect blackbody will
be AsT4.
According to the data given in the question, the energy radiated per second of the lamp is
100 watt. Hence, we have

AsT4 = 100 W

100 W 100 W
or
= T4 = = 1.764 × 1013 K 4
Aσ 10 m × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 K 4
−4 2

or T = 2049 K

7.4.2 Photoelectric effect

Photoelectric effect is defined as the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface
of certain substances, mainly metals when light shorter wavelength is incident on them.
564 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 7.2 Experimental arrangements for the study of photoelectric effect. When a light of
suitable frequency is incident on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted and move
towards the anode depending upon its voltage. The voltage of the cathode and anode
can be varied by the rheostat. Voltage and currents are measured at the required point.
The stopping potential V0 is the negative voltage of the anode which stops the emission of
electrons from the cathode surface. The work function w0 of the metal surface is defined
as the minimum energy required to pull an electron out of the metal surface at 0 K
temperature

Experimental results are represented graphically in Fig. 7.3.

 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 565

Figure 7.3 Experimental results of photoelectric effect. (a) Variation of photoelectric current with
anode potential, (b) Variation of photoelectric current with intensity of incident light,
(c) Variation of photoelectric current with anode potential for different frequencies of the
incident light. (d) Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency of the incident light

Laws of photoelectric effect

i. Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.
ii. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
iii. Photoelectric current is independent of frequency of incident light.
iv. Stopping potential depends upon the frequency but is independent of intensity.
v. Maximum speed of emitted electrons depends upon the frequency but independent
of the intensity of incident light.
vi. The emission of electrons stops below a certain minimum frequency known as the
threshold frequency.
vii. Saturation current is independent of frequency.

Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect

Einstein explained the photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory. The
energy of an incident photon hn is utilized in digging out the electron (w0) and giving the
566 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 1 
electron some speed v  kinetic energy = mv 2  . Hence, applying the law of conservation
of energy, we have  2 

1
hν
= me v 2 + w0 , me = mass of the electron (7.19)
2
If the frequency of the incident light v0is such that it just digs out the electron, then we have

hν 0 = w0 (7.20)

With this value of w0, Eq. (7.19) becomes

1 2
hν
= mv + hν 0
2

1 2
or = h(ν −ν 0 )
mv (7.21)
2

Calculation of stopping potential V0

To neutralize the kinetic energy of the emitted electron by applying a negative potential V0
to the anode, we must have

1 2
mv = eV0 (7.22)
2

Putting Eq. (7.22) into Eq. (7.19), we get

ν eV0 + w0
h=

h w
or =
V0 ν − 0 (y = mx + c) (7.23)
e e

This equation has been plotted in Fig. 7.3(d)

Calculation of threshold frequency u0

In the plot of stopping potential V0 and frequency v [see Fig. 7.3(d)], according to Eq. (7.23),
w
the negative Y-intercept will be − 0 . If we divide this intercept (by taking only magnitude)
by h, we have e

w0
e = w0
h eh
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 567

Putting the value of w0 from Eq. (7.20) into this equation, we get

Y − intercept hν 0
= = ν0
h h

Y − intercept in V0  ν plot
or ν0 =
h

Calculation of work function w0

In the plot of stopping potential V0 and frequency v [see Fig. 7.3(d)], according to Eq. (7.23)
w
the negative Y-intercept will be − 0 . If we multiply this intercept (by taking only
magnitude) by e, we have e

w0
×e =w0
e

Hence, we have

w0 = (Y − intercept in V0  ν plot ) × e

Calculation of Planck’s constant h

According to Eq. (7.23), the slope of the plot of stopping potential V0 and frequency v is
(h/e) [see Fig. 7.3(d)]. If we multiply this slope with e, the charge of the electron, we will
obtain the value of h, the Planck’s constant. Mathematically,

h = (Slope of the V0  ν plot) × e

Example 7.6
The photoelectric threshold wavelength for a metal is 4400 Å. What will be the maximum
energy of photoelectrons emitted from this metal surface when it is irradiated by a radiation
of 4000 Å?
Solution
The data given are

l0 = 4400 Å

l = 4000 Å
568 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

According to Einstein’s photoelectric equation, the maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectrons is given by

 λ −λ 
Emax =hν − hν 0 =hc  0 
 λ0 λ 

Putting the data given in the question into this equation, we have

 4400 × 10−10 − 4000 × 10−10 

= 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 
Emax −10 −10 
J
 4400 × 10 × 4000 × 10 

=4.52 × 10−20 J =0.28eV

7.4.3 Compton effect

The photoelectric effect shows that the energy of an electromagnetic wave is absorbed
and emitted in discrete quanta. The Compton effect gives compelling evidence of the
corpuscular nature of radiation. The effect was first conceptualized theoretically and
demonstrated experimentally by A. H. Compton in the year 1923.
Compton used X-rays from molybdenum with energy of approximately 20 keV. On
entering the scattering material such an X-ray interacts with atomic electrons. These
electrons can be considered essentially free for the X-rays because the energy of the
incident X-rays is much more than the energy of the electrons of 10 eV. The electric field
of the incident electromagnetic wave causes these electrons to oscillate with the frequency
of the X-rays. An electron that oscillates in simple harmonic motion will radiate like an
electric dipole. The frequency of the oscillations is therefore initially equal to the frequency
of the incident X-rays. The incident electromagnetic wave carries momentum (E/c) since
for a massless particle E = pc, where E is energy of the incident wave. Since the X-ray gives
some of its energy to the electron, it loses momentum. This momentum is imparted to the
electron, which recoils in the direction of propagation of the incident wave. As the electron
recedes from the source of X-ray, it no longer sees the original frequency but a lower
frequency due to Doppler effect. The electron then re-radiates with this lower frequency.
This classical argument leads to the conclusion that the frequencies of the scattered
X-rays should have a continuous range of values. When the target electron is still in rest,
the frequency of the scattered radiation observed in the laboratory frame should be that of
incident X-rays. The frequency should then decrease continuously to a final value.
The conclusion of the Compton experiment is in direct contradiction with this
conclusion drawn from classical argument. Rather than what was theorized by the classical
theory, the X-rays scattered by electrons at a particular angle are found to have just one
sharply defined frequency lower than that of the incident X-rays. This fact shows that
scattering is not a gradual process during which electron gains momentum at a continuous
rate; the interaction of X-rays and electrons is instantaneous.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 569

The fact that the X-ray transfers its energy and momentum instantaneously in one packet
suggests that the scattering process can be treated as a collision between two particles – a
photon and an electron. Such instantaneous transfer does indeed occur in a two-particle
collision.
Figure 7.4 shows the diagram of the Compton experiment.

Figure 7.4 Diagram of Compton scattering. An X-ray photon strikes the electron at rest. After
collision,the incident photon and electron are scattered along the
 directions shown in the
figure. k 0 is the momentum
 of the incident X-ray photon, k is the momentum of the
scattered X-ray photon, p is the momentum of the scattered electron

An X-ray photon strikes an electron assumed to be initially at rest in the laboratory

coordinate system and is scattered away from its original direction of motion, while the
electron receives some impulse and begins to move. We can think of the photon as losing
an amount of energy in the collision that is the same as the kinetic energy gained by the
scattered electron, although actually, separate photons are involved. If the incident photon
has frequency n and the scattered photon has frequency n ¢, then we must have n ¢ < n. (Why?).
The total relativistic energy E of the moving electron is given by

=E m02 c 4 + ( pc)2 (7.24)

or p2 c=
2
E 2 − m02 c 4 (7.25)

Hence, the total relativistic energy E of the electron at rest will be m0c2

k 0 = Momentum of the incident X-ray photon.
 2π
k 0 = Propagation vector of the incident photon with magnitude , λ0 being the
wavelength of the incident photon. λ0

k = Momentum of the scattered X-ray photon.
570 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 2π
k = Propagation vector of the scattered photon with magnitude , λ being the
wavelength of the scattered photon. λ0

According to the law of conservation of momentum, we have

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
  
or k=0 k + p (7.26)

 
or 2 k02 + 2 k 2 − 22 k 0 ⋅ k =p2

 
or ( )
2 c 2 k02 + k 2 − 2k 0 ⋅ k =
p2 c 2

Putting the value of p2c2 from Eq. (7.25) into this equation, we get
 
( )
2 c 2 k02 + k 2 − 2k 0 ⋅ k = E 2 − m02 c 4 (7.27)
 
The energy of the incident X-ray photon will be k 0 c since the momentum is k 0 .
 
The energy of the scattered X-ray photon will be kc since the momentum is k .
According to the law of conservation of energy, we have
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision

or k0 c + m0 c 2 =kc + E (7.28)

or c ( k0 − k ) =E − m0 c 2 (7.29)

Squaring both sides of Eq. (7.29), we get

( )
2 c 2 k02 + k 2 − 2k0 k = E 2 + m02 c 4 − 2m0 c 2 E (7.30)

Subtracting Eq. (7.30) from Eq. (7.27), we get

 
( ) (
2 k0 k − k 0 ⋅ k= m0 E − m0 c 2 )
Putting the value of E − m0 c 2 from Eq. (7.29) into this equation, we obtain
 
(
2 k0 k − k =
0 ⋅k )
m0 c ( k0 − k ) (7.31)
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 571

  mc
or k0 k − k=
0 ⋅k
0
( k0 − k ) (7.32)

 
The angle between k 0 , the propagation vector of the incident photon and k, the
propagation vector of the scattered photon as shown in Fig. 7.4 is q. Hence,
 
k0 ⋅ k =k0 k cos θ (7.33)

 
Putting the value of k 0 ⋅ k from Eq. (7.33) into Eq. (7.32), we get

mc
k0 k − k0 k cos θ = 0 ( k0 − k )


m0 c  λ λ0 
or θ
1 − cos=  − 
  2π 2π 

2π 
or λ − λ=
0 (1 − cos θ ) (7.34)
m0 c

or λ − λ0 = λC (1 − cos θ ) (7.35)

2π  h
where λc
= = (7.36)
m0 c m0 c

2π  h
λC
= = is called the Compton wavelength of the scattering particle. For an
m0 c m0 c
electron, lC = .2426 × 10–12 meter = 2.426 × 10–2 Å. Equations (7.34) or (7.35) give the
change in wavelengths between the incident radiation and the scattered radiation. The
change in wavelengths l – l0 between the incident radiation and the scattered radiation is
called Compton shift. Equation (7.35) shows that the Compton shift is maximum when the
scattered photon goes in the opposite direction to the incident photon and is zero when the
scattered photon goes in the same direction as the incident photon.
From Eq. (7.35), the wavelength of the scattered photon is

λ=λ0 + λC (1 − cos θ ) (7.37)

ν0
or ν= (7.38)
1 + ( λCν 0 c ) (1 − cos θ )
572 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Equation (7.38) shows that the wavelength of the scattered photon depends upon the
scattering angle q. Experiment shows that this equation is correct. Figure 7.5 shows the
effect of the scattering angle q on the Compton shift l – l0. The important theoretical fact
is that it was obtained by considering light quantum or photon as a particle. It constitutes
strong evidence in favour of the quantum theory of radiation. If the Compton effect has
true features of a two-particle collision, then it must be possible to observe the scattered
photon and recoiling electron simultaneously. It was experimentally verified by Bothe and
Geiger in the year 1925.
The Compton effect shows clearly that photons behave like particles when they collide
with electrons. It is also true that light exhibits interference phenomenon, which can only
be explained by the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation. In such phenomena, light
behaves like a wave. This dual wave–particle nature of electromagnetic radiation is an
experimental fact.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 573

Figure 7.5 Plot of relative intensity versus wavelength. Effect of scattering angle q on the change
in wavelength between the incident photon and the scattered photon is clearly visible

Example 7.7
X-rays of wavelength 0.71 Å are scattered from a target. Calculate the wavelength of the X-rays
scattered through 45° and the maximum wavelength present in the scattered X-rays.
Solution
The data given are

l0 = 0.71 Å

q = 45°
574 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The wavelength of the X-rays scattered through 45° will be

l = 0.71 Å + 2.426 × 10–2 Å (1 – cos 45) = 0.717 Å

The maximum wavelength present in the scattered X-rays will be

l = 0.71 Å + 2.426 × 10–2 Å (1 – cos 180) = 0.758 Å

Example 7.8
X-rays of wavelength 1.54 Å are scattered from a target. Calculate the energy of the X-rays
photon scattered through 60°
Solution
The data given are

l = 1.54 Å

q = 60°

The wavelength of the X-rays scattered through 60° will be

l = 1.54 Å+ 2.426 × 10–2 Å (1 – cos 60) = 1.55 Å

The energy of the scattered photon will be obtained from equation

hc
=
E = 8015 eV
λ

7.4.4 Pair production

In photoelectric effect, the incident photon gives off all its energy to the electron and in
the Compton effect, the incident photon gives off part of its energy to the electron. Matter
can be converted to energy [E = Dmc2]; can energy be converted to matter? That should
be; because nature loves symmetry. Indeed the conversion of energy into matter exists
in nature. This phenomenon is called pair production. Pair production is defined as a
phenomenon in which a gamma ray photon [high energy photon] while passing near a
nucleus is converted fully to an electron and a positron. A positron [positive electron] is
a particle having mass equal to that of an electron and charge equal to that of a proton.
It is the antiparticle of an electron. Symbolically, pair production phenomenon can be
written as

γ -ray photon 

in the vicinity of a nucleus
→ electron e − + positron e +
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 575

No conservation principles are violated in pair production.

i. Conservation of charges Total charges before pair production [zero] is equal to the
total charge after pair production [charge of electron + charge of positron = zero]
ii. Conservation of energy Total energy before pair production is equal to the total
energy including rest energy after pair production [energy itself is being converted,
energy can not be destroyed]
iii. Conservation of linear momentum Linear momentum of the gamma ray photon =
linear momentum of the electron + linear momentum of the positron. For the process
to occur near a nucleus, a part of the momentum is used. Due to the enormous mass
of the nucleus, it absorbs only a negligible fraction of photon energy.

Figure 7.6 Pair production

The rest energy m0c2 of the electron and the positron are each equal to 0.51 Mev. Hence,
for pair production to occur, the energy of the photon must be at least 1.02 Mev. The
corresponding photon frequency is nearly about 2.5 × 1020 Hz. The electromagnetic wave
with such a high frequency is the gamma ray.
For the successful explanation of the Compton effect, photoelectric effect and pair
production phenomenon, the electromagnetic radiation is treated as consisting of particles
known as photons. All the three effects occurr simultaneously in different magnitudes
when radiation passes through matter. If the radiation is a gamma ray of high frequency,
pair production dominates over the other two; if the radiation is an X-ray, Compton effect
dominates over the other two; and if the radiation is an ultraviolet ray, photoelectric effect
dominates over the other two.
Evidently, radiation has a dual character. Depending upon the situation, it reveals itself.
Quantum physics accepts the dual nature of radiation where as, classical physics is unable to
accept it. In classical physics, laws governing wave characteristics and particle characteristics
are fundamentally different. The wave theory and quantum theory complements each
other. Either theory of wave and particle can explain only certain phenomena
576 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

7.4.5 Characteristics of photon

i. The carrier of electromagnetic field is a photon that moves with the speed of light.
ii. The rest mass and rest energy of a photon is zero.
iii. The energy of a photon is hn.
h
iv. The momentum of a photon is .
λ
E hν
v. The mass of a photon is 2 = 2 .
c c
vi. Photons have no electric charge.
vii. They can be created or destroyed when radiation is emitted or absorbed.
viii. They can have particle like collisions with electron like particles.
ix. They reveal wave characters in case of interference, diffraction and polarization
phenomena.

7.5 Wave Aspect of Particles

In the previous section, we discussed the particle like nature of waves. Do particles show
wave like nature? That should be; because nature loves symmetry. Particles are highly
concentrated energies. They are localized in space and characterized by mass, momentum,
angular momentum, energy, and so on, whereas waves are unlocalized and characterized
by frequency, wavelength, time period, phase, intensity and so on. In the year 1924, in
his PhD thesis, Louis de Broglie boldly and daringly proposed, on a theoretical basis, that
moving material objects have wave as well as particle characteristics. Though initially the
hypothesis was criticized severely by the scientific community, very shortly, after three
years in the year 1927, the hypothesis was experimentally verified for electrons by Clinton
Davisson and Lester Germer (USA) jointly and G.P. Thomson (England) independently.
This opened the door to quantum mechanics. Louis de Broglie's concepts of matter waves
are based completely upon the wave aspect of particles.

7.5.1 Matter waves

The two terms, matter waves and de Broglie waves, are synonymously used.
The energy of a photon is given by

E = hν

Relativistically,
= E m02 c 4 + ( pc)2 and for a zero rest mass particle like photon E = pc

Hence, pc = hν
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 577

hν
or p=
c

h
or p= (7.39)
λ

h
or λ= (7.40)
p

where p is the magnitude of the momentum of the particle.

Equation (7.40) connects the momentum of the photon with the wavelength of the
corresponding electromagnetic radiation. Though the Eqs (7.39) or (7.40) were derived
for photons, de Broglie proposed that they are completely general, applicable to material
particles as well as to photons. The wave associated with a material particle obeying
Eqs (7.39) or (7.40) is called a de Broglie wave. The wavelength of a material particle l
computed according to Eq. (7.38) is called a de Broglie wavelength. From Eq. (7.39), we
have

h
p = 2π
λ
2π

or p = k (7.41)

2π
where k = is called the propagation vector.
λ

If the mass of the material particle is m and it is moving with speed n, the magnitude of
the momentum p of the particle will be mv. The de Broglie wavelength associated with the
particle will be given by

h
λ= de Broglie hypothesis. (7.42)
mv

In Eq. (7.42) depending upon the speed of the particle m may be taken as a relativistic mass
given by

m0
m=
v 2 , m0 = rest mass of the particle. (7.43)
1−
c2
578 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Relativistically, we know
Total energy = Kinetic energy + Rest energy

( pc ) + ( m0c 2 )
2 2
or K + m0 c 2
=

1
=
or p
c
(
K K + 2m0 c 2 )
Thus, the relativistic form of the de Broglie relation is given by

h hc hc
λ= = =
p pc (
K K + 2m0 c 2 )
hc
or λ= (7.44)
(
K K + 2m0 c 2 )
where K is the kinetic energy of a particle of rest mass m0.
Phase speed of de Broglie waves
The phase speed of a de Broglie wave is defined in the usual way as

ω
vp =
k

ω E
or =
vp = (7.45)
k p

Equation (7.45) is a general equation applicable to relativistic as well as non-relativistic free

particles.
Relativistically free particles
For particles moving with relativistic speed Eq. (7.45) becomes

E mc 2
v=
p =
p mv

c2
or vp = (7.46)
v
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 579

or vp > c

Thus, the phase speed of the matter wave for a relativistically freely moving particle is more
than the speed of light in vacuum!
Non-relativistically free particles
For particles moving with non-relativistic speed, Eq. (7.45) becomes
1 2
mv
E 2
v=
p =
p mv

v
or vp = ( 7.47)
2

Thus, the phase speed of a matter wave for a non-relativistically freely moving particle is
half of the particle speed.
Group speed of de Broglie waves
Group speed of a de Broglie wave is defined, in the usual way, as

dω
vg =
dk

dω dE
or =
vg = (7.48)
dk dp

Equation (7.48) is a general equation applicable to relativistic as well as non-relativistic free

particles.
Relativistically free particles
For particles moving with relativistic speed, Eq. (7.48) becomes

dE d
v=
g = m02 c 4 + p2 c 2
dp dp

pc 2 mvc 2
or vg = =
m02 c 4 + p2 c 2 mc 2

or vg = v
580 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Thus, the group speed of a matter wave for relativistically freely moving particles is equal
to the speed of the particle.
Non-relativistically free particles
For particles moving with non-relativistic speed, Eq. (7.48) becomes

dE d p2
v=
g =
dp dp 2m

p mv
or v=
g = = v
m m

Thus, the group speed of a matter wave for non-relativistically freely moving particles is
equal to the particle speed.
Dispersive nature of matter wave
The phase speed of a matter wave is given according to Eq. (7.45) as

m02 c 2
2 4 2 2
pc 1 +
E mc +pc
0 p2
v=
p = =
p p p

m02 c 2 λ 2
or v=p c 1 + (7.49)
h2

Thus, the phase speed of a matter wave depends upon the wavelength of the matter wave
even in vacuum. Therefore, even vacuum behaves as a dispersive medium for matter wave!

7.5.2 Davisson–Germer experiment

The first experimental confirmation of de Broglie’s hypothesis of matter waves and

h
quantitative confirmation of de Broglie’s relation λ = were demonstrated accidentally
mv
by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer of USA for electrons. The wave nature of other
particles such as protons, neutrons, helions and so on were demonstrated subsequently.
Davisson and Germer were studying the scattering of electrons by the surface of a nickel
crystal using the apparatus shown in Fig. 7.7. The energy of electrons in the primary beam,
the angle at which they strike the target and the position of the detector could be varied.
During the experiment, an accident occurred and air entered into the apparatus to oxidize
the crystal surface. The target was removed from its position and the oxide coating was
cleaned out by heat treatments and then placed at its original position to continue the
experiment.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 581

Figure 7.7 Schematic diagram of the apparatus used by Davisson and Germer to study the
diffraction of electrons by Nickel crystal. Electrons leave the filament and are
accelerated to wards the target under a potential difference of +V volt. The beam
strikes the crystal surface and the scattered beam entering into the electron detector is
measured. The detector can be moved in the range of 0° to 90°

Now the experimental observation changed abruptly. Instead of a continuous variation

of scattered electron intensity with angle, distinct maxima and minima was observed.
Moreover, the positions of maxima and minima depend upon the energy of the incident
electron. Typical polar graphs are shown in the Fig. 7.8. The method of plotting is such
that the intensity at any angle is proportional to the distance of the curve at that angle
from the point of scattering. If the intensity were the same at all the scattering angles,
the curves would be circles centered on the point of scattering. As shown in Fig. 7.8,
when the accelerating voltage is set at 54 V, there is an intense reflection of the beam at
an angle q = 50°. It is difficult to account for this intense reflection through any effect other
than the superposition of waves to give an intensity maximum. Heating a block of nickel at
high temperature causes the many individual crystals, of which the nickel is composed of,
to combine into a

Figure 7.8 Results of Davisson–Germer experiment. When the accelerating voltage is set at 54 V,
the intensity of the scattered beam is maximum at an angle q = 50°.
582 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

single large crystal, all of whose atoms are arranged in a regular lattice. Each atom of the
crystal act as a scatterer and scattered electron waves interfere. Due to low energy, the
incident electron beam cannot penetrate much into the crystal and diffraction takes place
on the surface of the crystal. Thus, the crystal acts as a reflection grating for the electrons
as shown in Fig. 7.9. We know from physical optics that the diffraction maxima occurs at
an angle q such that

(e + b)sin θ =
nλ , (7.50)

where n = 1, 2, 3, … are the orders of the diffraction and

e + b = grating element
= distance between the centres of two consecutive atoms on the plane
= the shortest distance between the surfaces of two consecutive spherical atoms
on the plane + diameter of an atom

Figure 7.9 The crystal surface acts like a diffraction grating with the grating element equal to the
distance between the centres of two consecutive atoms on the plane or the shortest
distance between the surfaces of two consecutive spherical atoms on the plane +
diameter of an atom

For a nickel crystal, the inter-atomic distance is 2.15 Å. The peak at q = 50° must be a
first order peak (n = 1) because no other peaks were observed at smaller angles. If indeed
electrons acts like waves and this peak at q = 50° is a diffraction maximum, we can calculate
the wavelength by Eq. (7.50) and get

2.15 Å × sin 50 = 1 × l

or l = 1.65 Å
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 583

For confirmation of the de Broglie hypothesis, let us calculate the wavelength by applying
h
the de Broglie relation, λ = .
p
The kinetic energy E of electron of charge e moving under a potential difference of V
volt is given by

p2
or = eV
2m

h
So λ=
2meV

Putting the values of h, m, e and V (= 54 V) into this equation, we get

6.63 × 10−34 Js O
λ= = 1.67 A
−31 −19
2 × 9.11 × 10 kg × 1.6 × 10 C × 54 V

This is in excellent agreement with the value found from the diffraction maximum and
provides strong evidence in favour of de Broglie's hypothesis. Thus, the beam of electrons
accelerated through a potential difference of 54 V behaves like waves of wavelength 1.67 Å.

7.5.3 Properties of matter wave

i. Only moving material particles exhibit matter waves.

ii. Lighter is the particle, longer is the wavelength associated with it.
iii. Smaller is the speed of the particle, longer is the wavelength associated with it.
iv. The range of wavelength of the matter wave is from 0 to •.
v. Speed of the matter wave depends upon the speed of the particles.
vi. Matter waves are completely different from electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic
waves are produced due to acceleration of charges, whereas matter waves are produced
due to the motion of material particles and are independent of the charge of the
material particles
vii. Matter waves travel with a speed more than the speed of light in vacuum as vp > c.
viii. The wavelength of matter waves depends upon Planck’s constant h = 6.626 × 10–34 Js.
Hence, matter waves can be observed experimentally in case of atomic particles whose
dimensions are comparable to the wavelength of matter waves.
ix. Material particles are represented by wave packets having finite width and hence, the
uncertainty principle is inherent in matter waves.
584 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

x. The wave aspect and particle aspect of a quantum entity are both necessary for the
complete description of atomic or subatomic phenomena. However, both the aspects
cannot be revealed simultaneously in a single experiment. The aspects revealed depend
upon the nature of the experiment being performed. This is called the principle of
complementarity.
xi. Matter waves are not real waves and therefore, cannot be represented by wave
displacement. Variation of the height of a water surface constitute water wave;
variation of pressure constitute a sound wave; variation in electric and magnetic fields
constitute electromagnetic waves. Similarly, variation of a wave function y constitutes
a matter wave. However, wave function y has no direct physical significance, whereas
the square of the absolute value of the wave function |y |2 known as the probability
density has direct physical significance.
xii. The superposition principle holds good for matter waves.
xiii. Matter waves produce interference, diffraction and polarization phenomena

Example 7.9
Compute the de Broglie wavelength in the following cases.
a. A 100 kg bike travelling with at a speed of 100 km/hour(27.78 m/s).
b. A 46 gm golf ball moving with a speed of 30 m/s.
c. A 10 gm bullet moving with a speed of 500 m/s.
d. A smoke particle of mass 10–9 gm moving with a speed 2 cm/s.
e. An electron moving with an energy of 1 eV (1.6 × 10–19 J).
f. An electron moving with an energy of 100 MeV (1.6 × 10–11 J).
g. An electron moving with a speed of 107 m/s.
Solutions
a. Using the classical form of the de Broglie relation, we have

h h
λ= = .
p mv
Putting the given data into this equation, we get

6.626 × 10−34
λ= =m 2.38 × 10−27 Å
100 × 27.78

b. Using the classical form of the de Broglie relation, and putting the given data into the
equation, we get

6.626 × 10−34
λ= = 4.8 × 10−24 Å
meter
46 × 10−3 × 30
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 585

c. Putting the given data into the classical form of the de Broglie relation, we get

6.626 × 10−34
λ= −3
m 1.32 × 10−24 Å
=
10 × 10 × 500

d. Using the classical form of the de Broglie relation, we get

6.626 × 10−34
λ= =m 3.31 × 10−10 Å
10−9 × 10−3 × 0.02

e. The rest energy of an electron is

m0 c 2 = 9.11 × 10−31 × (3 × 108 )2 J = 5.1 × 105 eV

Since the given kinetic energy, 1 eV is much smaller than its rest energy of 5.1 × 105 eV, we
can use non-relativistic kinematics.
Putting the given data into the classical form of the de Broglie relation, we get

h 6.626 × 10−34
=λ = m = 12.3 Å
2m0 K 2 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−19

f. The rest energy of an electron is

m0c2 = 9.11 × 10–31 × (3 × 108)2 J = 5.1 × 105 eV

Since the given kinetic energy, 100 MeV is much larger than to its rest energy of
5.1 × 105 eV, we can use relativistic kinematics. Taking the relativistic form of the de
Broglie relation and using the given data, we have

6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

λ= =m 12.4 × 10−5 Å
−11 −11 −14
1.6 × 10 (1.6 × 10 + 2 × 8.82 × 10 )

Alternatively,
Since the given kinetic energy, 100 MeV is much larger than in its rest energy of
5.1 × 105 eV, we can neglect 2m0c2 in comparison to K and the relativistic form of the de
Broglie relation Eq. (7.44) becomes

hc hc
=λ = .
K2 K
Putting the given data into this equation, we get l = 12.4 × 10–5 Å
The result calculated by the alternative method does not differ much and in the
present case, it is almost equal.
586 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

g. The speed of the electron 107 m/s is almost 30 times less than that of light. Hence, we are
permitted to use the classical form of the de Broglie relation to calculate the wavelength.
Thus,

h 6.626 × 10−34
λ
= = m = 0.73 Å
mv 9.11 × 10−31 × 107
Students may calculate the de Broglie wavelength of the electron in this case by applying
the relativistic formula.

Example 7.10
Calculate the kinetic energy of a proton whose de Broglie wavelength is 1.000 femtometers.
Solution
Taking the relativistic form of the de Broglie relation, we have

( 2m c ) + ( 2hc / λ )
2 2
−2m0 c 2 ± 2

( m c ) + ( hc / λ )
0 2 2
K= −m0 c 2 ±
= 0
2

2
Since kinetic energy cannot be negative from this equation, we have

( m c ) + ( hc / λ )
2 2
−m0 c 2 +
K= 0
2

Putting the values of m0 = 1.67 × 10–27 kg (rest mass of proton) and l = 1.000 fm = 1.000 × 10–15 m
into this equation, we get K = 618 MeV.

7.6 Atom Models

Atom is the smallest unit of matter that has the characteristic properties of a chemical
element. As such, the atom is the basic building block of all matter. Structure of atom
had always been one of main targets of scientific communities. The decoding of atomic
structure and development of quantum physics went on parallely. The failures or limitations
of Thomson model (1904), Rutherford model (1911), and Bohr model (1913) in explaining
the observed atomic phenomena completely, played an important role in the groundwork
of quantum physics. Out of the aforementioned three models, Bohr’s model was best,
because interestingly he had incorporated few quantum mechanical concepts intuitively.
Nowadays, the vividly clear picture of atomic or subatomic phenomena can be obtained
simply by solving a second order differential equation called Schrodinger equation! Thus,
quantum physics provided the best model for microscopic particles including photons.

7.6.1 Rutherford’s atom model

J. J. Thomson’s plum-pudding model in which electrons are immersed in a cloud of positive

charge was rejected on the ground that it predicted a single spectral line for the hydrogen
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 587

atom in contrary to the experimental observation of a series of spectral lines. Rutherford’s

atom model, proposed in 1911 from his famous a-particles scattering experiment, assumed
that the positive charges were highly concentrated inside a small massive sphere called the
nucleus and the electrons were revolving around the nucleus in circular paths. Rutherford’s
atom model was able to explain a lot of experimental observations.
Objections to Rutherford’s atom model
i. However, revolving electrons according to electromagnetic theory should lose energy
by radiating electromagnetic radiation continuously at the rate

1 e2 2
a
6πε o c 3

[a is the acceleration] and finally should fall into the nucleus making the atoms
collapse. It is contrary to the observed fact that atom is a stable entity.
ii. Again according to Rutherford’s model, an atom should emit continuous radiation of
all frequencies which is against the experimental fact that atoms emit spectral lines of
only definite frequencies.
Therefore, Rutherford’s atom model based on classical physics was not fully satisfactory.

7.6.2 Bohr’s atom model

Following the aforementioned serious objections to Rutherford’s atom model, Bohr

suggested some modifications in his model. The model is based on the following basic
postulates.
i. The central part of the atom called nucleus contains the whole of the positive charges;
almost the whole of the mass of the atom is concentrated in it.
ii. Electrons are capable of revolving around the nucleus in certain fixed orbits called
stationary orbits or privileged orbits. The required centripetal force is provided by
the electrostatic force of attraction between the negatively charged electron and the
positively charged nucleus.
iii. Atoms do not radiate energy as long as the electrons are in these certain fixed stationary
orbits.
iv. Atoms radiate energy in the form of quanta when the electrons make transitions from
one stationary orbit to another. The energy carried by one quantum or photon hn is
equal to the energy difference of the two stationary orbits, i.e., hn = E2 – E1.
  
v. The angular momentum L = r × p possessed by an electron in the stationary orbits is
an integral multiple of

h
=
 = 1.054 × 10−34 Js , i.e.,
2π
588 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

L = n, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …

Here n is called the principal quantum number.

Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom
Hydrogen atom consists of one proton (nucleus) and an electron revolving around the
proton/nucleus in a fixed orbit as shown in the Fig. 7.10.

Figure 7.10 Schematic diagram of a hydrogen atom consisting of one proton and one electron.
In the ground state of the atom, the electron stays in the first orbit n = 1. The atom is
said to be in excited state when the electron, by absorbing energy, jumps to higher
h2
orbits with n > 1. This diagram is in conformity with Eq. (7.55) rn = 2 n2 .
4π mke 2
The variation of atomic radius with principal quantum number is parabolic

If radius of the orbit is r the charge of the proton is +e and that of the electron is –e, the
force of attraction Fe between the nucleus and the electron is given by

e×e e2
=Fe k= 2
k 2 (7.51)
r r

1
where in SI system for free space, k = = 9 × 109 Nm2C −2 = with e0 = permittivity of free
space = 8.85 × 10–12 C2m–2N–1 4πε 0
mv 2
This force of attraction Fe produces a centripetal force , where v is the speed of the
r
electron in the orbit and is called orbital speed. Therefore, we can have

mv 2 e2
=k 2
r r
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 589

e2
or mv 2 = k (7.52)
r
According to Bohr’s postulates, the angular momentum L = mvr possessed by an electron
h
in the stationary orbits of radius r is an integral multiple of , i.e.,
2π
h
L =n
2π

h
or mvr = n (7.53)
2π

Orbital speed of the electron in the nth orbit

The orbital speed of the electron is obtained by dividing Eq. (7.52) by Eq. (7.53) as

e2
vn = 2π k (7.54)
nh

Radius of the nth orbit

The radius of the nth orbit is obtained from Eq. (7.53) as

nh 1
rn =
2π m v

Using the value of v from Eq. (7.54), we get

h2
rn = n2 (7.55)
4π 2 mke 2

Total energy of electron

The total energy possessed by the electron moving in the nth orbit, En is sum of the kinetic
energy, Ek and potential energy, Ep, i.e., En = Ek + Ep
a. The kinetic energy, Ek of the electron is obtained from Eq. (7.52) as

ke 2
Ek =
2r

b. The potential energy Ep of the hydrogen nucleus (a single proton of charge +e)
and the electron system is given by

(e) × (−e) ke 2
Ep = k = −
r r
590 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Therefore, the total energy possessed by the electron moving in the nth orbit En will be
obtained as

ke 2
En =
Ek + E p =
−
2r

Using the value of r from Eq. (7.48) into this equation, we obtain

2π 2 mk 2 e 4 13.6eV
En =
− 2 2
=
− (7.56)
hn n2

The total energy possessed by the electron moving in the nth orbit En as calculated using
Eq. (7.56) is found to be negative. For the stability of any dynamical system, the total energy
has to be negative. Therefore, the hydrogen atom is stable. When n → •, according to
Eq. (7.56), En = 0. Therefore, when an electron is very far away from the nucleus, its energy
becomes zero and is free from the nucleus.
When electron is in the first orbit (n = 1), its energy is E1 = –13.6 eV and the atom is said
to be in the ground state. When the atom is in any other orbit, the atom is said to be in an
excited state. The energy of the electron when it is in the second orbit (n = 2) is

13.6eV
E2 =
− =
−3.4eV .
22

Figure 7.11 Energy levels of hydrogen atoms in different excited state. The diagram is drawn in
2π 2mk 2e 4 13.6eV
conformity with Eq. (7.56) En =
− =
− .
h2n2 n2
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 591

If the electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom absorbs 13.6 eV energy, its
energy will be –13.6 eV + 13.6 eV = 0 and is just free from the nucleus. If the electron in
the ground state of the hydrogen atom absorbs 10.2 eV energy, its energy will be –13.6
eV + 10.2 eV – 3.4 eV = energy of the second level. Hence, the electron by absorbing
10.2 eV energy, will jump to the second orbit.

Example 7.11
Calculate the energy of the electron in the second orbit.
Solution

13.6 eV 13.6
En =
− 2
=
− eV =
−3.4 eV
n 4

Example 7.12
Calculate the angular momentum of the electron, according to Bohr’s theory, in a hydrogen
atom when its energy is –3.4 eV.
Solution
The total energy of the electron when it is in the nth orbit is

13.6 eV
En = −
n2

13.6 eV
Hence, −3.4eV =
− 2
n

or n=2
According to Bohr’s theory, angular momentum L is an integral multiple of  . Hence, we
have

n 2 × 1.054 × 10−34 =
L == 1.108 × 10−34 Js

Energy change during transition

Due to the negative sign in Eq. (7.56), the energy of an electron moving in a higher orbit
(n is greater) is more than that of an electron at lower orbit (n is smaller). Hence, when
an electron jumps from a higher orbit to a lower orbit, excess energy is radiated out in the
form of photons having energy, hn. When an electron jumps from a lower orbit to a higher
orbit, some energy is to be absorbed by the electron, i.e., an electron jumps from a lower
orbit to a higher orbit by absorbing energy. If n1 is a lower orbit of energy
2π 2 mk 2 e 4
E1 = −
h2n12
592 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

and n2 is a higher orbit of energy

2π 2 mk 2 e 4 ,
E2 = −
h2n22

the amount of energy emitted in the form of photons when an electron jumps from n2 to n1
will be E2 – E1. According to Bohr’s postulates,

2π 2 mk 2 e 4  1 1
hν = E2 − E1 =  2− 2
h2  n1 n2 

The frequency n of the radiation emitted when an electron jumps from a higher energy
level to a lower energy level is obtained from this equation as

2π 2 mk 2 e 4  1 1  (7.57)
ν=  2− 2
h3  n1 n2 

1 2π 2 mk 2 e 4  1 1 
or =  2− 2
λ ch3  n1 n2 

1  1 1
or= RH  2 − 2  (7.58)
λ  n1 n2 

2π 2 mk 2 e 4 me 4
where
= RH = = 1.09737315685 × 107 m −1 is called Rydberg’s constant for
ch3 8ε o2 ch3
1
hydrogen atom. Equation (7.58) gives the expression for wave number .
λ
Example 7.13
How much energy is released when an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from the third orbit
to the second orbit? What is the wavelength of the radiation emitted?
Solution
The total energy of the electron when it is in the third orbit is

13.6 eV 13.6
E3 =
− 2
=
− eV =
−1.5eV
3 9

The total energy of the electron when it is in the second orbit is

13.6eV 13.6
E2 =
− 2
=
− eV =
−3.4eV
n 4
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 593

The amount of energy released when an electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from the third
orbit to the second orbit is

E = E3 − E2 = 1.9 eV

If n is the frequency, we have

hc 6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

λ
= = = 6539 Å
E 3.04 × 10−19

Limitations of Bohr’s theory

Bohr’s theory successfully explained a number of experimental observations and has correctly
predicted the spectral lines of hydrogen atom, single ionized helium ion and so on in
terms of only the principal quantum number, n. However, Bohr’s theory has the following
limitations
i. The theory does not give any information regarding the distribution and arrangements
of electrons in the atoms.
ii. Spectra of multi-electron atoms cannot be explained by Bohr’s theory.
iii. Bohr’s theory does not explain the variations of intensity of spectral lines.
iv. The theory cannot be used to calculate the rate of transition of electrons from one
level to another level. It is not applicable to the selection rules that apply to them.
v. The theory fails to explain the fine structure of spectral lines.
vi. The theory is not applicable for the quantitative explanation of chemical bonding.
vii. The Zeeman effect [splitting of spectral lines by magnetic fields] and the Stark effect
[splitting of spectral lines by electric fields] cannot be explained by applying Bohr’s
theory.
In spite of all this limitations, Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom is a mile-stone in the
development of quantum physics.
Spectral lines of hydrogen atom
According to Eq. (7.56), the energy of an electron moving in a higher orbit is more than
that of an electron at a lower orbit. By absorbing energy from external sources, the electron
jumps to a higher energy level from a lower energy level and the atom is in excited state.
Within a very short time of less than 10–8 s, the electron jumps back to the original lower
energy level by emitting radiations and the atom returns to the ground state. The radiations
of different wavelengths emitted when atoms return to their ground state from the excited
state produce spectral lines. The spectral lines are the bright lines seen against the dark
background or the dark lines seen against the bright background of the spectrometer. They
are the characteristic of the radiation emitting atoms.
594 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The wavelengths of different spectral lines are calculated using the relation

1  1 1
= RH  2 − 2  [Eq. (7.58)].
λ  n1 n2 
This relation explains the complete spectrum of hydrogen atoms. The wavelengths of the
radiation depend upon the initial and final energy levels between which transition takes
place. Accordingly, a number of series are emitted. Each series is composed of a number of
lines. Detailed accounts of five important series are given here.
Lyman series (n1 = 1)
The Lyman series is composed of the lines which are emitted when electronic transition
takes place to the energy level with the principal quantum number n1 = 1 from all the other
outer energy levels. In other words, the Lyman series is composed of the lines which are
emitted when an electron jumps from the outer energy levels to the first energy level with
principal quantum number n1 = 1. The wavelength of each line of the Lyman series can be
calculated using the formula

1  1
= RH  1 − 2  with n2 = 2, 3, 4, … (7.59)
λLyman  n2 

The wavelength of the first line (n2 = 2) of the Lyman series is obtained using

1  1 O
= 10973731 × 10−10  1 − 2  (A)−1
λLyman −1  2 

O
or λLyman −1 = 1215 A

The wavelength of the second line (n2 = 3) of the Lyman series is obtained as
lLyman–2 = 1025 Å. Similarly, the wavelengths of other lines can be calculated. The wavelength
of the limiting line (n2 = •) of the Lyman series is obtained as lLyman–• = 911 Å.
The Lyman series lie in ultra-violet region of the spectrum.
Balmer series (n1 = 2)
The Balmer series is composed of the lines that are emitted when electronic transition takes
place to the energy level with the principal quantum number n1 = 2 from all other outer energy
levels. In other words, the Balmer series is composed of the lines which are emitted when an
electron jumps from the outer energy levels to the second energy level with principal quantum
number n1 = 2. The wavelength of each line of the Balmer series can be calculated using the formula

1 1 1 
= RH  − 2  with n2 = 3, 4, 5, … (7.60)
λBalmer  4 n2 
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 595

The wavelength of the first line (n2 = 3) of the Balmer series is obtained by

1 1 1  −1
= 10973731 × 10−10  − 2  (Å)
λBalmer −1 4 3 

or λBalmer-1 = 6561Å

The wavelength of the second line (n2 = 4) of the Balmer series is obtained as
lBalmer–2 = 4860 Å. Similarly, the wavelengths of other lines can be calculated.The wavelength
of the limiting line (n2 = •) of the Balmer series is obtained as lBalmer–• = 3645 Å. Balmer
series lie in the visible and near ultra-violet region of the spectrum.
Paschen series (n1 = 3)
The Paschen series is composed of the lines that are emitted when electronic transition
takes place to the energy level with principal quantum number n1 = 3 from all other
outer energy levels. In other words, the Paschen series is composed of the lines which are
emitted when the electron jumps from the outer energy levels to the third energy level with
principal quantum number n1 = 3. The wavelength of each line of the Paschen series can be
calculated using the formula

1 1 1 
= RH  − 2  with n2 = 4, 5, 6, 7, … (7.61)
λPaschen  9 n2 

The wavelength of the first line (n2 = 4) of the Paschen series is obtained as
lPaschen–1 = 18746 Å. The wavelength of the second line (n2 = 5) of the Paschen series is
obtained by lPaschen–2 = 12815 Å. Similarly, the wavelengths of other lines can be calculated.
The wavelength of the limiting line (n2 = •) of the Paschen series is obtained as lPaschen–• =
8201 Å.
The Paschen series lie in the infra-red region of the spectrum.
Brackett series (n1 = 4)
The Brackett series is composed of the lines that are emitted when electronic transition
takes place to the energy level with principal quantum number n1 = 4 from all other outer
energy levels. In other words, the Brackett series is composed of the lines which are emitted
when the electron jumps from the outer energy levels to the fourth energy level with
principal quantum number n1 = 4. The wavelength of each line of the Brackett series can be
calculated using the formula

1 1 1
= RH  − 2  with n2 = 5, 6, 7, … (7.62)
λBrackett  16 n2 
The wavelength of the first line (n2 = 5) of the Brackett series is obtained as
lBrackett–1 = 40501 Å. The wavelength of the second line (n2 = 6) of the Brackett series is
596 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

obtained as lBrackett–2 = 26244 Å. Similarly, the wavelengths of other lines can be calculated.
The wavelength of the limiting line (n2 = •) of the Brackett series is obtained as
lBrackett–• = 14580 Å. The Brackett series lie in infra-red region of the spectrum.
Pfund series (n1 = 5)
The Pfund series is composed of the lines that are emitted when electronic transition takes place
to the energy level with principal quantum number n1 = 5 from all other outer energy levels. In
other words, the Brackett series is composed of the lines which are emitted when the electron
jumps from outer energy levels to the fifth energy level with principal quantum number n1 = 5.
The wavelength of each line of the Pfund series can be calculated using the formula

1  1 1
= RH  − 2  with n2 = 6, 7, 8, 9, … (7.63)
λPfund  25 n2 

The wavelength of the first line (n2 = 6) of the Pfund series is obtained as
lPfund–1 = 74558 Å. Similarly, the wavelengths of other lines can be calculated. The wavelength
of the limiting line (n2 = •) of the Pfund series is obtained as lPfund = 22782 Å. The Pfund series
lie in the infra-red region of the spectrum.
The emission of all the five important series discussed here are represented
diagrammatically in Fig. 7.12.

Figure 7.12 Representation of Lyman (n1 = 1), Balmer (n1 = 2), Paschen (n1 = 3), Brackett (n1 = 4) and
Pfund (n1 = 5) series diagrammatically
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 597

Example 7.14
The first line of the Lyman series has wavelength 1215 Å. Calculate the wavelength of the
second line.
Solution
The wavelengths of the first line (n2 = 2) and the second line (n2 = 3) of the Lyman series are
4 9
given respectively by λ1 = and λ2 =
3RH 8RH

λ2 27
Therefore, =
λ1 32

27 27
or λ2 = × λ1 = × 1215 Å = 1025.2 Å
32 32

Example 7.15
Calculate the maximum and minimum wavelengths of the Pfund series.
Solution
The wavelength of the Pfund series is obtained from

1  1 1
= RH  − 2  with n = 6, 7, 8, 9, …
λPfund  25 n2 

The maximum wavelengths of the Pfund series is obtained by putting n2 = 6. Hence, the
maximum wavelength of the Pfund series is given by

1  1 1
= 10973731 × 10−10  − 2  ( Å )
−1

λPfundMax  25 6 

or λPfundMax = 74558 Å

The minimum wavelength of the Pfund series is obtained by putting n2 = •. Hence, the
minimum wavelength of the Pfund series is given by

1  1 1 25
= RH  − =  × 1010 =
Å 22782 Å
λPfundMin  25 ∞  10973731
598 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

7.7 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

It is not possible to know the future precisely. The uncertainty principle is a direct
consequence of the wave–particle duality of nature. When we represent a particle as a
wave packet, its dimension and position loses their precise meanings. The particle may
be anywhere inside the wave packet. The position of the particle becomes more defined
as the wave packet becomes smaller and smaller. The average value of wavelength in a
smaller wave packet is less well defined as the smaller wave packet contains less number
of waves. If wavelength l is not well defined, then momentum p = (h/l) cannot be well
defined. In summary, we observe that whenever the position of the particle is well defined,
its momentum becomes ill defined and vice versa!
Basing on these concepts, Werner Heisenberg in the year 1927 stated the uncertainty
principle. When Heisenberg first propounded the principle, his reasoning was based,
however, on the wave–particle duality of the photon. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is
one of the most significant natural laws.

7.7.1 Statement

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that it is not possible to make a simultaneous

determination of the position and the momentum of a particle with unlimited precision.
Mathematically, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is given by


∆x∆p ≥ (7.64)
2

(Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for linear momentum and position)

The other two uncertainty principles, mathematically, are as follows:


∆E ∆t ≥ . (7.65)
2

(Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for energy and time)

 (7.66)
∆J ∆θ ≥
2

(Heisenberg's uncertainty principle for angular momentum and angle)

In these relations
Dx = the uncertainty in measurement of the position of the particle.
Dp = the uncertainty in measurement of the momentum of the particle.
DE = the uncertainty in measurement of the energy of the particle.
Dt = the uncertainty in measurement of the time of the particle.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 599

DJ = the uncertainty in measurement of the total angular momentum of the particle.

Dq = the uncertainty in measurement of the angle made by the particle.

7.7.2 Explanation

According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, there is a limit to the precision with

which the position and the momentum of an object can be measured at the same time.
Depending upon the experimental conditions, either quantity can be measured as precisely
as desired at least in principle, but the more precisely one of the quantities is measured,
the less precisely the other is known. The uncertainty principle is significant only on the
atomic scale because of the small value of h. If the position of a macroscopic object of mass
one gram is measured with a precision of 10–6 m, the uncertainty principle states that its
speed cannot be measured with a precision better than about 10–25 m/s. Such a limitation
is hardly worrisome. However, if an electron is located in an atom about 10–10 m across,
the principle gives a minimum uncertainty in the speed of about 106 m/s. This reasoning
leading to the uncertainty principle is based on the wave–particle duality of the electron.
The limits on the measurement imposed by Eq. (7.64) have nothing to do with the crudity
of our measuring instruments.
The uncertainty in the momentum of the electron is proportional to the momentum
of the colliding photon, which is inversely proportional to the wavelength of the photon.
Hence, it is again the case that increased precision in the knowledge of the position of
the electron is gained only at the expense of decreased precision in knowledge of its
momentum. Heisenberg’s reasoning brings out clearly the fact that the smaller the particle
being observed, the more significant is the uncertainty principle.
Planck’s constant h probably appears no–where that has more deep-seated significance
than in Eq. (7.64). If this product had been zero instead of ħ/2, classical concepts about
energy, momentum, position, and so on of particles would be correct. It would then be
possible to measure both momentum and position simultaneously with unlimited precision.
The fact that h appears means classical concepts are not fully correct. The magnitude of
h tells up to what extent the classical concepts are correct and beyond what extent the
classical concepts must be replaced by quantum concepts.

7.7.3 Experimental illustration of the uncertainty principle

Due to the smallness in the value of Planck’s constant h, the effects of the uncertainty
principle are not observed in our day-to-day life. The smaller the particle being observed,
the more significant is the uncertainty principle. The small value of Planck’s constant
cannot stop us from doing some thought experiments on the uncertainty principle.
Electron diffraction by a single slit
Let a parallel beam of electron be incident perpendicularly on a single slit as shown in
Fig. 7.13.
600 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 7.13 Diffraction of electron beam by a single slit of width e. The uncertainty in position along
the Y-axis is e and the uncertainty in momentum along the Y-axis is 2p sin q.

When the electron beam passes through the slit of width e the maximum uncertainty in the
position Dy of the electron will be equal to the width of the slit. Hence, we have

Dy = e (7.67)

By applying Eq. (3.64), the position of the first minima of the diffraction pattern due to a
single slit is given by

e sin θ = λ (7.68)

As shown in Fig. 7.13, the Y-component of the momentum of the electron is ±p sin q. The
Y-component of the momentum of the electron cannot exceed the range from –p sin q to
+p sin q. Hence, when the electron beam passes through the slit, the maximum uncertainty
in the momentum along the Y-axis will be p sin q + p sin q = 2p sin q. Thus, we have

Dp = 2p sin q (7.69)

Multiplication of Eqs (7.67) and (7.69) gives

DyDp = e × 2p sin q (uncertainty product)

or DyDp = 2p(e sin q)

Putting the value of e sin q from Eq. (7.68) into this equation, we get

DyDp = 2pl
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 601

Putting the value of de Broglie’s wavelength from Eq. (7.41) into this equation, we get

h
∆y ∆
=p 2 p= 2h (7.70)
p

Equation (7.70) shows that the uncertainty product DyDp is of the order of Planck’s
constant h.

Heisenberg’s gamma ray microscope

To visualize the effects of the uncertainty principle, Heisenberg imagined a hypothetical

microscope as shown in Fig. 7.14 that utilizes g-rays as the probe. g- rays are electromagnetic
radiation like light having very short wavelengths.

Figure 7.14 Determination of the position of an electron using g - ray microscope. q is the angular
aperture of the microscope. The X-component of the momentum of electron will be p sin q

Through the g -ray microscope, electrons can be made visible. g -ray photons reflected by
the electron will enter the objective of the g -ray microscope through a cone of illumination.
This will make the electron visible when seen through the eye-piece. It is a well-known fact
that a microscope cannot resolve two points which are separated by a distance which is <
(l/2 sin q), where l is the wavelength of the radiation and q is the angular aperture of the
602 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

microscope. Hence, the maximum possible uncertainty in the position of an electron along
the X-axis is (l/2 sin q). Thus, we have
λ
∆x = (7.71)
2sin θ

Equation (7.71) shows that shorter the wavelengths (g -rays), smaller will be the uncertainty
in the position of the electron. However, a g -ray photon will suffer Compton recoil by the
electron. The recoil momentum will be h/l. Again for the electron to be visible through the
microscope, the reflected photon should be able to enter the microscope through an angle
of 2q. The X-component of the momentum of electron and hence, that of photon will be + p
sin q. The X-component of the momentum of the electron cannot exceed the range from –p sin
q to +p sin q. Hence, when the photon passes through the aperture, the maximum uncertainty
in the momentum along the X-axis will be p sin q + p sin q = 2p sin q. Thus, we have
2h
= sin θ
∆p 2 p= sin θ (7.72)
λ

Multiplication of Eqs (7.71) and (7.72) gives

λ 2h
∆=
x∆p × sin θ
2sin θ λ

or DxDp = h (7.73)

This is again in conformity with the uncertainty principle.

7.7.4 Applications of uncertainty principle

The uncertainty principle explains many experimental observations in the microscopic

world. It is worth keeping in mind that the lower limit ħ/2 of DxDp is rarely attained. In
general, DxDp ≥ ħ or even DxDp ≥ h. We will now cite a few applications of the uncertainty
principle.
Ground state energy of an harmonic oscillator
The total energy of a harmonic oscillator with motion constrained along the X-axis is given by

p2 1 (7.74)
=
E + mω 2 x 2
2m 2

In the ground state, uncertainties in momentum and positions, i.e., Dp and Dx are of the
order of their magnitudes. That means, Dp = p and Dx = x and the uncertainty principle
DxDp = (ħ/2) becomes

xp =
2
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 603


or p= (7.75)
2x

Putting Eq. (7.75) into Eq. (7.74), we have

2 1
=E 2
+ mω 2 x 2 (7.76)
8mx 2

Since the energy of the harmonic oscillator in the ground state is minimum, applying the
principle of minima functions to this equation, we have

dE
= 0 , where a is the value of x in ground state
dx x =a

Hence, for the minimum energy, we have

d  2 1 
 2
+ mω 2 x 2  = 0
dx  8mx 2  x =a

1
  2
or a=  (7.77)
 2mω 

From Eq. (7.76), energy is minimum when x = a, i.e.,

2 1
=
Emin 2
+ mω 2 a2 (7.78)
8ma 2

Putting the value of a from Eq. (7.77) into the above this equation, we get

2 2mω 1 
Emin = × + mω 2 ×
8m  2 2mω

1
or Emin = ω
2

According to classical physics, the ground state energy of a harmonic oscillator is zero,
whereas according to quantum mechanics, it is (1/2)ħw. The latter is in conformity with
the experimental result and other theoretical predictions.
604 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Ground state energy of the hydrogen atom

The total energy of a hydrogen atom in its ground state is given by E = Ek + Ep or

p2 e2
=
E −k (7.79)
2m x

In the ground state, uncertainties in momentum and positions, i.e., Dp and Dx are of the
order of their magnitudes. That means, Dp = p and Dx = x and the uncertainty principle
DxDp = ħ becomes

xp = ħ


or p= (7.80)
x

Putting Eq. (7.80) into Eq. (7.79), we have

2 e2
=E − k (7.81)
2mx 2 x

Since the energy of the hydrogen atom in the ground state is minimum applying the
principle of minima functions to this equation, we have

dE
= 0 , where a is the value of x in ground state
dx x =a

Hence, for the minimum energy, we have

d  2 ke 2 
 −  = 0
dx  2mx 2 x  x =a

2
or a= (7.82)
mke 2

Equation (7.82) gives the radius of the atom in the ground state and is equal to the radius
of the first orbit as calculated by applying Bohr’s theory in Eq. (7.55)
From Eq. (7.81), energy is minimum when x = a, i.e.,

2 e2
=
Emin − k (7.83)
2ma2 a
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 605

Putting the value of a from Eq. (7.82) into this equation, we get

2 m2 k 2 e 4 mke 2
Emin = × 4
− ke 2 2
2m  

mk 2 e 4 2π 2 mk 2 e 4
or Emin =
− 2
=
− (7.84)
2 h2

Equation (7.84) gives the minimum energy of the atom in the ground state and is equal to
the energy of the first orbit as calculated by applying Bohr’s theory in Eq. (7.56)
Absence of electrons in the nucleus
As electrons are emitted from the nucleus during radioactive b -decay, we may assume that
electrons exist inside a nucleus. If possible, let this assumption be correct.
The diameter of a typical nucleus is 1.0 × 10–14 m. Hence, the uncertainty in the position
of the electron will be

Dx = 1.0 × 10–14 m

Applying the uncertainty principle, DxDp = ħ, the uncertainty in momentum of the electron
will be


∆=
p = 1.054 × 10−20 Ns
1.0 × 10−14

If this is the uncertainty in the momentum of an electron inside a nucleus, the momentum
p itself must be at least comparable in magnitude. Thus, we can have

p = 1.054 × 10–20 Ns

An electron with such a momentum has kinetic energy Ek many times greater than its rest
energy m0c2; this kinetic energy is in the relativistic range. Applying the relativistic formula,
we have

Ek = Total energy – rest energy

or Ek = p2 c 2 + m02 c 4 − m0 c 2

= 3.2 × 10–12 – 8.2 × 10–14 J = 19.4 MeV

606 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Thus, the kinetic energy of an electron (mo = 9.11 × 10–31 kg) inside a typical nucleus is
19.4 MeV. The electrons emitted from the nucleus in radioactive b-decay typically have
kinetic energy of about 1 MeV, much smaller than the uncertainty principle requires for
electrons confined inside the nucleus. This calculation thus suggests that b-decay electrons
of such low energies cannot be confined in a region the size of the nucleus. The kinetic
energy of an electron must exceed 19.4 MeV if it is to be inside a nucleus.

7.8 Transition from Deterministic Classical Physics to

Probabilistic Quantum Physics
An essential feature of quantum physics is that it is generally impossible, even in principle,
to measure a system without disturbing it; the detailed nature of this disturbance and the
exact point at which it occurs are obscure and controversial. Thus, quantum mechanics
has attracted some of the ablest scientists of the 20th century, and they have erected what is
perhaps the finest intellectual edifice of the period.
The deterministic concept of classical physics loses its significance in quantum physics.
Unlike in classical physics, point particles are treated as wave packets in quantum physics.
De Broglie’s concepts of matter waves or Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle cannot be fit
into classical physics. Explanation of the natural phenomena in terms of quantum physics
necessitates the transition from deterministic classical physics to probabilistic quantum
physics
Classical physics is deterministic in nature though nature itself is not deterministic. If we
know the exact configuration of a system at present, we can predict the exact configuration
of the system in future. For example, if the initial position and speed of a particle are known
at present, its exact trajectory in future can be determined with help of the laws of classical
physics with cent percent precision. Due to the smallness in the value of Planck’s constant h,
the exact position and momentum of a particle in the macroscopic world can be predicted
in any later time by using the conditions prevalent at an earlier time. In the solar system,
the exact time period, speed and so on of different planets and their interactions producing
lunar and solar eclipses are predicted precisely.
According to classical physics, the exact trajectory of an electron can be determined.
However, experimental observations on electrons or any other atomic particles contradict
this classical concept. Even at t = 0, the exact position of an electron cannot be known as we
have seen in the case of a single slit diffraction of an electron. The position of the electron
is somewhere in the slit. In the language of probability, we can say that the probability of
the presence of the electron along the length of the slit is one, whereas the probability of
the presence of the electron at a particular point along the slit length is not one. Hence,
comes the uncertainty in position of the electron at t = 0 time. How can we know the exact
trajectory of the electron when we cannot even derermine the position of the electron at
initial time? We cannot say exactly where an individual electron will strike the screen. We
can only know the probability of arrival of the electron in a certain area of the screen.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 607

What does it mean when we say that the probability of arrival of an electron at a certain
spot on the screen is 50%? It means that out of a large number of similar electrons, only half
of the electrons will arrive at the spot. The language of probability in quantum mechanics is
same as that used in our day-to-day language. A surgeon who asserts that a patient has 70%
probability of surviving an operation means that with a large number of similar cases, 70%
of patients survive. The same language of probability is used in case of weather forecasting
in our day-to-day life.
In quantum physics, particles are represented by wave packets. Where is the particle
in the wave packet? A wave packet can be considered to be the superposition of a large
number of waves that which interfere constructively in the vicinity of the particle, giving
a resultant wave of large amplitude and interfere destructively far way from the particle
giving a resultant wave of small amplitude. Thus, the probability of finding the particle
is high, where the amplitude of the resultant wave is large; the probability of finding the
particle is less, where the amplitude of the resultant wave is small. When we say that the
wave packet is spread out in space, it does not mean that the particle itself is spread out in
space. If we say that the probability of the presence of an electron at a certain point in the
wave packet is 30%, it does not mean that 30% of the electron is at that point and the rest
70% of the electrons is at some other points. Therefore, we conclude that the probability of
finding the particle at any point depends on the amplitude of its de Broglie wave (matter
wave) at that point.
Intensity of a wave at a point

µ |amlitude of the wave at that poin|2 (Classical physics)

Probability of finding a particle at a point

µ |amlitude of matter wave at that poin|2 (Quantum physics)

This probabilistic description is the fundamental concept in quantum physics and is

achieved by defining the wave function.

7.9 Wave Function y

Matter waves are not real waves and therefore, cannot be represented by wave displacement.
In electromagnetic waves, the electric and magnetic field vary periodically. In sound waves,
the pressure varies periodically. In water waves, the height of the water surface varies
periodically. Similarly, what varies in matter waves? The quantity which varies in case of
the matter wave is the wave function y.
In classical physics, the wave function of classical waves like mechanical waves or
electromagnetic waves contains all the information about amplitude, speed and wavelength.
Similarly, the wave function of a matter wave contains all the information required for
the probabilistic description of a quantum mechanical system. However, unlike the wave
 608 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

function of classical waves, the wave function y of a matter wave has no direct physical
significance, whereas the square of the absolute value of the wave function |y |2 known as
the probability density has a direct physical significance.
We cannot describe the motion of a particle quantum mechanically by arbitrarily
defining a wave function. Only the wave functions with the following characteristics can
yield physically meaningful results when used in calculations. Only such well-behaved
wave functions are admissible as mathematical representations of real bodies.

7.9.1 Characteristics of the wave function of a matter wave

i. Wave functions are the mathematical representation of particles that contain all the
information required for the probabilistic description of the particles.
ii. The wave function y in general is a mathematical function of space and time, i.e.,
y = y (x, y, z, t). The wave function may be a function of the systems.
iii. The wave function y in general is complex so that y y * = | y |2, the probability density
is real.
iv. The wave function y must be continuous and single valued everywhere.
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
v. , and must be continuous and single valued everywhere.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∞
2
vi. =lim ψ 0,= lim ψ 0 and lim ψ = 0 so that ∫ ψ dv = N , N being a finite constant.
x →±∞ y →±∞ z →±∞
−∞

Under this condition, the wave function y is said to be normalizable.

vii. The wave function y must satisfy Schrödinger’s equation.

7.9.2 Probability density

The probability of finding the particle [described by the wave function y] per unit volume
is called probability density P and as discussed earlier is given by

P = y y * = |y|2 (7.85)

Hence, the probability of finding the particle in the volume dv will be

Pdv = |y|2 dv (7.86)

and
the probability of finding the particle in the entire volume will be given by
2
∫ Pdv = ∫ ψ
V V
dv (7.87)
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 609

2
For the particle described by the wave function, y if ∫ ψ dv = 0 , then surely the particle is
V
2
not present in the specified volume and if ∫ ψ dv = 1 , then surely the particle is present in
V
the specified volume. If the particle is confined to move in one dimension, say along the
X-axis, then y y * = |y|2 will be the probability of finding the particle per unit length and
|y|2 dx will be the probability of finding the particle in dx length. The probability of finding
the particle in between two points x1 and x2 , Px x will be given by
1 2
x2
2
Px1x2 = ∫
x1
ψ dx (7.88)

In this equation, y is the normalized wave function.

Example 7.16
A particle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L is described by the normalized wave
function
2 nπ x
ψ= sin .
L L
What is the probability that the particle is lying between 0.45 L and 0.50 L?
Solution
According to Eq. (7.88), the probability of finding the particle in between two points x1 and x2,
Px x in one dimension is given by
1 2

x2
2
Px1x2 = ∫
x1
ψ dx

0.5L
2 2 nπ x
or Px1x2 = ∫
0.45 L L
sin
L
dx ****

1 n −1
**** ∫ sin xdx = − sinn −1 cos x +
n ∫
sinn −2 dx and
n

n
1 n −1
∫ cos xdx = cosn −1 sin x +
n ∫
cosn −2 dx and
n

n
1 m −1
∫ sin sinm −1 cosn +1 x +
m+n ∫
sinm −2 cosn xdx
m
x cosn dx = −
m+n
1 n −1
∫ sin sinm +1 cosn −1 x −
m+n ∫
sinm cosn −2 xdx
m
x cosn xdx =
m+n
610 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

0.5 L
x 1 2nπ x  1  9π n 
=  − sin  =  sin − sin π n 
 L 2nπ L  0.45 L 40π n  10 

This equation shows that the probability of finding the particle in between two points
0.45 L to 0.50 L is a function of n. n = 1 corresponds to the ground state of the particle,
n = 2 corresponds to the first excited state of the particle, n = 3 corresponds to the third
state of the particle and so on.
The probability of finding the particle in the first excited state (n = 1) in between two
points 0.45 L to 0.50 L is 0.25%.

Example 7.17
A particle trapped in a one dimensional box of length L is described by the wave function
y = ax. What is the probability that the particle is lying between L1 and L2?
Solution
According to Eq. (7.88), the probability of finding the particle in between two points L1 and L2,
PL1L2 in one dimension is given by

L2
2
PL1L2 = ∫
L1
ψ dx

L2 L2
 a2 x 3  a2 3
or=
PL1L2 ∫
2
a=
x dx  =2
 L2 − L31 ( )
L1  3  L1 3

Example 7.18

8 π π
The normalized wave function for a certain particle is ψ = cos2 x for − < x < .
3π π 2 2
Calculate the probability that the particle can be found between x = 0 and x = .
4
Solution
According to Eq. (7.88), the probability of finding the particle in between two points x1 and
x2, Px x is given by
1 2

x2
2
Px1x2 = ∫
x1
ψ dx

π π
4 4
8 8
or P ∫ cos 4 xdx = ∫ cos
4
π = xdx
0−
4 0 3π 3π 0
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 611

2 1
= + = 0.462
3π 4
π
Thus, the probability that the particle be found between x = 0 and x = is calculated to be
0.462 or 46.2%. 4

7.9.3 Dimensional analysis of a wave function

The probability of finding the particle described by the wave function y is a dimensionless
quantity. If the wave function y describes a particle moving in space, then |y |2 is the
probability of finding the particle per unit volume, i.e., probability/volume. Hence, the
dimension of probability/volume must be L–3, Therefore,

2 Probability
ψ =
Volume

must have the dimension of L–3, i.e.,

The dimension of |y |2 is L–3
3
−
Hence, the dimension of |y | must be L 2 when the wave function y describes a moving
particle in space, i.e., the dimension of a three-dimensional wave function describing a
3
−
particle moving in space is L 2 .
If the particle is confined to move in a plane, i.e., in two dimensions, then yy*= |y |2 will
be the probability of finding the particle per unit area. Hence,

2 Probability
ψ =
Area

must have the dimension of L–2, i.e.,

The dimension of |y |2 is L–2
Therefore, the dimension of |y | must be L–1 when the wave function y describes a particle
moving on a plane, i.e., the dimension of a two-dimensional wave function describing a
particle moving on a plane is L–1
If the particle is confined to move in one dimension, then yy*= | y |2 will be the
probability of finding the particle per unit length. Hence,

2 Probability
ψ =
Length

must have the dimension of L–1, i.e.,

The dimension of |y |2 is L–1
612 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1
−
Therefore, the dimension of |y | must be L 2 when the wave function y describes a
moving particle in a line, i.e., the dimension of a one-dimensional wave function describing
1
−
a particle moving in a line is L 2

7.10 Superposition Principle

Schrödinger’s equation is a linear second order differential equation. Hence, if y1, y2, y3,
…, yn are n solutions of Schrödinger’s equation, then their linear combination, i.e., a1y1 +
a2y2 + a3y3 + …… + anyn will be a solution of Schrödinger’s equation. This is an inherent
property of the differential equation. The solutions of Schrödinger’s equation are called
wave functions. Hence, y = a1y1 + a2y2 + a3y3 + …… + anyn is a wave function satisfying
Schrödinger’s equation. Thus, the wave functions y1, y2, y3, …, yn obey the superposition
principle. |ai|2 is the probability of the system being in a state defined by the wave function
yi. For a given system, the possible allowed states are obtained by solving Schrödinger’s
equation with appropriate boundary conditions.

7.11 Normalization
Two wave functions differing only by a constant factor describe identical systems. The
particle which is described by the wave function y must be inside the region of our study.
2 2
This means ∫ ψ dv = 1. If ∫ ψ dv ≠ 1 , we can multiply the wave function y by a constant
V V 2
N to obtain another wave function y1, describing an identical system so that
V
∫ψ 1 dv = 1,

where y1 = Ny
2
∫ Nψ
V
dv = 1

1
N=
or 2 (7.89)
∫ψ
V
dv

The constant N is called the normalization constant. The wave function y is said to be a
2
normalized wave function if ∫ ψ dv = 1.
V

7.11.1 Procedures for calculation of the normalization constant

In quantum mechanics, the following procedures are followed to determine the

normalization constant of any wave function y.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 613

2
i. Evaluate ∫ ψ dv
V

ii. The square root of the reciprocal of the result of (i) is the normalization constant.
To make the procedure clear, let us consider the case of evaluating the normalization
constants of the following wave functions.
nπ
Let the wave function y = sin qx with q = describe a particle in a one-dimensional
L
box of length L. Now we shall normalize the wave function y = sin qx so that the particle
is inside the box.
L
2
i. Evaluation of ∫ ψ dx
0

L L L
2 1 L 1
∫ ψ dx
=
0
∫=
0
sin2 qxdx ∫
2q 0
(1 − cos 2qx )d(qx ) =− sin 2qL
2 4q

nπ
Putting the value of q = into this equation, we have
L

L
2 L L  nπ  L
∫ψ
0
dx = −
2 4nπ
sin  2 L  =
 L  2

ii. The square root of the reciprocal of the result obtained is the normalization constant.
Thus, the normalization constant is 2 and the normalized wave function is
L
2  nπ 
ψ= sin  x
L  L 

Example 7.19
A particle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L is described by the wave function
y = x. Normalize the wave function between a and b.
Solution
b
2
i. Evaluation of ∫ψ
a
dx

b b
2 1 3 3
∫ψ =
dx ∫ x= 2
dx (b − a )
a a 3
614 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

ii. The square root of the reciprocal of this result is the normalization constant. Thus, the
3
normalization constant is and the normalized wave function is
b − a3
3

3
ψ= x
b − a3
3

Example 7.20
 x2 
=
Evaluate the normalization constant N of the wave function ψ Nx exp  − .
 2 
Solution
Our aim is to determine N so that particle exists in the space from –∞ to +∞, i.e.,

∞
2
∫ψ
−∞
dx = 1

∞ ∞ ∞
2
∫= ∫ N 2 x 2 e − x dx = 2N 2 ∫ x 2 e − x dx *****
2 2
or 1
= ψ dx
−∞ −∞ 0

This integral is evaluated by applying the gamma function in the following way.

1 −1
Let x2 = u so that x = u , and dx = u 2 du
2
This integral becomes

∞ ∞ 1 ∞ 1 ∞ 3
2 1 − −1
∫ ψ dx = 2N ∫ ue u 2 du = N ∫ u 2 e du = N ∫ u 2 e du
2 −u 2 −u 2 −u

−∞ 0 2 0 0

3  1 1 1 1
=N 2 Γ   =N 2 Γ  1 +  =N 2 × 1 × Γ   =N 2 π
2  2 2 2 2

π
Thus, we have N 2 =1
2

1
2 −
or =
N =
1
2π 4

π4
n
***** +∞ Π(2n − 1) π
∫x
2n − ax 2
e dx = 1 2
−∞ 2 a
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 615

Hence, the normalized wave function is given by

−
1
 x2 
ψ = 2π 4 x exp  − .
 2 

Example 7.21
π π
The wave function for a certain particle is y = A cos2 x for − <x< . Find the value of A.
2 2
Solution
π π
2 2

∫π A2 cos 4 xdx = A2 ∫π cos

4
1= xdx
− −
2 2

π
 cos2 x sin 2 x 3sin 2 x 3x  2 3π
= A2  + +=  A2
 8 16 8 − π 8
2

8
Thus, A = . The normalized wave function for this particle will be
3π

8 π π
ψ= cos2 x for − <x< .
3π 2 2

Example 7.22
Normalize the wave function y = e–r/a0 for a ground state hydrogen atom (Actually a0 is the
average value of r.)
Solution
2
i. Evaluation of ∫ψ
V
dv

∞ ∞ ∞
2
∫ ψ dv = ∫ e 4π r dr = 4π ∫ r e dr
−2 r / a 2 2 −2 r / a
o o

0 0 0

This integral is evaluated by applying the gamma function in the following way.

2r a a
Let = u so that r = o u, and dr = o du
ao 2 2
616 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

This integral becomes

∞ ∞
2 ao2 2 − u ao a3 ∞
∫ ψ dv = 4π ∫
0 0 4
ue
2
= 4π × o ∫ u 2 e − u du
du
8 0

π ao3 ∞
π ao3 π ao3
∫ u e du =
3 −1 − u
= Γ(3) = × 2!
2 0 2 2

ii. The square root of the reciprocal of this result is the normalization constant. Thus, the
1
normalization constant is and the normalized wave function is
π ao3
1
ψ= e − r /ao
πa 3
o

Example 7.23
 x2 
The wave function given by ψ = exp  − 2
+ ikx  describes a free particle in one dimension.
 2a 
Normalize this wave function.
Solution
2
i. Evaluation of
V
∫ψ dv

∞ ∞ ∞ x2 x2 ∞ x2 ∞ x2
2 − + ikx − −ikx − −

∫=
ψ dx ∫=
ψψ dx ∫ e ∫=
e dx 2 ∫ e
* 2 a2
e =dx 2 a2 a2 a2
dx
−∞ −∞ −∞ −∞ 0

This integral is evaluated by applying the gamma function in the following way.

1
a −
Let x 2 = a2 u so that x = a u , and dx = u 2 du
2

This integral becomes

∞ ∞ x2 ∞ ∞
2 − a −1 1
−1 1
∫ ψ dx =
−∞
2∫ e
0
a2
2 ∫ e − u u 2 du =
dx =
0
2
a ∫ u 2 e − u du =
0 2
a π
aΓ   =
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 617

ii. The square root of the reciprocal of this above result is the normalization constant. Thus,
1
the normalization constant is and the normalized wave function is
a π
1  x2 
=ψ exp  − 2 + ikx 
a π  2a 

7.12 Observables and Operators

Any dynamical quantity like position coordinates, energy, linear momentum, angular
momentum and so on that can be observed or measured is known as an observable. To
each observable, there is an operator. Let D be an operator. It operates on x3 and is written
as Dx3. If the result of Dx3 is 3x2, i.e., Dx3 = 3x2 then D is called a differential operator.
If the operator A satisfies the rule A(a1y1 + a2y2) = a1Ay1 + a2Ay2, the operator A is
said to be a linear operator. In quantum mechanics, operators are linear. Every observable
quantity of a physical system may be represented by a suitable quantum mechanical
operator. Operators corresponding to some observables are given in the following table.

Observables and Operators in Three and One dimensions

Observables Operators in three Operators in one

dimensions dimensions
Total energy (E) ∂ ∂
i i
∂t ∂t

Linear momentum (p) 

−i∇ ∂
−i
∂x

 p2  2 2 2 ∂ 2
Kinetic energy   − ∇ −
 2m  2m 2m ∂x 2

Position r x
Potential energy (V) V V
Hamiltonian (H) (Total energy in terms of
2 2 2 ∂ 2
coordinates and momenta only) − ∇ +V − +V
2m 2m ∂x 2
 618 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

7.13 Eigenvalues
The eigenvalues of a physical quantity of a given system are defined as the set of permitted
values of the physical quantity of the given system. For example, an electron in the hydrogen
atom has a number of permitted energy levels given by

2π 2 mk 2 e 4
En = − .
h 2 n2

These energy levels of the electron in the hydrogen atoms are called energy eigenvalues of
the electron in the hydrogen atom. The energy eigenvalues of a harmonic oscillator is given
by

 1
E=
n  n + 2  ωo .
 

The momentum eigenvalues of a particle trapped in a one-dimensional potential box of

length L is given by

nπ 
pn = ± .
L

In case of hydrogen atom, the total angular momentum eigenvalues are given by
=L ( + 1)  with ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, (n – 1). To every physical quantity, there is a set of
eigenvalues. Therefore, eigenvalues are real quantities. The eigenvalues may be discrete as
the energy eigenvalues of an electron in the hydrogen atom or may be continuous as in the
eigenvalues of free particles.

7.14 Eigenfunctions
The solutions of Schrödinger’s equation yn for a physical system are called eigenfunctions.
The actual wave function representing the given physical system is the linear combination of
these eigenfunctions. If y1, y2, y3, …, yn are the eigenfunctions of a system with coefficients
a1, a2, a3, …, an then the wave function y representing the given physical system is given by

y = a1y1 + a2y2 + a3y3 + … + anyn (7.90)

The squares of the coefficients give the relative probabilities of the corresponding eigenstates.
This means |ai|2 is the relative probability that the system is in the state represented by the
wave function yi.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 619

Example 7.24
2 1 3 1
If , , , and are the probabilities that the system are in the four states represented
5 5 10 10
by eigenfunctions y1, y2, y3, and y4 respectively, what is the wave function of the system?
Solution
According to Eq. (7.90), the wave function y representing the given physical system is
given by

y = a1y1 + a2y2 + a3y3 + … + anyn (A)

2 1 3 1
=
According to the question, a1 = , a2 = , a3 and a4 =
5 5 10 10

Putting the values of a1, a2, a3 and a4 into Eq. (A), we obtain the wave function of the system as

2 1 3 1
ψ= ψ1 + ψ 2 + ψ3 + ψ4
5 5 10 10

7.15 Operators, Eigenfunctions and Eigenvalues

For some physically meaningful function y, it may happen that

Ay = ay (7.91)

where A is an operator and a in general may be complex. In Eq. (7.91) y is the eigenfunction
of the operator A, a is the eigenvalue of the operator A associated with eigenfunction y.
Equation (7.91) is called the eigenvalue equation.
The eigenvalue equation for the momentum operator is

 dψ
= pψ (7.92)
i dx

where y = momentum eigenfunction and p, a real number = momentum eigenvalues.

From Eq. (7.92), we can have

dψ i
= pdx
ψ 
620 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Integrating both sides of this equation, we have

i
nψ
= px + nc


i
px
or ψ = ce 

i
1 1 px
where c = normalization constant = . The normalized wave function ψ = e
2π   ∂ψ 2π 
satisfies the eigenvalue equation for the momentum operator = pψ . Hence, the
i i ∂x
1 px
normalized wave function of the particle ψ = e  is the eigenfunction of the
momentum operator. 2π 

Let us now calculate the momentum eigenfunction and momentum eigenvalues of a

particle trapped in a one dimensional box of length L. As we know, this particle is described
2 nπ x
by the normalized wave function ψ = sin . We can express this normalized wave
L L
2 nπ x
function ψ = sin in an alternate way as
L L

2 nπ x 1 2  inLπ x − inLπ x 
ψ= sin = e −e 
L L 2i L  

1 2 inLπ x 1 2 − inLπ x
= e − e
2i L 2i L

or ψ
= ψ n+ −ψ n−

where

1 2 inLπ x
ψ n+ = e
2i L

1 2 − inLπ x
ψ n− = e
2i L

These normalized wave functions ψ n+ and ψ n− satisfy the eigenvalue equation for momentum
 ∂ψ nπ  1 2 inLπ x 1 2 − inLπ x
operator = pψ with p = ± . Therefore, ψ n+ = e and ψ n− = e are
i ∂x L 2i L 2i L
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 621

nπ 
called momentum eigenfunctions and p = ± are the momentum eigenvalues for the
L
trapped particle. The energy eigenvalues of the trapped particle will be

p 2 n2 π 2  2
=
E = (Energy eigenvalues)
2m 2mL2

Example 7.25
d
Find the eigenfunction for the operator x + .
dx
Solution
d
The eigenvalue equation for the operator x + is given by
dx
 d 
 x + dx ψ =
αψ
 

where y is the eigenfunction and a is the eigenvalue. From this equation, we have

dψ
xψ + αψ
=
dx

dψ
or = (α − x )ψ
dx

dψ
or = (α − x )dx
ψ
Integrating both sides of this equation, we get

x2
nψ = α x − + nc, nc is the constant of integration.
2

ψ x2
or  n = α x −
c 2

x2
αx−
or ψ = ce 2
622 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 7.26
The normalized wave function of a particle is y = Ae–ikx. Calculate the energy eigenvalue of
the particle.
Solution

dψ d
Now = Ae −ikx = (−ik)ψ
(−ik)Ae −ikx =
dx dx
dψ
Thus, we have = (−ik )ψ
dx

 dψ
or = (−k)ψ
i dx
Comparing this equation with the eigenvalue equation for the momentum operator as given
in Eq. (7.81), we get the momentum eigenvalue of the particle as

p = –ħk

The energy eigenvalue of the particle will be given by

p2 2 k 2
=
E =
2m 2m

7.16 Expectation Value

The deterministic concept of classical physics loses its significance in quantum physics. In
quantum physics, every system is described in a probabilistic manner. Different eigenvalues
of a physical quantity occur with different relative probabilities. The experimental value
of a physical quantity may not be equal to any one of the eigenvalues; the experimental
value of the physical quantity is equal to the weighted average of the eigenvalues with
their relative probabilities. The expectation value of the physical quantity is defined as the
weighted average of the eigenvalues with their relative probabilities.
To make the procedure clear, let us consider the case of finding the average location of
a particle by measuring its x-coordinate a number of times. The observation is given in
following table.

X-coordinates of the position of The number of times the X-coordinates comes out,
the particle i.e., weights of the measurements
x1 N1
x2 N2
x3 N3
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 623

………… …………
………… …………
xn Nn

From this table, the expectation value or the average value of the X-coordinates is
n

N1 x1 + N 2 x2 + N 3 x1 +…+ N n xn ∑N x i i
x = = i =1
n (7.93)
N1 + N 2 + N 3 +…+ N n
∑N
i =1
i

The number of times, Ni that we measure each xi is proportional to the probability

P(xi)dx of finding the particle in the interval dx about xi. Making this substitution in Eq. (7.93)
and changing sums into integration, we have
+∞ +∞
2
∫ P (x )xdx ∫ψ xdx
x = −∞
+∞
= −∞
+∞
2
∫
−∞
P (x )dx ∫
−∞
ψ dx

+∞

∫ψ xψ dx
∗

or x = −∞
+∞
(7.94)
∫ ψ ψ dx
∗

−∞

+∞ +∞
2
For a normalized wave function, ∫=
ψ dx ∫=
ψ ψ dx ∗
1. Hence, expression (9.94) becomes
−∞ −∞

+∞
x = ∫ ψ * xψ dx (7.95)
−∞

This expression gives the expectation value or average value of the position of the
particle. Similarly, the expectation value or average value of any function of x, f(x) is
given by
+∞
f (x ) = ∫ ψ * f (x )ψ dx
−∞

The expectation value of momentum p in one dimension is given by

+∞
 dψ 
∫ψ
*
=p  −i dx  dx (7.96)
−∞  
624 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The expectation value of momentum p in three dimensions is given by

+∞

∫ψ (−i∇ψ )dr
*
=
p (7.97)
−∞

The expectation value of potential energy V in one dimension is given by

+∞
V = ∫ ψ *Vψ dx (7.98)
−∞

The expectation value of potential energy V in three dimensions is given by

+∞
V = ∫ ψ *Vψ dr (7.99)
−∞

p2
The expectation value of kinetic energy in one dimension is given by
2m

+∞
p2  2 ∂ 2 
∫ψ − ψ dx
*
= 2 (7.100)
2m −∞  2m ∂x 

p2
The expectation value of kinetic energy in three dimensions is given by
2m

+∞
p2  2 2  (7.101)
∫ψ − ∇ ψ dr
*
=
2m −∞  2m 

The expectation value of total energy E in one dimension is given by

+∞
 ∂
E = ∫ ψ *  i ψ dx (7.102)
−∞  ∂t 

The expectation value of total energy E in three dimensions is given by

+∞
 ∂
E = ∫ ψ *  i ψ dr
−∞  ∂t 
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 625

If |a1|2, |a2|2, |a3|2, … and |an|2 are the probabilities that the system be in the states represented
by eigenfunctions y1, y2, y3, … and yn respectively, then the wave function of the system
will be given by

y = a1y1 + a2y2 + a3y3 + … + anyn. (7.103)

If |a1|2, |a2|2, |a3|2, … and |an|2 are the probabilities that the system be in the states y1, y2, y3,
… and yn respectively having energy eigenvalues E1, E2, E3, … and En respectively, then the
energy expectation value of the system will be given by
2 2 2 2
=
E a1 E1 + a2 E2 + a3 E3 +…+ an En . (7.104)

Example 7.27

1 1 3
, and are the probabilities that the system be in the three states having energy
2 5 10
eigenvalues 4 eV, 6 eV and 9 eV respectively. What is the energy expectation value of the
system?
Solution
According to Eq. (7.104), the energy expectation value of the system is given by

2 2 2 2
=
E a1 E1 + a2 E2 + a3 E3 +…+ an En (A)

2 1 2 1 2 3
According to the question,
= a1 =, a2 and a3 =
2 5 10

Putting these values of a1, a2 and a3 into Eq. (A), we obtain the energy expectation value of the
system as

4 eV 6 eV 3
E= + + × 9 eV= 5.9 eV
2 5 10

7.16.1 Procedures for calculation of the expectation value

In quantum mechanics, the following procedures are followed to determine the expectation
value of any physical quantity.
i. Replace the physical quantity by its operator.
ii. Operator operates on y.
iii. y * is pre-multiplied on the result of (ii).
 626 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

iv. Integration of the result of (iii) over the given space gives the expectation value of the
physical quantity.
To make the procedure clear, let us consider the case of finding the expectation value of
square of the momentum p2 in one dimension.
∂2
i. The operator representation of p2 is −2 .
∂x 2
2 ∂ψ
2
∂2
ii. The operator −2 operates on y. The result is −  .
∂x 2 ∂x 2
∂ 2ψ 2 ∂ψ
2
2 ∗ ∂ψ
2
iii. − 2 is pre-multiplied by y *
. The result is ψ ∗
× −  = −  ψ
∂x 2 ∂x 2 ∂x 2
iv. The expectation value of the square of the momentum p2 in one-dimension is
+∞
∂ 2ψ
p2 = − 2 ∫ ψ * dx
−∞ ∂x 2

In analogy with the definition of the standard deviation in statistics, uncertainties in

position and momentum are defined respectively as
1

{ }
1
2 2
∆x= (x − x )2 2= x2 − x (7.105)

{p }
1
2 2 2 2 2
∆p= (p − p ) = − p (7.106)

Example 7.28
A particle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L is described by the normalized wave
function y = ax. What is the expectation value of the particle’s position x ?
Solution
The expectation value of the particle’s position < x > when the particle is described by a
normalized wave function is given according to Eq. (7.95) by

+∞
x = ∫ ψ * xψ dx
−∞

L L L
x4
Hence, we have x = ∫ ax × x × axdx= ∫ a x dx= a 2 3 2

0 0 4 o
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 627

a2 4
or x = L
4

Example 7.29

2 nπ x
The normalized wave function ψ = sin describes a particle in a one dimensional box
L L
of length L. What is the expectation value of the particle’s position x ?
Solution
The expectation value of the particle’s position x when the particle is described by a
normalized wave function is given according to Eq. (7.95) by

+∞
x = ∫ ψ * xψ dx
−∞

Hence, we have

L L
2 nπ x 2 nπ x 2 nπ x
=x ∫
0 L
sin
L
×x×
L
sin
L
dx = ∫ x sin2
L0 L
dx

L
2  x2 L 2nπ x L2 2π nx  2  L2 
=  − x sin − 2 2 cos  =  
L  4 4π n L 8π n L 0 L 4 

L
or x =
2

Example 7.30
The normalized wave function given by

2  x2 
=ψ x exp  − 
π 1/4
 2 
describes a particle in a one-dimensional box of length L. What is the expectation value of the
particle’s position x ?
Solution
The expectation value of the particle’s position x when the particle is described by a
normalized wave function is given according to Eq. (7.95) by
+∞
x = ∫ ψ * xψ dx
−∞
628 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Hence, we have

L x2 2
L
2 − 2 − x2 2
∫ ∫ xe
− x2
=x e 2
×x× =e dx dx
0 π π π 0

1 − 12
In this integral, let x2 = u so=
that x =
u , dx u du . Then integral becomes
2
L1 L
2 1 − 12 2 2
x = ∫
π 0
u 2 −u
e
2
u= du
π
∫ e=
du −u

π
(1 − e ) −L

The expectation value of the particle’s position x is obtained as

2
=x
π
(1 − e ) −L

Example 7.31
2 π π
The normalized wave function for a certain particle is ψ = cos x for − < x < . What
π 2 2
is the expectation value of the particle’s position x ?
Solution
The expectation value of the particle’s position x when the particle is described by a
normalized wave function is given according to Eq. (7.95) by
+∞

∫ψ xψ dx
*
x =
−∞

Hence, we have

π π
2 2
2 2 2
∫π ∫π x cos
2
=x cos x × x × = cos xdx xdx ******
π π π
− −
2 2

π
2  x sin 2 x cos 2 x x 2  2 21
or x =  + +  =   = 0.16
π 4 8 4  −π π  4 
2

uvdx u ∫ vdx − ∫ ( ∫ vdx ) dx

****** du
∫= dx
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 629

Example 7.32
The normalized wave function for ground state 2s electron in the hydrogen atom is given as
r
1  r  − 2a 1
=ψ  2 −  e o . Calculate .
4 2π ao 
3 ao  r

Solution
1
The expectation value when a particle is described by a normalized wave function is
r
given according to Eq. (7.95) by

∞
1 1
∫ψ  r ψ dV
*
=
r 0  

Hence, we have

r r
1
∞
1  r  − 2ao 1 1  r  − 2ao
∫  e 4π r dr
2
=  2− e r  2 −
r 0 4 2π ao 
3 ao    4 2π ao3  ao 

2 r r
1  r  − 1  r 2 4r  −
∞ ∞

3 ∫ 3 ∫
= 2 −  e ao=
rdr 4 + 2 −  e ao rdr
8ao 0  ao  8ao 0  ao ao 

1  
∞ r ∞ r ∞ r
−
1 −
4 −

3  ∫ ∫r e ∫r e
ao 3 ao 2 ao
=  4 re dr + 2 dr − dr 
8a0  0 a0 a0 
0 0 

The integrals in the RHS of this expression are evaluated by applying the gamma function.
Thus, we get

1 1  2 1 4 4 3 1
=  4a0 + 2 6a0 − 2a0 =
r 8a03  a0 a0  a0

Example 7.33
The normalized wave function given by

1  x2 
=ψ exp  − 2 + ikx 
a π  2a 
630 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

describes a free particle in one dimension. In what region of space is the particle most likely
found?
Solution
The expectation value of the particle’s position x when the particle is described by a
normalized wave function is given according Eq. (7.95) by

+∞

∫ψ xψ dx
*
x =
−∞

Hence, we have

∞ x2 x2 ∞ x2
1 − −ikx 1 − + ikx 1 −
x = ∫ e 2 a2
×x× e 2 a2
dx =
a π
∫ xe a2
dx
−∞ a π a π −∞

x2 ∞ x2
− −
The integrand in the RHS xe a2
is an odd function******* of x. Hence, we have ∫ xe a2
dx = 0.
Thus, we have −∞

1
x= ×=
0 0
a π
The most expected value of the position of the particle x is zero. Thus, we can say that the
particle is most likely found in the region on either side of the origin x = 0.

Example 7.34
The normalized wave function given by

1  x2 
=ψ exp  − 2 + ikx 
a π  2a 

describes a free particle in one dimension. What is the expectation value of the momentum
of the particle?

******* A function f(x) is said to be odd if f(–x) = –f(x). A function f(x) is said to be even
if f(–x) = f (x). For odd functions,
+a

∫
−a
f (x )dx = 0

and for even functions,

+a +a

∫
−a
f (x )dx = 2 ∫ f (x )dx
0
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 631

Solution
∂
The momentum operator in one dimension is −i .
∂x
The expectation value of the particle’s momentum p when the particle is described by a
normalized wave function is given according to Eq. (7.96) by

+∞
 dψ 
∫ψ
*
=p  −i dx  dx
−∞  

Hence, we have

x2  −i − x 2 +ikx  
2
∞
1 − −ikx x 
p = ∫ e 2 a2 
 a π
e 2a   ik − 2  dx
 a 
−∞ a π  

2
∞ −x ∞ x2
−i i −
=
a π
∫e
−∞
a2
ikdx +
a3 π
∫ xe
−∞
a2
dx

x2
−
The integrand in the second integration of the RHS of this equation xe a2
is an odd function
∞ x2
−
of x. Hence, we have ∫ xe
−∞
a2
dx = 0. Therefore,

∞ x2
2k −
p =
a π
∫e
0
a2
dx

1 − 12
In this integral, let x2 = u so=
that x =
u , dx u du . Then the integral becomes
2
∞ 1 1 ∞
2 k −u a
− k −1 k  1 
p = ∫
a π 0
e
2
u 2
du = ∫
π 0
u 2
e − u du = Γ   = k
π 2

Example 7.35
A particle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L is described by the normalized wave
function

2 nπ x
ψ= sin .
L L

What is the expectation value of momentum of the particle?

632 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
∂
The momentum operator in one dimension is −i .
∂x
The expectation value of the particle’s momentum p when the particle is described by a
normalized wave function is given according to Eq. (7.96) by

+∞
 dψ 
∫ψ
*
=p  −i dx  dx
−∞  

Hence, we have

nπ x  nπ x 
L
2 2 nπ
p =∫ sin  −i cos  dx
0 L L  L L L 

L
2 nπ x nπ x nπ
= −i
L0∫ sin
L
cos
L L
dx

L
i  2nπ x  i
=  cos =  (cos 2nπ − cos
= 0) 0
2L  L  0 2L

Thus, we have p = 0
Therefore, the expectation value of the particle’s momentum p described by the normalized
2 nπ x
wave function ψ = sin is zero. Incredible! (Why?)
L L

7.17 Schrödinger’s Equation

Newton’s second law of motion is the fundamental equation in classical mechanics. In the
same sense, Schrödinger’s equation, a wave equation in the variable y, is the fundamental
equation in quantum mechanics. Schrödinger’s wave equation is a basic principle that
cannot be derived from anything else.

7.17.1 Schrödinger’s time-dependent equation

Schrödinger’s time-dependent non-relativistic equation in three dimensions is written as

∂ψ 2 2
i =
− ∇ ψ + Vψ (7.107)
∂t 2m
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 633

2m ∂ψ 2m
or ∇2ψ + i − Vψ =
0 (7.108)
 ∂t 2

In one-dimension when the particle is constrained to move along the X-axis Eqs (7.107)
and (7.108) becomes respectively

∂ψ 2 ∂ 2ψ (7.109)
i =
− + Vψ
∂t 2m ∂x 2

∂ 2ψ 2m ∂ψ 2m
and 2
+i − Vψ =
0 (7.110)
∂x  ∂t 2

Potential energy in general is a function of position as well as time. If the potential energy
function V is known, Eq. (7.110) can be solved for the particle wave function y. From the
wave function y, all the information about the particle can be derived. For a freely moving
particle, V = 0.
Newton’s second law of motion F = ma, the basic principle of classical mechanics can
be derived from Schrödinger’s time-dependent non-relativistic equation provided the
quantities it relates are the expectation values rather than the precise values.

7.17.2 Schrödinger’s time-independent equation

In lot of real problems, potential energy is a function of position only and does not depend
upon time. Schrödinger’s time-independent equation is called the steady state equation.
Schrödinger’s steady state non-relativistic equation in three dimension is written as

2m
∇2ψ + (E − V )ψ =
0 (7.111)
2
where
E = non-relativistic total energy.

V = potential energy

In one dimension, say, if a particle is constrained to move along the X-axis, Eq. (7.111) becomes

∂ 2ψ 2m
+ (E − V )ψ =
0
∂x 2 2 (7.112)

When Schrödinger’s steady state non-relativistic Eq. (7.111) or (7.112) is solved for a given
system, one gets a group of solutions. These solutions yn are called eigenfunctions. The
the corresponding total energies En are called eigenvalues. Schrödinger’s time-independent
equation is applicable to stationary states.
634 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

In this discussion, we have not tried to derive Schrödinger’s wave equation. It is

impossible. At best, we can verify Schrödinger’s wave equation by taking the known wave
function of a system. Schrödinger’s wave equation cannot be derived from other basic
principles of physics; it is a basic principle itself.

7.17.3 Newton’s equation and Schrödinger’s equation

Newton’s equation Schrödinger’s equation

d2 x ∂ 2ψ 2m
m =F + (E − V )ψ =
0
dt 2 ∂x 2 2

∂ψ 2 ∂ 2ψ
i =
− + Vψ
∂t 2m ∂x 2
The particle is subject to different forces The particle is subject to different potential
energies
The basic behavior of a particle is obtained by The basic behavior of a particle is obtained by
solving Newton’s equation of motion. solving Schrödinger’s equation.
The position of a particle is continuous across The wave function y of a particle is continuous
the interface; speed is also continuous as long as ∂ψ
across the interface; is also continuous
forces remain finite. ∂x
as long as change in potential energy remains
finite.

Questions

7.1 What phenomena led to the discovery of quantum physics?

7.2 What are the failures of classical physics?
7.3 What is the relation between quantum physics and classical physics?
7.4 Explain the statement: All natural laws belong to quantum physics.
7.5 Give few phenomena where waves behave like particles.
7.6 Give few phenomena where particles behave like waves.
7.7 What is blackbody?
7.8 What is blackbody radiation?
7.9 What is spectrum?
7.10 What are Planck’s postulates regarding blackbody radiation?
7.11 What is Planck’s radiation law?
7.12 Derive Planck’s radiation law in terms of frequency of the radiation.
7.13 Derive Planck’s radiation law in terms of wavelength of the radiation.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 635

7.14 What is Wien’s radiation law? Derive Wien’s radiation law from Planck’s radiation formula.
7.15 What is Wien’s displacement law? Derive Wien’s displacement law from Planck’s
radiation formula.
7.16 What is Rayleigh–Jean’s law? Derive Rayleigh–Jean’s radiation law from Planck’s
radiation formula.
7.17 What is Stefan’s law? Derive Stefan’s radiation law from Planck’s radiation formula.
7.18 Why is quantization of energy not observed in everyday life?
7.19 What is photoelectric effect? What are the laws of photoelectric effect?
7.20 Give Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect.
7.21 What do you mean by work function of a metal? Derive an expression for it.
7.22 What do you mean by stopping potential of a metal? Derive an expression for it.
7.23 What do you mean by threshold frequency of a metal? Derive an expression for it.
7.24 Explain an experiment to determine Planck’s constant.
7.25 Plot the variation of photoelectric current with anode potential.
7.26 Plot the variation of photoelectric current with intensity of incident light.
7.27 Plot the variation of photoelectric current with anode potential for different
frequencies of the incident light.
7.28 What is Compton effect? Explain how the classical concept failed in explaining
Compton effect.
7.29 Explain why the frequency of the scattered photon is less than that of the incident
photon in case of Compton scattering.
7.30 What is Compton shift? Derive an expression for it.
7.31 What are the factors on which the Compton shift depends on?
7.32 What do you mean by the Compton wavelength of a scattered particle? What are the
factors on which the Compton wavelength depends on?
7.33 Derive an expression for the wavelength of the scattered photon in the Compton
effect.
7.34 Explain the phenomenon of pair production.
7.35 Explain why pair production is not possible in vacuum.
7.36 What are the characteristics of a photon?
7.37 What are the physical quantities that characterizes particle phenomenon?
7.38 What are the physical quantities that characterizes wave phenomenon?
7.39 What is the de Broglie hypothesis?
7.40 What is the de Broglie wave? Derive an expression for the wavelength of the de Broglie
waves of a material particle moving with relativistic speed.
7.41 Prove that the de Broglie wavelength of a photon is equal to the wavelength of the
radiation.
7.42 Two particles of masses m1 and m2 move with the same kinetic energy. Find the ratio
of their de Broglie wavelengths.
636 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

7.43 What is the de Broglie relation for a charged particle moving under a potential
difference of V volts.
7.44 Why is the wave nature of a particle not observable in our daily life?
7.45 Explain how the phase speed of matter waves for relativistically freely moving particles
is more than the speed of light in vacuum.
7.46 Explain how the phase speed of matter waves for non-relativistically freely moving
particles is half of the particle speed.
7.47 Prove that the group speed of a matter wave for a relativistically freely moving particle
is equal to the speed of the particle.
7.48 Prove that the group speed of a matter wave for a non-relativistically freely moving
particle is equal to the speed of the particle.
7.49 Explain how vacuum behaves as a dispersive medium for matter wave.
7.50 Derive an expression for the phase speed of a matter wave in vacuum for a relativistically
freely moving particle.
7.51 Describe the Davisson–Germer experiment.
7.52 Plot the polar graphs of the Davisson and Germer experiment.
7.53 What conclusions were drawn from the Davisson and Germer experiment?
7.54 What are the properties of a matter wave?
7.55 On what grounds was Thompson’s plum-pudding model of the atom discarded?
7.56 What is Rutherford’s atom model? What are the experimental observations it can
explain?
7.57 What are the experimental observations Rutherford’s atom model cannot explain?
7.58 What are the postulates of Bohr’s atom model?
7.59 Based on Bohr’s atom model, derive an expression for the orbital speed of an electron
in the hydrogen atom.
7.60 Based on Bohr’s atom model, derive an expression for the diameter of an orbit of an
electron in the hydrogen atom.
7.61 Based on Bohr’s atom mode, prove that the variation of the atomic radius with
principal quantum number is parabolic.
7.62 Based on Bohr’s atom model, derive an expression for the kinetic energy of an electron
in any orbit in the hydrogen atom.
7.63 Based on Bohr’s atom model, derive an expression for the potential energy of an
electron in any orbit in the hydrogen atom.
7.64 Based on Bohr’s atom model, derive an expression for the total energy of an electron
in any orbit in the hydrogen atom.
7.65 The total energy of an electron in any orbit in the hydrogen atom is found to be
negative. Explain
7.66 Based on Bohr’s atom model, derive an expression for the wavelength of radiation
emitted when an electron jumps from one energy level to another energy level.
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 637

7.67 What are the limitations of Bohr’s atom model?

7.68 What are the experimental observations Bohr’s atom model can explain?
7.69 What are the experimental observations Bohr’s atom model cannot explain?
7.70 What is Lyman series? Give the expression for the wavelength of this series.
7.71 What is Balmer series? Give the expression for the wavelength of this series.
7.72 What is Paschen series? Give the expression for the wavelength of this series.
7.73 What is Brackett series? Give the expression for the wavelength of this series.
7.74 What is Pfund series? Give the expression for the wavelength of this series.
7.75 State and explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
7.76 Explain why we cannot see an electron even with an ideal microscope.
7.77 What is a wave packet?
7.78 Describe Heisenberg’s experiment using a hypothetical gamma ray microscope.
7.79 Can the uncertainty principle be verified experimentally? If yes, explain.
7.80 Derive an expression for the minimum energy of a harmonic oscillator by using the
uncertainty principle.
7.81 Derive an expression for the ground state energy of a hydrogen atom by using the
uncertainty principle.
7.82 Prove by using the uncertainty principle that a nucleus cannot contain electrons.
7.83 Differentiate between classical physics and quantum physics.
7.84 What is a wave function?
7.85 What are the characteristics of a wave function?
7.86 What is probability density? Derive an expression for it.
7.87 Derive an expression for the probability of finding a particle described by the wave
function y in a certain region.
7.88 What are the units of one, two and three-dimensional wave functions?
7.89 State and explain the superposition principle for wave functions.
7.90 Why should the wave function be normalized to a unit?
7.91 What do you mean by normalization of a wave function?
7.92 What is the meaning of a normalization constant?
7.93 How would you find the normalization constant of a wave function?
7.94 Give few observables and operators of quantum mechanics.
7.95 What do you mean by eigenvalues of a physical quantity? Explain.
7.96 What do you mean by eigenfunctions of a physical system? Explain.
7.97 Derive an expression for eigenfunctions of the momentum operator.
7.98 Calculate the momentum eigenfunctions and momentum eigenvalues of a particle
trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L when the particle is described by the
normalized wave function
638 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2 nπ x
ψ= sin .
L L
Also calculate the energy eigenvalues of the particle.
7.99 What do you mean by the expectation value of a physical quantity? What does it
represent?
7.100 The expectation value of the momentum of a particle trapped in a one-dimensional
box of length L described by the normalized wave function

2 nπ x
ψ= sin
L L

is zero. Explain.
7.101 In determining the expectation value of any physical quantity, what procedures are
to be followed?
7.102 What is the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation for a particle of mass m and
energy E moving in the XY-plane under a potential energy V.
7.103 What is the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation for a particle of mass m and
energy E moving in the YZ-plane under a potential energy V.
7.104 What is the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation for a particle of mass m and
energy E moving along the Y-axis under a potential energy V.
7.105 What is the time-dependent Schrödinger’s equation for a particle of mass m and
energy E moving in the XY-plane under a potential energy V.
7.106 What is the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation for a particle of mass m and
energy E moving in the YZ-plane under a potential energy V.
7.107 What is the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation for a particle of mass m and
energy E moving along the Z-axis under a potential energy V.
7.108 Prove that the magnitude of propagation vector is

2m(E − V )

where E = total energy, V = potential energy, and the other symbols have their usual
meanings.
7.109 Prove that the plane wave function

i ( kx −ωt ) 2π
=ψ re= k
λ
satisfy Schrödinger’s equation.
d
7.110 Find the eigenfunction for the operator −i .
dx
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 639

Problems

7.1 What is the energy and momentum of a photon of sodium light of wavelength 5890 Å?.
[Ans 2.11 eV, 2.11 eV/c]
7.2 How many photons are there in 1m3 of radiation in thermal equilibrium at
1500 K? Calculate the average energy of one photon at this temperature.
[Ans 6.82 × 1016, 0.35 eV]
7.3 What is the maximum wavelength of thermal radiation emitted by a body at room
temperature 127°C. To what temperature must we heat it so that its peak thermal
radiation is in the orange region of the spectrum? (l = 5900 Å).
[Ans 7.225 mm, 4898 K]
7.4 At what temperature can the filament of a 100 watt lamp be operated so that it becomes
a perfect blackbody of area 3cm2. [Ans 1557 K]
7.5 Radiation from the Big Bang has been Doppler shifted to longer wavelengths by the
expansion of the universe and today, it has a spectrum corresponding to that of a
blackbody at 2.7 K. Find the wavelength at which the energy density of this radiation
is maximum. In what region of the spectrum is this radiation?
[Ans 1.1 mm, microwave region]
7.6 The rate at which sunlight reaches the earth is 1.4 (kW/m2), the average distance
between the sun and the earth is 1.5 × 108 km and the radius of the sun is 7 × 105 km.
From this data, find the surface temperature of the sun. [Ans 5800 K]
7.7 When a certain monochromatic radiation falls on a certain photosensitive metal, the
maximum speed with which photoelectrons emitted is 7.75 × 105 m/s. What is the
stopping potential in this case? [Ans 1.71 V]
7.8 The work function of tungsten metal is 4.52 eV. What is the threshold wavelength of
this metal? [Ans 2740 Å]
7.9 X-rays of wavelength 1.54 Å are scattered from a target. Calculate the wavelength
of the X-rays scattered through 60° and the maximum wavelength present in the
scattered X-rays. [Ans 1.55 Å. 1.59 Å]
7.10 Calculate the kinetic energy of a neutron whose de Broglie wavelength is 1.000
femtometers. [Ans 616 MeV]
7.11 Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass 1 mg moving with a speed
20 m/s. [Ans 3.3 × 10–29 m]
7.12 Through what potential difference should the electron be accelerated so that its de
Broglie wavelength becomes 5500 Å. [Ans 4.98 × 10–6 V]
7.13 How much energy is required to excite the ground state hydrogen atom to the third
state. [Ans 19.36 eV]
7.14 The second member of the Balmer series has wavelength 4861 Å. Calculate the
wavelength of the first member. [Ans 6562.4 Å]
7.15 Calculate the maximum and minimum wavelengths of the Balmer series.
[Ans 6563 Å, 3646 Å]
640 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

7.16 A particle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L is described by the normalized

wave function

2 nπ x
ψ= sin .
L L
What is the probability that the particle in the ground state is lying between (a) 0 and
L/3 (b) L/3 and 2L/3 (c) 2L/3 and L? [Ans 19.55%, 60.90%, 19.55%]
7.17 The particle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L is described by the
normalized wave function

2 nπ x
ψ= sin .
L L
L
What is the probability that the particle in the nth state is lying between 0 and ?
n
1
] [Ans
n
7.18 An electron trapped in a one-dimensional box of length L = 1 Å [a typical atomic
diameter] is described by the normalized wave function

2 nπ x
ψ= sin .
L L
o
In the ground state, what is the probability that the electron lies between (a) 0.09 A
and 0.11 Å (b) 0.0 Å and 0.25 Å? [Ans 0.38%, 25%]
1 1 1
7.19 If , , and are the probabilities that the system be in the three states represented
2 3 6
by eigenfunctions y1, y2 and y3 respectively, what is the wave function of the
1 1 1
system? [Ans ψ = ψ1 + ψ 2 + ψ 3 ]
2 3 6
The normalized wave function of a particle is ψ = Ae
− inkx
7.20 . Calculate the momentum
n2 k 2  2
eigenvalues and energy eigenvalues of the particle. [Ans −nk , ]
2m
8 π π
7.21 The normalized wave function for a certain particle is ψ = sin2 x for − < x < .
3π 2 2
π
Calculate the probability that the particle be found between x = 0 and x = .
4
[Ans 462]

π π
7.22 The wave function for a certain particle is y = sin2 x for − <x< . Normalize the
2 2
π π 8
wave function for − <x< . [Ans ψ= s in2 x ]
2 2 3π
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 641

r
 r  − 2a
7.23 The wave function of a 2s electron in the hydrogen atom is ψ=  2 −  e 0 .
Normalize the wave function.  a0 
r
1  r  −
=[Ans ψ  2 −  e 2a0 ]
4 2π a03  a0 
x2
−
7.24 Normalize the Gaussian function ψ = e 2σ 2
. in one-dimension. x2
1 −
[Ans ψ = e 2σ 2
]
σ π
i i
αx 1 αx
7.25 Normalize the one-dimensional wave function ψ = e  . [Ans ψ= e ]
2π 
7.26 A particle trapped in a one-dimensional box of length 1.0 Å is described by the
normalized wave function y = ax. What is the expectation value x of the particle’s
a2
position? [Ans x =
]
4
7.27 The normalized wave function for a ground state 1s electron in the hydrogen atom is
given as
r
1 −
ψ= e a0 .
π a03
1 1 1
Calculate r and . =
[Ans r a= 0 ]
r r a0
2 nπ x
7.28 The normalized wave function ψ = sin describes an electron in a one-
L L
21 1 
dimensional box of length L. Calculate x 2 . [Ans L  − 2 2  ]
 3 2n π 
7.29 2 , 1 , 3 , and 1 are the probabilities that the system be in the four states having
5 5 10 10
energy eigenvalues 4 eV, 6 eV, 7 eV and 9 eV respectively. What is the energy expectation
value of the system? [Ans E = 5.8 eV]
7.30 The wave function of a system is given by y = py1 + qy2 + ry3. What are the probabilities
of finding the system in the states y1, y2 and y3? [Ans |p|2, |q|2, |r|2]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is correct?

(i) lim Classical physics = Quantum physics
n→∞

(ii) lim Quantum Physics = Classical Physics

n→∞

(iii) lim Quantum Physics = Classical Physics

h→0

(iv) lim Classical physics = Quantum physics

h→0
642 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2. Classical physics cannot explain micro-phenomena and quantum physics can not
explain macro-phenomena.
(i) True (ii) False
3. Which of the following phenomenon first confirms the wave nature of the electron?
(i) Compton scattering
(ii) Thompson scattering
(iii) Davisson–Germer experiment
4. The color of a blackbody is always black.
(i) True (ii) False
5. Photons obey
(i) Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics
(ii) Fermi–Dirac statistics
(iii) Bose–Einstein statistics
6. Electrons obey
(i) Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics
(ii) Fermi–Dirac statistics
(iii) Bose–Einstein statistics
7. The intensity of emission is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
body and inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. This is
(i) Planck’s radiation law (ii) Wien’s radiation law
(iii) Rayleigh–Jeans law (iv) Wein’s displacement law
8. The emissivity of a blackbody is
(i) 0 (ii) 1
(iii) ∞ (iv) 0.5
9. What is the value of hc, h = Planck’s constant, c = speed of light in vacuum,
(i) 1240 eV Å
(ii) 12400 eV Å
(iii) 1240 eVnm
(iv) 12400 eV.nm
10. Einstein’s photoelectric equation is based on the law of conservation of
(i) momentum (ii) angular momentum
(iii) energy (iv) none of the above
11. Photoelectric effect is possible with radiation having
(i) low wavelengths (ii) high wavelengths
(iii) low frequency (iv) high frequency
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 643

12. The kinetic energy of a photoelectron is more with radiation having

(i) low wavelengths (ii) high wavelengths
(iii) low frequency (iv) high frequency
13. The Compton wavelength of the scattering electron depends on
(i) energy of the X-ray photon
(ii) angle of scattering of the electron
(iii) angle of scattering of the X-ray photon
(iv) mass of the electron
14. Name a phenomenon where energy is converted into matter.
(i) Compton effect (ii) Thompson effect
(iii) Radioactive decay (iv) Pair production
15. Which of the following conservation principle is violated during pair production?
(i) Momentum (ii) Charge
(iii) Energy (iv) None of the above
16. The phase speed of a matter wave for a relativistically freely moving particle in vacuum
is
(i) equal to the speed of light in vacuum
(ii) less than the speed of light in vacuum
(iii) more than the speed of light vacuum
(iv) equal to half the speed of light in vacuum
17. The phase speed of a matter wave for non-relativistically freely moving particles is
(i) Half of the particle speed
(ii) Equal to the particle speed
(iii) Less than the particle speed
(iv) More than the particle speed
18. The group speed of a matter wave for a relativistically freely moving particle in vacuum
is
(i) Equal to the particle speed in vacuum
(ii) Less than the speed of light in vacuum
(iii) More than the speed of light in vacuum
(iv) Equal to half the speed of light in vacuum
19. The group speed of the matter wave for a non-relativistically freely moving particle is
(i) Half of the particle speed
(ii) Equal to the particle speed
(iii) Less than the particle speed
(iv) More than the particle speed
644 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

20. Which of the following phenomena are not observed in case of matter wave?
(i) Interference (ii) Polarization
(iii) Diffraction (iv) None of the above
21. What conclusion(s) was drawn from Rutherford’s a-particle scattering experiment
(i) Electrons are revolving in circular paths
(ii) Atom is neutral
(iii) Positive charges are concentrated at a point in an atom
(iv) Total mass of the atom is concentrated at a point
(v) Charges are concentrated at a point in an atom
22. The nucleus of the hydrogen atom consists of
(i) one proton and one neutron
(ii) one proton only
(iii) one neutron only
(iv) one proton and two neutrons
23. The variation of the atomic radius with principal quantum number is.
(i) Parabolic
(ii) Elliptic
(iii) hyperbolic
(iv) linear
24. Bohr’s theory does not explain the variations of the intensity of spectral lines.
(i) True (ii) False
25. The spectral lines obtained when electronic transition takes place to the third energy
level from other higher levels is called
(i) Lyman series
(ii) Balmer series
(iii) Paschen series
(iv) Brackett series
(v) Pfund series
26. Which of the following is not an uncertainty principle?
 
(i) ∆x∆p ≥ (ii) ∆J ∆θ ≥
2 2

(iii) ∆E∆t ≥ (iv) None of the above
2
27. Two particles of masses m1 and m2 move with the same momentum. The ratio of their
de Broglie wavelengths will be
(i) 0 (ii) 1
(iii) 3 (iv) 4
 Elementary Concepts of Quantum Physics 645

28. What is the unit of a two-dimensional wave function?

(i) m–3/2 (ii) m–1
(iii) m–1/2 (iv) None of the above
+∞

∫ ψ ψ dr
*
29. If y is a normalized wave function, then the value of will be
−∞

(i) 0 (ii) ∞
(iii) 1 (iv) None of the above
30. Which of the following relation is correct
1 1

(i) ∆x = x− x
2 2
= { x2 − x
2 2
}
1 1

(ii) ∆x= ( x−x 2

)
2 2
= { x2 − x
2 2
}
1 1

(iii) ∆x= (x − x )
2 2
= {x 2
− x2 } 2

1 1

(iv) ∆x= (x − x )
2 2
= { x2 − x
2 2
}
Answers

1 (ii & iii) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 4 (ii) 5 (iii) 6 (ii) 7 (iii) 8 (ii)
9 (ii & iii) 10 (iii) 11 (i & iv) 12 (i & iv) 13 (iv) 14 (iv) 15 (iv) 16 (iii)
17 (i) 18 (i) 19 (ii) 20 (iv) 21 (iii & iv) 22 (ii) 23 (i) 24 (i)
25 (iii) 26 (iv) 27 (ii) 28 (ii) 29 (iii) 30 (iv)
 Applications of
8 Quantum Mechanics

8.1 Introduction
Quantum mechanics has been applied to problems in nature with great success. It has been
enormously successful in explaining microscopic phenomena in all branches of science. The
applications described in this chapter are examples that demonstrate the quintessence of
the theory. Quantum mechanics gives the most correct results in practically every situation
to which it is applied. Only for the simplicity of the mathematics, we confine ourselves
to one-dimensional idealistic systems. However, most relevant features of real physical
systems can be well understood by applying quantum mechanics to relatively simple
idealistic systems. The complete description of the microscopic and sub-microscopic world
by quantum physics requires rigorous mathematics which is beyond the scope of this book.

8.2 One-Dimensional Problems

One-dimensional systems are defined as systems which require only one space coordinate
say x and time coordinate t for their analysis. Thus the wave functions y describing one-
dimensional physical systems are functions of x and t only, i.e.,

ψ = ψ (x , t ) (8.1)

If the total energy of the particle has a fixed value E, the time dependence of y is given as

ψ (x , t ) = ψ (x )e −iωt (8.2)

where the frequency w is given by the de Broglie relationship

 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 647

E
ω= (8.3)


Let us see how the multiplication of y (x) by e–iwt gives a wave. The wave function of a free
particle as discussed later on is given by

ψ=
(x ) Ae ik x + Be −ik x
0 0

Multiplying both sides of this equation by e–iwt, we get

(x )e −iωt Ae i (k x −ωt ) + Be −i (k x +ωt )

ψ= 0 0

The first term on the right represents a trigonometric function with phase (k0x – wt), and
thus, is a wave moving in the positive x-direction. Similarly, the second term on the right
represents a trigonometric function with phase (k0x + wt), and thus, is a wave moving
in the negative x direction. The squared magnitudes of the coefficients of each term give
intensities of the wave. Hence, the wave moving in the positive x direction has intensity
2 2
A and the wave moving in the negative x direction has intensity B .
The potential energy function in one-dimensional physical systems is only a function
of x, i.e.,
V = V (x ) (8.4)

Equations (8.1) and (8.2) represent one-dimensional systems.

One-dimensional non-relativistic time-dependent Schrödinger’s equation is given by

∂ψ 2 ∂ 2ψ
i =
− + Vψ (8.5)
∂t 2m ∂x 2

One-dimensional non-relativistic time-independent Schrödinger’s equation is given by

∂ 2ψ 2m
+ (E − V )ψ =
0 (8.6)
∂x 2 2

Time-independent Schrödinger’s equation is also called a steady-state equation. The solutions

of Schrödinger’s equations are different for different systems.

8.3 Boundary Conditions on y

It is worthwhile to recall herewith the essential conditions that a physically meaningful
solution or wave function must satisfy. They are
∞

i. ∫ψ *ψ must be finite.
0

ii. y is continuous and single valued everywhere in space.

 648 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

iii. ∂ψ is continuous and finite every where in space.

∂x
iv. lim ψ (x ) = 0
x →±∞

The necessity of these conditions becomes clear if we look into the physical meaning of the
wave function y. For example, the single-valuedness of the wave function is required so
as to avoid ambiguity of the theoretical predictions. Any discontinuity in y would mean
discontinuity in the probability of finding the particle in a given volume. However, the
probability would vary continuously from point to point if no particles were created or
destroyed. The probability of finding the particle within the volume element is always finite
∂ψ
and hence, the first condition. Similarly, relates to particle momentum, which must
∂x
be a continuous function of x, except at a point where potential energy is infinite. These
conditions enable one to select the actual solution out of a number of possible solutions.
In all our analysis, we have assumed the classical relationship E = K + V and neglected the
rest energy contribution to the total energy E so that we can use the classical relationship,
p2
K= .
2m

8.4 Free Particle

A free particle is defined as a particle on which no forces are acting in a specified region of
∂V
space. Since − = F ;, for no forces acting on the particle, V = constant. Thus, the particle
∂x
is moving in a constant potential energy field through out the space. We are free to choose
the constant V to be zero to make the mathematics simple, since potential energy is defined
to be constant. In summary, for a free particle

=
V V=
(x ) 0 (8.7)

Putting the condition of a free particle (V = 0) into the Eq. (8.6), one-dimensional
Schrödinger’s equation for the free particle is obtained as

∂ 2ψ 2mE
+ 2 ψ=
0 (8.8)
∂x 2 

where
y(x) = wave function for the free particle

E = allowed total energy values for the particle

m = mass of the particle

 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 649

∂ 2ψ
or + k02ψ =
0 (8.9)
∂x 2

2mE 2π
=
where k0 = (8.10)
 λ0

Equation (8.9) is a familiar differential equation. The solution of the second order
differential Eq. (8.9) where k02 is always positive is given by

ψ=
(x ) Ae ik x + Be −ik x
0 0
(8.11)

where A and B are integration constants. In this solution, the function Aeik0 x when
i
− Et
multiplied by the factor e 
(= e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards the right and
i
− Et
the function Be −ik0 x when multiplied by the factor e  (= e–iwt) represents a plane wave
going towards the left. Hence, the solution Y is a linear combination of plane waves. By
solving Eq. (8.10), the allowed energy values are obtained as

2 k02
E= (8.12)
2m

Since potential energy is taken to be zero, Eq. (8.12) is the expression for kinetic energy
2 k02
of the particle. As Eq. (8.11) is valid for any value of k0, kinetic energy E = , and is
2m
permitted to have all values starting from zero to infinity. In the language of quantum
p2
mechanics, energy E is not quantized but continuous. Putting E = into Eq. (8.12), we
get an expected result 2m

p = k0 (de Broglie equation)

Example 8.1
An electron is moving freely with energy 2 eV. Calculate its de Broglie wavelength.
Solution
The datum given in the question is E = 2 eV.
The de Broglie wavelength is given as

h 6.626 × 10−34
=λB = m = 8.68 Å
2mE 2 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 2 × 1.6 × 10−19
650 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

8.5 Potential Steps

Variation of potential energy of a particle as the particle moves from one point of the space
to another point constitutes potential energy steps or simply potential steps. The particle
may have constant potential energy at a certain region and at a neighbourhood region, it
may have a different constant potential energy. This sudden variation of constant potential
energy from one constant value to another constant value constitutes sharply defined
potential energy steps as shown in Fig. 8.1.

Figure 8.1 Sharply defined one-dimensional potential energy step. In region I, the potential
energy of a particle is taken to be zero for mathematical simplicity. In region II, the
potential energy of the particle is taken to be a non-zero constant V0. The height of the
potential energy step is V0. In region I, the particle is represented by the wave
function y1 and in region II, the particle is represented by the wave function y2.

The potential energy of a charged particle changes by constant magnitude when it moves
through space from one capacitor to another different capacitor. Like this there are many
physical situations in nuclear and atomic science in which the potential energy of a particle
changes from one constant value to another constant value as it moves from one region to
another region.
The potential energy step shown in Fig. 8.1 is translated mathematically as follows.

V(x) = 0 at the region x < 0

= V0 at the region x > 0 (8.13)

Let the particles having total energy E be incident on the potential energy steps from
the left. In region I, they have zero potential energy and when they enter region II, their
potential energy becomes V0. Thus, when the particles move from region I to region II,
their potential energy changes by a constant value V0. Since the total energy of the incident
particles remains constant, i.e., it is independent of time, we take into consideration the
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 651

steady-state form of Schrödinger’s equation, which is in general one dimension, and is

given by

∂ 2ψ 2m
+ (E − V )ψ =
0
∂x 2 2

Case A: ( E ≥ V0 )
According to classical mechanics, when the total energy of the incident particle E is more
than the height of the potential step V0, the particle cannot be reflected but is transmitted
into region II. Let us see what quantum mechanics predicts.
In region I where V = 0 and y(x) = y1, Schrödinger’s time-independent equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 1 2mE
+ 2 ψ1 =
0 for x < 0
∂x 2 

∂ 2ψ 1
or + k02ψ 1 =
0 (8.14)
∂x 2

2mE 2π
=
where k0 = (8.15)
 λ0

l0 in this equation is the de Broglie wavelength of the particle in region I. l0 is shown in

Fig. 8.2.
Equation (8.14) is a familiar differential equation. The solution of the second order
differential Eq. (8.14), where k02 is always positive is given by

ψ 1 Aeiko x + Be −iko x
= (8.16)

where A and B are integration constants. In this solution, the function Aeik x when multiplied
0

i
− Et
by the factor e 
(= e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards the right and the function
i
− Et
when multiplied by the factor e  (= e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards
Be ik0 x
the left. Hence, the solution y1 is a linear combination of plane waves.
Similarly, in region II where V(x) = V0 and y (x) = y2, Schrödinger’s time-independent
equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 2 2m ( E − V0 )
+ 0 for x > 0
ψ2 =
∂x 2 2
652 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

∂ 2ψ 2
or + k 2ψ 2 =
0 (8.17)
∂x 2

2m ( E − V0 ) 2π
where k = = (8.18)
 λ1

l1 in this equation is the de Broglie wavelength of the particle in region II. l1 is shown in
Fig. 8.2.
The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.17) is given by

ψ 2 Ceikx + De −ikx
= (8.19)

where C and D are integration constants. In this solution, the function Ceikx when multiplied
i
− Et
by the factor e  (= e–iwt), represents a plane wave going towards the right and the function
i
− Et
De–ikx when multiplied by the factor e  (= e–iwt), represents a plane wave going towards the
left. Since we are considering the incidence of particles from the left on the potential step at
x = 0, there can not be a wave in region II propagating towards the left; to overcome these
difficulties, we must set D = 0. Therefore, Eq. (8.19) becomes

ψ 2 = Ceikx (8.20)

Evaluation of integration constants A, B, C,

For y to be the physically meaningful, the wave function y is continuous every where
including at x = 0, i.e.,

ψ 1 x =0 = ψ 2 x =0

or ( Ae ik0 x
+ Be −ik0 x ) x =0
Ce ikx
=
x =0

or A+B=C (8.21)
dψ
Similarly for y to be the physically meaningful, wave function is continuous every
where including at x = 0, i.e., dx

dψ 1 dψ 2
=
dx x =0
dx x =0

d d
or
dx
(
Ae ik0 x + Be −ik0 x ) =
dx
Ce ikx
x =0
x =0
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 653

or k0 ( A − B) =
Ck (8.22)

Solving Eqs (8.21) and (8.22) for B and C, we get

k0 − k
B= A
k0 + k

2k0
C= A
k0 + k

Putting these values of B and C into Eqs (8.16) and (8.20), we get

k − k0 −ik0 x
ψ 1 Aeik0 x + A
= e for x < 0 (8.23)
k + k0

2k0 ikx
ψ2 = A e for x > 0 (8.24)
k + k0

Equation (8.23) shows that in region I,

i  E 
i  k0 x − t 
=ψ I Ae
= ik0 x
e 
− Et
Ae    is a right going wave, i.e., incident wave. (8.25)

 E 
k − k0 −ik0 x − i Et k − k0 −i  k0 x −  t 
ψR = A e e =A e is a left going wave, i.e., reflected wave. (8.26)
k + k0 k + k0

Equation (8.24) shows that in region II,

 E 
2k0 ikx −i E t 2k0 i  kx −  t 
ψT = A e e =A e is a right going wave, i.e., transmitted wave. (8.27)
k + k0 k + k0

If one particle is considered, y * y represents the probability density and if a group of

particles is considered, then y * y represents the number of particles per unit volume. In
this case, y * y × v will represent the number of particles crossing unit area perpendicularly
in unit time, i.e., its current density.
If v0 is the speed of the incident particles, we have from Eq. (8.15)

1
2m × mv02
2mE 2 mv
=k0 = = 0
  
654 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

k0
or v0 = (8.28)
m

Similarly if v1 is the speed of the particles in region II, we have from Eq. (8.18)

1
2m(E − V0 ) 2m × mv12
2 mv
k= = = 1
  

k
or v1 = (8.29)
m

From Eqs (8.28) and (8.29), we have

v0 k0 E
= = (8.30)
v1 k E − V0

k0
Since > 1, we have v0 > v1. Thus, the speed of a transmitted particle is less than that of
k
incident particles. In a similar manner, it can be proved that the speed of reflected particles
is equal to the speed of incident particles.

Figure 8.2 The wave function of a particle of energy E encountering a potential step of height V0
for the case E ≥ V0. The de Broglie wavelength of the particle changes from l0 to l1 when
dψ
the particle enters the step, but y and are continuous at x = 0
dx
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 655

8.5.1 Reflection and transmission at the boundary at x = 0

We have assumed, E > V0. Hence, according to classical physics, all the particles should be
transmitted to region II. However, according to Eq. (8.26), in the region I, there is a reflected
wave given by
 E 
k − k0 −i  k0 x −  t 
ψR = A e
k + k0

and the probability density of reflected particles ψ R*ψ R is not zero, i.e., the probability of
particles being reflected is not zero. Therefore, according to quantum physics, even though
E > V0, the probability of particles being reflected at the boundary is not zero.
Let us calculate the fractions of particles being reflected and transmitted.
y * y × v represents the number of particles crossing unit area perpendicularly in unit
time, i.e., current density or flux density.
The incident flux density jI is defined as the number of particles incident per unit area
perpendicularly per unit time. Hence, we have

ϕ I ψ I*ψ I × v0
= (8.31)

The reflected flux density jR is defined as the number of particles reflected per unit area
perpendicularly per unit time. Hence, we have

ϕR ψ R*ψ R × v0
= (8.32)

The transmitted flux density jT is defined as the number of particles transmitted/refracted

per unit area perpendicularly per unit time. Therefore, we have

ϕT ψ T*ψ T × v1
= (8.33)

Putting yI from Eq. (8.25) into Eq. (8.31), incident flux density is given by

 E   E 
− i  k0 x − t  i  k0 x − t 
ϕ I = A* e   
Ae    2
v0 = A v0 (8.34)

Putting yR from Eq. (8.26) into Eq. (8.32), the reflected flux density is given by

* E E 2
 k − k0  −i  k0 x −  t  k − k0 i  k0 x −  t  2 k − k0
ϕR = A  *
 e A e v0 = A v0 (8.35)
 k + k0  k + k0 k + k0
656 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting yT from Eq. (8.27) into Eq. (8.33), the transmitted flux density is given by

* E E 2
 2k0  −i  kx −  t  2k0 i  kx −  t  2 2k0
ϕT = A  *
 e A e v0 = A v1 (8.36)
 k + k0  k + k0 k + k0

The reflection coefficient or reflection probability R, i.e., fraction of incident particles

reflected is defined as the ratio of reflected flux density to incident flux density.
Mathematically,

ϕR
R= (8.37)
ϕI

Putting the values of jI and jR from Eqs (8.34) and (8.35) into these equation, we get
2
k − k0
2
A v 2
k + k0 0 k − k0 (8.38)
R= 2
=
A v0 k + k0

Putting the values of k0 and k from Eqs (8.15) and (8.18) into this equation, we get
2
E − V0 − E
R= (8.39)
E − V0 + E

The transmission coefficient or transmission probability T, i.e., fraction of incident

particles transmitted is defined as the ratio of the transmission flux density to the incident
flux density. Mathematically,

ϕT
T=
ϕI

Putting the values of jI and jT from Eqs (8.34) and (8.36) into this equation, we get
2
2 2k0
A v 2
k + k0 1 2k0 v1
T= 2
=
A v0 k + k0 v0
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 657

v1 k
Putting the value of = from Eq. (8.30) into this equation, we get
v0 k0
2
2k0 k 4kk0
=T =
k + k0 k0 (k + k0 )2

Putting the values of k0 and k from Eqs (8.15) and (8.18) into this equation, we get

4 E E − V0
T= (8.40)
( )
2
E − V0 + E

Law of conservation of flux

Now we shall prove that

ϕ=
I ϕR + ϕT

Taking the values jR and jT from Eq. (8.35) and Eq. (8.36), we have

2 2
k − k0 2 2k0
2
ϕR + ϕT A
= v0 + A v1
k + k0 k + k0

A2 v 0  2 2 v 
=
or  (k − k0 ) + 4k0 × 
( k + k0 )
2
 v0 

A2 v 0  k
 ( k − k0 ) + 4k0 × 
2 2
=
( k + k0 )
2
 k0 

A2 v 0
( k + k0 )
2
= = A2 v 0 = ϕ I
( k + k0 )
2

Thus, jR + jT = jI
658 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Refractive index m
In the usual manner, the refractive index of the second medium (x > 0) with respect to the
first medium (x < 0) is defined as
speed in second medium v1
µ= =
speed in first medium v0

v1
Putting the value of from Eq. (8.30) into this equation, we get
v0

E − V0 V0
µ
= = 1−
E E

Example 8.2
Electrons with energy 12.0 eV are incident on a potential step 8 eV high and 0.50 nm wide.
Calculate the reflection probability and transmission probability of the incident electron.
Solution
The data given are

E = 12 eV

V0 = 8.0 eV

The reflection probability is given by

2
E − V0 − E
R=
E − V0 + E

Putting the given data into this equation, we get

2
12 − 8 − 12
R= = 0.07
12 − 8 + 12

The transmission probability is given by

4 E E − V0
T=
( )
2
E − V0 + E
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 659

Putting the given data into this equation, we get

4 12 12 − 8
T= = 0.93
( )
2
12 − 8 + 12

Case B: (0 < E < V0)

According to classical mechanics, when the total energy of the incident particle E is less
than the height of the potential step V0, the particles reflect back but cannot be transmitted
into region II. Let us see what quantum mechanics tells.
In region I where V = 0 and y(x) = y1, Schrödinger’s time-independent equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 1 2mE
0 for x < 0
+ 2 ψ1 =
∂x 2 

∂ 2ψ 1
or 2
+ k02ψ 1 =
0 (8.41)
∂x

2mE 2π
=
where k0 = (8.42)
 λ0

l0 in this equation is the de Broglie wavelength of the particle in region I. l0 is shown in

Fig. 8.3. The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.41) where k02 is always positive
is given by

ψ 1 Aeik0 x + Be −ik0 x
= (8.43)

where A and B are integration constants.

Similarly in region II, where V(x) = V0 and y(x) = y2, Schrödinger’s time independent
equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 2 2m ( E − V0 )
+ 0 for x > 0
ψ2 =
∂x 2 2

∂ 2ψ 2
or − k12ψ 2 =
0 (8.44)
∂x 2

2m (V0 − E )
where k1 = (8.45)

660 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.45) is given by

ψ 2 Ce k1x + De − k1x
= (8.46)

where C and D are integration constants. As x → ∞ , the first term Ce k1x does not remain
finite, for which the solution y2 looses its physical meanings. Hence, for the meaningful
solution, we must set C = 0 so that y2 becomes physically meaningful. Therefore, Eq. (8.46)
becomes

ψ 2 = De − k x 1
(8.47)

Evaluation of integration constants A, B, D

For y to be the physically meaningful wave function y that is continuous everywhere
including at x = 0, i.e.,

ψ 1 x =0 = ψ 2 x =0

or ( Ae ik0 x
+ Be −ik0 x ) x =0
De − k1x
=
x =0

or A+B =
D (8.48)

dψ
Similarly, for y to be the physically meaningful wave function, is continuous every
where including at x = 0, i.e., dx

dψ 1 dψ 2
=
dx x =0
dx x =0

or ( Aik e 0
ik0 x
− Bik0 e −ik0 x ) x =0
−Dk1e − k1x
=
x =0

or ik0 ( A − B) =
−Dk1 (8.49)

Solving Eqs (8.48) and (8.49) for B and D, we get

ik0 + k1
B= A
ik0 − k1

2ik0
D= A
ik0 − k1
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 661

Putting these values of B and D into the Eqs (8.43) and (8.47), we get

ik0 + k1 −ik0 x
ψ 1 Aeik0 x + A
= e for x < 0 (8.50)
ik0 − k1

2ik0 − k1x
ψ2 = A e for x > 0 (8.51)
ik0 − k1

Equation (8.50) shows that in region I,

i  E 
− Et i  k0 x − t 
=ψ I Ae
= ik0 x
e  Ae   
is a right going wave, i.e., incident wave. (8.52)

i  E 
ik + k − Et ik + k −i  k0 x − t 
ψ R = A 0 1 e −ik0 x e  = A 0 1 e    is a left going wave, i.e., reflected wave. (8.53)
ik0 − k1 ik0 − k1

Equation (8.51) shows that in region II,

 E 
2ik0 − k1x − E t 2ik0 − k1x +  t 
ψT = A e e =A e is a right going wave, i.e., transmitted wave. (8.54)
ik0 − k1 ik0 − k1

Transmission at the boundary (at x = 0)

We have assumed E < V0. Hence, according to classical physics no particles should be
transmitted to region II since its total energy is not sufficient to overcome the potential
energy step. However, according to Eq. (8.54) in region II, wave function yT dies away
exponentially and thus, quantum physics allows the wave function and therefore, the
particle to penetrate into the classically forbidden region. No experiment can ever observe
the particle in region II (its kinetic energy E – V would be negative there), but in certain
experiments, a particle can pass through a classically forbidden region and emerge into an
allowed region where it can be observed. Penetration into the forbidden region is associated
with the wave nature of the particles and is inconsistent with the uncertainty principle.
Detailed explanation is beyond the scope of this book.
Let us calculate the fractions of particles being reflected and transmitted. From Eq. (8.31),
the incident flux density is given by
ϕ I ψ I*ψ I × v0
=
662 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting yI from Eq. (8.52) into this equation, the incident flux density is given by
2
ϕ I = A v0 (8.55)

From Eq. (8.32), the incident flux density is given by

ϕR ψ R*ψ R × v0
=

Putting yR from Eq. (8.53) into this equation, the reflected flux density is given by

* E E
 ik0 + k1  i  kO x −  t  ik0 + k1 i  k0 x −  t 
ϕ R = A*   e A e v0
 ik0 − k1  ik0 − k

−ik0 + k1 ik + k
= A* × A 0 1 v0
ik0 − k1 ik0 − k1

k1 − ik0 ik0 + k1
= A* ×A v0
− ( k1 + ik0 ) − ( k1 − ik0 )

2
or ϕ R = A v0 (8.56)

From Eq. (8.33), the transmitted flux density is given by

ϕT ψ T*ψ T × v1
=

Putting yT(x) from Eq. (8.54) into this equation, the transmitted flux density is given by
*
 2ik0  − kx 2ik0 − kx
ϕT = A 
*
 e A e v
 ik0 − k1  ik0 − k1

−2ik0 − kx 2ik0 − kx
= A* e A e v
−ik0 − k1 ik0 − k1

−2ik0 2ik0
= A* ×A e −2 kx v
− ( k1 + ik0 ) − ( k1 − ik0 )
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 663

2 4k02
= A e −2 kx v (8.57)
( k12 + k02 )
ϕR
Putting the values of jI and jR from Eqs (8.55) and (8.56) into the equation R = , we get
ϕI
2
A v0 (8.58)
=R =2
1
A v0

Equation (8.58) shows that all incident particles are reflected back. Putting the values of jI
ϕ
and jT from Eqs (8.55) and (8.57) into the equation T = T , we get
ϕI

4k02 −2 k1x v
T= e (8.59)
k12 + k02 v0

Figure 8.3 The wave function of a incident particle whose total energy is less than the height of
the step. The wave function decreases exponentially in the classically forbidden region
where the classical kinetic energy E – V would be negative. At x = 0, the wave function y
dψ
and are continuous
dx

These discussions show that D is not zero unless k1 and consequently, V0 is infinity. If D is
not zero, then y2 is not zero for x > 0 and the probability density of finding the particle in
region II is

2 4k02
= A e −2 kx .
(k 2
1 + k02 )
 664 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Case C: (E < 0)
In Case B, kinetic energy E – V is positive in region I (x < 0) and negative in region II
(x > 0). When kinetic energy E – V is negative everywhere as in Case C, the wave numbers
k0 and k are both imaginary and there is no solution.
Case D: ( V → ∞ for x > 0) Potential step of infinity height
In region I where V = 0, the solution of Schrödinger’s time-independent equation as
calculated earlier is given by

2mE
ψ 1 Aeik0 x + Be −ik0 x k02 =
= (8.60)


ik0 + k1 ik + k
with B = A. When V → ∞ , k1 → ∞ , and B = 0 1 A becomes – A i.e., B = – A
ik0 − k1 ik0 − k1
when V → ∞ . Hence, Eq. (8.60) becomes

ψ 1 Aeik0 x − Ae −ik0 x
=

π
−i
ψ 1 Aeik0 x + e
or = 2
Ae −ik0 x

 π
− i  k0 x + 
ψ 1 Ae
or =
ik0 x
+ Ae  2
(8.61)

Equation (8.61) shows that in region I,

i  E 
− Et i  k0 x − t 
=ψ I Ae
= ik0 x
e  Ae   
is a right going wave, i.e., incident wave. (8.62)

 π  E π
− i  k0 x +  − i Et − i  k0 x + t + 
ψ R = Ae  2
e 
= Ae   2
is a left going wave, i.e., reflected wave. (8.63)

π
The phase difference between the incident wave and the reflected wave is .
2
2ik0
When V → ∞ , k1 → ∞ , and D = A becomes zero, i.e., D = 0. As a result of which
ik0 − k1
the wave function in region II, y2 vanishes, i.e.,

ψ=
2 ψ=
T 0 for x ≥0. (8.64)

In this case, particles are never found in region II.

 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 665

Reflection at the boundary (at x = 0)

We have assumed V → ∞ . Hence, according to classical physics, no particles should be
transmitted to region II since the potential energy step is infinity. The same inference is
drawn from quantum physics according to Eq. (8.64). Let us calculate the fractions of
particles being reflected and transmitted.
From Eq. (8.62), the incident flux density is given by
2
ϕ=
I ψ I*ψ I × v=
0 A v0 (8.65)

Putting yR from Eq. (8.63) into this equation, the reflected flux density is given by
2
ϕ=
R ψ R*ψ R × v=
0 A v0 (8.66)

From Eq. (8.64), the transmitted flux density is given by

ϕ=
T ψ T*ψ T × v=
1 0 (8.67)
ϕ
Putting the values of jI and jR from Eqs (8.65) and (8.66) into equation R = R , the
ϕI
reflection coefficient or reflection probability is given by
2
A v0
=R =2
1 (8.68)
A v0

This equation shows that all the incident particles are reflected back. Putting the values of
ϕ
jI and jR from Eqs (8.65) and (8.67) into equation T = T , we get
ϕI
T=0 (8.69)

This is in conformity with Eq. (8.68).

Example 8.3
If a beam of electrons strike on any potential energy step of height 0.03 eV, find the fraction of
electrons reflected and transmitted if the energy of the incident electrons is
(i) 0.04 eV, (ii) 0.025 eV, (iii) 0.03 eV,

Solution
i. In this case, E = 0.04 and V0 = 0.03 eV; E > V0. Therefore, reflection probability is

2
E − V0 − E
R=
E − V0 + E
666 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

and

4 E E − V0
transmission probability is T =
( )
2
E − V0 + E

Putting the given data into these expressions, we get

2
0.04 − 0.03 − 0.04
R= = 0.11
0.04 − 0.03 + 0.04

4 0.04 0.04 − 0.03

and T= = 0.89
( )
2
0.04 − 0.03 + 0.04

In this case, 11% of electrons are reflected and 89% of electrons are transmitted. In
this case, R + T = 1 is also verified.
ii. In this case, E = 0.025 and V0 = 0.03 eV; E < V0. Since E < V0, the reflection probability is
R = 1 and the transmission probability naturally will be zero. Hence, all the incident
electrons will be reflected.
iii. In this case, E = 0.03 and V0 = 0.03 eV; E = V0. Therefore, the reflection probability is
2
E − V0 − E 4 E E − V0
R= and the transmission probability is T =
( )
2
E − V0 + E E − V0 + E

Putting the given data into these expressions, we get

2
0.03 − 0.03 − 0.03
R= =1
0.03 − 0.03 + 0.03

4 0.04 0.03 − 0.03

and T = =0
( )
2
0.03 − 0.03 + 0.03

In this case also, the reflection probability is R = 1 and the transmission probability
comes out to be zero. Hence, all the incident electrons will be reflected. In this case,
R + T = 1 is also verified.

8.5.2 Potential energy barrier

The sharpest increase of potential energy to a certain value at a point and sharpest fall of
the potential energy to zero at another point while remaining constant continuously over
the interval constitute the potential barrier or potential energy barrier as shown in Fig. 8.4.
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 667

Thus, the potential barrier sharply increases to a certain value V0 , remains constant over a
certain interval and then decreases again to its original value.

Figure 8.4 Ideal potential energy barrier of height V0. When a particle of energy E < V0 is incident
on the potential barrier, according to classical physics, the particle must be reflected
back. In quantum physics, the de Broglie waves that correspond to the particle are
partly reflected and partly transmitted which means that the particle has a finite
probability to penetrate the barrier

Mathematically, potential barrier is defined by

V (x ) = 0 for −∞ < x < 0

= V0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a (8.70)

=0 for a ≤ x < ∞

According to classical physics, if a particle is incident on the potential barrier with energy
less than the height of the barrier, it will be reflected back by the barrier. However, due to
the wave nature of matter, there is some probability that the particle incident on the barrier
with less energy than the barrier height, penetrates out to the other side of the barrier.
Experimentally it has been observed to happen; the effect is called tunnel effect.
If a particle is incident on the potential barrier with energy less than the height of the
barrier, E < V0 , it will not necessarily be reflected by the barrier but there is always the
probability that it may cross the barrier and continue its forward motion. This probability
of crossing the barrier is called the tunnel effect. The tunnel effect is purely a quantum
mechanical effect. The emission of electrons, b-emission and emission of a-particles are
examples of tunnel effect.
Case I: (E < V0)
In region I where V = 0 and y(x) = y1, Schrödinger’s time-independent equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 1 2mE
0 for −∞ < x < 0
+ 2 ψ1 =
∂x 2 
668 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

∂ 2ψ 1
or + k02ψ 1 =
0 (8.71)
∂x 2

2mE 2π
=
where k0 = (8.72)
 λ0

l0 in this equation is the de Broglie wavelength of the particle in region I. It is shown in

Fig. 8.5. The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.71) where k02 is always positive
is given by

ψ 1 Aeik0 x + Be −ik0 x for −∞ < x < 0

= (8.73)

where A and B are integration constants. In this solution, the function Aeik0 x when multiplied
i
− Et
by the factor e  (=e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards the right and the function
i
− Et
Be −ik0 x when multiplied by the factor e  (=e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards
the left. Hence, the solution y1 is a linear combination of plane waves.
Similarly in region II where V(x) = V0 and y(x) = y2, Schrödinger’s time-independent
equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 2 2m ( E − V0 )
+ ψ2 =
0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
∂x 2 2

∂ 2ψ 2 2m (V0 − E )
− ψ2 =
0
∂x 2 2
or

∂ 2ψ 2
− k12ψ 2 =
0 (8.74)
∂x 2

2m (V0 − E )
where k1 = is real. (8.75)

The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.74) is given by

ψ 2 Ce k1x + De − k1x for 0 ≤ x ≤ a

= (8.76)

where C and D are integration constants. In this solution, the function Ce k1x when
i
− Et
multiplied by the factor e  (=e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards the right and
i
−k x − Et
the function De 1 when multiplied by the factor e 
(= e–iwt) represents a plane wave
going towards the left.
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 669

In region III where V = 0 and y(x) = y3, Schrödinger’s time-independent equation

becomes

∂ 2ψ 3 2mE
0 for a ≤ x < ∞
+ 2 ψ3 =
∂x 2 

or ∂ 2ψ 3 (8.77)
2
+ k02ψ 3 =
0
∂x

2mE 2π
=
where k0 = (8.78)
 λ0

l0 in this equation is the de Broglie wavelength of the particle in region III. It is shown in
Fig. 8.5.
The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.77) where k02 is always positive is
given by

ψ 3 Feik0 x + Ge −ik0 x for a ≤ x < ∞

= (8.79)

where E and F are integration constants. In this solution, the function Ee ik0 x when multiplied
i
− Et
by the factor e 
(=e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards the right and the function
i
− Et
Fe −ikO x when multiplied by the factor e  (= e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards
the left. However, in region III, there cannot be a reflected wave to move towards the left.
Hence, G in Eq. (8.79) is zero and Eq. (8.79) becomes

ψ 3 = Feik x for a ≤ x < ∞

0
(8.80)

Evaluation of integration constants A, B, C, and D

For y to be the physically meaningful, wave function y is continuous everywhere including
at x = 0, i.e.,

ψ 1 x =0 = ψ 2 x =0

or ( Ae ik0 x
+ Be −ik0 x ) x =0
(
Ce k1x + De − k1x
= ) x =0

or A+B=C+D (8.81)
670 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

dψ
Similarly, for y to be the physically meaningful, wave function is continuous
everywhere including at x = 0, i.e., dx

dψ 1 dψ 2
=
dx x =0
dx x =0

or ( Aik e0
ik0 x
− Bik0 e −ik0 x ) x =0
(
Ck1e k1x + Dk1e − k1x
= ) x =0

or ik0 ( A − B)= k1 (C − D) (8.82)

Solving Eqs (8.81) and (8.82) for A and B, we get

 ik  C  ik  D
A = 1 − 1  + 1 + 1  (8.83)
 k0  2  k0  2

 ik  C  ik  D
B = 1 + 1  + 1 − 1  (8.84)
 k0  2  k0  2

Similarly at x = a,

ψ2 x =a
=ψ 3 x =a

or Fe ik0a
Ce k1a + De k1a = (8.85)

dψ
Similarly for y to be physically meaningful, wave function is continuous everywhere
including at x = a, i.e., dx

dψ 2 dψ 3
=
dx x =a
dx x =a

ik0 Fe ik0a
Ck1e k1a − Dk1e − k1a = (8.86)

Solving Eqs (8.85) and (8.86) for C and D, we get

 ik  F ik − k a
C=  1 + 0  e ( 0 1 ) (8.87)
 k1  2
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 671

 ik  F (ik0 + k1 )a
D=  1 − 0  e (8.88)
 k1 2

Putting the value of C and D from Eqs (8.87) and (8.88) into Eq. (8.83), we get

F ik0a  ik1   k  F  ik   ik  k1a

A= e  1 −   1 + i 0  e − k1a + e ik0a  1 + 1   1 − 0 e
4  k0   k1  4  k0   k1 

F ik0a  k k   k k  
= e  1 − i 1 + i 0 + 1  e − k1a +  1 + i 1 − i 0 + 1  e k1a 
4  k0 k1   k0 k1  

F ik0a  k1a − k1a k k 

=
4
(
e 2 e + e ) ( ) (
+ i 1 e k1a − e − k1a − i 0 e k1a − e − k1a 
k0 k1
)
 

F  k k 
= e ik0a 2 × 2 cosh k1a + i2 1 sinh k1a − i2 0 sinh k1a 
4  k0 k1 

 ik k  
or
= A Fe ik0a cosh k1a +  1 − 0 )sinh k1a  (8.89)
 2  k0 k1  

Again putting the value of C and D from Eqs (8.87) and (8.88) into Eq. (8.84), we get

F ik0a  ik1   ik0  − k1a F ik0a  ik1   ik0  k1a

B= e 1 +  1 +  e + e 1 −  1 − e
4  k0   k1  4  k0   k1 

F ik0a  ik1 ik0 2  − k1a  ik1 ikO 2  k1a 

= e  1 + + + i  e + 1 − − + i e 
4  k0 k1   kO k1  

F ik0a  ik1 ik0  − k1a  ik1 ik0  k1a 

= e  + e −  + e 
4  k0 k1   k0 k1  
 672 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

F ik0a   k1 k0  − k1a k1a 

=
4
e i  +  e − e
  k0 k1 
( )


F ik0a   k1 k0  
= e i  +  2sinh k1a 
4   k0 k1  

iF ik0a  k1 k0 
=
or B e  +  sinh k1a (8.90)
2  k0 k1 

Putting these values of A, B, C, and D into the Eqs (8.73) and (8.76), we get

 ik k  
=ψ 1 Feik0a  cosh k1a +  1 − 0  sinh k1a  e ik0 x +
 2  k0 k1  

iF ik0a  k1 k0 
e  + )sinh k1ae −ik0 x for −∞ < x < 0 (8.91)
2  k0 k1 

F (ik0 − k1 )a  ik0  k1x F (ik0 + k1 )a  ik0  − k1x

ψ=
2 e 1 + e + e 1 −  e for 0 ≤ x ≤ a (8.92)
2  k1  2  k1 

ψ 3 = Feik x for a ≤ x < ∞

0
(8.93)

Equation (8.91) shows that in region I,

 ik k  
=ψ I Feik0a  cosh k1a +  1 − 0  sinh k1a  e ik0 x is a right going wave, i.e., incident wave. (8.94)
 2  k0 k1  

iF ik0a  k1 k0 
=ψR e  +  sinh k1ae −ik0 x is a left going wave, i.e., reflected wave. (8.95)
2  k0 k1 

Equation (8.92) shows that in region II,

F  ik0  k1x
ψ T = e (ik − k )a  1 +
0 1
 e is a right going wave, i.e., transmitted wave. (8.96)
2  k1 
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 673

F  ik0  − k1x
ψ R′ = e (ik + k )a  1 −
0 1
e is a left going wave, i.e., reflected wave (8.97)
2  k1 

Equation (8.93) shows that in region III,

ψ E = Feik x is a right going wave, i.e., emergent wave

0
(8.98)

is ψ Eψ E* Fe Fe −ik0 x F 2 , a non-
ik0 x
Thus, the probability density of the particle in region III= =
zero quantity which implies that the probability of tunnelling of a particle through the
barrier to region III is not zero even though E < V0! This is one of basic characteristics of
quantum physics.

Figure 8.5 The wave function of a particle incident on the potential energy barrier from the left
side when E < V0. The wavelength l0 is same on both sides of the barrier, whereas the
amplitude beyond the barrier [region III] is much less than the original amplitude in
region I. The particle can never be observed inside the barrier [region II] where it
would have negative kinetic energy, but it can be observed beyond the barrier! Since
a particle escapes detection by the observer in region II, the word ‘tunnelling’ is
used. The phenomenon is called tunnelling effect or quantum mechanical tunnelling

Transmission coefficient
The transmission coefficient or transmission probability T of the barrier is defined in the
usual way as

Transmitted flux density through the barrier ψ Eψ E* v0 ψ Eψ E*

T= = = (8.99)
Incident flux density on the barrier at x = 0 ψ Iψ I* v0 ψ Iψ I*

The incident flux density on the barrier at x = 0 is

674 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

 i  k1 k0  
ψ=
Iψ I v 0
*
Fe ik a  cosh k1a + 

0
−  sinh k1a  e ik0 x ×

 2  kO k1  

 ik k  
Fe −ik0a  cosh k1a −  1 − 0  sinh k1a  e −ikO x v0
 2  k0 k1  
 

 1  k1 k0 
2

ψ=
Iψ v*
F
I 0
 cosh 2
2
k1a +  −  sinh 2
k1 a  v0 (8.100)
 4  k0 k1  
 

The emergent flux density through the barrier is

ψ Eψ E* v0 =
Fe ik x × Fe −ik x v0 =
0
F 2 v0
0
(8.101)

Dividing Eq. (8.100) by Eq. (8.101), we obtain

ψ Iψ I*  
2
1  k1 k0 
=  cosh 2
k1a +  −  sinh 2
k1a 
ψ Eψ E*  4  k0 k1  
  (8.102)

The transmission coefficient or transmission probability is obtained by taking the inverse

of this equation and is obtained as

1
T= 2
(8.103)
1k k 
cosh k1a +  1 − 0  sinh 2 k1a
2

4  k0 k1 

1
or T= 2
1k k 
cosh 2 k1a +  1 + 0  sinh 2 k1a − sinh 2 k1a
4  k0 k1 

1
or T= 2
(8.104)
1k k 
1 +  1 + 0  sinh 2 k1a
4  k0 k1 
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 675

We can also express Eq. (8.103) in another form in the following way. From Eq. (8.103),
we have

4
T= 2
k k 
4 cosh k1a +  1 − 0  sinh 2 k1a
2

 k0 k1 

4
or T= 2 2
k  k 
4 cosh k1a +  1  sinh 2 k1a +  0  sinh 2 k1a − 2sinh 2 k1a
2

 k0   k1 

2
k 
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of this equation by  0  , we have
 k1 

2
k 
4 0 
T=  k1 
2 4 2
k  k  k 
4  0  cosh 2 k1a + sinh 2 k1a +  0  sinh 2 k1a − 2  0  sinh 2 k1a
 k1   k1   k1 

2
k 
4 0 
=  k1 
 k  4
 k0  
2
 k0 
2

1 +   − 2    sinh k1a + 4   cosh 2 k1a

0 2

  k1   k1    k1 

2
 2k0 
 
or T=  k1  (8.105)
2
  k 2   2k 
2

1 −  0   sinh 2 k1a +  0  cosh 2 k1a

  k1    k1 
676 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

2
 k0  E
Putting the value of   = into this equation, we have
 k1  V0 − E

2
 E 
4 
T=  V0 − E 
2 (8.106)
  E 2   E 
2

1 −    sinh 2
k1a + 4 
2
 cosh k1a
  0 V − E   V
 0 − E 

The expressions for transmission coefficient or transmission probability shows that T = 0

at E = 0 and increases steadily with E.

Reflection coefficient in region I

The reflection coefficient or reflection probability of the barrier R is defined in the usual
way as

ψ Rψ R* v0 ψ Rψ R*
=R = (8.107)
ψ Iψ I* v0 ψ Iψ I*

The reflected flux density on the barrier at x = 0 is

iF  k1 k0  −iF −ik1a  k1 k0 
ψ Rψ R* v0 =e ik a 
0
+ − ik x
 sinh k1ae 0 × e  +  sinh k1ae −ik0 x v0
2  k0 k1  2  k0 k1 

2
F 4  k1 k0 
or ψ Rψ v =
*
R 0
2
 +  sinh k1a × v0 (8.108)
4  k0 k1 

Thus, the reflection coefficient or reflection probability is obtained by putting Eqs (8.100)
and (8.108) into Eq. (8.107) as

2
 k1 k0 
 +  sin h2 k1a
k k1 
R=  0 2 (8.109)
k k  2
4+ 1 + 0  sin h k1a
 k0 k1 
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 677

The expressions for T and R are compatible with each other. The summation of R and T
gives
2
 k1 k0 
 +  sin h2 k1a
k k1  4
R + T = 0 2
+ 2
k k  2 k k 
4+ 1 + 0  sin h k1a 4 +  1 + 0  sinh2 k1a
 k0 k1   k0 k1 

2
 k1 k0  2
 +  sin h k1a + 4
or R +T = k0 k1  =1
2
 k1 k0  2
4 +  +  sin h k1a
 k0 k1 

Thus, we have R + T = 1
Approximate value of T
Let us assume that the barrier width a is wide enough for y2 to be severely weakened at
k k
0 £ x £ a. In this case, k1a >>1 i.e., e k1a >> e − k1a and 1 >> 0 . Under this conditions,
k0 k1
Eq. (8.103) becomes

1
T= 2 2 2
e k1a
+e − k1a
 1  k1 k0   e k1a − e − k1a 
  +  −   
 2  4  k0 k1   2 

k0 k
Neglecting e − k1a in comparison to e k1a and in comparison to 1 in this equation, we get
k1 k0

1 16 −2 k1a
T= 2
= e
e 1k  e
2 k1a 2 k1a k12
+  1 4+ 2
4 4  k0  4 k0

16
The quantity always has the value one. Therefore, a reasonable approximation of
k12
4+ 2
k0
the transmission probability is

T = e −2k1a (8.110)
678 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 8.4
Electrons with energy 1.0 eV are incident on a potential barrier of 8.0 eV height and 0.50 nm
width. Calculate the transmission probability of the incident electron.
Solution
The data given are

E = 1.0 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J

V0 = 8.0 eV = 12.8 × 10–19 J

A = 0.50 nm = 0.50 × 10–9 m

2π 2m (V0 − E )
k1 = = 1.4 × 1010 m −1
h

The transmission coefficient is given by

T= e −2 k1a= exp(−2 × 1.4 × 1010 × 0.50 × 10−9 )= 8.3 × 10−7

Thus, in this case, one electron out of 1.2 million electrons can tunnel through the barrier!

Example 8.5
12 million electrons with energy 3.0 eV are incident on a potential barrier of 9.0 eV height and
0.50 nm width. Calculate how many electrons will tunnel through the barrier?
Solution
The data given are

E = 3.0 eV = 4.8 × 10–19 J

V0 = 9.0 eV = 14.4 × 10–19 J

a = 0.50 nm = 0.50 × 10–9 m

2π 2 × 9.11 × 10−31 (14.4 − 4.8) × 10−19

k1 = = 1.2 × 1010 m –11
6.626 × 10−34
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 679

The transmission probability is given by

T= e −2 k1a = exp(−2 × 1.2 × 1010 × 0.50 × 10−9 )= 6.1 × 10−6

The number of electrons that tunnel through the barrier will be approximately

12 × 106 × T =
73

Thus, in this case, 73 electrons out of 12 million electrons can tunnel through the barrier.

Example 8.6
A beam of electrons is incident on a barrier of height 6.00 eV and 0.200 nm width. Find the
energy they should have if 1.00% of them are to tunnel through the barrier.
Solution
Data given are

V0 = 6.00 eV = 9.6 × 10–19 J

a = 0.200 nm = 0.200 × 10–9 m

T = 1.00% = 0.01

The transmission probability is given by

T = e −2k1a

or −2k1a =
nT

−nT
or k1 =
2a

−h × nT
2m (V0 − E ) =
4π a

2
1  −h × nT 
or = V0 −
E
2m  4π a 
680 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting the given data into this equation, we get

2
−19 1  6.626 × 10−34 × ln 0.01 
E=
9.6 × 10 J− −31   J = 0.944 eV
2 × 9.11 × 10  4π × 0.2 × 10−9 

Case II: (E > V0)

In region I where V = 0 and ψ (x ) = ψ 1 , Schrödinger’s time-independent equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 1 2mE
+ 2 ψ1 =
0 for −∞ < x < 0
∂x 2 

∂ 2ψ 1
or 2
+ k02ψ 1 =
0 (8.111)
∂x

2mE
where k0 = (8.112)

The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.111) where k02 is always positive is given
by

ψ 1 Aeik0 x + Be −ik0 x for −∞ < x < 0

= (8.113)

where A and B are integration constants. In this solution, the function Aeik0 x when
i
− Et
multiplied by the factor e  (= e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards the right and
i
− Et
the function Be −ikO x when multiplied by the factor e  (= e–iwt) represents a plane wave
going towards the left. Hence, the solution y1 is a linear combination of plane waves.
Similarly, in region II where V(x) = V0 and ψ (x ) = ψ 2 , Schrödinger’s time-independent
equation becomes

∂ 2ψ 2 2m ( E − V0 )
+ ψ2 =
0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a
∂x 2 2

∂ 2ψ 2
or + k 2ψ 2 =
0 (8.114)
∂x 2
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 681

2m ( E − V0 )
where k = is real. (8.115)


The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.114) is given by

ψ 2 Ceikx + De −ikx for 0 ≤ x ≤ a

= (8.116)

where C and D are integration constants. In this solution, the function Ceikx when multiplied
i
− Et
by the factor e 
(= e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards the right and the function
i
− Et
De −ikx when multiplied by the factor e  (= e–iwt) represents a plane wave going towards
the left.
In region III where V = 0 and ψ (x ) = ψ 3 , Schrödinger’s time-independent equation
becomes

∂ 2ψ 3 2mE
0 for a ≤ x < ∞
+ 2 ψ3 =
∂x 2 

∂ 2ψ 3
or + k02ψ 3 =
0 (8.117)
∂x 2

2mE
where k0 = (8.118)


The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.117), where kO2 is always positive is
given by

ψ 3 Feik0 x + Ge −ik0 x for a ≤ x < ∞

= (8.119)

E and F are integration constants. In this solution, the function Ee ik0 x when multiplied
i
− Et
by the factor e 
represents a plane wave going towards the right and the function
i
− Et
Fe −ik0 x when multiplied by the factor e  represents a plane wave going towards the left.
However, in region III, there cannot be a reflected wave. Hence, F in Eq. (8.113) is zero and
Eq. (8.113) becomes

ψ 3 = Feik x for a ≤ x < ∞

0
(8.120)
682 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Evaluation of integration constants A, B, C, and D

For y to be physically meaningful, wave function y is continuous everywhere including
at x = 0, i.e.,

ψ 1 x =0 = ψ 2 x =0

or A+B=C+D (8.121)
dψ
Similarly, for y to be physically meaningful, wave function is continuous everywhere
dx
including at x = 0, i.e.,

dψ 1 dψ 2
=
dx x =0
dx x =0

or k0 ( A − B) = k(C − D) (8.122)

Solving Eqs (8.121) and (8.122) for A and B, we get

 k C  k D
A = 1 +  + 1 −  (8.123)
 k0  2  k0  2

 k C  k D
B = 1 −  + 1 +  (8.124)
 k0  2  k0  2

Similarly at x = a,

ψ2 x =a
=ψ 3 x =L

or Fe ik0a
Ce ika + De −ika = (8.125)

dψ
Similarly, for y to be physically meaningful, wave function is continuous every where
dx
including at x = a, i.e.,

dψ 2 dψ 3
=
dx x =a
dx x =a
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 683

or k0 Fe ik0a
Cke ika − Dke −ika = (8.126)

Solving Eqs (8.125) and (8.126) for C and D, we get

 k  F i k −k a
C=  1 + 0  e ( 0 ) (8.127)
 k 2

 k  F i k +k a
D=  1 − 0  e ( 0 ) (8.128)
 k 2

Putting the value of C and D from Eq. (8.127) and (8.128) into Eq. (8.123), we get

F ik0a  k  k  F  k  k 
A= e  1 +   1 + 0  e −ika + e ik0a  1 −   1 − 0  e ika
4  k0   k 4  k0   k

F ik0a  −ika ika  k k0  ika −ika 

= ( )
e 2 e + e −  +  e − e ( )
4   k0 k  

 i k k  
or =A Fe ik0a cos ka −  + 0  sin ka  (8.129)
 2  kO k  

Again putting the value of C and D from Eqs (8.127) and (8.128) into Eq. (8.124), we get

F ik0a  k  k  F  k  k 
B= e  1 −   1 + 0  e −ika + e ik0a  1 +  1 − 0  e ika
4  k0   k 4  k0   k1 

F ikO a  k k0  ika −ika 

= e  −  e − e (  )
4  k0 k  

F ik0a  k k0  
= e  −  2i sin ka 
4  k0 k  

iF ik0a  k k0 
=
or B e  −  sin ka (8.130)
2  k0 k 
684 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting these values of A, B, C, and D into Eqs (8.113) and (8.116), we get

 ik k   iF k k 
ψ 1 Feik0a  cos ka −  + 0  sin ka  e ik0 x + e ik0a  − 0  sin ka × e −ik0 x
=
 2  k0 k   2  k0 k 
for −∞ < x < 0 (8.131)

F ik0a  k0  −ika ikx F ik0a  k0  ika −ikx

ψ2 = e 1 +  e e + e 1 −  e e for 0 ≤ x ≤ a (8.132)
2  k 2  k

ψ 3 = Feik x for a ≤ x < ∞

0
(8.133)

Equation (8.131) shows that in region I,

F ik0a  k k  
=ψI e  2 cos ka − i  + 0  sin ka  e ik0 x is a right going wave, i.e., incident wave.
 
2   k0 k   (8.134)

iF ik0a  k k0 
ψR = e  −  sin ka × e −ik0 x is a left going wave, i.e., reflected wave. (8.135)
2  k0 k 
Equation (8.132) shows that in region II,

F ik0a  k0  −ika ikx

=ψT e  1 +  e e is a right going wave, i.e., transmitted wave. (8.136)
2  k

F ik0a  k0  ika −ikx

ψ R′
= e 1 −  e e is a left going wave, i.e., reflected wave (8.137)
2  k

Equation (8.133) shows that in region III,

ψ E = Feik x is a right going wave, i.e., emergent wave

0
(8.138)

Thus, the probability density of the particle in region III

= is ψ Eψ E* Fe
= ikO x
Fe −ik0 x F 2 , a non-
zero quantity which implies that the probability of tunnelling of a particle through the
barrier to region III is not zero when E > V0 ; the result is in conformity with classical
physics.
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 685

Transmission coefficient
The transmission coefficient or transmission probability of the barrier T is defined in the
usual way as

Transmitted flux density through the barrier ψ Eψ E* v0 ψ Eψ E*

T= = = (8.139)
Incident flux density on the barrier at x = 0 ψ Iψ I* v0 ψ Iψ I*

The incident flux density on the barrier at x = 0 is

 i  k k0  
ψ I=
ψ I* v0 Fe ik a  cos ka − 
0
+  sinh ka  e ik0 x ×

 2  k0 k  

 ik k  
Fe −ik0a  cos ka +  + 0  sin ka  e −ikO x v0
 2  k0 k  
 

 1  k k0 
2

ψ Iψ=
*
I v0 F 2  cos2 ka +  +  sin2 ka  v0 (8.140)
 4  k0 k  
 

The transmitted flux density through the barrier is

ψ Eψ E* v0 =
Fe ik x × Fe −ik x v0 =
0 0
F 2 v0 (8.141)

Dividing Eq. (8.140) by Eq. (8.141), we obtain

ψ Iψ I*  2 
2
1  k k0 
= cos ka +  +  sin2 ka 

ψ Eψ E 
*
4  k0 k  
 

The transmission coefficient or transmission probability is obtained by taking the inverse

of this equation and is obtained as

4
T= 2
k k 
4 cos2 ka +  + 0  sin2 ka
 k0 k 
686 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

k V0
Putting refractive index µ
= = 1− , the previous equation becomes
k0 E

4
T= 2
 1
4 cos ka +  µ +  sin2 ka
2

 µ

4µ 2
or T= (8.142)
( )
2
4 µ 2 cos2 ka + µ 2 + 1 sin2 ka

4µ 2  k
or T=  µ= 
( )
2
4 µ 2 cos2 µ k0 a + µ 2 + 1 sin2 µ k0 a  k0 

Now to find out the value of T when E = V0, i.e., m = 0, we have

4µ 2 4
Lim T = Lim =
( ) 4 + ( k0 a )
2 2
µ →0 µ →0
4 µ cos µ k0 a + µ + 1 sin µ k0 a
2 2 2 2 (8.143)

Equation (8.143) shows that

4
T=
4 + ( k0 a )
2

at E = V0.

In analogy with the total transmission of light through a thin refracting layer,
perfect transmission occurs for ka = nπ because if we put ka = nπ into Eq. (8.142),
T = 1, i.e.,

T=1
2π λ
When ka = nπ or a = nπ or a = n , with n = 1, 2, 3, …
λ 2

Thus, total transmission occurs whenever barrier width a is an integral multiple of half the
wavelengths.
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 687

Reflection coefficient in region I

The reflection coefficient of the barrier R is defined in the usual way as

ψ Rψ R* v0 ψ Rψ R*
=R = (8.144)
ψ Iψ I* v0 ψ Iψ I*

The reflected flux density on the barrier at x = 0 is

iF ik0a  k k0  −iF −ika  k k0 

ψ Rψ R* v0 = e  −  sin kae −ik0 x × e  −  sin ka × e ik0 x v0
2  k0 k  2  k0 k 

2
F 2  k k0 
or ψ Rψ R* v0 = −  sin2 ka × v0 (8.145)
4  kO k 

Thus, the reflection coefficient is obtained by putting Eqs (8.140) and (8.145) into
Eq. (8.144) as
2
 k k0  2
 −  sin ka
k
 0 k 
R= 2 (8.146)
 k k0 
4 cos ka +  +  sin2 ka
2

 kO k 

The expressions for T and R are compatible with each other, i.e.,

R+T=1

All the mathematical relations in case of E ≥ V0 can be obtained alternately just by replacing
k1 by ik of the case E < V0 !

8.6 Infinity Deep Potential Well

Repulsive infinite deep potential energy well is defined mathematically as

V(x) = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a

= ∞ for x < 0 and x > a

and is depicted in Fig. 8.6.

 688 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 8.6 A particle moves freely in the region 0 < x < a of one-dimensional repulsive infinite
deep potential energy well, but is excluded completely from x < 0 and x > a

A particle moves freely in the region 0 < x < a of a one-dimensional repulsive infinite deep
potential energy well, but is excluded completely from x < 0 and x > a . It collides with the
infinite hard walls at x = 0 and x = a. A particle does not lose energy when it collides with
such walls so its total energy remains constant. The potential energy V(x) on both sides of
the well is infinity and inside the well is constant; for convenience of mathematics, it can be
taken as zero. The particle can not have infinite amount of energy. Hence, it cannot exist
outside the well where potential energy is infinite. Therefore, we have

y(x) = 0 for x < 0 and x > a.

Boundary conditions on y(x)

i. y(0) = 0 at x = 0 since y(x) = 0 for x < 0

ii. y(a) = 0 at x = a since y(x) = 0 for x > a

Schrödinger’s time-independent equation for the particle inside the potential energy is
given by

∂ 2ψ 2mE
+ 2 ψ=
0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a (8.147)
∂x 2 
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 689

∂ 2ψ
or + k02ψ =
0 (8.148)
∂x 2

2mE 2π
where
= k0 = (8.149)
 λ

λ = de Broglie wavelength of the particle.

The solution of the second order differential Eq. (8.147) where k02 is always positive is given
by

ψ (x ) A sin k0 x + B cos k0 x for 0 ≤ x ≤ a

= (8.150)

where A and B are constants whose values can be found out by applying boundary
conditions.
Evaluation of constants A and B
According to the boundary conditions discussed earlier, ψ (x ) = 0 for x < 0 and x > a .
i.e.,
ψ (0) = 0 and ψ (a) = 0

Hence, Eq. (8.150) becomes

ψ (0) A sin 0 + B cos 0

=

ψ (0)= 0 + B

This equation proves that B = 0 because the left side of this equation is zero. Equation (8.150)
becomes

ψ (x ) = A sin k0 x (8.151)

where A is called the normalization constant and can not be zero. If A = 0, ψ = 0 everywhere
and ψψ * = 0 every where and the wave function becomes meaningless. ψψ * = 0 implies
that there is no particle! The value of the normalization constant is found out using the
procedure outlined in the previous chapter and is given directly as

2
A=
a
690 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Putting this value of A into Eq. (8.151),

2
ψ (x ) = sin k0 x (8.152)
a

Again applying the boundary condition, we get

ψ (a) = 0

2
or sin k0 a = 0
a

2
A= can not be zero. Hence,
a

sin k0 a = 0

or k0a = np with n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … (8.153)

8.6.1 Quantization of de Broglie wavelengths

2π
Putting the value of k0 = into Eq. (8.153), we get
λ

2π a 2a
= nπ or λ = n = 1, 2, 3, 4, (8.154)
λ n

Thus, the solution of Schrödinger’s equation for a particle trapped in a linear region of
length a is a series of standing de Broglie waves. Not all the wavelengths are permitted;
only certain values permitted by Eq. (8.154) may occur. Therefore, we conclude that the de
Broglie wavelength is quantized.

8.6.2 Quantization of energy (energy eigenvalues)

2mE
Putting the value of k0 = into Eq. (8.153), we get


2mE
a = nπ

 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 691

Solving this equation for E, the energy eigenvalues of the particles are given by

 2 π 2 n2
En = , n = 1, 2, 3, … (8.155)
2ma2

This equation shows that the energy of the particle in a one-dimensional potential well of
infinite height is quantized in contradiction to classical physics.
i n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … is called the principal quantum number. Each value of n corresponds
to one allowed energy state of the system.
ii. The ground state energy of the particle E1 is obtained by putting n = 1 in Eq. (8.153),
i.e.,

2π 2 (ground state energy of the particle)

E1 =
2ma2
This equation shows that the ground state energy or zero point energy of a particle is
not zero, whereas according to classical physics, the ground state energy or zero point
energy of a particle is zero.
iii. The energy of any other state of the particle is given by
En = E1n2 n = 2, 3, 4, …

The only allowed energy of the particle are E1, 4E1, 9E1, 16E1, etc. All intermediate
values such as 2E1, 3.2E1, 5E1, 6.7E1 are forbidden.
iv. En = E1n2 shows that energy levels are not equispaced. The difference between n2 for
two consecutive values of n increases with increased values of n. Thus, the spacing
between two successive energy levels increases for higher values of n. This has been
depicted in Fig. 8.7.

Figure 8.7 The energy levels of a particle enclosed in a one-dimensional potential well of infinite
height. The energy levels are not continuous but quantized
692 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

8.6.3 Quantization of speed (speed eigenvalues)

The potential energy of a particle is assumed to be zero for mathematical simplicity.

Therefore, for a non-relativistic case, the energy of the particle is purely kinetic, i.e.,

1 2  2 π 2 n2
mv=
n E=
n
2 2ma2

 2 π 2 n2
or vn2 =
m2 a2

From this equation, the speed eigenvalues of the particle under consideration is given by

π
vn = n (8.156)
ma

This equation shows that the speed of a particle in a one-dimensional potential well of
infinite height is quantized in contradiction to classical physics. If a suitable bead is placed
inside a suitable box [so that there is no friction and collisions are elastic ideally] and the
bead is given any speed, the motion will continue infinitely. However, the particle inside
the infinite deep potential well cannot be given any arbitrary initial speed for sustained
states of motion; only certain initial speeds defined by Eq. (8.156) can produce sustained
states of motion. The special conditioned motions are called stationary states. The states
are stationary because when time dependence is included to make ψ (x , t ) , the probability
density ψψ * is independent of time and the expectation values calculated do not change
with time.

8.6.4 Eigenfunctions

The normalized eigenfunctions yn(x) of a particle enclosed in a one-dimensional potential

nπ
well of infinite height is obtained by putting k0 = [Eq. (8.153)] into Eq. (8.152) as
a
2 nπ (8.157)
ψ n (x ) = sin x
a a

For different values of n, normalized eigenfunctions yn(x) of a particle enclosed in a one-

dimensional potential well of infinite height is plotted in Fig. 8.8.
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 693

Figure 8.8 Comparison of normalized eigenfunctions yn(x) and probability densities yn y n* of a

particle in different quantum states enclosed in a one-dimensional potential well of
infinite height

Example 8.7
An electron is trapped completely in a one-dimensional region of length 1 Å. How much
energy must be supplied to excite the electron from the first excited state to the second excited
state?
Solution
The data given are
O
= A 10−10 m
a 1=

 2π 2
=
E1 = 37.65eV
2ma2
694 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

E2 = 4 E1

E3 = 9 E1

The energy difference is E3 – E2 = 9E1 – 4E1 = 5E1 = 188 eV

Thus, 188 eV energy must be supplied to excite the electron from the first excited state to
the second excited state.

Example 8.8
The ground state energy of a particle in an infinite one-dimensional well is 4.4 eV. If the width
of the well is doubled, what is the new ground state energy?
Solution
The data given are

E1 = 4.4 eV

The energy of a particle in an infinite one-dimensional well is

 2 π 2 n2
En =
2ma2

The ground state energy of a particle in an infinite one-dimensional well is

 2π 2
E1 =
2ma2

If width of the well a is doubled, the new ground state energy will be

 2π 2 E1 4.4 eV
=
E1new = 2
= = 1.1eV
2m4a 4 4

Questions

8.1 What is the scope of quantum physics?

8.2 What are the conditions for one-dimensional systems?
8.3 Explain how multiplication of e–iwt with the wave function y(x) generates a wave.
8.4 What is the condition for a particle to be a free particle?
8.5 Write Schrödinger’s time-independent equation for a free particle confined to the
Y-axis.
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 695

8.6 Solve Schrödinger’s time-independent equation for a free particle.

8.7 What are the boundary conditions on y so that it turns out a physically meaningful
wave function?
8.8 What do you mean by a free particle? Derive the expression for its wave function.
8.9 Is the wave function of a free particle oscillatory or non-oscillatory? Explain.
8.10 Derive an expression for the de Broglie wavelength of a free particle in terms of its
kinetic energy
8.11 Prove that the speed of a free particle in one dimension is continuous.
8.12 Prove that the momentum of a free particle in one dimension is continuous.
8.13 What is potential step? Define it mathematically.
8.14 Explain why in potential step problem, time-independent Schrödinger’s equation is
taken.
8.15 Prove that the speed of transmitted particles is less than that of incident particles in
case of potential step problems.
8.16 What do you mean by transmission coefficient? What is its physical significance?
8.17 What do you mean by reflection coefficient? What is its physical significance?
8.18 Derive the expression for transmission probability or transmission coefficient of a
particle through potential step when the energy of the incident particle is more than
the height of the potential step.
8.19 Calculate the transmission probability in case of potential step if the energy of the
incident particle is much more than the potential step.
8.20 Derive the expression for reflection coefficient of a particle through potential step
when energy of the incident particle is more than the height of the potential step.
8.21 Prove that the sum of the transmission coefficient and the reflection coefficient of a
particle through potential step when energy of the incident particle is less than the
height of the potential step is unity.
8.22 Derive the expression for transmission probability or transmission coefficient of a
particle through potential step when energy of the incident particle is less than the
height of the potential step.
8.23 Derive the expression for transmission reflection coefficient of a particle through
potential step when energy of the incident particle is less than the height of the
potential step.
8.24 An electron and proton with same energy E is incident on a potential energy barrier
of height V0 such that E < V0. Do they have the same probability of tunnelling through
the barrier? Explain.
8.25 Prove that the sum of the transmission probability and the reflection probability of a
particle through potential step when energy of the incident particle is more than the
height of the potential step is unity.
8.26 Prove that in case of potential step, the speed of transmitted particle is less than that
of incident particles.
696 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

8.27 What is the law of conservation of flux? Explain how the law is satisfied in case of the
potential step problem.
8.28 Define refractive index of potential step when energy of the particle is more than the
height potential step.
8.29 If m is the refractive index of a potential step, then prove that
2
1− µ
R=
1+ µ

when the energy of the particle is more than the height potential step.
8.30 If m is the refractive index of a potential step, then prove that

4µ
T=
(1 + µ )2

when the energy of the particle is more than the height potential step.
8.31 Prove that in case of the potential energy step when the energy of the particle is less
than the height potential step, the reflection probability is unity.
8.32 Solve Schrödinger’s time-independent equation to obtain the wave function for
incident particles in case of potential step.
8.33 Solve Schrödinger’s time-independent equation to obtain the wave function for
reflected particles in case of potential step.
8.34 Solve Schrödinger’s time-independent equation to obtain the wave function for
transmitted particles in case of potential step.
8.35 The wave function inside the potential step is oscillatory or non-oscillatory when
energy of the particle is less than the height potential step. Explain
8.36 The wave function inside the potential step is oscillatory or non-oscillatory when
energy of the particle is more than the height potential step. Explain
8.37 Explain how quantum physics differs from classical physics in potential step problems.
8.38 What is the potential energy barrier? Define a potential energy barrier.
8.39 Derive an expression for the transmission probability of incident particles through the
potential barrier when energy of the incident particle is less than the height of the
barrier.
8.40 Derive an expression for the reflection probability of incident particles through the
potential barrier when energy of the incident particle is less than the height of the
barrier.
8.41 Prove that the transmission probability of incident particles through the potential
barrier when energy of the incident particle is less than the height of the barrier is
approximately T = e–2k1a.
8.42 Derive an expression for the transmission probability of incident particles through the
potential barrier when energy of the incident particle is more than the height of the
barrier.
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 697

8.43 Derive an expression for the reflection probability of incident particles through the
potential barrier when energy of the incident particle is more than the height of the
barrier.
8.44 What is quantum mechanical tunnelling? Mention two examples where this
phenomenon is observed.
8.45 Explain how quantum physics differs from classical physics in potential barrier
problems.
8.46 Derive an expression for the normalized wave function of a particle trapped in an
infinite deep potential well.
8.47 What is the eigen functions of a particle trapped in an infinite deep potential well in its
ground state and third excited state?
8.48 Prove that the energy of the particle enclosed in an infinite deep potential well is
quantized.
8.49 Prove that the momentum of a particle in a one-dimensional potential well of infinity
height is quantized.
8.50 Derive an expression for the energy of the particle enclosed in an infinite deep
potential well.
8.51 Prove that the de Broglie wavelength of a particle enclosed in an infinite deep potential
well is quantized.
8.52 A particle of mass m is enclosed inside a potential well of infinite height. What is the
maximum de Broglie wavelength of the particle?
8.53 Explain how quantum physics differs from classical physics in infinite deep potential
well problems.
8.54 Is the wave function inside the infinite deep potential well oscillatory or non-
oscillatory? Explain
8.55 Explain how the energy of a particle in an infinite deep potential well depends on
mass of the particle and width of the well.
8.56 The de Broglie wavelength of a particle inside an infinite deep potential well is
quantized. Prove it.
8.57 A particle of mass m is enclosed inside a potential well of infinite height. What is the
lowest speed the particle is to be given so that the particle acquires sustained states
of motion?
8.58 Prove that the spacing between consecutive energy levels of a particle inside an
infinite deep potential well increases with the increase of the energy.
8.59 Prove that half the de Broglie wavelength of a particle inside an infinite deep potential
well cannot be less than the width of the well.
698 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Problems
o
8.1 An electron is trapped completely in a one-dimensional region of length 1 A . How
much energy must be supplied to excite the electron from the ground state to the first
excited state? [Ans 111 eV]
o
8.2 The de Broglie wavelength of a freely moving electron is 8.678 A . Calculate its
energy. [Ans 2 eV]
8.3 An electron is moving freely with energy 2 eV. Calculate its speed.
[Ans 8.38 × 105 m/s]
8.4 The ground state energy of a particle in an infinite one-dimensional well is 5.6 eV.
If the width of the well is doubled, what is the new ground state energy? [Ans 1.4 eV]
8.5 An electron is trapped completely in a one-dimensional region of length 0.132 nm.
What is the energy of the electron in n = 10 state? [Ans 2160 eV]
8.6 What is the minimum energy of a proton confined to a region of space of nuclear
dimension 10 femtometers? [Ans 2.0 MeV]
8.7 Electrons with energy 10.0 eV are incident on a potential step of 8 eV height and 0.50
nm width. Calculate the reflection probability and transmission probability of the
incident electron. [Ans 0.15, 0.85]
8.8 Electrons with energy 2.0 eV are incident on a potential barrier of 10.0 eV height and
0.50 nm width. Calculate the transmission probability of the incident electrons.
[Ans 2.4 × 10–7]
8.9 20 × 106 electrons with energy 1.0 eV are incident on a potential barrier of 10.0 eV high
and 0.50 nm width. Calculate how many electrons will tunnel through the barrier?
[Ans only 2]
8.10 A beam of protons is incident on a barrier of height 8.00 eV and width 0.300 nm. Find
the energy they should have if 10.00% of them are to tunnel through the barrier.
[Ans 7.438 eV]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Time-independent Schrödinger’s equation in one-dimension is

∂ 2ψ 2 ∂ 2ψ 2m
(i) + (E − V )ψ =
0 (ii) + (E − V )ψ =
0
∂x 2 2m ∂x 2 2
∂ 2ψ 2m ∂ 2ψ 2m
(iii) + (V − E )ψ =
0 (iv) + (E + V )ψ =
0
∂x 2 2 ∂x 2 2
 Applications of Quantum Mechanics 699

2. Time-dependent Schrödinger’s equation in one-dimension is

∂ψ 2m ∂ 2ψ ∂ψ 2 ∂ 2ψ
(i) =
i + Vψ (ii) =
i + Vψ
∂t 2 ∂x 2 ∂t 2m ∂x 2

∂ψ 2 ∂ 2ψ ∂ψ 2m ∂ 2ψ
(iii) i =
− + Vψ (iv) i =
− 2 + Vψ
∂t 2m ∂x 2 ∂t  ∂x 2

3. According to quantum physics, the energy of a free particle is

(i) quantized (ii) continuous
(iii) always zero (iv) always infinity
4. What is the unit of transmission coefficient?
(i) Unitless (ii) Weber/meter
(iii) Tesla (iv) None of the above
5. What is the unit of reflection coefficient?
(i) Unitless (ii) Weber/meter
(iii) Tesla (iv) None of the above

6. What is the unit of k 0 ?
(i) Unitless (ii) m–1
(iii) electron volt (iv) None of the above
7. In case of potential step of infinite height, the phase difference between the incident
wave and the reflected wave is
(i) 0 (ii) p
(iii) 2p (iv) p/2
8. The de Broglie wavelength of a particle trapped inside an infinite deep potential well in
the first excited state is
(i) Equal to the width of the well (ii) Two times the width of the well
(iii) Three times the width of the well (iv) Four times the width of the well
9. The width of an infinite deep potential well is doubled. The ground state energy of the
particle will be
(i) doubled (ii) halved
(iii) quartered (iv) tripled
10. A particle trapped in an infinite deep potential well has de Broglie wavelength l in the
ground state. What is the wavelength of the particle in the next excited state?
λ λ
(i) (ii)
2 3
λ
(iii) (iv) 2λ
4
700 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Answers

1 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (ii) 4 (i) 5 (i) 6 (ii) 7 (iv) 8 (ii)

9 (iii) 10 (i)
 Special Theory of
9 Relativity

9.1 Introduction
Newtonian mechanics describes the macro-world correctly. However, when it is applied
to describe atomic particles of very high energies, or travelling at very high speeds, it gives
predictions which disagree with experiments. The absoluteness of mass, length and time
were discarded by the theory of relativity – it was theorized that they depend on reference
frames. Though variations of mass, length and time with speed are too small to be observed
in day-to-day life, their variations are clearly observable in the world of high energy atomic
particles. In the special theory of relativity, gravitational effects and accelerated motions
are beyond consideration and they are dealt with in the general theory of relativity. The
theory of relativity is beyond the perception of common sense. It is our duty as students of
science and engineering to change our minds to fit nature, not to change nature to fit the
preconceptions in our minds.

9.2 Frame of Reference

To describe a physical event, we must establish a frame of reference. The motion of a
body can only be described relative to some other bodies, observers, or a set of space–
time coordinates. These are called frames of reference. If the coordinates are not chosen
properly, the laws of physics may be unnecessarily more complicated.

9.2.1 Inertial frame of reference

The reference frame in which the law of inertia (Newton’s first law) holds good is called the
inertial frame of reference. All inertial frames are in a state of constant, rectilinear motion
702 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

with respect to one another; they do not accelerate. They may be at rest. No experiment
can be performed to know whether an isolated inertial frame of reference is in motion or
at rest. In an inertial frame of reference, an object is observed to have no acceleration when
no forces act on it. Furthermore, any frame moving with constant velocity with respect to
an inertial frame must also be an inertial frame. Measurements in one inertial frame can
be converted to measurements in another by the Galilean transformation in Newtonian
physics and the Lorentz transformation in special relativity. Earth is approximately taken
to be an inertial reference frame. No preferred inertial reference frame exists and all inertial
reference frames are equivalent.

9.2.2 Non-inertial frame of reference

Opposite of the inertial frame of reference is the non-inertial frame of reference or

accelerated frame of reference. A non-inertial reference frame is a frame of reference that
is accelerating with respect to an inertial frame. An accelerometer at rest in a non-inertial
frame will in general show non-zero acceleration. Unlike the inertial frames, the laws of
motion in non-inertial frames take complicated forms, and the laws vary from frame to
frame depending upon the acceleration. To explain the motion of bodies entirely within
the viewpoint of non-inertial reference frames, fictitious forces also called inertial forces/
pseudo-forces/d’Alembert forces must be introduced to account for the observed motion.
One might say that F = ma holds in any coordinate system provided the term "force" is re-
defined to include the so-called d’Alembert forces. In a curved space–time, all frames are
non-inertial. Measurements with respect to non-inertial reference frames can always be
transformed to an inertial frame, directly incorporating the acceleration of the non-inertial
frame as that acceleration as seen from the inertial frames.

9.3 Galilean Transformation

Let us first see how we transform from one inertial frame to another in Newtonian mechanics.
Suppose an inertial frame of reference S¢ is moving with respect to another inertial frame of
reference S with a constant velocity v along the x-direction and both S and S¢ coincide
with each other at t = 0. Two observers O and O¢ are attached at the origin of S and S¢
respectively. Let a point in space–time (called an ‘event’) has the coordinates (x, y, z, t) in
frame S as measured by O and (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢) in S¢ as measured by S¢. Then from our common
sense/classical ideas and with reference to Fig. 9.1, the relation between the coordinates of
the event in S and S¢ will be
t¢ = t or dt¢ = dt

dx ' dx
x¢ = x – vt or = − v or u¢ = u – v (9.1)
dt ' dt
 Special Theory of Relativity 703

dy ' dy
y¢ = y or =
dt ' dt

dz ' dz
z¢ = z or =
dt ' dt

Figure 9.1 Observers O and O' move with relative velocity v and each observer has its own set of
coordinates (x, y, z, t) and (x', y', z', t'')

These relations are called Galilean transformations. From this, we see that the time of
occurrence of an event is the same in all inertial frames. A more precise way of stating this
is that the time interval between two events is invariant under Galilean transformation.

9.4 Michelson–Morley Experiment

When we say that the speed of light in a vacuum is 2.997925 × 108 m/s (= 1/ ε o µo ), we do
not mention any reference system. A reference system fixed in the medium of propagation
of light presents difficulties because, in contrast to sound, no medium seems to exist. The
19th century physicists could not imagine that light could propagate without any medium. It
seemed to be a logical step for them to postulate a medium called “ether”, assigning unusual
properties to it. It followed then that an observer moving through ether with velocity v
would measure a velocity c + v for a light beam according to Newtonian relativity. It was
this result that the Michelson–Morley experiment was designed to test. The experimental
tool used was nothing but the Michelson interferometer of which one of the two arms is
aligned along the direction of Earth’s motion through space. Earth moving through ether
at speed v (ª 30 km/s) is equivalent to ether flowing past Earth in the opposite direction
with the same speed v. This ether wind blowing in the direction opposite the direction
of Earth’s motion should cause the speed of light measured in Earth's frame to be c + v
depending upon the direction of the light beam. The schematic diagram of the Michelson
704 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

interferometer is shown in Fig. 9.2. The beam of light from source S is split by the partially
silvered mirror M into two coherent beams by partial transmission and partial reflection.
Beam 1 is reflected back to M by mirror M1 and beam 2 by mirror M2. Then the returning
beam 1 is partially reflected and the returning beam 2 is partially transmitted by M back
to a telescope at T where they interfere. Depending on the phase difference of the beams,
the interference is constructive or destructive. The partially silvered mirror surface M is
inclined at 45° to the beam directions so as to make beam 1 and 2 mutually perpendicular.
If M1 and M2 are very nearly at right angles, we observe a fringe system in the telescope
consisting of nearly parallel lines.

Figure 9.2 A schematic diagram of the Michelson interferometer showing splitting of light beam
into two beams by mirror M. These beams are reflected by mirrors M1 and M2 towards
M and then transmitted to the telescope T giving rise to an interference fringe pattern.
Here v is the velocity of ether with respect to the interferometer

Let us compute the phase difference between the two beams 1 and 2. This phase difference
is due to the different path lengths ℓ1 and ℓ2 that the two light rays travelled, and the different
speeds of the light rays because of the “ether wind” speed v. The time for beam 1 to travel
from M to M1 and back (as shown in Fig. 9.2) is

1  2  1 
t1 = + 1 = 1 2 
(9.2)
c −v c +v 2
c 1− v / c 
 Special Theory of Relativity 705

The path of beam 2, travelling from M to M2 and back through the ether, is shown in
Fig. 9.3 enabling the beam to return to the mirror M. The transit time t2 as calculated from
Fig. 9.3 is

ct 2
= 22 + (vt 2 / 2)2
2

2 2  1 
or t2 =   (9.3)
c  1 − v2 / c2 

Figure 9.3 The mirrors move through ether at a speed v, (i.e., v is the speed of the interferometer
with respect to ether); the light moves through ether at speed c

The calculation of t2 made in the ether frame and t1 in the frame of the apparatus makes no
difference because time is an absolute quantity in classical physics. The difference in transit
times is

2 2 1 
∆t = t 2 − t1 =  −  (9.4)
c  1 − v 2 / c2 1 − v 2 / c2 
706 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Let the instrument be rotated through 90°, thereby interchanging ℓ1 and ℓ2. In this case, the
transit time difference will be

2 2 1 
=∆t '  2 2
−  (9.5)
c 1− v / c 1 − v2 / c2 

Hence, the rotation through 90° changes the time differences by

2  +  2 + 1 
∆t '− ∆t =  2 2 1 2 − 
c 1− v / c 1 − v2 / c2 

2( 1 +  2 )
=
c
(
(1 − v 2 / c 2 )−1 − (1 − v 2 / c 2 )−1/2 )

2( 1 +  2 )
=
c
(
(1 + v 2 / c 2 ) − (1 + v 2 / 2c 2 ) )

1 +  2 v 2
or ∆t '− ∆t = (9.6)
c c2

The rotation of the interferometer by 90° changes the phase relationship between beams 1
and 2 and hence, there should be a change in the fringe pattern. For one wavelength l path
difference, there is a shift of one fringe in the field of view of the telescope. One wavelength
λ λ
l corresponds to a time period of seconds. That means for a change of seconds, there
c c
 +  v2
is a shift of one fringe. Therefore, for a change of 1 2 2 seconds, the number of fringes
c c
shifted DN will be

c  1 +  2 v 2 ( 1 +  2 )v 2
∆N = × =
λ c c2 λc 2

2
( +  )  30000  ( +  )
or ∆N =
=1 2  8 
= 10−8 1 2 (9.7)
λ  3 × 10  λ

(We have chosen v = 30 km/s because it is the orbital speed of Earth).

In Michelson’s 1887 experiment, ℓ1 + ℓ2 = 22 m and a light of wavelength l = 5.5 × 10–7 m
was used which gives

22 m 4
10−8
∆N = =
5.5 × 10−7 m 10
 Special Theory of Relativity 707

Incredibly, a shift of four-tenths a fringe! To consider the effects of spinning and rotation
of Earth (thereby interchanging ℓ1 and ℓ2 over long time periods), observations were made
day and night throughout the year. However, the expected fringe shift was not observed.
The experimental conclusion was that there was no fringe shift at all.
This null result was such a blow to the ether hypothesis that the same experiment was
repeated by many researchers for more than 50 years. The null result was amply established
and provided great stimuli to theoretical and experimental investigation. The Michelson–
Morley experiment's null result not only contradicted the ether hypothesis, but also showed
that it is impossible to measure the absolute velocity of Earth with respect to the ether
frame. Einstein, in the year 1905, put forth his special theory of relativity and with it, it was
possible to interpret the null results of the Michelson–Morley experiment.

9.5 Einstein’s Principles of Relativity

Einstein proposed a theory that boldly removed the difficulties of measuring speed of
light with respect to the earth and the contradictions in Galilean transformation. At the
same time, it completely altered our notion of space and time. Einstein’s special theory of
relativity is based on the following two postulates:
i. The principle of relativity All the laws of physics must be the same in all inertial reference
frames.
ii. The constancy of the speed of light The speed of light in vacuum has the same value
(ª 3 × 108 m/s) in all inertial frames of reference; independent of the speed of the observer
or that of the source emitting the light.

9.6 Lorentz Transformation

The Lorentz transformation is the equivalent of the Galilean transformation with the
added assumption that everyone measures the same speed of light no matter how fast they
are travelling or the sources are travelling.

9.6.1 Mathematics of the Lorentz transformation

Consider two observers O and O¢ moving at a constant velocity relative to each other along
the x-axis, i.e., the S¢ frame moves along on the x-axis with constant velocity v with respect
to S. They synchronise their clocks as they pass each other so that t = t¢ = 0. They both
observe the same event such as a flash of light. How will the coordinates recorded by the
observers of the event that produced the flash of light be interrelated? The relationship
between the coordinates can be derived on the basis of the postulates of relativity and
additional assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy of space–time.
708 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Homogeneity and isotropy assumptions

Space–time is uniform and homogeneous in all directions. If this were not the case, then
when comparing lengths in different coordinate systems, the lengths would depend upon
the position and orientation of the measurement. The linear equations relating coordinates
in S¢ and S frames are:
x¢ = a11x + a12 y + a13z + a14t

y ¢ = a21x + a22y + a23z + a24t

z¢ = a31x + a32y + a33z + a34t

t¢ = a41x + a42 y + a43z + a44t (9.8)

There is no relative motion in the y or z directions. Therefore, according to the relativity

postulate
y¢ = y

z¢ = z

Hence,
a22 = 1, a21 = a23 = a24 = 0

and
a33 = 1, a31 = a32 = a34 = 0

Thus, the following equations of Eq. (9.8) remain to be solved

x¢ = a11x + a12y + a13z + a14t (9.9)

t¢ = a41x + a42 y + a43z + a44t (9.10)

If space–time is isotropic (i.e., the properties of space is the same in all directions), then the
readings of clocks should be independent of the y and z coordinates. Hence,
a42 = a43 = 0
and
t¢ = a41x + a44t (9.11)

The point having x ¢ = 0 appears to move in the direction of the positive x-axis with speed
v, so that the statement x ¢ = 0 must be identical to the statement x = vt
Hence, we have from Eq. (9.9),
0 = a11vt + a12y + a13z + a14t (9.12)
 Special Theory of Relativity 709

Given that the equations are linear,

a12y + a13z = 0

and so from Eq. (9.12),

–a11vt = a14t or –a11v = a14

Therefore, the correct transformation equation for x ¢ from Eq. (9.9) is

x¢ = a11(x – vt) (9.13)

Thus, we have the following transformation equations.

x¢ = a11(x – vt) (9.14)

y¢ = y (9.15)

z¢ = z (9.16)

t¢ = a41x + a44t (9.17)

Assuming that the speed of light is constant (postulate ii), the coordinates of a flash of light
that expands as a sphere will satisfy the following equations in each coordinate system

(ct)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 (9.18)

and
(ct¢)2 = (x¢)2 + (y¢)2 + (z¢)2 (9.19)

Substituting the coordinate transformation Eqs (9.14)–(9.17) into Eq. (9.19), we obtain

c2(a41x + a44t)2 = a 211(x – vt)2 + y 2 + z2 (9.20)

or (c2a 244 – v2a 211)t2 = (a 211 – c2a 241)x 2 + y 2 + z 2 – 2(va 211 + c 2a41a44)xt (9.21)

Comparing Eq. (9.18) and (9.21), we have

c 2a 244 – v2a 211 = c2

a 211 – c 2a 241 = 1

va 211 + c 2a41a44 = 0
710 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The solution of these three simultaneous equations gives

1
a44 =
1 − v2 / c2

1
a11 =
1 − v2 / c2

v / c2
a41 =
1 − v2 / c2

Substituting these values into Eqs (9.14)–(9.17), we have

x − vt
x'=
1 − v2 / c2 (9.22)

y¢ = y (9.23)

z¢ = z (9.24)

t − (v / c 2 )x
t'= (9.25)
1 − v2 / c2

1 1
v/c and γ
Putting b = = = into these equations, we get
1 − v2 / c2 1− β 2

x Æ x¢ x¢ Æ x
x ¢ = g (x – vt) x = g (x¢ + vt¢)
y¢ = y y = y¢
z¢ = z z = z¢
ct¢ = g (ct – bx) ct = g (ct¢ + bx¢)

These are the Lorentz transformation equations for events when the S¢ frame moves along
the x-axis with constant velocity v with respect to S. In Fig. 9.4, we have depicted the
1
variation of γ = with respect to v, the velocity with which S¢ moves with respect
1 − v2 c 2
to S.
 Special Theory of Relativity 711

1
Figure 9.4 The quantity γ= as a function of the relative speed of two frames
1 − v2 c 2
of reference. For a particle at rest, g = 1.0

As speed v approaches the speed of light c, g approaches infinity.

9.6.2 Consequences of the Lorentz transformation equations

The Lorentz transformation equations give incredibly interesting results when applied to
physical phenomena. Few of them are cited here.

Consequence 1
A rod’s length is the greatest when it is at rest relative to an observer.

Proof
Let the rod be placed in the S¢ frame parallel to the x ¢-axis. Let its end points be at x 1¢ and x 2¢
as measured in S¢ at the same instant of time and hence, its rest length, i.e., proper length
will be

ℓ0 = x 2¢ – x 1¢

Here ℓ0 is the length of the rod measured in a frame of reference in which it is at rest. Its end
points are measured to be at x1 and x2 in S at the same instant of time and hence, its length
with respect to S, i.e., improper length will be

ℓ = x2 – x1
712 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Therefore, we have

 0 = x2′ − x1′ = γ ( x2 − vt 2 ) − γ ( x1 − vt1 )

or =
0 γ ( x2 − x1 ) − γ v ( t 2 − t1 ) 

Since the two ends of the rod are measured at the same instant of time in S, t1 = t2 and this
equation gives

ℓ0 = g (x2 – x1)

0
or = (9.26)
γ

Equation (9.26) shows that when a rod moves with velocity v relative to the observer, its
measured length is contracted (Since γ =1 1 − v 2 c 2 > 1) in the direction of motion by a
factor of 1 − v 2 c 2 , whereas its dimensions perpendicular to the direction of motion are
unaffected. This effect is called length contraction.
Consequence 2
A clock is measured to go at its fastest rate when it is at rest relative to the observer.
Proof
Let the clock be placed in the S¢ frame at x¢. Duration of an event in the S¢ frame is t¢2 = t¢1.
Since the clock is at rest in S¢, this time interval is called proper time. Duration of the same
event in the S frame is t2 – t1. Since the clock is in motion with respect to the S frame, this
time interval is called improper time. Applying Lorentz transformation equation, we have

ct 2 − ct=
1 γ ( ct 2′ + β cx2′ ) − γ ( ct1′ + β cx1′ )

or t 2 − t=
1 γ ( t 2′ − t1′ ) − γβ ( x2′ − x1′ )

Since the position of the clock x¢ does not change in the S¢ frame, x¢1 = x 2¢, and this equation
boils down to
t2 – t1 = g (t 2¢ – t¢1)

or Dt = g Dt0 (9.27)

Here Dt0 = t¢2 – t 1¢ is the time interval measured in a frame of reference in which the clock
is at rest. Equation (9.27) shows that when a clock moves with velocity v relative to the
 Special Theory of Relativity 713

observer, its rate is measured to have slowed down (since γ =1 1 − v 2 c 2 > 1 ) by a factor
of 1 − v 2 c 2 . This effect is known as time dilation. It is important to note that the time
interval Dt in Eq. (9.27) involves events that occur at different space points in the frame of
reference S. Moreover, any differences between Dt and the proper time Dt0 are not caused
by differences in the times required for light to travel from those space points to an observer
at rest in S.

Example 9.1
A hypothetical spaceship flies at a speed of 0.990 c. The pilot in the spaceship measures its
length to be 990 m. What length do observers measure on Earth?
Solution
Data given are ℓ0 = 900 m and v = 0.990 c


 0 1 − v2 c2 =
 =0 = 990 1 − (0.990c)2 c 2 m =
139.7m
γ

Example 9.2
The proper volume of a cuboid of length, breadth, and width a0, b0, and c0 along the x–, y–,
z– axes respectively is V0 = a0 b0 c0. Find the volume of the cuboid if it is moving along the y-axis
with a velocity v.
Solution
Since the cuboid is moving along the y-axis, only its breadth b0 will change and become

b0
b=
γ

The volume will become

b0 V0
= a0
V c=
0 = V0 1 − v 2 c 2
γ γ

Example 9.3
A 20-year-old woman gave birth to a girl child and then immediately left for a space journey
at a speed of 0.985 c. At the age of 30 years (according to her own clock), she came back to her
daughter. How old will she find her daughter?
Solution
Data given are Dt0 = 30 yrs – 20 yrs = 10 yrs and v = 0.985 c
714 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

∆t 0 10yrs
∆t = γ∆t 0 = = = 57.95yrs
2 2
1− v c 1 − (0.985c)2 c 2

Example 9.4
The period of a seconds’ pendulum is 2.0 s in the reference frame of the pendulum. What is the
period when measured by an observer moving at a speed of 0.950 c relative to the pendulum?
Solution
Data given are Dt0 = 2.0 s, v = 0.950 c

∆t 0 2.0s
∆t = γ∆t 0 = = = 6.4 s
1 − v2 c2 1 − (0.950c)2 c 2

Example 9.5
The life time of a particle in its own frame is 22 ns. What is its life time in the laboratory frame
of reference when it is moving with a speed of 0.9 c.
Solution
Data given are Dt0 = 22ns and v = 0.9 c

∆t 0 22 ns
∆t = γ∆t 0 = = = 50.5ns
1 − v2 c2 1 − (0.9c)2 c 2

9.7 Relativity of Simultaneity

A basic premise of Newtonian mechanics is that a universal time scale exists, i.e., time is
the same for all observers. Newton and his followers took simultaneity (t¢ = t) for granted.
A careful analysis of simultaneity help us to develop the appropriate modifications of our
notions about space and time. In the special theory of relativity, Einstein boldly abandoned
this assumption.
This is a basic consequence of the special theory of relativity – that two events that
are simultaneous for one observer may occur at different times for another observer in
another reference frame moving relative to the first. Accordingly, it is impossible to say in
an absolute sense whether two events occur at the same time if those events are separated
in space. If we imagine one reference frame assigns precisely the same time to the two
events at different points in space, a reference frame that is moving relative to the first may
generally assign different times to the same two events even if both are inertial frames.
 Special Theory of Relativity 715

The relativity of simultaneity can be calculated using Lorentz transformations, which

relate the coordinates used by one observer to coordinates used by another in uniform
relative motion with respect to the first. Assume that the first observer uses coordinates
labelled (x, y, z, t), while the second observer uses coordinates labelled (x¢, y¢, z¢, t¢). Now
suppose that the first observer sees the second observer moving in the +x direction at
constant speed v. Assume that both the observers’ coordinate axes are parallel and that
they have the same origin at initial zero time. Then according to Lorentz transformations,
the two times are related by Eq. (9.25) as

t′ =
(
t − v c2 x )
1 − v2 c2

where c is the speed of light. If two events happen at the same time in the frame of the first
observer, they will have identical values of the time coordinate t . However, if they have
different values of the x-coordinate, i.e., different positions in the +x-direction, we see that
they will have different values of the t¢coordinate; they will happen at different times in that
frame. The quantity that accounts for the failure of absolute simultaneity is the finite speed
of light in free space.
According to the principle of relativity, no inertial frame of reference is more correct
than any other in the formulation of physical laws (postulate i). Each observer is correct
in his/her own frame of reference. In other words, simultaneity is not an absolute concept.
Whether two events are simultaneous depends on the frame of reference. Simultaneity
plays an essential role in measuring time intervals. It follows that the time interval between
two events may be different in different frames of reference and are related to each other
by the equation
t 2′ − t1′ = ( t 2 − t1 ) 1 − v 2 c 2 .

9.8 Relativistic Addition of Velocity

Let the speed of an object along the x-axis be u(= dx / dt) and u¢(= dx¢/ dt¢) in S and S¢
respectively. Using Eqs (9.22) and (9.25), we get dx¢ = g (dx – vdt) and cdt¢ = g (cdt – bdx)
respectively. Taking their ratio, we have

dx ′ dx − vdt dx dt − v
= =
cdt ′ cdt − β dx c − β dx dt

u −v
or u′ = (9.28)
1 − vu c 2

Similarly, by using x = g (x¢ + vt¢) and ct = (ct¢ + bx¢), we get

 716 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

dx dx ′ + vdt ′ dx ′ dt ′ + v
= =
cdt cdt ′ + β dx ′ c + β dx ′ dt ′

u′ + v
or u= (9.29)
1 + vu′ c 2

Equations (9.28) and (9.29) give the relation between u and u¢. This is known as the
relativistic velocity addition theorem. It applies to velocities parallel to the direction of
relative motion. Equation (9.29) gives the transformation of constant velocities parallel to
the direction of relative motion, i.e., the object moves along the x-axis. To signify this, we
put a subscript x in u and u¢. Thus, we have

ux′ + v (9.30)
ux =
1 + ux′ v c 2

ux − v
and ux′ = (9.31)
1 − ux v c 2

Let the relative velocity between S and S¢ be v along the common x-axis. Imagine an object
moves along the vertical axis with velocity u¢y in S¢ and with velocity uy in S. Thus, we have

dy ′ cdy dy dt
u′y
= = =
dt ′ γ ( cdt − β dx ) γ ( c − β dx dt )

uy
or u′y = (9.32)
γ (1 − vux c 2 )

Again using ct = g (ct¢ + bx¢), we get

dy cdy ′ dy ′ dt ′
u= = =
dt γ ( cdt ′ + β dx ′ ) γ ( c + β dx ′ dt )
y

u′y
or u y = (9.33)
γ (1 + vux′ c 2 )

Following the exact procedure, we can obtain

uz
uz′ = (9.34)
γ (1 − ux β c)
 Special Theory of Relativity 717

uz′
and uz = (9.35)
γ (1 + ux′ β c )

In these equations, ux , uy , and uz are the velocity components as seen in the S frame and
uxʹ, uyʹ, and uʹz are the corresponding velocity components as seen in the S¢ frame. It is also
important to remember that these equations are derived by taking the S¢ frame to be moving
with velocity v with respect to the S frame along the positive x-axis. For the convenience
of the readers, all above results established till now have been summarized in the following
table by slightly changing the symbols.

Inter-conversion of relativistic velocities

v xos − v s′s v xos′ + v s′s

v xos′ = v xos =
1 − v xos v s′s c 2 1 + v xos′v s′s c 2

v yos 1 − v s2′s c 2 v yos′ 1 + v s2′s c 2

v yos′ = v yos =
1 − v xos v s′s c 2 1 + v xos′v s′s c 2

v zos 1 − v s2′s c 2 v zos′ 1 + v s2′s c 2

v zos′ = v zos =
1 − v xos v s′s c 2 1 + v xos v s′s c 2

Here
v xos′ = x component of object velocity with respect to S¢ frame.
vxos = x component of object velocity with respect to S frame.
v yos′ = y component of object velocity with respect to S¢ frame.
vyos = y component of object velocity with respect to S frame.
vzos′ = z component of object velocity with respect to S¢ frame.
vzos = z component of object velocity with respect to S frame.
vs′s = velocity of S¢ frame with respect to S frame.

Example 9.6
Two space vehicles A and B are moving in opposite directions with speeds 0.756 c and 0.856 c
as measured by an observer on Earth. Find the velocity of ship B as observed by a crew on
ship A.
718 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
The problem is depicted in the schematic diagram shown in Fig. Example 6. For a crew on
vehicle A, it (vehicle A) is at rest (S frame). Earth (S¢ frame) and vehicle B are moving away
from A with speeds 0.756 c and 0.856 c respectively along the positive x-axis. The vehicle B is
the object.

Illustration for Example 6

The data given are

vxos' = 0.856 c along the positive x-axis.

vs's = 0.756 c along the positive x-axis.

Let vxos = x component of object velocity with respect to S frame.

By using Eq. (9.28), we have

v xos′ + vs′s 0.856c + 0.756 c

v xos = = = 0.979 c along the positive x-axis.
1 + v xos′vs′s c 1 + 0.856c × 0.756 c c2
2

Example 9.7
Two space vehicles A and B are leaving their space stations along mutual perpendicular
directions. The astronaut in the space station measured the velocity of A and B as 0.50 c and
0.60 c respectively. What is the velocity of B as measured by a crew in A?
Solution
The problem is depicted in the schematic diagram shown in Fig. Example 7. For a crew on
vehicle A, it (vehicle A) is at rest (S frame). The vehicles A and B are moving away from the
space station with speeds 0.50 c and 0.60 c along the negative x-axis and the positive y-axis
respectively. The vehicle B is the object.
 Special Theory of Relativity 719

Illustration for Example 7

The data given are

v xos′ = 0

v yos′ = 0.60c along the positive y-axis.

vs′s = 0.50c along the positive x-axis.

Let
vxos = x component of object velocity with respect to S frame.
vyos = y component of object velocity with respect to S frame.

v xos′ + vs′s 0 + 0.50 c

v xos = = = 0.50 c
1 + v xos′vs'′s c 1 + 0 × 0.50 c c2
2

v yos′ 1 + vs2′s c2 0.60c 1 + (0.50c)2 c2

v yos = = = 0.67c
1 + v xos′vs′s c2 1 + 0 × 0.50c c2
720 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The velocity of B as measured by a crew in A will be

( 0.50c ) + ( 0.67c )
2 2 2 2
v= v xos + v yos = = 0.84 c

 v yos  −1  0.67c 
The angle with the positive x-axis will be θ = tan −1   = tan   ≈ 53
O
v  0.50c 
 xos 

9.9 Relativistic Momentum

Newton’s laws of motion have the same form in all inertial frames of reference. When we
use Lorentz transformations to change from one inertial frame to another, the laws should
be invariant (i.e., unchanged). If conservation of momentum is a valid physical law, it must
be valid in all inertial frames of reference. Now, here is the problem: Suppose we look at a
collision in one inertial coordinate system and find that momentum is conserved. Then,
we use the Lorentz transformation to obtain the velocities in asecond inertial system. We

find that if we use the Newtonian definition of momentum ( p = mv ), momentum would
not be conserved in the second system. If we are convinced that the principle of relativity
and the Lorentz transformation are correct, the only way to save momentum conservation
is to generalize the definition of momentum.
The obvious idea for relativistic momentum is to use the same classical definition so that
its dimensions remain correct, i.e.,

  dr
= = m
p mv
dt

By using the particles own time, i.e., proper time, we have


 dr
p=m
dt ′

A change in proper time t¢ is related to a change in frame S¢ s time t through the time
dilation formula

dt ′
dt =
1 − v2 c2

where v is the velocity of the particle in frame S. Hence, in frame S, where the particle

moves with velocity v , the momentum is

 mv
p=
1 − v2 c2 (9.36)
 Special Theory of Relativity 721

Thus, the components of momentum are

mv x
px = (9.37)
1 − v2 c2

mv y
py = (9.38)
1 − v2 c2

mv z
pz = (9.39)
1 − v2 c2

Let us verify the correctness of this definition by applying it to law of conservation of

momentum in two-body collision problems in S and S¢ frames. We have the following
symbols.
mA = mass of one body before collision
mB = mass of another body before collision
mC = mass of one of the bodies after collision
mD = mass of one of the bodies after collision
vA = velocity of mass mA before collision
vB = velocity of mass mB before collision
vC = velocity of mass mC after collision
vD = velocity of mass mD after collision

The law of conservation of momentum in S and S¢ respectively states that

pA + pB = pC + pD

and
pA¢ + pB¢ = pC¢ + pD¢

We are now proceed to show that if pA¢ + pB¢ = pC¢ + pD¢, then pA + pB = pC + pD, i.e., the law of
conservation of momentum in S follows from the law of conservation of momentum in S¢.

p′A + pB′ = pC′ + pD′

mA v ′A mB v B′ mC vC′ mD v D′
+ = +
(9.40)
1 − ( v ′A c ) 1 − ( v B′ c ) 1 − ( vC′ c ) 1 − ( v D′ c )
2 2 2 2
722 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

vA − v
By using the velocity transformation relation (9.28), v ′A = , we get
1 − v Av c2

v ′A vA − v
= (9.41)
1 − ( v ′A c ) 1 − (vA c ) 1 − (v c )
2 2 2

Thus, we have

mA v A' mA v A 1 mA v
= −
1 − ( v ′A c ) 1 − (vA c ) 1 − (v c ) 1 − (vA c ) 1 − (v c )
2 2 2 2 2

mA v ′A
or = mA v Aγ Aγ − mAγ Aγ v (9.42)
1 − ( v ′A c )
2

Similarly, we have

mB v B′
= mB v B γ B γ − mB γ B γ v (9.43)
1 − ( v B′ c )
2

mC vC′
= mC vC γ C γ − mC γ C γ v (9.44)
1 − ( vC′ c )
2

mD v D′
= mD v D γ D γ − mD γ D γ v
(9.45)
1 − ( v D′ c )
2

Putting Eqs (9.42)–(9.45) into Eq. (9.40), we get

mAvAgAg – mAgAg v + mBvBg Bg – mBg B g v = mCvCgCg – mCg Cg v + mDvDg Dg – mDg Dg v

or mAvAgA – mAgAv + mBvBgB – mBgBv = mCvCgC – mCgCv + mDvDgD – mDgDv

or mAvAgA + mBvBgB = mCvCgC + mDvDgD + (mAgA + mBgB – mCgC – mDgD )v

or mAvAgA + mBvBgB = mCvCgC + mDvDgD

 Special Theory of Relativity 723

since mAgA + mBgB = mCgC + mDgD

Thus,
pA + pB = pC + pD

We cannot deduce pA + pB = pC + pD from pA¢ + pB¢ = pC¢ + pD¢ for any other definition of
momentum except

 mv 
=p = γ mv (9.46)
2 2
1− v c

Newtonian mechanics correctly describes objects moving at ordinary speeds. Yet, it


incorrectly predicts that momentum mv becomes infinite only if v becomes infinite which
is not possible – in the Newtonian concept, there is no upper limit on the speed of a
particle. Relativistic momentum becomes infinite as v approaches c. It is shown graphically in
Fig. 9.5.

Figure 9.5 Variation of relativistic momentum with speed. Here also variation of Newtonian
momentum has been shown

Example 9.8
An electron with rest mass 9.11 × 10–31 kg and charge –1.6 × 10–19 C is moving in an electric field
of magnitude 9.00 × 105 N/C. Neglecting all other forces, find the magnitudes of momentum
at the instants when v = 0.010 c, 0.90 c, and 0.95 c.
Solution
The data given are m0 = 9.11 × 10–31 kg, v = 0.010 c, 0.90 c, 0.95 c
724 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

γ =1 1 − v 2 c 2 =1.00 for v = 0.010 c

= 2.29 for v = 0.90 c

= 3.20 for v = 0.95 c

The magnitude of the momentum p = g m0v = 2.7 × 10–24 kg m/s for v = 0.010 c

= 5.6 × 10–22 kg m/s for v = 0.90 c

= 8.3 × 10–22 kg m/s for v = 0.95 c

9.10 Variation of Mass with Speed

Let the reference frame S¢ move towards the reference frame S with a velocity v as shown in
Fig. 9.6. Two spheres p and q are moving vertically in opposite direction with equal speed
in both reference frames. The masses of the two spheres are equal when measured in the
same reference frame. The sphere p is moving upward along the y-axis with velocity uy and
sphere q is moving downward along the y¢-axis with velocity u′y in such a manner that they
have an elastic collision. Since collision is elastic, the velocities of the spheres are reversed
and interchanged as seen from their own reference frame.

m0
Figure 9.6 Derivation of m =
1 − v2 c 2
 Special Theory of Relativity 725

Thus, we have the following table.

Spheres and mass Before collision After collision

p, m uy –uy and |–uy| = uy

q, m –u¢y and |–u¢y | = uy uy

In the reference frame S, we have the following table after collision. (according to the
Lorentz transformation)

Spheres and Before collision After collision

mass
p uxp = 0, uyp = uy uxp = 0, uyp = –uy

u′x + v u′x + v
=uxq = v, =uxq = v
1 + u′x v c 2 1 + u′x v c 2
q
(
u′y 1 − v 2 c 2 ) u′y (1 − v =
2
c ) 2

u yq =
1 + u′x v c 2
−u′y 1 − v 2 c 2
= ( ) u yq =
1 + u′x v c 2
u′y (1 − v 2
c2 )

Momentum (
m0u y + −mu′y (1 − v 2
c2 )) −m0u y + mu′y ( (1 − v 2
c2 ))

In this table, the symbols have the following meanings.

uxp = velocity of sphere p along the x-axis

uyp = velocity of sphere p along the y-axis

uxq = velocity of sphere q along the x-axis

uyq = velocity of sphere p along the y-axis

According to the law of conservation of momentum, the total momentum before collision
is equal to the total momentum after collision. Thus, we have

(
m0 u y + −mu′y (1 − v 2
)
c 2 =−m0 u y + mu′y ( (1 − v 2
c2 )
or (
m0 u y + −mu y (1 − v 2
)
c 2 =−m0 u y + mu y ( (1 − v 2
c2 )
726 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Simplifying this equation, we get

m0
m= (9.47)
1 − v2 c2

This expression gives the relativistic mass m in terms of the rest mass/invariant mass m0.
It is fascinating as we come to know from this discussion that mass variation with speed
is a natural consequence of the Lorentz transformation. The invariant mass of a particle is
independent of its velocity v, whereas relativistic mass increases with velocity and tends to
infinity as the velocity approaches the speed of light c. At zero velocity, the relativistic mass
is equal to the invariant mass.
The word ‘relativistic mass’ was not used originally by Einstein. Later on, two pioneer
physicists of the 20th century, namely S. Hawking and R. Feynman, popularized its use in
their popular science books written for the common people. Although the word ‘relativistic
mass’ is not wrong, it often leads to confusion and is less useful in advanced applications
such as quantum field theory and general relativity; gradually its use is limited to special
relativity at an elementary level. It is better to say that mass increases with energy content
of the body than to argue with relativistic mass, rest mass or invariant mass!

Example 9.9

At what relativistic speed, is the mass of a moving body equal to 3 times its rest mass.
Solution
Data given is m = 3m0

1 m
= = 3
(1− v c 2
2 m0

1
or v = c 1 − = 0.943c
9

9.11 Mass–Energy Equivalence

Energy is defined as the work done in moving a body from one place to another. Infinitesimal
energy due to displacement dx is given by
dE = Fdx
Total energy will be

E = ∫ Fdx (9.48)
 Special Theory of Relativity 727

Kinetic energy (K) is the energy used to move a body from a velocity of 0 to a velocity u.
Hence:
u
K= ∫ Fdx
0

u u u
dp dmu
=K ∫0=
dt
dx ∫
0
=
dt
dx ∫ ( mdu + udm) u
0

∫ (mudu + u dm)
2
or
= K (9.49)
0

In relativity, mass is given by

m0
m=
1 − u2 c 2

or mc2 – m0c 2 = mu2

Differentiating this equation, we get

mudu + u2dm = c 2dm (9.50)

Substituting Eq. (9.50) into Eq. (9.49), we get

m

∫ c dm
2
=
K = mc 2 − m0 c 2 (9.51)
m0

or K= (γ − 1)m0 c 2 (9.52)

The quantity mc2 is known as the total energy of the particle. The quantity m0c2 is known
as the rest energy of the particle, i.e., energy of the particle at rest. If the total energy of the
particle is given by the symbol E, we have

K m0 c 2 =
E =+ γ m0 c 2
mc 2 = (9.53)

This is the origin of the famous formula ‘E = mc2’ that is iconic of the nuclear age.
At low speeds, this expression boils down to the classical expression of kinetic energy as
obtained from Newton’s laws.
728 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

( )
−1/2
2
=K m0 c= 1− u 2 c 2 − m0 c 2

Expanding the factor (1 – u2 / c2)–1/2 by binomial expression and taking the first two terms,
we get

 u2  1
K ≈ m0 c 2  1 + 2  − m0 c 2 = m0 u 2
 2c  2

which is equal to the classical expression for kinetic energy of a particle moving with a
speed u. If the difference between relativistic and non-relativistic kinetic energy is more
than 1%, the relativistic kinetic energy formula is to be used. The variation of kinetic energy
with speed is illustrated in Fig. 9.7.

Figure 9.7 The variation of the kinetic energy of a particle of rest mass m0 as a function of speed v.
The kinetic energy grows more rapidly as v increases than classical physics would say.
Here also we have shown that the Newtonian prediction gives correct results only at
speeds much less than c

Example 9.10

Find the speed of an electron of rest mass 9.11 × 10–31 kg and charge –1.6 × 10–19 C that has
been accelerated through a potential difference of 5.00 MV.
Solution
The data given are m0 = 9.11 × 10–31 kg, V = 5.00 × 106 Volt

( )
2
The rest energy E0 = 9.11 × 10−31 2.998 × 108
m0 c 2 = 8.19 × 10−14 J
J=
 Special Theory of Relativity 729

The kinetic energy of the electron

K = e × V = 1.6 × 10–19 × 5 × 106 J = 8.0 × 10–13 J

K + m c2 8.0 × 10−13
γ ==
0
1+ =
10.77
2
m0 c 8.19 × 10−14

v c 1 − (1 γ )
2
The speed of the electron=

c 1 − (1/10.77 ) m/s =0.996 c

2
=×

9.12 Massless Particles (m0 = 0)

If the rest mass of a particle is zero, we call it a massless particle. In Newtonian mechanics,
particles can have energy and momentum if they have rest mass, i.e., m0 π 0. However, in
relativistic mechanics, this requirement is not binding. This follows from the following
mathematical analysis. The total energy of a particle according to Eq. (9.53) is given by

2 m0 c 2
= =
E mc
1 − u2 c 2

m02 c 4
or E2 = (9.54)
1 − u2 c 2

Momentum of a particle according Eq. (9.46) is given by

m0 u
p=
1 − u2 c 2

m02 u 2 c 2
or p2 c 2 = (9.55)
1 − u2 c 2

Combining Eqs (9.54) and (9.55), we get

2
E − p=
c
m02 c 4
2 2
−
m02 u 2 c 2
=
(
m02 c 4 1 − u 2 c 2 )
= m02 c 4
1 − u2 c 2 1 − u2 c 2 1 − u2 c 2
730 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

or=E m02 c 4 + p2 c 2 (9.56)

This above equation shows that if a particle with m0 = 0 exists, then its speed will be c and
its total energy will be given by
E = pc (9.57)

Indeed massless particles exist; as of 2014, gauge bosons, photons and gluons are examples!

9.13 Generalization of Newton’s Second Law

The net force on a particle equals the time rate of change of its momentum, i.e.,
 
 dP dv  dm
=
F = m +v (9.58)
dt dt dt

However, we know from Eq. (9.53) that

K + m0c2 = mc2 = E

The differentiation of this above equation with respect to time gives

dm 1 dE 1 d K + m0 c
= =
2
(1 dK
= 2
)
2 2
dt c dt c dt c dt

  
or=dm 1 F .d
=
( = F.
)
1  d 1  ( )
F. v (9.59)
2 2
dt c dt c dt c2

By substituting Eqs (9.59) into (9.58), we have


=
  v F . v
dv
F m +
( ) (9.60)
dt c2

 dv
Thus, the general expression for acceleration a of the body defined by a = is given as
dt
  
v  
 dv F
a= =
dt m mc
− 2 F. v ( ) (9.61)
 Special Theory of Relativity 731

 
This equation tells that in general, acceleration a is neither in the direction of F nor in the

direction of v !
  
In one special case, when a , F , and v are in the same direction, we can have
 
 dP m0 a d  m0 
=
F = +v  
dt 1 − v2 c2 dt  1 − v 2 c 2 
 

 m0 
or F= a (9.62)
(1 − v )
3/2
2 2
c

m0
The quantity is sometimes called longitudinal mass.
(1 − v )
3/2
2
c2
  
Similarly, in another
 special
  case, when a , and F are in the same direction, but v is
perpendicular to F (i.e., F .v = 0 ), we have

dv m0
=
F m +=
0 a (9.63)
dt 1 − v2 c2

m0
The quantity is sometimes called transversal mass.
1 − v2 c2

Questions

9.1 What are the necessities of frame reference? Distinguish between inertial frame of
reference and non-inertial frame of reference.
9.2 Describe with necessary theory the Michelson–Morley experiment. What are its
inferences?
9.3 Derive the Lorentz transformation equations.
9.4 Derive the Galilean transformation equations from the Lorentz transformation
equations.
9.5 Mention a few consequences of the Lorentz transformation equations.
9.6 List three ways our day-to-day lives would change if the speed of light were only
60 m/s.
9.7 What do you mean by relativity of simultaneity? Explain
9.8 How is it possible that photons of light, which have zero mass, have momentum?
9.9 Two identical clocks are in the same house, one upstairs in a bedroom and the other
downstairs in the kitchen. Which clock runs slower? Explain
732 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

9.10 Show the variation of momentum of a particle with respect to velocity mathematically.
9.11 The speed of an object along the x-axis is u(= dx / dt) and u¢(= dx¢ / dt ¢) in S and S¢
respectively. The two reference frames S and S’ have a relative velocity v along the
x-axis. Derive the relation connecting u and u’.
9.12 Explain how the classical concept of momentum was generalized in the theory of
relativity.
9.13 Derive the expression for the variation of mass with speed.
9.14 Explain how the special theory of relativity gives birth to the idea of massless particles.
9.15 Derive the mass–energy relation.
9.16 Derive the classical expression for kinetic energy of a moving body from its relativistic
expression.
9.17 The theory of relativity sets an upper limit on the speed that a particle can have. Are
there also limits on the energy and momentum of a particle? Explain.
9.18 Show that the addition of any velocity to c leaves the velocity as c only.
9.19 Using the special theory of relativity concepts, show that the rest mass of a photon is
zero.
9.20 The speed of light in water is 2.3 × 108 m/s. Suppose an electron is moving through
water at 2.4 × 108 m/s. Does that violate the principle of relativity? Explain.

Problems
9.1 The length of a meter stick is measured to be 0.3048 m by an observer at rest. The meter
stick is moving at a high speed parallel to its long axis. Find the speed of the meter
stick. [Ans 0.952 c]
9.2 A moving rod is observed to have a length of 2.00 m and to be oriented at an angle of
30.0° with respect to the direction of motion. If the speed of the rod is 0.995c, calculate the
proper length of the rod. [Ans 17.34 m]
9.3 Two rods of proper length  0 are moving towards each other lengthwise with velocity
v. Calculate the length of one rod as measured by an observer on the other rod.
1 − v2 c2
[Ans  = 0 ]
1 + v2 c2
9.4 When at rest, a box is a cube with sides 30 cm. What is its volume when it moves with
a speed of 0.9c parallel to one of its sides. [Ans 11769 cm3]
9.5 A proton moves at a speed of 0.950c. Calculate its total energy. [Ans 3.00 Gev]
9.6 The total energy of a proton is thrice its rest energy. Find the momentum of the proton
in MeV/c units. [Ans 2.66 × 103 MeV/c]
9.7 The rest energy of an electron is 0.511 MeV and that of a proton is 938 MeV. Assume
that both particles have kinetic energies of 4.00 MeV. Find the speed of (a) the electron
and (b) the proton. [Ans 0.994 c, 0.092 c]
 Special Theory of Relativity 733

9.8 An elementary particle (imaginary) is observed to move at 0.96c and have a lifetime of
2.0 × 10–8 s. Calculate the lifetime of the particle in its own reference frame?
[Ans 0.56 × 10–8 s]
9.9 An observer on the earth observes a spacecraft and finds that, between 5.00 pm and
6.00 pm according to his clock, 3610 s elapse on the spacecraft’s clock. What is the
spacecraft’s speed relative to the earth? [Ans 0.074 c]
9.10 A spaceship is measured to be 120.0 m long at rest relative to an observer. If this
spaceship now flies with a speed of 0.99c, what length does the observer on the earth
measure? What length does the observer on the earth measure if speed of the spaceship
is 3 × 107 m/s? [Ans 17 m, 119.4 m]
9.11 How fast must a meter stick be travelling relative to your reference frame for you to
observe a 2% contraction? [Ans 0.20 c]
9.12 An object is moving with relativistic speed and its has mass equals to two times its rest
mass. Calculate its velocity. [Ans 0.867 c]
9.13 A spaceship moving away from the earth at 0.850 c fires a space probe in the same
direction as its motion at 0.700 c relative to the spaceship. What is the probe’s velocity
relative to the earth? [Ans 0 872 c]
9.14 An electron in a typical television picture tube moves with a kinetic energy 0.017 MeV
Find its speed. [Ans 0.250 c]
9.15 Two protons moving in opposite direction with equal speed suffer a head on elastic
collision and as a result, a neutral pion of mass 2.40 × 10–28 kg is produced. Calculate the
initial speed of the protons if after collision, the three particles are at rest.
[Ans 0.360 c]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following are beyond the scope of the special theory of relativity?
(i) Effect of speed on mass (ii) Effect of gravity on velocity
(iii) Effect of speed on length, and (iv) Effect of speed on time
2. In special theory of relativity, which type of reference frame is chosen?
(i) Inertial frame of reference (ii) Non-inertial frame of reference
(iii) Both of the above (iv) None of the above
3. Galilean transformation can be obtained from the Lorentz transformation by setting
(i) v=c (ii) v < c
(iii) v > c (iv) v << c; v = speed of object
4. In special theory of relativity, mass, length and time are invariant.
(i) True (ii) False
5. The Michelson–Morley experiment was conducted to
(i) Disapprove Galilean transformations
(ii) Test the invariance nature of time
734 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

(iii) Know the shape of interference fringes during rotation of Earth

(iv) Test the presence of ether medium
6. Which of the following is not an Einstein’s principle of relativity?
(i) All the laws of physics must be the same in all frames of reference
(ii) The speed of light in vacuum has the same value, in all frames of reference
(iii) The mass–energy relation is E = mc2
(iv) All of the above
7. Which of the following is not a conclusion of the Michelson–Morley experiment?
(i) Constancy of the speed of light
(ii) Absence of ether medium
(iii) Variation of time with speed
(iv) Non-existence of an absolute frame of reference
8. Which of the following relations is incorrect?

x ′ γ ( x − vt )
(i) =

ct ′ γ ( ct + β x )
(ii) =

m0
(iii) m =
1 − v2 c2

(iv) Total energy = kinetic energy + m0c2. Symbols have their usual meanings.
1
9. What is the minimum possible values of γ = ?
1 − v2 c2
(i) 0 (ii) 1
(iii) 0.5 (iv) ∞
10. A rod’s length is greatest when it is
(i) At rest relative to the observer (ii) In motion relative to the observer
(iii) Independent of the observer (iv) None of above
11. A clock is measured to go at its slowest rate when it is
(i) At rest relative to the observer (ii) In motion relative to the observer
(iii) Independent of the observer (iv) None of the above
12. Weight of a body is measured to be minimum when it is
(i) At rest relative to the observer (ii) In motion relative to the observer
(iii) Independent of the observer (iv) None of above
13. Length contraction effect in special theory of relativity is
(i) The contraction of the body in all directions
(ii) Contraction of the rod in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion
 Special Theory of Relativity 735

(iii) Contraction of the body in the direction of motion

(iv) None of the above
14. A clock is measured to go at its fastest rate when it is at
(i) Rest relative to the observer (ii) Motion towards the observer
(iii) Motion away from the observer (iv) Independent of the relative motion
15. Which of the following is not a consequence of the special theory of relativity?
(i) Existence of massless particle
(ii) Change of mass of a body with relative speed between body and observer
(iii) Change of length of a rod with relative speed between rod and observer
(iv) Change of color of light with speed of observer
16. Temperature of a body increases. Then, according to the special theory of relativity, its
mass
(i) Increases (ii) Decreases
(iii) Remains the same (iv) None of the above
17. You are moving in the direction of the light beam with velocity 0.9 c. You will measure
the speed of light to be
(i) 0.1 c (ii) 1.9 c
(iii) c (iv) 0.44 c
18. Two events are simultaneous for two observers if
(i) Two observers are in the same reference frame
(ii) Two observers are in different reference frames
(iii) Two observers have constant relative velocity
(iv) Simultaneity of events is independent of observers
19. The speed of a non-zero rest mass body can be
(i) More than the light speed in vacuum (ii) Equal to the light speed in vacuum
(iii) Less than the light speed in vacuum (iv) All of the above
20. Energy can be possessed by a body if it has
(i) Non-zero rest mass (ii) Zero rest mass
(iii) Momentum (iv) All the above

Answers

1 (ii) 2 (i) 3 (iv) 4 (ii) 5 (iv) 6 (iv) 7 (iii) 8 (ii)

9 (ii) 10 (i) 11 (ii) 12 (i) 13 (iii) 14 (i) 15 (iv) 16 (i)
17 (iii) 18 (i) 19 (iii) 20 (iv)
 10 Architectural Acoustics

10.1 Introduction
Sound is a disturbance in an elastic medium resulting in an audible sensation. From the
acoustics point of view, sound and noise constitute the same phenomenon of atmospheric
pressure fluctuations about the mean atmospheric pressure; the differentiation is greatly
subjective. What is sound to one person can very well be noise to somebody else. It should
be mentioned that the field of sound in a real sense is so complicated that it is not open
to exact mathematical treatment. Actually, the term “acoustics” is derived from the Greek
verb “akoýveiv” (akúin) which means to hear. The branch of science which deals with the
planning of a building or hall with a view to provide the best audible sound to the audience
is called acoustics of a building or architectural acoustics. The recognition of noise as a
serious health hazard is a development of modern times.

10.2 Basic Requirements of an Acoustically Good Hall

We all know that a concert hall, theatre, or lecture room may have good or poor “acoustics”.
As far as speech in these rooms is concerned, it is relatively simple to make some sort of
judgement on their quality by rating the ease with which the spoken word is understood.
An everyday experience is that living rooms, offices, restaurants and all kinds of rooms for
work can be acoustically satisfactory or unsatisfactory.
In 1895, the original Fogg Art Museum Lecture Hall (now known as Hunt Hall) of
Harvard University was dedicated as a memorial to William Hayes Fogg. It was soon
discovered that the acoustics of the main lecture hall was so bad that a good orator could
hardly make his words intelligible to the audience and the space had to be abandoned
as unusable. The then Harvard’s president, Charles W. Eliot, turned to Wallace Clement
 Architectural Acoustics 737

Sabine, a 27-year-old assistant professor of physics, for help in resolving the difficulty.
Sabine undertook the challenge despite the discouragement of his senior faculty colleagues
who considered it beyond solution. The acoustical difficulties of the lecture hall are best
described in Sabine’s own words: “The rate of absorption was so small that a word spoken
in an ordinary tone of voice was audible for five and a half seconds afterwards. During
this time, even a very deliberate speaker would have uttered twelve or fifteen successive
syllables”. It was he who first scientifically tackled the problem of satisfactory speech and
music in a hall. He is often credited with transforming the understanding of acoustics from
a mysterious art to a respected discipline, and is considered by many to be the “father
of modern architectural acoustics”. According to Sabine, the following are a few basic
requirements of an acoustically good hall.
i. The sound heard must be sufficiently loud in every part of the hall and no echoes
should be present.
ii. The total quality of the speech and music must be unchanged, i.e., the relative
intensities of the several components of a complex sound must be maintained.
iii. For the sake of clarity, successive syllables spoken must be clear and distinct, i.e., there
must be no confusion due to overlapping of syllables.
iv. Reverberation should be quite proper – neither too large nor too small. The
reverberation time should be 1 to 2 seconds for music and 0.5 to 1 second for speech.
v. There should be no concentration of sound in any part of the hall.
vi. The boundaries should be sufficiently sound proof to exclude extraneous noise from
outside.
vii. There should be no Echelon effect.
viii. There should be no resonance within the building.

10.3 Reverberation and Reverberation Time

Whenever a sound pulse is produced in an auditorium, it is partially reflected from the
walls, ceiling and other materials in the room. The waves received by the listener are:
(i) direct waves from the source and (ii) multiple reflected waves of decreasing intensity from
various surfaces. The quality of the note received by the listener will be the combined effect
of these two sets of waves. There is also a time gap between the direct wave received by the
listener and the waves received by successive reflection. Due to this, the sound waves persist
for sometime even after the source has stopped emitting sound. This persistence of sound
in a hall after the source has stopped is termed as reverberation. The duration for which the
audible sound persists after source is cut off is called reverberation time. It is the time taken
for the sound to fall below the minimum audibility measured from the instant when the
source stopped sounding. Sabine defined the standard reverberation time quantitatively as
the time taken by sound to fall to one-millionth of its power which is equivalent to a sound
level of 60 dB just before the source is cut off. The reverberation time will depend on the
738 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

volume and shape of the auditorium, the nature and area of the reflecting materials in the
hall. In a good auditorium, it is necessary to keep the reverberation time to an optimum
value. Typical values of reverberation times vary from about 0.3 s (living rooms) up to
10 s (empty reverberation chambers). Most large halls have reverberation times between
0.2 s to 0.7 s.

10.3.1 Sabine’s formula for reverberation time

Sabine developed the reverberation time formula to express the rise and fall of sound in an
auditorium. The main assumptions are:
i. The density of the sound wave (sound energy per unit volume) is uniform throughout
the hall.
ii. The decrease in energy is only due to the absorption by the materials present in the
room and also due to transmission through the walls, windows and ventilators. Both
these factors are included in the term “absorption” of energy.
Suppose a point source is emitting sound continuously in all directions. Consider the
incidence of sound energy on a small element ds of a plane wall AB as shown in Fig. 10.1.

Figure 10.1 Derivation of equation (10.1)

The sound energy from all points above the plane of ds is incident on an elemental area ds.
Therefore, a hemisphere of radius r is imagined with ds at its centre. If dr is the thickness
of the hemisphere, then volume of an elemental portion of the strip shown in Fig. 10.1 is

2π r sin θ × rdθ × dr , 0 ≤ θ ≤ π / 2 (10.1)

 Architectural Acoustics 739

where

2pr sin q = elemental length of the strip

rdq = width of the strip

dr = thickness of the strip

If r is the density of the sound energy in the room at any instant of time, then the amount
of energy contained in this strip at that instant is

2πρ r 2 sin θ dθ dr (10.2)

This sound energy is travelling through the element equally in all directions. Since the solid
angle subtended around a point is 4p, the energy travelling per unit solid angle along any
direction is

2πρ r 2 sin θ dθ dr ρ r 2 sin θ dθ dr

= (10.3)
4π 2

The solid angle subtended by ds at the elemental volume considered is

ds cos θ
r2 (10.4)

Therefore, the amount of energy travelling towards ds from the circular strip will be given by

ρ r 2 sin θ dθ dr ds cos θ ρ ds
× 2
= sin θ cos θ dθ dr (10.5)
2 r 2

The amount of sound energy travelling towards ds from the hemisphere is thus obtained by
π /2
ρ ds ρ ds
2
dr ∫ sinθ cos θ dθ =
0 4
dr (10.6)

If c is the distance travelled by the sound in one second (i.e., c = speed of sound), then the
amount of sound energy incident on ds per unit time will be obtained by replacing dr by c
as
ρ ds
c
4 (10.7)
740 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

This expression gives the amount of sound energy incident on ds per unit time from all
directions.
If a be the absorption coefficient (a = energy absorbed/energy incident) of the portion
ds which is a part of AB, then the energy absorbed by ds per unit time will be

ρ ds ρc
c × α = α ds (10.8)
4 4

If different portions of the wall AB have different absorption coefficients, then the sound
energy absorbed by AB per unit time will be

ρc ρ cA
4
∑ α ds i i =
4
(10.9)

where A = ∑ α i dsi is the total absorption on all the surfaces on which sound falls. Here at
and dst are the absorption coefficient and the surface area of the ith surface respectively.
Expression (10.9) gives the rate of absorption of the sound energy. If P is the power of the
sound source, i.e., the rate at which the sound source emits sound energy into the room,
then the net growth of sound energy in the room per second will be

ρ cA
P− (10.10)
4

In Eq. (10.10), r is the sound energy density at any instant of time and so at that instant, the
sound energy content of the room will be rV . Therefore, the net rate of growth of sound
energy will be

d ρV dρ
=V
dt dt (10.11)

Taking into account the rate of emission and rate of absorption at any instant of time we
have

dρ ρ cA
V = P− (10.12)
dt 4

The sound content of the room cannot increase indefinitely. When the steady state is
dρ
attained, V = 0. If the steady-state energy density is represented by r0, then its value as
dt
obtained from Eq. (10.12) is given as

4P
ρ0 = (10.13)
cA
 Architectural Acoustics 741

From Eq. (10.12), we have

dρ ρ cA
V = P−
dt 4

d ρ P ρ cA
or = − (10.14)
dt V 4V

cA
Putting β = into this equation, we have
4V

dρ 4P
+ ρβ =β
dt cA

dρ βt 4P
or eβt eβt
+ e ρβ = β (Multiplying both sides by ebt)
dt cA

de β t ρ 4 P β t
or = βe
dt cA

4P β t 4P β t
or eβt ρ = ∫ β=
e dt e +K (10.15)
cA cA

Using the boundary conditions, we can find the value of the integration constant, K.
Growth of the sound energy density
If t is measured from the instant the sound source starts emitting sound, then at t = 0,
r = 0. Applying this condition to Eq. (10.15), we have

4P
=
0 +K
cA

4P
or K= −
cA

4P
or ρ=
cA
( ) (
1.0 − e − β t = ρ0 1.0 − e − β t ) (10.16)
742 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Equation (10.16) shows the growth of sound energy density with time. After infinite
time, r = r0. The growth is of exponential nature as shown in Fig. 10.2.

Figure 10.2 Growth of the sound energy density

Decay of sound energy density

Let the source be cut off after steady state is reached. At this instant,

t = 0, P = 0 and r = r0

Putting these boundary conditions into Eq. (10.15), we have

r0 = K

r = r0 e–bt since P = 0 (10.17)

Equation (10.17) shows that the decay of the sound energy density with time after
the source is cut off is exponential in nature. The plotting of this equation gives the
exponential curves shown in Fig. 10.3.
Standard reverberation time
The standard time of reverberation T is defined as the time taken for the sound energy
density to fall to one-millionth of its maximum audible value. Hence, to calculate T, we set

ρ
= 10
= −6
e − βT
ρ0
 Architectural Acoustics 743

Figure 10.3 Decay of the sound energy density

6n10 24V n10

or =T = (10.18)
β cA

Putting the value of the speed of sound in air medium as 340 m/s into Eq. (10.18), we have

0.165V
T= (10.19)
∑ αi dsi
This equation is in good agreement with the experimental values obtained by Sabine.
Sabine’s reverberation time is still the best known and most important quantity in
architectural acoustics.

Example 10.1
An auditorium has a volume of 30600 m3. It is required to have a reverberation time of 0.8 s.
What should be the total absorption in the auditorium?
Solution
Data given are V = 30600 m3, T = 0.8 s

0.165V 0.165 × 3060

The total absorption
= ∑=
α dsi i =
T 0.8
= 631 O.U.W.
744 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

10.4 Sound Absorption

When sound impacts on a wall, either sound energy will be reflected or absorbed
or transmitted through the wall partially or fully. Sound absorption means that
sound disappears from a specified space through a boundary. The sound energy
that leaves the space is said to be absorbed, no matter whether it dissipates or just
transmits into another side. The fraction of sound energy which is not reflected is
characterised by the absorption coefficient a of the wall. It depends generally on the
angle of incidence, the nature of the surface and materials and most importantly,
on the frequencies of the spectral components of the incident sound. The sound
absorbing efficiency of a material is determined by its sound absorption coefficient,
a . The sound energy that is absorbed by a surface is described by the parameter
absorption coefficient or degree of absorption, a. Sound-absorbing materials,
carpets, acoustical tiles, and other specially fabricated absorbing products can
absorb appreciable amounts of sound energy. Rooms whose surfaces absorb all the
sound energy (a = 1) are called anechoic rooms or dead rooms. Rooms opposite in
nature (a = 0) are called reverberant rooms, live rooms or hard rooms.
The coefficient of absorption a of a material is defined as the ratio of the sound
energy absorbed by the surface to that of the total incident sound energy on the surface.
Mathematically, it is given by

Sound energy absorbed Sound energy incident-Sound energy reflected

α= =
Sound energy incident Sound energy incident

Sound energy reflected

or α =1− 1 − R2
= (10.20)
Sound energy incident

The ratio of the sound energy reflected and the sound energy incident is called coefficient of
reflection or degree of reflection R. For a wall with zero reflectivity (R = 0), the absorption
coefficient has its maximum value 1. Then, the wall is said to be totally absorbent. If R = 1 and
there is in-phase reflection, the wall is said to be “rigid” or “hard”. In the case of R = –1 and
there is out-of-phase reflection, we speak of a “soft” wall. In both cases, there is no sound
absorption (a = 0) . It may vary from 0 (no absorption) to 1 (complete absorption).
The absorption of sound by a material depends upon its exposed surface area. As sound
leaves through open windows without returning, an open window behaves as a perfect
absorber of sound and hence, the unit area of an open window is taken as a standard unit of
absorption. The absorption of all other substances can be measured in this unit. Thus, the
absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the ratio of the sound energy absorbed by
a certain area of the surface to that of an open window of the same area. In other words, the
 Architectural Acoustics 745

absorption coefficient of a surface is defined as the reciprocal of its area which absorbs the
same sound energy as absorbed at a unit area (1.0 m2) of an open window. The absorption
coefficient is measured in open window unit written as O.W.U. or Sabin in honour of W.
C. Sabine (1867–1919). For example, if 5.0 m2 of a surface absorbs the same amount of
sound energy as absorbed by 1.0 m2 of the open window, then the absorption coefficient
1.0
of the surface is = 0.2 Sabin. 1.0 m2 window has an absorption coefficient of 1 sabin.
5.0
10.4.1 Room averaged sound absorption coefficient

No rooms have the same walls on all sides – there are different types of walls having
different absorption coefficients. The room averaged sound absorption coefficient
can be used for different types of materials and areas of walls averaged together. It is
defined as
n n

∑α s ∑α s i 1 i 1
=α =
i =1
n
i =1
(10.21)
S
∑ s1
i =1

Here,

at = absorption coefficient of the ith surface

st = area of the ith surface

n
S = ∑ s1 = total surface area of the room
i =1

n = total number of absorptive surfaces in the room

Example 10.2
A conference hall has a volume of 30000 m3. It has a reverberation time of 1.2 s and the total
sound absorbing surface is 6000 m2. Calculate the average absorbing power of the surfaces.
Solution
Data given are V = 30000 m3, T = 1.2s, S = 6000 m2
The average absorbing power of the surfaces

∑=
α ds
i i 0.165V 0.165 × 30000
= = 0.688
S TS 1.2 × 6000
746 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 10.3
The wall areas of a room are 3000 m2, the floor area is 1500 m2 and the ceiling area is
1500 m2. The average sound absorption coefficient for the walls is 0·03, for the ceiling is 0·8,
and for the floor is 0·06. Calculate the average sound absorption coefficient.
Solution
Data given are s1 = 3000 m2, a1 = 0.03; s2 = 1500 m2, a2 = 0.08; s3 = 1500 m2, a3 = 0.06.

∑α s i i
α1s1 + α 2 s2 + α 3 s3
=
The average sound absorption coefficient α =
i =1
n
s1 + s2 + s3
∑ si
i =1

3000 × 0.03 + 1500 × 0.08 + 1500 × 0.06

= = 0.05
3000 + 1500 + 1500

10.4.2 Measurement of absorption coefficient

The following methods are used to measure the of absorption coefficient.

i. Method 1
In this method, we can calculate the coefficient of absorption of a sample material.
This method is based on the determination of standard times of reverberation in the
room without and with a standard large sample of the material inside the chamber.
If T1 is the reverberation time without the materials and T2 is the reverberation time
with the material having absorption coefficient a and surface area S, then by applying
Sabine’s formula, we have

0.165V 0.165V
T1 = and T2 =
∑ i i
α ds ∑ i dsi + α S
α

1 1
or = −
∑ α ds
i i + αS ∑ αi dsi α S
−=
T2 T1 0.165V 0.165V 0.165V

0.165V  1 1 
or α
=  −  (10.22)
S  T2 T1 

Hence by measuring the reverberation times T1, T2, the surface area of the sample
material S and volume of the hall, we can calculate the absorption coefficient of the
sample material.
 Architectural Acoustics 747

ii. Method 2
In this method, we can calculate the average coefficient of absorption of a hall. This
method consists of finding the times of decay of the steady energy density of two
sources of power outputs P1 and P2, respectively, to the same audibility level. Let t1 and
t2 be the time duration in which the sound energy density levels from two sources of
power outputs P1 and P2 attain the same value r¢ . From the equation of the decay of
energy density, we have the following equation for one source

4P1 cA
ρ ′ = ρ01e − β t
1
with ρ01 = and β =
cA 4V

and for the other source

4P2 cA
ρ ′ = ρ02 e − β t with ρ02 =
2
and β =
cA 4V

From these relations, we have

P1 ρ01 e β t1
= = = e β (t1 −t2 )
P2 ρ02 e β t2

cA P
or ( t1 − t 2 ) =
n 1
4V P2

4V P
A α=
or = S n 1
c ( t1 − t 2 ) P2

4V P
or α = n 1 (10.23)
cS ( t1 − t 2 ) P2

Hence, by measuring the times t1, t2 , surface area of the sample material S, volume
of the hall and knowing the output powers of the two sources, we can calculate the
average absorption coefficient of the room.

10.5 Factors Affecting the Acoustics of Buildings

Reverberation is the most important single factor that affects the acoustics of a room or a
hall. Besides reverberation, factors that affect the acoustics of a room or a hall are loudness,
focussing, echelon effect, extraneous noise, resonance and so on.
 748 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

i. Loudness
The speech of a person in a hall can be heard by an audience consisting of about
1000 persons. However, to ensure uniform distribution of the sound intensity in the
hall, electrically amplified loud speakers are used. These speakers are kept at different
places in the auditorium and are located generally a little higher than the speaker’s
head. Amplifiers, however, make low frequency tones more prominent and hence, the
amplification has to be kept low. The presence of low artificial ceilings improves the
audibility in general.
ii. Focussing
As shown in Fig. 10.4, the presence of cylindrical or spherical surfaces on the walls of
the ceiling gives rise to undesirable focussing.

Figure 10.4 Focussing of reflected sound waves

In Fig. 10.4, the listener at L receives sound from the speaker along the direct path SL.
The observer also receives the sound waves after reflection from the ceiling. The direct
and reflected sound wave may interfere constructively (large sound) or destructively
(low sound). Again the direct and the reflected sound waves may form a stationary
wave pattern. These cause uneven distribution of sound intensity in the hall.
iii. Echelon effect
If there is a regular structure similar to a flight of stairs or a set of railings in the hall,
the sound produced in front of such a structure may produce a musical note due to
the regular successive echoes of sound reaching the observer. Such an effect is called
the echelon effect. To avoid echelon effect, staircases are covered with soft carpets so
that instead of reflection, sound is absorbed by them.
iv. Extraneous noise
Extraneous noise may be due to (a) sound received from outside the room and (b) the
sound produced by fans, AC, and so on inside the auditorium. External sound cannot
be completely eliminated but can be minimised. Proper attention must also be paid
to see that fans run at the optimum permissible speed and there is optimum rate of
 Architectural Acoustics 749

air circulation in the room. Air conditioning pipes should be covered with cork and
insulated acoustically from the main building.
v. Resonance
The acoustics of a building may also be affected by resonance. If there is resonance
for any audio frequency note, the intensity of the note will be entirely different from
the intensity desired. In halls of large size, the resonance frequency is much below the
audible limit.

10.5.1 Requisites for good acoustics

The reverberation of sound in an auditorium is due to multiple reflections taking place

at various surfaces present within the auditorium. The acoustics of an auditorium can
be improved by using surfaces with high absorption coefficient. This will reduce the
reverberation time below the optimum value and is achieved as follows:
i. By hanging heavy curtains.
ii. By hanging folded curtains.
iii. By hanging pictures and maps.
iv. By having a few open windows.
v. By having a good audience. The absorption affected by an audience is due
mainly to people’s clothing and its porosity. In an auditorium, each person on
an average is equivalent to about 0.75 m2 area of an open window at a sound
frequency of 500 Hz.
vi. Curved walls and corners bounded by two walls should be avoided as these
cause (a) concentration of sound and (b) dead spaces. If domes or other
concave surfaces are desired, they must be treated with absorptive materials to
reduce unwanted reflections.
vii. Upholstered seats should be provided so that the absorption is approximately
the same with or without the audience.
viii. The walls and the ceiling should be covered with materials having high
absorption coefficient, i.e., with perforated cardboards, felts, fibers, carpets
and the like.
ix. The walls should be engraved and made rough with decorative materials to
increase absorption.
x. If possible, noisy equipment and activities should be placed in remote areas.

10.6 Decibel Scale

A linear scale based on the square of the sound pressure would require 10 unit divisions
to cover the range of human experience; however, the human brain is not organised to
encompass such a range. The remarkable dynamic range of the ear suggests that some
750 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

kind of compressed scale should be used. A scale suitable for expressing the square of the
sound pressure in units best matched to subjective response is logarithmic rather than
linear. Thus, the bel was introduced which is the logarithm of the ratio of two quantities,
one of which is a reference quantity. To avoid a scale which is too compressed over the
sensitivity range of the ear, a factor of 10 is introduced, giving rise to the decibel. For sound
pressure level measurements, a reference value of 2 × 10–5 Nm–2 is chosen internationally
for air. This is the threshold of hearing for a typical healthy young person. The sound
pressure level (SPL) in decibels for any sound for which the pressure is known, is given
internationally by the following expression:
2
p  p
Lp =
10 × log  rms  =
20 log rms (10.24)
 p0  p0

where
Lp = sound pressure level (SPL) in decibels (dB)

prms = root mean square of the acoustic pressure fluctuations

= measured acoustic pressure

p0 = reference sound pressure in air, usually taken to be 2 × 10–5 Nm–2 internationally;

for other media, it is taken as 10–6 Nm–2 . The measured acoustic pressure will be
obtained from Eq. (10.24) as
Lp Lp

p= 2 × 10−5 × 10 20 Nm −2
p0 × 10 20 = (10.25)

The sound intensity and the root mean square of the acoustic pressure fluctuations prms in
a medium are related by the relationship
2
prms
I=
ρv (10.26)

where

r = density of the medium

v = speed of sound in the medium

With the help of Eqs (10.24) and (10.26), the sound intensity level (SIL) in decibels for any
sound for which the intensity is known, is given by the following expression

I
LI = 10 log (10.27)
I0
 Architectural Acoustics 751

where
I0 = reference sound intensity, usually taken to be 10–12 Wm–2 internationally.

The measured acoustic intensity will be obtained from Eq. (10.27) as

LI LI

I= 10−12 × 10 10 Wm−2
I 0 × 10 10 = (10.28)

Similarly, from Eq. (10.27), we can have an expression for sound power level as
P
LP = 10 log (10.29)
P0
where
P0 = reference sound power, usually taken to be 10–12 W internationally.

It is to be noted that sound levels are not additive in nature.

Example 10.4
Calculate, in air, the acoustic pressure of a plane acoustic wave of pressure level of 150 decibels
with reference to the standard acoustic pressure level of 2 × 10–5 Nm–2.
Solution
Data given are p = 150 db, p0 = 2 × 10–5 Nm–2
The acoustic pressure

Lp 150
2 × 10−5 × 10 20 Nm −2 =
p= 2 × 10−5 × 10 20 Nm −2 =
632.46 Nm −2

Example 10.5
Calculate the increase in sound pressure level when the sound pressure is doubled.
Solution
Data given is p2 = 2 × p1

p1 p2
L p1 = 20 log and L p2 = 20 log
p0 p0

The increase in sound pressure level is given as

p2 p p
L p2 − L p1 =20 log − 20 log 1 =20 × log 2 =20 × log 2 =6.02db
p0 p0 p1
752 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 10.6
Calculate the increase in acoustic intensity level when the sound intensity is doubled.
Solution
Data given are I2 = 2 × I1

I1 I
LI 1 = 10 log and LI 2 = 10 log 2
I0 I0

I2 I1 I2 2 I1
LI 2 −=
LI 1 10 log − 10 log= 10 log= 10 log = 3.01db
I0 I0 I1 I1

Example 10.7
Calculate the acoustic intensity of a plane acoustic wave in air of intensity level 120 decibels.
Solution
Data given are L = 80 db
LI LI

I= 10−12 × 10 10 Wm −2 =
I 0 × 10 10 = 1.0 Wm −1

Example 10.8
Calculate the acoustic intensity level in each case, at a distance of 10 metres from a point
source which radiates energy at the rate of 3.14 W.
Solution
Data given are r = 10 m, P = 3.14 W
Since the source is a point source, it radiates sound energy uniformly in all directions. It can
be imagined to be at the centre of a sphere of radius 10 m.
Thus, on a 4p × 102 m2 area, energy incidence is 3.14 W. Hence, we have

Power 3.14 1
=I = = Wm −=
2
2.5 × 10−3 Wm −2
area 4π r 2 4 × 102

I 2.5 × 10−3
= =
LI 10 log 10 log bd = 93.98db
I0 10−12

Example 10.9
A ceiling fan operates at a sound intensity level of 75 db. If it is operated in a room with an
existing sound intensity level of 70 db, what will be the resultant intensity level?
 Architectural Acoustics 753

Solution

Data given are LI1 = 60 bd and LI2 = 50 bd

LI 1 60
10−12 × 10 10 Wm −2 =
I1 = 10−12 × 10 10 Wm −2 =
10−6 Wm −2

LI 2 50
10−12 10 10 Wm −2 =×
I 2 =× 10−12 10 10 Wm −2 =
10−7 Wm −2

Total intensity I = I1 + I 2 =10−6 Wm −2 + 10−7 Wm −2 =1.1 × 10−6 Wm −2

I 1.1 × 10−6
=
Resultant intensity level =
LI 10 log 10 log bd = 60.41db
I0 10−12

10.7 Acoustic Quieting

Acoustic quieting is the process of making machinery quieter by damping vibrations.
Machinery vibrates, causing sound waves in air, hydroacoustic waves in water, and
mechanical stresses in solid matter. Quieting is achieved by absorbing the vibrational
energy or minimizing the source of the vibration. It may also be re-directed away from
the observer. In the late 20th century, acoustic quieting techniques were developed to
make submarines difficult to detect by sonar. Later on, this technology was adapted to many
industries and products.

10.7.1 Aspects of acoustic quieting

A number of different aspects might be considered to achieve acoustic quietening. Each

aspect of acoustics can be taken alone or in concert so that the end result is that the
reception of noise by the observer is minimized. Acoustic quieting engineers consider the
following factors.
i. Noise generation: by limiting the noise at its source.
ii. Sympathetic vibrations: by acoustic decoupling.
iii. Resonations: by acoustic damping or changing the size of the resonator.
iv. Sound transmissions: by reducing transmission using many methods depending upon
whether the transmission is through air, liquid, or solid.
v. Sound reflections: by limiting the reflections using many methods, for example,
by using acoustic absorption (deadening) materials, trapping the sound, opening a
“window” to let sound out, and so on.
 754 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

By analyzing the entire sequence of events, from the source to the observer, an acoustic
engineer can provide many ways to quieten the machine or structure. The challenge is to
do this in a practical and inexpensive way. The engineer might focus on changing materials,
using a damping material, isolating the machine, running the machine in partial vacuum,
or running the machine slower.

10.7.2 Methods of quieting

Different methods are adopted to achieve acoustic quietening in a machine. Each method
works independently or in collaboration with other methods so that the reception of noise
by the observer is minimum.
Mechanical acoustic quieting
i. Sound isolation Noise isolation refers to isolating noise source to prevent noise from
transferring out of one area, using barriers like deadening materials to trap sound.
In advanced countries, in home and office construction, many builders place sound-
control barriers such as fiberglass batting in walls to deaden the transmission of noise
through them.
ii. Noise absorption Unwanted sounds, i.e., noise can be absorbed rather than reflected
inside the room. This is useful when a listener needs to hear sounds only from a point
source and not echo reflections. In a recording studio, sound proofing is accomplished
with bass traps and anechoic chambers. Another example is the ubiquitous use of
dropped ceilings and acoustical tiles in modern office buildings with high ceilings.
Submarine hulls have special coatings that absorb noise.
iii. Acoustic damping Vibration isolation prevents vibration from transferring beyond
the device into another material. Damping mounts have been developed to offer
vibrational resistance in many degrees of freedom. Recent advances in the field
include shock isolators damping in at least six degrees of freedom. Acoustic damping
also has uses in seismic shock protection of buildings. Motors and rotating shafts are
commonly fitted with these mounts at the points where they have contact with the
building or the chassis of a large machine.
iv. Acoustic decoupling Certain parts of a machine can be built to keep the frame,
chassis, or external shafts from receiving unwanted vibrations from a moving part.
v. Preventing stalls Whenever a machine undergoes an aerodynamic stall, it will
abruptly vibrate. To prevent stalls first of all, we should avoid conditions that lead to
an aerodynamic stall. Also, we should be able to recognize the warning signs of a stall
so that precautionary measures can be taken in time. If already happened, appropriate
recovery techniques should be applied as soon as possible.
vi. Preventing cavitation When a machine is in contact with a fluid, it may be susceptible
to cavitation. The sounds of gas bubbles imploding is the source of the noise. Ships
and submarines that cavitate are more vulnerable to detection by sonar. The excessive
pump head height is one the main causes of causes of cavitation. So the pump head
 Architectural Acoustics 755

height should be in the medium range. The Disconnection of suction strainers from
the suction line of the hydraulic pump also decreases cavitation. The rags in the liquid
may be responsible for cavitation. The proper diameter of inlet end plays role in
control of cavitation. The cavitation can also be decreased by decreasing the liquid
temperature.
vii. Preventing water hammer In hydraulics and plumbing, water hammer is a known
cause for the failure of piping systems. It also generates considerable noise. A valve
that abruptly opens or shuts at the open end of the pipeline is the most common cause
for water hammer. So the operator should close or open valves slowly to prevent water
hammer. By decreasing the pressure head of the water supply we can foil the effects of
water hammer.
viii. Shock absorption Just as automobile shock absorbers are used to prevent mechanical
shocks from reaching the passengers in a car, they are also important for quieting
shocks.
ix. Reduction of resonance At certain frequencies, certain material components of
a machine/structure are susceptible to resonance. A machine that resonates would
make tremendous noise. Resonance also occurs in enclosures, such as when echoes
reverberate in musical instruments like the ocarina, organ pipe, and so on. Addition
of removal of masses to the material components helps in reducing resonance. By
stiffening the components and by changing the dampness of the medium, we can
control the occurrence of resonance. (Chapter-1 may be seen)
x. Material selection By choosing non-metallic components, the transmission of sound
and vibrations can be minimized. Instead of using rigid brass fittings, a machine using
flexible plastic pipe fittings may be much quieter. In some cases, air can be evacuated
from a machine and sealed hermetically, the vacuum inside becoming a barrier to
sound transmission.

Electronic quieting
i. Electronic vibration control Electronics, sensors, and computers are now employed
to reduce vibration. Using high speed logic, vibrations can be damped quickly and
effectively by counteracting the motion before it exceeds a certain threshold.
ii. Electronic noise control Electronics, sensors, and computers are also employed to
cancel noise by using phase cancellation which matches the sound amplitude with
a wave of the opposite polarity. This method employs the use of an active sound
generating device, such as a loudspeaker to counteract ambient noise in an area.
iii. Noise reduction In sound and video equipment, noise reduction is the process of
removing noise from a signal. This is strictly for electronic noise or noise which has
been detected and put into electronic form.
iv. Noise cancellation If both the noise and the signal are received by an electronic or
digital medium, noise can be filtered from the signal electronically and re-transmitted
without the noise. Helicopter pilots rely on this technology to speak on the radio.
 756 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

10.7.3 Quieting for specific observers

i. Underwater acoustics All of types of acoustic quieting discussed earlier apply to

submarines. Additionally, a submarine may employ a tactic that prevents sounds
from reaching a listener at a particular ocean depth. Operating below the depth of the
sound channel axis, where the speed of sound in water is the lowest, submarines can
prevent detection by surface ships.
ii. Sound refraction Just as a submarine can use refraction to hide its acoustic signature
from surface vessels, the same principle of sound refraction can be used to prevent
certain observers from hearing the noise. For example, an outdoor observer close to
the ground will have sound waves refracted towards him when the ground is cooler
than the ambient air and away from him when the ground is hotter than the air.
iii. Sound re-direction One of the obvious ways to reduce the received sound level of
an observer is to place the observer out of the path of the highest amplitude sounds.
For example, if we mark off a circle around a jet engine and make sound power level
observations along that circle, we would expect that the sound is loudest directly
in line with the jet’s exhaust. Observations perpendicular to the exhaust would be
significantly quieter.
iv. Hearing protection An observer may be forced to wear ear plugs in areas of high
ambient noise levels. This may be the only quieting method available in areas of noise
pollution, such as an open-air firing range or an airport.

10.7.4 Mufflers

Mufflers/silencers/acoustic filters are used in a number of devices requiring the

suppression or attenuation of sound. Acoustic mufflers make everyday life much more
pleasant. Many common appliances, such as refrigerators and air conditioners, use acoustic
mufflers to produce a minimal working noise. Acoustic mufflers are used where there is a
large amount of radiated sound such as high pressure exhaust pipes, internal combustion
engines, gas turbines, and rotary pumps for reducing the amount of noise emitted. Mufflers
are designed to reduce the loudness of the sound pressure created by the engine. Basically,
such a muffler consists of a pipeline with sudden changes in the cross-sectional area to
reflect the sound energy. An unavoidable side effect of using mufflers is an increase of back
pressure which decreases engine efficiency. Performance-oriented mufflers and exhaust
systems thus strive to minimize back pressure by employing numerous technologies and
methods to attenuate the sound. In some special type of mufflers, inner linings are coated
with sound absorbing materials to absorb sound energy. For the majority of such systems,
however, the general rule of “more power, more noise” applies.
Though there are varieties of acoustic mufflers used in a variety of devices, they are
broadly classified into two main types. These are (i) absorptive mufflers and (ii) reactive
mufflers. Many of the more complex mufflers today incorporate both methods to optimize
sound attenuation and provide realistic specifications.
 Architectural Acoustics 757

Absorptive mufflers
Absorptive mufflers incorporate sound absorbing materials to attenuate the sound energy.
These mufflers also transform acoustic energy into heat. Absorptive mufflers are typically
straight pipes lined with multiple layers of absorptive materials to reduce radiated sound
power. The most important property of absorptive mufflers is the attenuation constant.
Higher attenuation constants lead to higher sound energy dissipation. The advantages of
absorptive mufflers are (i) high amount of absorption at higher frequencies, (ii) good for
applications involving broadband and narrowband noise, (iii) reduced amount of back
pressure as compared to reactive mufflers. Disadvantages of absorptive mufflers are (i) poor
performance at low frequencies and (ii) material can degrade under certain circumstances
such as high heat condition, and so on. A typical absorptive muffler is shown in Fig. 10.5
illustrating the different absorptive layers.

Figure 10.5 Absorptive muffler

There are a number of applications for absorptive mufflers. The most well-known
application is in racing cars, where engine performance is highly desired. Absorptive
mufflers do not create a large amount of back pressure when attenuating the sound – this
leads to higher muffler performance. It should be noted however, that the radiated sound is
much higher. Other applications include plenum chambers, i.e., large chambers lined with
absorptive materials, lined ducts, and ventilation systems.
Reactive mufflers
Reactive mufflers use a number of complex passages or lumped elements to reduce the
amount of acoustic energy transmitted. These mufflers maximize sound attenuation while
758 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

meeting a set of specifications, such as pressure drop, volume flow, and so on. This is
accomplished by a change in impedance at the intersections, which gives rise to reflected
waves and hence, effectively reduces the amount of transmitted acoustic energy.
Since the amount of energy transmitted is minimized, the energy reflected back
to the source is quite high. This can actually degrade the performance of engines
and other sources. Unlike absorptive mufflers, which dissipate the acoustic energy
in the form of heat, reactive mufflers keep the energy constant within the system.
Advantages of reactive mufflers are (i) high performance at low frequencies, (ii)
they typically give high insertion loss, for stationary tones, (iii) they are useful in
harsh conditions. The main disadvantage of reactive mufflers is poor performance
at high frequencies. A typical reactive muffler is shown in Fig. 10.6.

Figure 10.6 Reactive muffler

10.8 Soundproofing
Soundproofing are the measures that reduce the transmission of sound from the source
of the sound to the receiver. There are several basic approaches for soundproofing. Few of
them are (i) increasing the distance between source and receiver, (ii) using noise barriers to
reflect or absorb the energy of the sound waves, (iii) using damping structures such as sound
baffles, and (iv) using active anti-noise sound generators. Two distinct soundproofing
problems need to be considered when designing acoustic treatments – (i) improving sound
quality within a room and (ii) reducing sound leakage to/from adjacent rooms or outdoors.
When speaking of soundproofing, a distinction is made between structure-borne
soundproofing and airborne soundproofing. Structure-borne soundproofing is protection
against sound within a hall and airborne soundproofing is protection against sound from
outside. Airborne sound enters the room through walls, ceilings, windows and doors.
Structure-borne soundproofing is essential in cases where sound transmission between
 Architectural Acoustics 759

rooms of a building proves to be disturbing. Structure-borne sound is transmitted through

pipes, posts and beams that run through the building.

10.8.1 Airborne soundproofing

Airborne soundproofing measures are described in the following.

i. The energy density of sound waves decreases following the inverse square law as they
spread out. Hence, increasing the distance between the receiver and the source results
in lesser intensity of sound reaching the receiver.
ii. In an outdoor environment such as highways, embankments or panelling are often
used to reflect sound upwards into the sky.
iii. In advanced countries, noise barriers along major highways are used to protect adjacent
residents from intruding roadway noise. Technology exists to predict accurately the
optimum geometry for the noise barrier design. Noise barriers may be constructed of
wood, masonry, earth or a combination thereof.

10.8.2 Structure-borne soundproofing

Structure-borne soundproofing measures are described in the following.

i. A part of the absorbed sound energy spontaneously gets converted into a very small
amount of heat energy in the absorbing material. There are several ways in which a
material can absorb sound. The choice of sound absorbing material will be determined
by the frequency distribution of the noise to be absorbed. Porous open cell foams are
highly effective noise absorbers across a broad range of medium to high frequencies.
The absorption is low at low frequencies. The exact absorption profile of a porous
open cell foam is determined by a number of factors like (i) cell size, (ii) tortuosity,
(iii) porosity, (iv) material thickness, and (v) material density and so on.
ii. Damping means to reduce resonance in the room, by absorption or re-direction
using methods of reflection or diffusion. It can reduce the acoustic resonance in
the air, or mechanical resonance in the structure of the room itself or things in the
room. Resonant panels, Helmholtz resonators and other resonant absorbers work
by damping a sound wave using the method of reflection. Unlike porous absorbers,
resonant absorbers are most effective at low to medium frequencies.
iii. If a specular reflection from a hard flat surface is giving problematic echos, then an
acoustic diffuser may be applied to the surface. It will scatter sound in all directions.
iv. Honeycombed curtains can be used in windows to damp sound. Single, double and
triple honeycomb designs achieve relatively greater degrees of sound damping. The
primary soundproofing limit of curtains is low since the edge of the curtains are not
sealed. Double pane windows achieve somewhat greater sound damping than single
pane windows. Noise reduction can be achieved to a good extent by installing a second
interior window.
760 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

v. Noise cancellation generator for active noise control is a modern device. A microphone
is used to pick up the sound and then analyzed by a computer; then, sound waves with
opposite polarity are thrown through a speaker. Both sound waves cause destructive
interference and reduce much of the noise.
vi. A room within a room is one method of isolating sound and stopping it from
transmitting to the outside world where it would be undesirable. Sound transfer from
a room to the outside or other rooms occurs through mechanical means. The sound
vibration passes directly through the brick, woodwork, and other solid structural
elements. The wall, ceiling, floor or closed window acts as a sounding board when
sound vibrations strike them. Thus, vibration is amplified and heard in the second
space. The use of acoustic foam and other absorbent means is less effective against
this transmitted vibration. The user is advised to break the connection between the
room that contains the noise source and the outside world by a new wall. This is
called acoustic de-coupling. Ideal de-coupling involves eliminating vibration transfer
in both solid materials and in the air.
All or few of the techniques discussed here are applied in one way or the other in fighter
planes to submarines to motor propelled yachts to road vehicles to reduce noise levels in
them.

Questions

10.1 What are the basic requirements of an acoustically good hall?

10.2 What is reverberation time? Derive Sabine’s formula for reverberation time.
10.3 What are absorption coefficient and reflection coefficient? Derive the relation
connecting the two.
10.4 What are the methods used for measuring of absorption coefficient?
10.5 Besides reverberation, what are the other factors that affect the acoustics of buildings?
10.6 What are the requisites for good acoustics?
10.7 What is acoustic quieting? What are the factors taken into consideration to achieve it?
10.8 What are the mechanical methods followed in acoustic quieting?
10.9 What are the electronic methods followed in acoustic quieting?
10.10 What is a muffler? Distinguish between absorptive muffler and reactive mufflers.
10.11 What is soundproofing? Explain different methods to achieve it.
10.12 Distinguish between air-borne soundproofing and structure-borne soundproofing.
 Architectural Acoustics 761

Problems

10.1 An auditorium has a volume of 8000 m3. It is required to have a reverberation time of
1.6 s. What should be the total absorption in the auditorium? [Ans 825 O.U.W.]
10.2 A theatre hall has a volume of 25000 m3. It has a reverberation time of 1·5 s and the
total sound absorbing surface is 5000 m2. Calculate the average absorbing power of
the surfaces. [Ans 0.55]
10.3 A hall of volume 5500 m3 is found to have a reverberation time of 2.3 s. The sound
absorbing surface of the hall has an area of 750 m2. Calculate the average absorption
coefficient. [Ans 0.504]
10.4 Calculate the acoustic intensity level in each case, at a distance of 2.51 metres from a
point source which radiates energy at the rate of 6.3 W. [Ans 109 db]
10.5 Calculate the acoustic intensity of a plane acoustic wave in air of intensity level 130
decibels. [Ans 10 Wm–2]
10.6 A grinder operates at a sound intensity level of 90 db. If it is operated in a room with
an existing sound intensity level of 75 db, what will be the resultant intensity level?
[Ans 90.14 db]
10.7 Two sources of sound A and B emit sound waves of different frequencies. The two
sound pressure levels, as recorded at a place, are 70 db and 60 db respectively.
Calculate the resultant sound pressure level at the same point due to the combined
effect. [Ans 72.39 db]
10.8 The noise from a helicopter engine 100 m from an observer is 40 db in intensity level.
What will be the intensity when the helicopter flies overhead at a height of 2 km?
[Ans 13.98 db]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The term “acoustics” is derived from the Greek verb which means
(i) to sound (ii) to speak
(iii) to hear (iv) to cry
2. Who is the father of modern architectural acoustics?
(i) Maxwell (ii) Hawkings
(iii) Einstein (iv) Sabine
3. What should be the range of reverberation time for music?
(i) 0–1s (ii) 1 – 2 s
(iii) 0.5 – 1 s (iv) 1.5 – 2 s
4. What should be the range of reverberation time for speech?
(i) 0–1s (ii) 1 – 2 s
(iii) 0.5 – 1 s (iv) 1.5 – 2 s
762 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

5. The reverberation time of a hall does not depend on

(i) color of the hall
(ii) shape of the hall
(iii) the nature of the reflecting materials in the hall
(iv) the volume of the hall
6. The growth and decay of the sound energy density is
(i) linear (ii) parabolic
(iii) hyperbolic (iv) exponential
7. Sound absorption means that
(i) the sound disappears from a specified space
(ii) sound energy leaves the space
(iii) it dissipates in it
(iv) all the above
8. The sound absorption coefficient of a material is zero if
(i) reflectivity = 0 (ii) reflectivity = 1
(iii) reflectivity = –1 (iv) reflectivity = ∞
9. Give an example of a perfect absorber of sound.
(i) open door (ii) loosely bound cotton
(iii) foam (iv) powdered material
10. Which of the following is not a factor affecting the acoustics of buildings?
(i) brick quality (ii) loudness
(iii) extraneous noise (iv) resonance
11. Which of the following is not a requisite for good acoustics of buildings?
(i) hanging heavy curtains (ii) hanging folded curtains
(iii) hanging pictures and maps (iv) having closed windows
12. What is the reference value of sound pressure level measurements in air?
(i) 2 × 10–4 Nm–2 (ii) 2 × 10–5 Nm–2
(iii) 1.011 × 10–5 Nm–2 (iv) 6.023 × 1023 Nm–2
13. To achieve acoustic quietening in a machine, we cannot
(i) use a damping material in the machine
(ii) use diesel as fuel
(iii) isolate the machine
(iv) run the machine in partial vacuum
14. In which of the following machines, acoustic mufflers are not used.
(i) Air conditioner (ii) fridge
(iii) grinder (iv) gas turbines
 Architectural Acoustics 763

15. Which of the following is not a measure that reduces the transmission of sound from
the source to the receiver?
(i) increasing the distance between source and receiver
(ii) using noise barriers to reflect or absorb the sound energy
(iii) using active anti-noise sound generators
(iv) using electromagnetic wave reflectors

Answers

1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 5 (i) 6 (iv) 7 (i) 8 (ii)

9 (i) 10 (i) 11 (iv) 12 (ii) 13 (ii) 14 (iii) 15 (iv)
 11 Ultrasonics

11.1 Introduction
Ultrasonics is the branch of science and technology concerned with the study and use
of ultrasonic waves. Sound waves of frequency more than 20 kHz are called ultrasound.
Though these sound waves are not sensed by a normal human ear, they are sensed by
a few lower creatures like cats, fox, puppies, nocturnal insects and animals, dolphins, a
few variety of whales, and fishes. Sound waves of a frequency less than 20 Hz are called
infrasonic. Though infrasonic sound waves are not audible to us, it sometimes gives us
a sensation of “ghost vision”. Elephants use infrasound for their communication. In
addition to the properties of audible sound waves, ultrasonic waves exhibit other new
phenomena. Ultrasonic waves have a large number of applications in all fields of science
and technology. The ultrasound is used in many different fields, typically to penetrate a
medium and measure the reflection signature or supply focused energy. The reflection
signature can reveal details about the inner structure of the medium.

11.2 Production of Ultrasonic Waves

Unlike audible sound waves (20 Hz–20 kHz), production of ultrasonic waves requires
special devices and methods. In the following, we shall discuss few methods of production
of ultrasonic waves.

11.2.1 Galton’s whistle

Galton’s whistle (also known as silent whistle or dog whistle) is a type of whistle that emits
sound in the ultrasonic range. It was invented in 1876 by Francis Galton and is used in the
 Ultrasonics 765

training of dogs and cats. It is believed that the wild ancestors of cats and dogs evolved this
hearing range in order to hear high frequency sounds made by their preferred prey, small
rodents.
Principle Galton's whistle works on the principle of the organ pipe. In a close ended
organ pipe, resonance occurs when the length of the pipe is one-fourth times the length of
the wavelength of sound in the air medium, i.e., λ = 4.
Construction It consists of a closed end air column A whose length can be adjusted with
the help of a movable piston. The piston P can be moved to the desired position with the
help of a screw S2. The open end of the pipe A is fitted with a lip L. The position of the pipe
C can be adjusted with the help of the screw S1. The gap between the ends of A and C can be
adjusted with the help of the screw S1. The construction details are shown in the Fig. 11.1.

Figure 11.1 Construction details of Galton’s whistle

766 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Working An air blast is blown through the nozzle N at the top. The blast of air coming
out of C strikes against the lip L and the column of air in the pipe is set into vibration.
By adjusting the length of the air column in A by screw S2, it is brought to the resonant
position. The resonant frequency will depend on the length and diameter of the pipe A. If 
is the length of the air column in A, x the end correction, then the wavelength at resonance
will be =λ 4( + x ) and the corresponding frequency will be

v v
ν= = (11.1)
λ 4( + x )

With the help of this whistle, frequencies in the range of ultrasonics can be produced. The
micrometer screw S2 can also be calibrated to directly give the frequency of the sound.

11.2.2 Magnetostriction oscillator

Ultrasonic waves can be produced by using the principle of magnetostriction.
Principle Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to
change their shape or dimensions when a magnetic field is applied. Thus, ferromagnetic
materials can be made to vibrate by applying an alternating magnetic field.
Construction An experimental arrangement due to Pierce for explaining the physics
involved in the production of ultrasonic waves by using magnetostriction effects is shown
in Fig. 11.2.

Figure 11.2 Schematic diagram for the production of ultrasonic waves by magnetostriction effect
 Ultrasonics 767

XY is a bar of ferromagnetic material say of iron or nickel. The bar is clamped in the
middle. A coil which is wrapped around the coil and rod is permanently magnetised in the
beginning by passing direct current through this coil. L1 and L2 are two coils surrounding
the bar XY. L1 and C1 are connected in parallel and the combination is connected in the
plate circuit to which a mili-ammeter is connected. L2 is connected between the grid and
the cathode. The values of L1 and C1 determine the frequency

 1 
= 
 2π L C 
 1 1 

of the oscillatory circuit. The vibrations are maintained due to the coupling provided by
the coil L2.
Working If a ferromagnetic material in the form of a bar is subjected to an alternating
magnetic field along the length, it expands and contracts in length, alternately. This change
of length is independent of the sign of the field and only depends upon the magnitude of
the field and nature of the material. The frequency of contraction or expansion is twice
the frequency of the alternating magnetic field. The alternating magnetic field is produced
with the help of an oscillatory circuit. Ordinarily, the amplitude of the vibrations of the
rod is small. If, however, the frequency of the alternating current is the same as the natural
frequency of the rod, then resonance occurs and the amplitude of vibration is considerably
increased. Due to the longitudinal contraction and expansion of the bar, sound waves are
now emitted from the ends of the rod. If the applied frequency of the alternating magnetic
field is of the order of ultrasonic frequency, the rod sends out ultrasonic waves.
When the plate current passing through the coil L1 is changed, it causes a corresponding
change in the magnetization of the rod. Thus, there is a change in the length of the rod.
This variation in length causes a variation in the magnetic flux through the grid coil L2
which in turn changes the emf developed across it. This emf acts on the grid and produces
an amplified current change in the plate circuit. In this way, the plate current builds up to
a large amplitude with a frequency determined by the frequency of the vibration of the rod.
Thus, the vibrations of the rod are maintained. By adjusting the length of the rod and the
capacity of the condenser, high frequency oscillations of different frequencies are obtained.

11.2.3 Piezoelectric oscillator

Ultrasonic waves can be produced by exploiting the principle of piezoelectric effects.
Principle If one pair of opposite faces of certain non-symmetric crystals like quartz,
tourmaline and Rochelle salt is subjected to compression, the other pair of opposite faces
along the polar axis develops opposite electric charges. The sign of the charges changes
when the faces are subjected to extension instead of compression. The converse of the
Piezoelectric effect is also true. Accordingly, if alternating voltages are applied along the
polar axis to one pair of faces, compression and extension, i.e., vibrations occur at the other
pair of faces of the crystal. The direction of the cut of the crystal with reference to the polar
axis is quite important.
768 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Construction An experimental arrangement for explaining the physics involved in the

production of ultrasonic waves by using piezoelectric effects is shown in Fig. 11.3.

Figure 11.3 Schematic diagram for the production of ultrasonic wave by piezoelectric effect

A quartz crystal is cut in such a manner that the polar axis is perpendicular to the surface. A
thin slice of this. The quartz crystal is connected parallel to the tank circuit of the oscillatory
circuit. Thus, a high frequency alternating voltage is applied to the quartz crystal along the
length of the polar axis. The high frequency alternating voltage which is applied to the
crystal is obtained by a Hartley oscillatory circuit.
Working The high frequency alternating voltage obtained from the Hartley oscillator is
applied to the crystal. Ordinarily, the amplitude of the vibrations of crystal is small. Now
the variable capacitor's capacitance C1 is adjusted so that the frequency of the oscillating
circuit

 1 
= 
 2π L C 
 1 1 

is tuned to the natural frequency of the crystal and resonance is produced. The quartz
crystal is set into mechanical vibrations and ultrasonic waves are produced.
The velocity of the ultrasonic wave in quartz in a direction perpendicular to the polar
axis is given by

Y
=v = 5450 m/s
ρ
 Ultrasonics 769

with Y = Young’s modulus of quartz along the polar axis = 7.9 × 1010 N/m2 and r = density
of quartz = 2650 kg/m2.
λ
If t is the thickness of the quartz crystal, then at resonance t = (closed organ pipe) and
2
we have

v v 2725
ν= = = Hz (11.2)
λ 2t t

Thus, crystal thickness controls the frequency of ultrasonic waves. For a quartz crystal of
1mm (= 10–3 m) thickness, the frequency of the ultrasonic wave will be 2725 kHz.

Example 11.1
The speed of ultrasound in a commercial preparation of lead zirconate titanate, a commonly
used piezoelectric material is 4000 m/s. If a vibration frequency of 5 MHz is required, what
would be the crystal thickness?
Solution

v 4000
=
t = m = 0.4 mm
2 f 2 × 5 × 106

11.3 Detection of Ultrasonic Waves

Since ultrasonic waves are beyond human audible range, we human beings cannot directly
detect them. However, ultrasonic waves propagated through a medium can be detected in
a number of ways; some of the methods employed are as follows.
i. Piezo-electric detector
A quartz crystal can also be used to detect ultrasonic waves. When one pair of faces
of the quartz crystal is subjected to ultrasonic waves, feeble voltages are developed on
the other faces. By amplifying this voltage using suitable electronic devices, we can
determine the presence of ultrasonic waves.
ii. Kundt’s tube method
Ultrasonic waves can be detected with the help of Kundt’s tube. This method is
suitable for detecting ultrasonic waves of large wavelength. When ultrasonic waves
pass through the tube, the lycopodium powder sprinkled in the tube collects in the
form of heaps at the nodal points and is blown off at the antinodal points. The average
distance between two adjacent heaps is equal to half the wavelength.
iii. Sensitive flame method
A narrow sensitive flame is moved slowly through the medium in which the ultrasonic
wave is supposed to be present. At the position of the antinode, the flame will be
 770 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

steady and at the node position, the flame will flicker because there will be change
in pressure. The average distance between two adjacent nodes is equal to half the
wavelength.
iv. Thermal detector method
In this method, a fine platinum wire connected to a sensitive bridge arrangement
is moved in the medium in which ultrasonic wave is supposed to be present. The
temperature changes at the nodes and remains constant at the antinode. Hence,
the resistance of the platinum wire changes at the nodes and remain constant at the
antinode. This change in the resistance of the platinum wire can be detected by using
a sensitive bridge arrangement. The bridge will be in the balanced position when the
platinum wire is at the antinodes.

11.4 Properties of Ultrasonic Waves

i. Ultrasonic waves are highly directional, i.e., unlike ordinary sound, ultrasound travels
in a straight line like light waves. Bending of high frequency ultrasonic waves around
obstacles is negligibly small.
ii. Due to their high frequency, they are highly energetic and hence highly penetrating.
iii. Their speed of propagation increases with increase in frequency.
iv. Due to their small wavelength, their scattering is negligibly small. Hence, they can be
transmitted over long distances without any appreciable loss of energy.
v. The temperature of tissues or water increases by absorbing ultrasound energy.
vi. Intense ultrasonic radiation has a disruptive effect in liquids by causing cavitation.
vii. When ultrasonic waves are propagated in a liquid bath, a stationary wave pattern is
formed due to the reflection of the wave from the opposite end. The density of the
liquid thus varies from layer to layer along the direction of propagation of the wave.
In this way, an acoustic grating is formed which can give a diffraction pattern of light
as we will discuss later.
viii. All these properties of ultrasonic waves are exploited technologically for use in
industry, the medical field, scientific researchand the like.

11.5 Wavelength Determination of Ultrasonic Waves

The phenomenon of diffraction of light while passing through a liquid subjected to
ultrasonic waves was first observed by Debye and Sears in 1932. The formation of stationary
ultrasonic waves in a liquid, gives rise to fixed positions of nodal and antinodal planes. The
liquid density is maximum at nodal planes and minimum at antinodal planes due to the
difference of pressure at these planes. If monochromatic light is passed through the liquid
in this condition at right angles to the waves, the liquid behaves as a diffraction grating.
 Ultrasonics 771

Such a grating is known as an acoustical grating. This grating behaves in the same way as a
ruled optical grating. The distance d between two consecutive nodal or antinodal planes is
half the wavelength (l/2) of ultrasonic waves (i.e., d = l/2 ). Hence, the method can be used
for finding the wavelength and velocity of ultrasonic waves in a liquid in a similar way to
that of light. The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.4.

Figure 11.4 Wavelength determination of ultrasonic waves by acoustic grating

The light from a monochromatic source of light S, passes through a collimator which
makes it a parallel beam. This parallel beam of light then passes through the ultrasonic cell.
The cell consists of a rectangular glass tank containing the liquid and a piezoelectric crystal
connected to the Hartley oscillator at the bottom. The top surface of the glass container is
an ultrasonic wave reflector. Now, this acoustic grating is placed on the prism table of the
levelled spectrometer.
The piezoelectric crystal produces and directs ultrasonic waves towards the reflector
and the reflector in turn reflects the waves. Due to superposition of direct and reflected
waves, stationary waves are produced in the liquid. These stationary waves give rise to fixed
positions of nodal and antinodal planes parallel to the direction of propagation of light
forming an acoustical grating.
Now light emerging from the acoustic grating is seen through a well focussed telescope.
When the crystal is arrested, a single image of the collimator slit is observed. However,
when ultrasonic waves are produced in the liquid by resonant excitation of the crystal,
a number of diffracted images appear on either side of the central maximum with
diminishing intensity. The angular separation qn between the direct image of the slit and
the diffracted image of any order n is measured. Applying the theory of diffraction grating,
772 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be calculated in the following way. From the theory
of light diffraction, we have

d sin θn = nλL

2nλL λ
or λuw = since d = uw (11.3)
sin θn 2

Here
n = 1, 2, 3, …

lL = wavelength of monochromatic light

luw = wavelength of ultrasonic waves

In this way, wavelength of ultrasonic wave can be calculated. Now if frequency vuw of the
ultrasonic wave is known, we can also calculate speed of the ultrasonic wave in the same
liquid by using the formula

v = λuwν uw . (11.4)

Example 11.2
The speed of ultrasonic wave in a certain medium is 5450 m/s. If the frequency of the ultrasonic
wave is 2725 kHz, find the wavelength of the ultrasonic wave.
Solution
The data given are v = 5450 m/s, vuw = 2725 × 103 Hz

5450m/s
λuw = 3
= 2 × 10−3 m
2725 × 10 s

Example 11.3
Acoustic grating is formed in the water medium by passing monochromatic ultrasonic waves
through it. The third order diffraction maximum is observed at an angle 2° for sodium light of
wavelength 5890 Å. Calculate the wavelength of the ultrasonic wave.
Solution
The data given are n = 1, q = 2°, lL = 5890 × 10–10 m

2λL 2 × 3 × 5890 × 10−10 m

λuw
= = = 1.01 × 10−4 m
sin θ sin 2°
 Ultrasonics 773

11.6 Ultrasound Cavitation

Cavitation is the formation and then immediate implosion of bubbles in a liquid. It usually
occurs when a liquid is subjected to rapid changes of pressure that cause the formation of
bubbles where the pressure is relatively low.
Sound, including ultrasound, propagates through any physical medium in the form
of compression and rarefaction. It stretches and compresses the molecular spacing of
the medium. As the ultrasound crosses the liquid medium, the average distance between
the molecules will vary very rapidly in accordance with its frequency. At the ultrasonic
frequency, cohesive forces of the liquid media are overcome and voids/cavitations are
created. At the position of rarefaction, the distance between the molecules of the liquid
exceeds the minimum molecular distance required to hold the liquid intact. Hence, the
liquid breaks down and voids are created. These voids are the so-called cavitation bubbles.
As the liquid compresses and stretches, cavitation bubbles behave in the following two
ways. At fairly low ultrasonic intensities (1.0 – 3.0 watt/cm2), stable cavitation bubbles
form and oscillate about some equilibrium size for many acoustic cycles. At ultrasonic
intensities exceeding 10.0 watt/cm2, transient cavitation bubbles are formed which expand
through a few acoustic cycles to a radius of at least twice their initial size, before collapsing
violently on compression. Transient bubble collapsing is considered to be the main source
of the chemical and mechanical effects of ultrasonic sound energy. Each collapsing bubble
can be considered as a microreactor in which temperatures of several thousand degrees
(≈ 5000 K) and pressures higher than one thousand atmospheres (≈ 2000 atm) are created
instantaneously. The implosion of the cavitation bubble also results in liquid jets of up to
280 m/s velocity.

11.6.1 Parameters affecting ultrasonic cavitation

The following parameters affect the ultrasonic cavitation phenomenon.

i. Frequency
At high ultrasonic frequencies, in the order of MHz, the production of cavitation
bubbles becomes more difficult than at low ultrasonic frequencies, in the order of
kHz. Ten times more power is required to induce cavitation in water at 400 kHz
than at 30 kHz. The physical explanation for this lies in the fact that at very high
frequencies, the cycle of compression and rarefaction caused by the ultrasonic waves
becomes so short that the molecules of the liquid cannot be separated to form a void
and, thus, cavitation is no longer obtained.
ii. Intensity
The intensity of ultrasonic wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of
ultrasonic waves and, as such, an increment in the amplitude of vibration will lead to
an increase in the intensity of vibration and to an increase in the sono-chemical effects.
To achieve the cavitation threshold, a minimum intensity is required. This means that
higher amplitudes are not always necessary to obtain the desired results. In addition,
774 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

high amplitudes can lead to rapid deterioration of the ultrasonic transducer, resulting
in liquid agitation instead of cavitation and poor transmission of the ultrasound
through the liquid media. However, the amplitude should be increased when working
with samples of high viscosity, such as blood.
iii. Solvent
The solvent used to perform sample treatment with ultrasonic waves must be carefully
chosen. As a general rule, most applications are performed in water. However, other
less polar liquids, such as some organic solvents, can also be used, depending on the
intended purpose. Both solvent viscosity and surface tension are expected to inhibit
cavitation. The higher the natural cohesive forces acting within a liquid (e.g., high
viscosity and high surface tension), the more difficult it is to attain cavitation.
iv. Temperature
Solvent temperature plays two roles in ultrasonic cavitation. On the one hand, the use
of high temperatures helps to disrupt strong solute–matrix interactions such as the
Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding and dipole attractions. On the other hand,
cavitation is better attained at lower temperatures because faster diffusion rates occur
at higher temperatures as a result of which vapour fills the cavitation bubbles, which
then tend to collapse less violently and thus the ultrasonic effects are less intense than
expected. Hence, a compromise between temperature and cavitation must be achieved.
v. External pressure
If the external pressure is increased, then a greater ultrasonic energy is required to
induce cavitation, that is, to break the solvent molecular forces. There is also there is
an increment in the intensity of the cavitational bubble collapse and, consequently, an
enhancement in sono-chemical effects is obtained. For a specific frequency, there is a
particular external pressure that will provide an optimum sono-chemical reaction.
vi. Bubbled gas
It must be stressed that most ultrasonic applications are performed under atmospheric
pressure. Dissolved gas bubbles in a fluid can act as nuclei for cavitation, favouring
the ultrasonic process. Mono-atomic gases such as He, Ar, and Ne are bubbled
continuously into the solvent to increase cavitation effects.

11.6.2 Consequences of ultrasonic cavitation

High-intensity ultrasound produces violent agitation in low-viscosity liquids, which can be
used in dispersion process of solid in liquid, solid in gas and immiscible liquids. At liquid/
solid or gas/solid interfaces, the asymmetric implosion of cavitation bubbles can cause
extreme turbulences that reduce the diffusion boundary layer, increase the convection
mass transfer, and considerably accelerate diffusion in systems where ordinary mixing is
not possible.
In general, cavitation in liquids may produce the following effects:
i. It causes fast and complete de-gassing.
ii. It initiates various chemical reactions by generating free chemical ions.
 Ultrasonics 775

iii. It accelerates chemical reactions by facilitating the mixing of reactants.

iv. It enhances polymerization and depolymerization reactions by temporarily dispersing
aggregates or by permanently breaking chemical bonds in polymeric chains.
v. It increases emulsification rates.
vi. It improves diffusion rates.
vii. It produces highly concentrated emulsions or uniform dispersions of micron-size or
nano-size materials.
viii. It assists the extraction of substances such as enzymes from animal, plant, yeast, or
bacterial cells.
ix. It removes viruses from infected tissue.
x. It erodes and breaks down susceptible particles, including micro-organisms.

11.7 Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

Ultrasound has evolved from an emerging technology and developed into a fully commercial
processing technology in the last ten years. High reliability and scaleablility as well as low
maintenance costs and high energy efficiency make ultrasound a promising player in the
field of science and technology. Ultrasound offers additional exciting opportunities like
cavitation, the basic ultrasonic effect, which allows for new results in biological, chemical
and physical processes. While low-intensity ultrasound is mainly used for analysis, non-
destructive testing and imaging, high-intensity ultrasound is used for the processing of
liquids such as mixing, emulsifying, dispersing and de-agglomeration, cell disintegration
of enzyme deactivation. In the following, we enlist a few applications of ultrasonic waves in
different fields though the list is endless.
a. Depth of sea Ultrasonic waves of high frequency are used to determine the depth
of the sea. A piezoelectric quartz oscillator is used for this purpose. The crystal is
placed between two metal plates and the plates are connected to a spark oscillator,
producing damped oscillations. The frequency of the damped oscillator is tuned to be
the same as the natural frequency of the quartz crystal. The quartz crystal itself acts as
a transmitter and a receiver of the ultrasonic waves. The ultrasonic waves transmitted
by the crystal are directed towards the bed of the sea. These waves are reflected back
from the bed and the echo is detected by the crystal itself. In this case, the metal plates
are automatically connected to an amplifier and to a cathode ray oscillograph. The
time interval between the emitted signal and the echo is determined with the help
of the oscillograph. Knowing the velocity of sound through sea water and the time
interval, the depth of the sea can be calculated. Suppose, t is the time interval between
the transmission of the ultrasonic wave and receipt of the echo and v, the velocity of
sound waves through sea water, then depth of the sea,
vt
h= (11.5)
2
776 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

This method is also suitable to detect the presence and depth of submarines, rocks and
so on from the surface of seawater. The instrument directly calibrated to know the
depth of sea is called a fathometer or echometer.
b. Signalling Ultrasonic waves are used for directional signalling. The frequency of
ultrasonic waves is higher than that of audible sound waves. Therefore, the wavelength
is comparatively small. Due to the small wavelength, ultrasonic waves can be sent in
the form of a short beam. If a quartz crystal, taken in the form of a disc of radius r, is
used as a source of ultrasonic waves, an angle of the cone containing these waves is
given by

0.61λ
sin θ = (11.6)
r

For small wavelengths l, q is small. Even for a small amplitude of the vibrating crystal,
a large amount of energy is radiated, whereas it is not possible in the case of audio
frequency waves. Recently, ultrasonic microscope has been invented. It is used to
detect concealed objects. The frequency is very high so that the wavelength is of the
order of the visible light.
c. Heating effects When a beam of ultrasonic waves is passed through a substance, it
gets heated. If ultrasonic waves pass through water at 0°C, the water can be made to
boil.
d. Mechanical effects
i. Ultrasonic drills Ultrasonic drills are used to bore holes in steel and other metals
or their alloys. Here the drill oscillates with ultrasonic frequency and can bore any
hard metal.
ii. Crack in metals Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect cracks or discontinuity
in metal structures. In this case, an emitter and detector of ultrasonic waves are
used. Ultrasonic waves from the emitter are directed towards the metal. The
reflected beam is detected by the detector. If there is a crack or discontinuity,
there will be rise in energy received by the detector, if the emitter and the detector
are on the same side. If the emitter and the detector are on opposite sides of the
metal, there will be fall in energy at the regions of cracks or discontinuity.
iii. Formation of alloys Alloys of uniform composition are obtained by subjecting
the constituents to an ultrasonic beam. The two constituents are well mixed by
the ultrasonic waves, even though the constituents differ in density.
iv. Ultrasonic wet-milling and grinding Ultrasonic waves can be used for wet-
milling and micro-grinding of particles. In particular, for the manufacture of
superfine-size slurries, ultrasound has many advantages, when compared with
common size reduction equipments.
 Ultrasonics 777

e. Chemical effects
Ultrasonic waves act like catalytic agents and accelerate chemical reactions. They
bring about a number of chemical changes. Some of the chemical applications are as
follows:
i. When potassium iodide is subjected to ultrasonic waves, it liberates iodine.
ii. Water is decomposed into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, by the action of ultrasonic
waves.
iii. Ultrasonic waves reduce mercuric chloride into mercurous chloride.
iv. Emulsions are dispersions of two or more immiscible liquids. Water and oil
are immiscible. An emulsion of water and oil is obtained when the mixture is
subjected to ultrasonic waves. Similarly, an emulsion of water and mercury can
be prepared.
v. The dispersion and de-agglomeration of solids into liquids is an important
application of ultrasonic devices. Ultrasonic cavitation generates high shear
forces that break particle agglomerates into single dispersed particles. Ultrasonic
dispersion and de-agglomeration is a common process in paint, ink, shampoo,
beverages, or polishing media factories.
vi. Ultrasonic waves accelerate crystallization.
vii. Ultrasonic waves explode nitrogen iodide.
viii. Soldering Aluminium cannot be soldered by the ordinary soldering method. To
solder aluminium, ultrasonic waves are used in addition to the electrical soldering
iron. The ultrasonic waves remove the oxide film and facilitate soldering.
ix. Ultrasonic wire, cable and strip cleaning Ultrasonic cleaning is an environmentally-
friendly alternative for cleaning continuous materials, such as wire and cable, tape
or tubes. The effect of the cavitation generated by the ultrasonic power removes
lubrication residues like oil or grease, soaps or dust. These waves can also be used
for cleaning liquid tanks, utensils, washing clothes, removing dust and soot from
chimneys.
x. Ultrasonic Trans-esterification of oil to biodiesel Ultrasonication increases
the chemical reaction speed and yield of the trans-esterification of vegetable
oils and animal fats into biodiesel. This allows changing the production from
batch processing into continuous flow processing and reduces investment and
operational costs. Ultrasonication can achieve a biodiesel yield in excess of 99%.
Ultrasound reduces the processing time and the separation time significantly.
xi. Ultrasonic De-gassing of liquids De-gassing of liquids is an interesting application
of ultrasonic devices. In this case, the ultrasound removes small suspended gas
bubbles from the liquid and reduces the level of dissolved gas below the natural
equilibrium level.
 778 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

xii. Sonication of bottles and cans for leak detection Ultrasound is used in bottling
and filling machines to check cans and bottles for leaks. The instantaneous release
of carbon dioxide is the decisive effect of ultrasonic leakage tests of containers
filled with carbonated beverages.
xiii. Cell disintegration Ultrasonic treatment can disintegrate fibrous, cellulosic
material into fine particles and break the walls of the cell structure. This releases
more of the intra-cellular material, such as starch or sugar into the liquid.
xiv. Ultrasonic cell extraction The extraction of enzymes and proteins stored in cells
and sub-cellular particles is an effective application of high-intensity ultrasound.
Ultrasound has a potential benefit in the extraction and isolation of novel
potentially bioactive components.
f. Medical applications
Ultrasonic waves have a large number of applications in the field of medicine. Some
of the important applications are as follows.
i. Neuralgic pain Ultrasonic waves are useful for relieving neuralgic and rheumatic
pains. The affected portion of the body is exposed to ultrasonic waves. The waves
produce a soothing massaging action and relieve pain.
ii. Arthritis Ultrasonic waves are used to relieve pain due to arthritis. Here a small
metal head, vibrating with a frequency of more than 106 Hz is moved over the skin
of the patient. These vibrations after passing through the tissues produce a deep
massaging action. The patient is relieved of the pain.
iii. Contracted fingers Ultrasonic waves are used to restore contracted fingers. They
are also used to loosen up the scar tissues in various parts of the human body.
iv. Broken teeth Now-a-days, ultrasonic waves are used by dentists for the proper
treatment of broken teeth.
v. Bloodless surgery Ultrasonic waves are used in bloodless surgery. Here the
ultrasonic waves are focussed on a sharp instrument and the tissues are destroyed
without any loss of blood. The doctors have used such instruments for conducting
bloodless brain operations.
vi. Sterilization Ultrasonic waves can destroy unicellular organisms. Bacteria perish
under the action of ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves are used in the sterilization
of water and milk.
vii. Enemy of lower life When some lower animals like rats, frogs, fish, and so on,
are exposed to ultrasonic waves, they become lame.
viii. Detection of abnormal growth Abnormal growth in the brain, certain tumours
which cannot be detected by X-rays can be detected by ultrasonic waves.
ix. Body Shape Ultrasound cavitation technology can be used to destroy fat cells in
the body and as a result, can reduce the body weight keeping the body in perfect
shape.
x. Kidney stones Lithotripsy is a technique to remove kidney stones by ultrasound.
 Ultrasonics 779

In addition to the aforementioned medical applications of ultrasound, the most important

and popular application of ultrasound is sonography which requires special mention.

11.8 Sonograms
A sonogram, also known as an ultrasound in layman language, is a computerized picture
taken by bouncing sound waves off organs and other interior body parts. A wand called
a transducer is glided along the outside of the body over a centralized area or organ. As it
glides, it introduces sound waves into the body. These sound waves are reflected back into
the transducer by the intended area. The transducer feeds the wave into a computer. The
computer software decodes all the information concealed in the reflected wave. The picture
then appears on a special computer screen. The sonogram is most often used to monitor
pregnancy.
As the sonogram uses sound waves and not radiation, it is mostly safe. In addition, a
sonogram can offer details X-rays cannot. Doctors can also discover a tubal pregnancy early
and take proper measures to ensure the mother’s safety. Again a sonogram can also detect
a multiple pregnancy, giving the doctor as well as the parents enough time for preparation
Birth defects can now be discovered early. Sonograms can also identify the causes of pelvic
bleeding and discomfort, find the source of menstrual problems, identify cysts and locate
cancerous cells. A sonogram is not just for women, either. It can also be used to help treat
prostate and other cancers in men. Parents can even learn the gender of their unborn child
months before delivery. Unfortunately, in India, sex determination has become a menace;
the male–female ratio has decreased to alarmingly dangerous levels in different states.
There is not too much preparation involved for taking a sonogram. It is all dependent
on the area to be examined. For instance, those who are to have an abdominal sonogram
may be asked not to eat or drink anything for 24 hours so that their doctor can better
examine the stomach. A pregnant woman is usually asked to drink lots of water before
her sonogram, as it helps the doctor to see the foetus a little clearer. Loose, comfortable
clothing should be worn in order to make the procedure run a little smoother.

11.9 Sonar
Importance of ultrasonics will remain incomplete without the mention of “sonar”. Sonar
(originally an acronym for Sound Navigation And Ranging) is a technique that uses sound
propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of
the water. The sonar is of two types – passive sonar that receives sound made by distant
vessels and active sonar that simultaneously emits sound pulses and receives echoes. The
sinking of the Titanic in 1912 most probably laid the foundation stone for the use of sonar
and war time demands make it technologically advanced. The acoustic frequencies used
in sonar systems vary from very low (infrasonic) to extremely high (ultrasonic). The study
of underwater sound is known as underwater acoustics or hydro-acoustics. Acoustic
780 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

technology is especially well suited for underwater applications since sound travels farther
and faster underwater than in air.
Active sonar creates a pulse of sound, often called a “ping”, and then the reflections
(echo) of the pulse are analyzed. This pulse of sound is generally created electronically using
a sonar projector consisting of a signal generator, power amplifier and electro-acoustic
transducer. The complication is the active sonar receives echoes from other objects in the
sea also such as whales, rocks and so on. Active sonar works the same way as a radar. Passive
sonar detects the target’s radiated noise characteristics. The radiated spectrum comprises
a continuous spectrum of noise with peaks at certain frequencies which can be used to
extract the profile of the object. Passive sonar has several advantages. Most importantly,
it is silent. If the target radiated noise level is high enough, it can have a greater range
than active sonar, and allows the target to be identified. Another use of passive sonar is to
determine the target’s trajectory. This process is called target motion analysis (TMA), by
which a target’s range, course, and speed can be determined.

11.9.1 Applications of sonar

Military applications
Modern naval warfare makes extensive use of both passive and active sonar from water-
borne vessels, aircraft and fixed installations. The relative usefulness of active versus passive
sonar depends on the radiated noise characteristics of the target, generally a submarine.
Few sonar applications in military are given here.
i. Anti-submarine warfare Ship sonars were usually with hull mounted arrays, either
amidships or at the bow. It was found after their initial use that a means of reducing
flow noise was required to escape enemy surveillance. For this reason, now-a-days
domes are usually made of reinforced plastic or pressurised rubber.
ii. Torpedoes Modern torpedoes are generally fitted with an active/passive sonar to
directly attack the target.
iii. Mines Mines may be fitted with sonar to detect, localize and recognize the required
target.
iv. Submarine navigation Submarines rely on sonar to a greater extent than surface
ships as they cannot use radar at depth. Sonar arrays may be hull mounted.
v. Aircraft Helicopters can be used for anti-submarine warfare by deploying fields of
active/passive sonobuoys. Fixed wing aircraft can also deploy sonobuoys and have
greater endurance and capacity to deploy them. (A sonobuoy is a relatively small and
expendable sonar system that is dropped/ejected from aircraft or ships conducting
anti-submarine warfare or underwater acoustic research). Helicopters have also been
used for mine counter-measure missions using towed sonars.
vi. Underwater communications Dedicated sonars can be fitted to ships and
submarines for underwater communication.
 Ultrasonics 781

vii. Ocean surveillance For many years, the United States America operated a large set
of passive sonar arrays at various points in the world’s oceans for ocean surveillance.
viii. Underwater security Sonar system can be used to detect frogmen and other scuba
divers. This can be applicable around ships or at port entrances. Active sonar can also
be used as a deterrent and disablement mechanism.
ix. Intercept sonar This sonar system is designed to detect and locate transmissions
from hostile active sonars.

Civilian applications
Few civilian applications of sonar are listed here:
i. Fisheries Today, commercial fishing vessels rely almost completely on acoustic
sonar and sounders to detect fish. Acoustic technology has been one of the most
important driving forces behind the development of modern commercial fisheries.
Sound waves travel differently through schools of fish than through water because
a fish’s air-filled swim bladder has a different density than seawater. This density
difference allows the detection of schools of fish by using reflected sound. In advanced
countries, fishermen also use active sonar and echo sounder technology to determine
water depth, bottom contour, and bottom composition.
ii. Depth determination An echo sounder sends an acoustic pulse directly downwards
to the sea bed and records the returned echo. As the speed of sound in water is around
1,500 m/s, the time interval between the pulse being transmitted and the echo being
received allows bottom depth and targets to be measured.
iii. Ship velocity measurement Sonars have been developed for measuring a ship’s
velocity either relative to the water or to the bottom.
iv. ROV and UUV Small sonars have been fitted to Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV)
and Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUV) to allow their operation in murky
conditions. The sonars are used to supply information about their route conditions.
v. Vehicle location Sonars which act as beacons are fitted to aircraft to allow their
location in the event of a crash in the sea.

Scientific applications
Few of the scientific applications of sonar are mentioned here.
i. Biomass estimation Detection of fish, and other marine and aquatic life, and
estimation of their individual sizes or total biomass use active sonar techniques. As the
sound pulse travels through water, it encounters objects that are of different density
or acoustic characteristics than the surrounding medium, such as fish, that reflect
sound back towards the sound source. These echoes provide information on fish size,
location, abundance and behavior.
ii. Wave measurement An upward looking echo sounder (echo producing device)
mounted on the bottom or on a platform may be used to make measurements of wave
782 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

height and period. From this, statistics of the surface conditions at a location can be
derived.
iii. Water velocity measurement Special short range sonars have been developed to
measure water velocity.
iv. Bottom type assessment Sonars have been developed that can be used to determine
water depth, bottom contour, and bottom composition of sea at a point.
v. Bottom topography measurement Side-scan sonars can be used to derive maps
of the topography of an area by moving the sonar across it just above the bottom.
Powerful low frequency echo-sounders have been developed for providing profiles of
the upper layers of the ocean bottom.
vi. Synthetic aperture sonar Various synthetic aperture sonars have been built in the
laboratory and some have entered use in mine hunting and search systems.
Therefore, we conclude that ultrasonics have more and more practical applications in all
fields. Active research work is still in progress to study and exploit the effect of ultrasonic
waves in mechanical, biological, chemical, physical and industrial fields.

11.10 Hazards of Ultrasound

It would be against scientific temper if we do not mention the demerits of ultrasound. In
spite of all the advantages of ultrasound, there are some disadvantages of it, though they are
very minimal in comparison to other techniques. They are:
i. Tissues or water of the human body absorb the ultrasound energy which increases
their temperature locally.
ii. Cavitations are formed when dissolved gases come out of solution due to local heat
caused by ultrasound.
iii. High intensity systems are actually used for therapy.

Questions

11.1 Distinguish between ultrasound and infrasound.

11.2 Describe with necessary theory how ultrasound is produced by Galton’s whistle.
11.3 Describe how ultrasound can be produced using the magnetostriction principle.
11.4 Describe how ultrasound can be produced using the piezoelectric principle.
11.5 What are the different methods of detection of ultrasounds?
11.6 What are the properties of ultrasonic waves?
11.7 Describe a method of determination of wavelength of ultrasonic waves.
11.8 What is ultrasound cavitation? How it is formed in liquid? Mention parameters that
affect ultrasonic cavitation.
 Ultrasonics 783

11.9 What are the consequences of ultrasonic cavitation?

11.10 Explain how the statistics of big objects in deep sea can be determined using
ultrasonics.
11.11 Explain how ultrasonics can be used in signalling.
11.12 Explain how ultrasound is helpful to a mechanical engineer.
11.13 Explain how ultrasound is helpful to a chemical engineer.
11.14 Explain how ultrasound is helpful to a metallurgist.
11.15 Explain how ultrasound is helpful to a doctor.
11.16 Explain how ultrasound is helpful to defence personnel.
11.17 What are the dangers of ultrasound?

Problems

11.1 A piezoelectric X-cut quartz plate has a thickness of 1.2 mm. If the velocity of
propagation of longitudinal sound waves along the x direction is 5460 m/s, calculate
the fundamental frequency of the crystal. [Ans 2275 kHz]
11.2 A quartz crystal of thickness 0.14 cm is vibrating at resonance. Calculate the
fundamental frequency of vibration if Young’s modulus and density for quartz is
8.79 × 1010 N/m2 and 2650 kg/m3 respectively. [Ans 2057 kHz]
11.3 The speed of ultrasonic wave in a certain medium is 5050 m/s. If the wavelength of
the ultrasonic wave is 2.5 × 10–3 m , find the frequency of the ultrasonic wave.
[Ans 2.02 MHz]
11.4 Acoustic grating is formed in a water medium by passing monochromatic ultrasonic
wave at a speed 1500 m/s. The second order diffraction maximum is observed at
an angle 1.5° for sodium light of wavelength 5890Å. Calculate the frequency of the
ultrasonic wave. [Ans 16.67 MHz]
11.5 A marine engineer measured the depth of sea at a point by sending ultrasonic wave
towards the sea bed. He received the reflected wave after three seconds. What will be
the depth if the speed of ultrasonic wave in sea water is 1750 m/s? [Ans 2625 m]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The frequency range of hearing for a normal human being is

(i) 20 Hz–20 kHz (ii) 20 kHz–20 MHz
(iii) more than 20 kHz (iv) less than 20 Hz
2. The frequency range of ultrasound is
(i) 20 Hz–20 kHz (ii) 20 kHz–20 MHz
(iii) more than 20 kHz (iv) less than 20 Hz
784 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3. The frequency range of infrasound is

(i) 20 Hz–20 kHz (ii) 20 kHz–20 MHz
(iii) more than 20 kHz (iv) less than 20 Hz
4. Galton's whistle works on the principle of
(i) Hartley oscillator (ii) red-shift
(iii) organ pipe (iv) Kundt’s tube
5. By which of the following methods, can the presence of ultrasonic waves not be
detected?
(i) Kundt’s tube method (ii) Sensitive flame method
(iii) Thermal detector method (iv) Position sensitive method
6. Magnetostriction is a property of
(i) pyroelectric material (ii) piezoelectric materials
(iii) ferromagnetic materials (iv) ferroelectric material
7. High frequency magnetic field is applied to the crystal to produce ultrasound by
magnetostriction method using
(i) rotating bar magnet (ii) rotating electromagnet
(iii) atomic currents of the crystals (iv) inductively coupled circuits
8. Acoustic grating can be formed in
(i) solid medium (ii) liquid medium
(iii) vacuum (iv) plasma medium
9. Acoustic grating can diffract
(i) sound wave (ii) mechanical wave
(iii) light wave (iv) none of the above
10. What is the full form of sonar?
(i) sound out navigation audible ranging
(ii) sound navigation audible ranging
(iii) sound of navigation and ranging
(iv) sound navigation and ranging

Answers

1 (i) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 4 (iii) 5 (iv) 6 (iii) 7 (iv) 8 (ii)

9 (iii) 10 (iv)
 12 Non-Destructive Testing

12.1 Introduction
The field of non-destructive testing (NDT) is a very broad area. It plays a critical role
in assuring that structural components and systems perform their function in a reliable
and cost effective fashion. NDT is a part of the quality control process. Non-destructive
testing (NDT)/non-destructive inspection (NDI)/non-destructive evaluation (NDE) is a
wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to detect surface or internal
flaws of a material, component or system without causing damage. Since NDT does not
permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable method that can save
both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting and research. NDT is not
just a method for rejecting sub-standard materials; it is an assurance that the supposedly
good is really good. NDT is a commonly used tool in forensic engineering, mechanical
engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical
engineering, metallurgical engineering, electronic engineering, medicine, and art. In this
chapter, we shall discuss the basic principle involved in NDT and very briefly, the methods
of NDT.

12.2 Objectives of NDT

NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and cost-effectiveness. There
are NDE applications at almost any stage in the production or life cycle of a component.
i. To assist in product development.
ii. To screen or sort out incoming materials.
iii. To assist in product development.
iv. To monitor, improve or control manufacturing processes.
786 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

v. To verify proper processing such as heat treatment.

vi. To verify proper assembly.
vii. To inspect in-service damage.
NDE may be used to determine material properties such as fracture toughness, ductility,
conductivity, and other physical characteristics. NDT are used in
i. Flaw detection and evaluation.
ii. Leak detection.
iii. Location determination.
iv. Dimensional measurements.
v. Structure and microstructure characterization.
vi. Estimation of mechanical and physical properties.
vii. Stress/Strain and dynamic response measurements.
viii. Material sorting and chemical composition determination.

12.3 Methods of NDT

The NDT technique uses a variety of scientific principles. The list of NDT methods that can
be used to inspect components and make measurements is large and continues to grow.
Researchers continue to find new ways of applying principles of physics and other scientific
disciplines to develop better NDT methods. However, there are six NDT methods that are
used most often. These methods are
i. Visual inspection.
ii. Dye penetrant testing.
iii. Magnetic Particle Testing.
iv. Electromagnetic or eddy current testing.
v. Radiography.
vi. Ultrasonic testing.
However, these are by no means the total of the principles available to the NDT engineer.
Electrical potential drop, sonics, infra-red, acoustic emission, and spectrography, to name
but a few, have been used to provide information that the aformentioned techniques have
been unable to yield.

12.3.1 Visual and optical testing (VOT)

This is the most basic and common inspection method. Visual inspection involves using
an inspector’s eyes to look for defects. The inspector may also use special tools such as
magnifying glasses, mirrors, or borescopes to gain access and more closely inspect the
subject area. Portable video inspection units with zoom allow inspection of large tanks and
 Non-Destructive Testing 787

vessels, railroad tank cars, sewer lines. Robotic crawlers permit observation in hazardous
or tight areas, such as air ducts, nuclear reactors, pipelines. Visual examiners follow
procedures that range from simple to very complex.

12.3.2 Dye penetrant testing (DPT)

This method is frequently used for the detection of surface breaking flaws in non-
ferromagnetic materials. The object to be examined is first of all chemically cleaned so
that all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, and so on from the surfaces, and also from
within the cracks are removed. Next the penetrant (which is a very fine thin oil usually dyed
bright red or ultra-violet fluorescent) is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the
surface for approximately fifteen minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the
crack during this period. The surplus penetrant on the surface is then removed completely
and a thin coating of developer (a simple example of developer is chalk powder) is applied.
After a further period (development time), the developer acts as a blotter, drawing the
trapped penetrant out of imperfections open to the surface. With visible dyes, vivid
color contrasts between the penetrant and the developer making a “bleedout”. With
fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the bleedout fluoresce brightly, thus
allowing imperfections to be readily seen. The process is purely a mechanical and chemical
one.

Figure 12.1 (a) Penetrant applied to the surface enters the defect, (b) Excess penetrant removed
from the surface, (c) Developer powder applied to the surface to draw the penetrant
out, (d) The crack become prominent under ultraviolet light as the penetrant spreads out of
the crack
788 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Advantages
i. Simple in operation.
ii. It is the best method for surface breaking cracks in non-ferrous metals.
iii. It is quantitative.

Disadvantages
i. Restricted to surface breaking defects only
ii. Decreased sensitivity
iii. Uses a considerable amount of consumables.

12.3.3 Magnetic particle testing

This method is suitable for the detection of surface and near surface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic material. It is carried out by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic
material and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in
liquid). Surface and near-surface imperfections distort the magnetic field and concentrate
iron particles near imperfections, previewing a visual indication of the flaw.
Basic principles
Any place that magnetic lines of force exit or enter the magnet is called a pole. A pole where
a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a line of
force enters the magnet is called a south pole.
When a bar magnet is broken along its length into two pieces, two individual bar magnets
will result. If the magnet is just cracked but not broken completely into two, a north and
south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and
re-enters at the south pole. It spreads out when it encounters the small air gap created by
the crack because the air cannot support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the
magnet can. When the field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is
called a flux leakage field. If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles
will be attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet but also at the
poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual
crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.
There are many methods of generating magnetic flux in the test piece. The magnetic
field is applied along the surface at right angles to the suspected cracks. Where the flux
lines approach a discontinuity, they will stray out into the air at the mouth of the crack. The
crack edge becomes the magnetic north and south poles. The oxides of iron fillings in the
size range 20 to 30 microns suspended in a liquid are attracted towards the crack edges. In
some instances, they can be applied in a dry powder form. The particles can be coated with
a fluorescent dye which fluoresces brilliantly under ultraviolet illumination. The technique
not only detects those defects which are not normally visible to the unaided eye, but also
renders easily visible those defects which would otherwise require close scrutiny of the
 Non-Destructive Testing 789

Figure 12.2 An illustration of the principle of magnetic particle inspection

surface. Normally, to ensure that a test piece has no cracks, it is necessary to magnetize it
in at least two directions.
Advantages
i. Simplicity of operation and application
ii. It is quantitative
iii. It can be automated

Disadvantages
i. It is restricted to ferromagnetic materials
ii. It is also restricted to surface or near surface flaws

12.3.4 Electromagnetic or eddy current testing

A varying electric current flowing in a coil gives rise to a varying magnetic field. A nearby
conductor resists this magnetic field by producing a current in it. This current flows in
circles just below the surface of the material and hence is called eddy current. Eddy current
in the conductor produces a magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field produced by
the coil, resulting in a change of impedance of the coil. It is this impedance change that
is to be detected with a high degree of accuracy by the measuring equipment. Cracks and
other material conditions change the magnetic field of the eddy currents and hence give
 790 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

rise to a local minute change in the impedance. This change in the impedance is accurately
monitored.
Eddy current testing method can be successfully used to detect surface breaks and near
surface discontinuities such as (i) Cracks, (ii) Inclusions, (iii) Dents, (iv) Holes, (v) Scratches
and so on. Eddy current testing method can also be used to monitor surface conditions
such as surface coating, corrosion, and specimen temperature. This testing method
can also identify material properties such as (i) Alloy composition, (ii) Heat treatment,
(iii) Hardness, (iv) Grain size and (v) Magnetic permeability.
Eddy current testing depends on (i) Electrical conductivity of the material, (ii) Nature of
discontinuities in the material, (iii) Magnetic permeability of the material, (iv) Dimensions
and shape of the specimen, (v) Current frequency, (vi) Coil size, (vi) Number of turns in
the coil and (vii) Metal condition.
Advantages:
i. Instantaneous results.
ii. Sensitive to a range of physical properties.
iii. Firm contact between the coil and specimen not required.
iv. Equipment is small and self-contained.
v. Can detect very small discontinuities.
vi. Defects in tubes and other circular parts can be detected using special probes.

Disadvantages:
i. It can be used on electrical conductors only.
ii. Depth of penetration is restricted.
iii. Interpretation needs skill.
iv. Defects parallel to coil surface can be missed.
v. Ends of the parts cannot be tested.

12.3.5 Radiographic testing

In this method of non-destructive testing, the penetration property of X-rays and gamma
rays is exploited to detect the discontinuities in the materials. X-rays and gamma rays are
the shorter wavelength (less than 100 nm) part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The object
to be inspected is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. The energetic
X-rays or gamma rays pass through the object. X-rays and gamma rays are differentially
absorbed by different material. Also, greater the thickness, greater is the absorption.
Furthermore, denser the material, greater is the absorption. Thicker and denser areas will
stop more of the radiation and show on the film lighter than thinner or less dense areas.
Most weld defects will show on the film darker than the surrounding area. When materials
with internal voids are tested by this method, the voids appear as darkened areas on the
 Non-Destructive Testing 791

film, where more radiation has reached the film, on a lighted background. The principles
are the same for both X-ray and gamma-ray radiography.
Recent developments in radiography permit “real time” analysis. Such techniques as
computerized tomography yield much important information, though these methods
maybe suitable for only investigative purposes and not generally employed in production
quality control.
Advantages
i. Information is presented pictorially.
ii. Suitable for most materials.
iii. Gives a permanent record which may be viewed at a time and place distant from the test.
iv. Detects internal flaws.
v. Detects volumetric flaws readily.
vi. Can be used on most materials.
vii. Can check for correct assembly.
viii. Gives direct images.
ix. Real time image is possible.

Disadvantages
i. Radiation health hazards.
ii. Not suitable for surface defects.
iii. Has limited ability to detect fine cracks.
iv. Access is required to both sides of the object.
v. Limited thickness of the material can be penetrated.
vi. Skilled radiographic interpretation is required.
vii. Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary.
viii. Require high capital cost.
ix. Relatively slow process.
x. Require high running cost due to use of consumables.

12.3.6 Ultrasonic testing

Sound waves of frequency more than 20 kHz are called ultrasound and these sound waves
are not sensed by a normal human ear. Nevertheless, the ultrasound is used in many
different fields, typically to penetrate a medium and measure the reflection signature or
supply focused energy. The reflection signature can reveal details about the inner structure
of the medium. The most well-known application of ultrasound is screening of the uterus
during pregnancy to check the well-being of the baby. There are a vast number of other
applications as well.
792 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Ultrasonic testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct internal inspection
and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation,
dimensional measurements, material characterization, and more. Frequencies of
0.5 MHz to 25 MHz are used in this method so that the resulting wavelengths are in
mm (wavelength = speed/frequency). Inspection may be manual or automated and is an
essential part of modern manufacturing processes. Most metals, plastics and aerospace
composites can be inspected. Lower frequency ultrasound (50 kHz–500 kHz) can also be
used to inspect less dense materials such as wood, concrete and cement.
Basic principles of ultrasonic testing
Sound energy propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a
discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back
(from the flaw surfaces). The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal
by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. The principle is illustrated schematically in
Fig. 12.3.

Figure 12.3 Basic principles of ultrasonic testing

 Non-Destructive Testing 793

The principle is in some respects similar to echo sounding. A short pulse of ultrasound is
generated by a piezoelectric crystal, which vibrates for a very short period at an ultrasonic
frequency range. In flaw detection, this frequency is usually in the range of 1 MHz to
6 MHz. Vibrations or sound waves at this frequency have the ability to travel a considerable
distance in homogeneous elastic material, such as many metals with little attenuation. The
velocity at which these waves propagate is related to Young’s modulus and Poisson's ratio
for the material in the following way and is characteristic of that material. The pulse/echo
velocity, v, of a material is calculated by the formula

2
v= (12.1)
∆t

Here  = material thickness and Dt = time of round trip.

Example 12.1
An aluminium plate was tested for internal cracks by the ultrasonic method. The reflection
signature was received after 10–4 seconds. If speed of the ultrasound in the material is
6400 m/s, then what is the location of the crack from the surface?
Solution
Data given are v = 6400 m/s, Dt = 10 s
The position of the crack from the surface is calculated as

v∆t 6400 × 10−4

= = m = 32 cm
2 2

In solids, sound waves can propagate in different modes that are based on the way the particles
oscillate. Sound can propagate as longitudinal waves, shear waves, surface waves, and as plate
waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in
ultrasonic testing. Thus, the velocity measurement depends on the density, elastic modulus,
parallelism of the front and back surface of the specimen and specimen thickness.
Thin rod velocity

Y
vt = (12.2)
ρ

Longitudinal wave velocity

Y (1 − σ )
vL = (12.3)
ρ (1 + σ ) . (1 − 2σ )
794 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Transverse wave velocity

Y G
vT = = (12.4)
2 ρ (1 + σ ) ρ

where

Y = Young’s modulus of elasticity

G = shear modulus of elasticity
r = density

s = Poisson’s ratio

Example 12.2
Young’s modulus of brass is 9.1 × 1010 Nm–2. Calculate the speed of ultrasonic wave in a brass
wire if its density is 8500 kgm–3.
Solution
Data given are Y = 9.1 × 1010 Nm–2, r = 8500 kgm–3

Y 9.1 × 1010 Nm −2
The speed of ultrasonic wave is=v = = 3272.0 m/s
ρ 8500 kgm −3

Example 12.3
Young’s modulus, shear modulus and density of brass are 9.1 × 1010 Nm–2, 3.5 × 1010 Nm–2 and
8500 kgm–3 respectively. Calculate the speed of ultrasonic longitudinal wave and transverse
wave in it.
Solution
The data given are Y = 9.1 × 1010 Nm–2, h = 3.5 × 1010 Nm–2, and r = 8500 kgm–3
Poisson’s ratio s is obtained as

Y
σ= − 1= 0.3
2η

The longitudinal wave speed

Y (1 − σ ) 9.1 × 1010 × (1 − 0.3 )

vL = = m/s
ρ (1 + σ )(1 − 2σ ) 8500 × (1 + 0.3 ) × (1 − 0.6 )

= 3796.3 m/s
 Non-Destructive Testing 795

The transverse wave speed

Y 9.1 × 1010
vT = = = 2029.2 m/s
2 ρ (1 + σ ) 2 × 8500 (1 + 0.3 )

12.3.7 Pulse–echo system

The most common system used in ultrasonic thickness measurement and ultrasonic flaw
detection is the pulse–echo system. In the pulse–echo ultrasonic testing technique, an
ultrasound transducer generates an ultrasonic pulse and receives its “echo”. The ultrasonic
transducer functions as both a transmitter and a receiver in one unit. Most ultrasonic
transducer units use an electronic pulse to generate a corresponding sound pulse, using
the piezoelectric effect. Here the piezoelectric transducer is repeatedly excited for a short
duration to generate ultrasonic pulses. There is a delay of nano seconds between each pulse.

Figure 12.4 The pulse–echo system

Sound wave pulses travel through the material under test until they meet an interface
or boundary (Fig. 12.4), where they are reflected back. If the sound hits the interface at
right angles, then the reflected sound travels back to the transducer as an echo. Echoes
coming back to the transducer are re-converted into electrical signals and the time between
transmitting the pulse and receiving the echo is electronically measured.
The time between any two echoes Dt is the length of time required for the pulse to travel
through the specimen and back to the transducer. The speed of sound in the solid can be
796 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

derived from the observed round trip transit time, Dt, and the measured thickness of the
specimen,  because

1
=
 v ∆t
2 (12.5)

By calibrating the ultrasonic equipment for the speed of sound in the test material, the
equipment is able to display the time taken for the pulse–echo to travel through the material
as a distance.
Visual display units
The display of information can take several forms depending on the type of flaw
detector, but all units use a cathode ray tube as shown in Fig. 12.5.

Figure 12.5 Schematic diagram of a cathode ray tube

Electrons are emitted from a heated cathode and are attracted towards the highly positive
anode. The focus cylinder constricts the electron flow into a narrow beam, which passes
through the anode cylinder to eventually hit the fluorescent screen causing a bright green
display.
The brightness of the display is controlled by the grid that, which controls flow rate of
electrons. The horizontal and vertical movements of the electrons are controlled by the X
and Y plates respectively by applying potentials across the plates. Changing the potential
between the X plates, for example, causes the electron beam to traverse the screen. Figure
12.6 gives a general block diagram of an ultrasonic flaw detector.
The pulse generator sends a pulse to the probe and also triggers the time base generator.
The time base generator causes the electron beam to cross the screen at the same rate as
the ultrasonic pulse emitted from the probe crosses the steel block and back. The initial
pulse appears at point “a” on Fig. 12.6. The electrical signals from the receiver transducer
are amplified, and fed to the Y plates where they cause deflections in the electron beam.
 Non-Destructive Testing 797

Figure 12.6 Typical block diagram of an ultrasonic flaw detector

In Fig. 12.6, the signal from the flaw is represented at point “b” and the back wall echo is
represented at point “c” on the screen.
Calibration of flaw detectors
The horizontal and vertical scales on a flaw detector display are only quantitative when they
have been calibrated properly. The horizontal scale, more commonly known as the time
base, can be calibrated to give depth values for different materials and sound velocities. The
vertical or amplitude scale can be calibrated to give information on defect size. The method
normally employed to obtain quantitative information about a test piece is to compare the
screen signals with those from specially machined blocks.
For contact testing, the oscillating crystal is incorporated in a hand-held probe, which
is applied to the surface of the material to be tested. Ultrasonic energy is considerably
attenuated in air. Moreover, considerable amount of ultrasonic energy is reflected back
at the interface between the material and air. To facilitate the transfer of ultrasonic energy
efficiently across the small air gap between the probe and the test piece, the probe must be
coupled to the material surface by means of a liquid, like glycerine, oil or grease. These are
called “couplants”. Piezoelectric materials can be used as not only a generator of sound
waves but also a detector of returned pulses. The crystal is in a quiescent state to detect
returned pulses. The pulse takes a finite time to travel through the material to the interface
and to be reflected back to the probe. Therefore, it is possible not only to discover a defect
between the surface and the back wall, but also to measure its distance below the surface.
 798 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

It is important that the equipment is properly calibrated. The operator must be able to
distinguish peaks produced due to the intended boundaries of the object under test and
unintended discontinuities.
The height of the peak (echo) is roughly proportional to the area of the reflector. The
ultrasonic beam not only reflects at a material–air interface but also at any junction where
there is a velocity change, for example, steel/slag interface in a weld. Probing all faces of
a test piece, three-dimensional defects along with their depth and size can be determined.
Two-dimensional (planar) defects can also be found out. It is best that the incident beam
impinges on the defect at right angles to the plane as possible. In this manner, longitudinal
defects in tubes (inner or outer surface) are detected.
Interpretation of the indications on the screen requires a certain amount of skill.
Furthermore, improvements in computer software technology allow test data and results to
be displayed and out-putted in a wide variety of formats. Modern ultrasonic flaw detectors
are fully solid state, battery powered, and are robustly built to withstand on-site rough
conditions.
The velocity of sound in any material is characteristic of that material; some materials
can be identified by the determination of the velocity. This can be applied in S.G. cast
irons (spheroidal graphite cast iron constitutes a family of cast irons in which the graphite
is present in a nodular or spheroidal form.) to determine the percentage of graphite
nodularity.
The process can also be automated and is now in use in many foundries. Typical
equipment is the qualiron. It automatically clamps the casting between the transducer and
the anvil and provides a reading of the sound velocity. In a wide range of steels velocity is
constant. Hence, the time taken for the pulse to travel through the material is proportional
to its thickness. Therefore, with a properly calibrated instrument, it is possible to measure
thickness from one side with an accuracy in thousandths of an inch. This technique is
now in very common use. A development of the standard flaw detector is the digital wall
thickness gauge. A typical ultrasonic flaw detection is illustrated in Fig. 12.7(a) and (b).
Applications
i. Detection of internal flaws in metal parts and alloys
ii. Bonds produced by welding, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding can also be
ultrasonically inspected
iii. For quality control and material inspection in all industries
iv. For measuring thickness of metal sections
v. Special ultrasonic techniques and equipments have been used for determination of
rate of growth of fatigue cracks, measurement of elastic moduli, nodularity in cast
iron

Advantages
i. Its superior penetrating power as compared to other non-destructive (NDT) methods
allows the detection of flaws several feet deep in the part.
 Non-Destructive Testing 799

Figure 12.7 (a) Schematic diagram of an ultrasonic detection slag in steel section using a normal
probe. (b) Schematic diagram of the use of an angle probe to detect defects not directly
under the probe as in weld inspection

ii. It is sensitive to both surface and sub-surface discontinuities. It is more accurate than
other NDT methods in determining the position of internal flaws, estimating their
size and characterizing their orientation, shape and nature.
iii. Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse–echo technique is used.
iv. Operation is electronic which provides instantaneous indication of flaws. This makes
the method suitable for immediate interpretation, automation, rapid scanning and
online production monitoring and process control. With most systems, a permanent
record of inspection results can be made for future reference.
v. Minimal part preparation is required.
vi. It is not hazardous to operations or to nearby personnel, and has no effect on
equipment and materials in the vicinity.
vii. Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
viii. It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw detection.
 800 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Disadvantages
i. Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians
ii. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin or not homogeneous are
difficult to inspect.
iii. Discontinuities that are present in a shallow layer just below the surface may not be
detectable.
iv. Couplants are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between
transducers and parts being inspected.
v. Reference standards are needed, both for calibrating the equipment and for
characterizing the flaws.
vi. Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
vii. Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
viii. Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low sound
transmission and high signal noise.
ix. Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
In the following, we show the relative merits of various NDT methods in tabular form.

12.4 Relative Merits of Various NDT Methods

Test method U.T. R.T. E.T. M.T. P.T.
Capital cost Medium to high High Low to medium Medium Low
Consumable cost Very low High Low Medium Medium

Time of results Immediate Delayed Immediate Short delay Short delay

Effect of geometry Important Important Important Not too Not too
important important
Access problems Important Important Important Important Important
Type of defect Internal Most External External near Surface
breaking
Relative sensitivity High Medium High Low Low
Operator skill High High Medium Low Low
Operator training Important Important Important Important Not important

Training needs High High Medium Low Low

Portability of High Low High to High to High
equipment medium medium
Capabilities Thickness gauging, Thickness Thickness Defects only Defects only
composition testing gauging gauging, grade
sorting
 Non-Destructive Testing 801

R.T.: X- or Gamma radiography; M.T.: Magnetic particle inspection; P.T.: Dye penetrant;
U.T.: Ultrasonic; E.T.: Eddy current.
In the following, we show the various NDT methods and their applications in tabular form.

12.5 Non-Destructive Testing Methods and Applications

Material Flaw type
Surface Sub- Internal Flaws Lack of Non- Material Lamina-
Cracks Surface & Discont- Bond or Metallic Quality tions,
& Flaws Cracks & inuities Lack of Inclusions Thickness
Flaws Fusion – Slag, Measur-
Porosity ement

Ferrous M.T. M.T. & R.T. & U.T. R.T. & U.T. U.T.
Forgings U.T.
& Stampings
Ferrous raw M.T. M.T. & U.T. M.T. & U.T. U.T.
Materials & U.T.
Rolled
Products
Ferrous M.T. & M.T. & U.T. U.T. M.T. & U.T. U.T.
Tube E.T. U.T.
& Pipe
Ferrous M.T. & U.T. R.T. & U.T. R.T. & R.T. & U.T. U.T.
Welds U.T. U.T.
Steel M.T. M.T. & R.T. & U.T. R.T. & U.T. U.T.
Castings U.T.
Iron M.T. U.T. & U.T. R.T. & U.T. U.T. U.T.
Castings E.T.
Non-Ferrous P.T. & R.T. & U.T. U.T. P.T. & U.T. U.T.
Components E.T.
& Materials
Ferrous M.T. U.T. & R.T. & U.T. U.T. M.T. & U.T. U.T.
Components E.T.
Finished
Non-Ferrous P.T. & U.T. & R.T.& U.T. U.T. & E.T. U.T.
Components E.T. E.T.
Finished
Aircraft R.T. & M.T. & R.T. & U.T. U.T. M.T. & U.T. U.T.
Ferrous M.T. U.T.
Components
Aircraft R.T., R.T. & R.T. & U.T. U.T. P.T. & U.T. U.T.
Non- P.T. U.T.
Ferrous & E.T.
Components
802 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Questions

12.1 What are the objectives and methods of NDT?

12.2 Describe the dye penetrant testing used in detection of cracks in metals.
12.3 Describe magnetic particle testing along with its basic principle. Mention some of its
advantages and disadvantages.
12.4 Describe electromagnetic or eddy current testing. Mention some of its advantages
and disadvantages.
12.5 What is radiography testing? Mention some of its advantages and disadvantages.
12.6 Explain how ultrasound is used in flaw detection. Mention some of its advantages and
disadvantages.
12.7 Describe the ultrasound pulse–echo system used in flaw detection in materials.
12.8 Mention various NDT methods and their relative merits.
12.9 A manufacture unit has supplied non-ferrous components of aircraft. What are
different methods to ensure their quality?
12.10 A manufacture unit has supplied ferrous components of aircraft. What are different
methods to ensure their quality?
12.11 What are the methods to check the quality of concrete slabs?
12.12 Mention different methods to ensure the quality of steel and iron castings.

Problems

12.1 A brass ingot was tested for internal cracks by ultrasonic method. The reflection
signature was received after 10–4 seconds. If speed of ultrasound in the material is
4490 m/s, then what is the location of the crack from the surface?
[Ans 22.45 cm]
12.2 Young’s modulus of aluminium is 7.0 × 1010 Nm–2. Calculate the speed of ultrasonic
wave in a brass wire if its density is 2700 kgm–3. [Ans 5091.8 m/s]
12.3 The Young’s modulus, shear modulus and density of aluminium are
7.0 × 1010 Nm–2, 2.5 × 1010 Nm–2 , and 2700 kgm–3 respectively. Calculate the speed of
ultrasonic longitudinal wave and transverse wave in it.
[Ans 7453.6 m/s, 3242.9 m/s]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following is not an NDT method?

(i) Visual inspection (ii) Radiography
(iii) Filtration (iv) Penetrant testing
 Non-Destructive Testing 803

2. Which of the following are not used in visual and optical testings methods?
(i) Lens (ii) mirrors
(iii) electromagnetic field (iv) magnetic field
3. Which of the following NDT methods is used frequently for the detection of surface
breaking flaws in non-ferromagnetic materials?
(i) Dye penetrant testing (ii) Magnetic particle testing
(iii) Eddy current testing (iv) Radiography
4. Which of the following NDT methods is used frequently for the detection of surface
breaking flaws in ferromagnetic materials?
(i) Dye penetrant testing
(ii) Magnetic particle testing
(iii) Eddy current testing,
(iv) Radiography
5. Eddy current testing method to detect flaws in materials cannot be applied to
(i) Ferromagnetic materials (ii) diamagnetic materials
(iii) paramagnetic materials (iv) insulating materials
6. In which of the following method to detect flaws in materials, X-rays or gamma rays is
used
(i) Magnetic particle testing (ii) Eddy current testing
(iii) Radiography (iv) Ultrasonic testing
7. Which of the following NDT methods can be used to detect internal flaws in a material?
(i) Visual inspection (ii) Penetrant testing
(iii) Magnetic particle testing (iv) Radiography
8. In which of the following NDT methods, highly energetic sound energy is used to
detect internal flaws in a material?
(i) Ultrasonics (ii) Eddy current testing
(iii) Magnetic particle testing (iv) Radiography
9. Sound energy cannot propagate as
(i) Transverse waves (ii) longitudinal waves
(iii) shear waves (iv) surface waves
10. By which of the following NDT methods, nodularity in cast iron can be determined?
(i) Magnetic particle testing
(ii) Electromagnetic or eddy current testing
(iii) Radiography
(iv) Ultrasonic testing
804 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Answers

1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (i) 4 (ii) 5 (iv) 6 (iii) 7 (iv) 8 (i)

9 (i) 10 (iv)
 13 Nuclear Accelerators

13.1 Introduction
Any device that produces a beam of fast-moving, electrically charged atomic or sub-atomic
particles having high energy is called a particle accelerator or nuclear accelerator or particle
collider. The effectiveness of an accelerator is usually characterized by the kinetic energy,
rather than the speed, of the particles. Compared with the quantities of energy encountered
in everyday experience, even the teraelectron volt (1012 eV) is a very small amount, about
that of a mosquito in flight. The masses of the particles accelerated are so small, that kinetic
energies in this range correspond to very high speeds. The particles that are accelerated
most often are electrons or protons (ionized hydrogen), and their antiparticles, or heavier
ionized atoms like a-particles. Physicists use accelerators in fundamental research on the
structure of nuclei, the nature of nuclear forces and the properties of nuclei not found
in nature, such as the transuranic (heavier than uranium) elements and other unstable
elements. This is the motivation for most of the development of the various types of
particle accelerators. Accelerators are also used for radioisotope production, industrial
radiography, cancer therapy, sterilization of biological materials, polymerization of plastics
and a certain form of radiocarbon dating. The largest accelerators are used in research on
the fundamental interactions of the elementary sub-atomic particles. Last year (2015), we
saw the role of the large hadron collider in decoding nature's mystery of creation. Twenty
-first century accelerators are still direct descendants of the first accelerators conceived in
the twentieth century.

13.2 Need of Nuclear Accelerators

In particle accelerators, electric and magnetic fields are used to guide and accelerate a beam
of charged particles to high speed in order to gain high energy. Many new discoveries were
806 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

possible from the α=particle bombardment experiment of Ernest Rutherford performed in

1911. At that time, it was only possible to obtain the low speed a-particles naturally from
radium. The distance of the closest approach d of a-particles to the target nucleus is given
by

Ze 2 1 ze 2
=δ = (13.1)
πε 0 mv 2 πε 0 Ek
2

1 2
where Ek = mv
2

and 2e are kinetic energy and charge of the a -particle, Ze is the charge of the target
nucleus. Nuclei can be disintegrated only when δ → 0 . Therefore, only light elements were
possible to be disintegrated by the low energy a-particles obtained from natural radium.
To disintegrate heavier elements in order to research into the properties of atomic nuclei,
sub-atomic particles and elementary particles, high energy incident particles under
complete human control are required. The projectiles obtained from radioactive sources
cannot be fully utilized in nuclear research as they have low energy, low flux beyond human
control. Also the desired type of projectiles cannot be obtained from natural sources.
Because of all these constraints in using projectiles obtained from radioactive sources or
cosmic rays, there was a frantic search for projectile sources under full human control.
The search ended, at the construction of different types of particle accelerators or nuclear
accelerators.

13.3 Basic Mechanism of a Nuclear Accelerator

Charged particles attain high energy when they are accelerated through strong magnetic
fields or high potential differences. The basic mechanism of acceleration of charged
particles involves two basic principles of the electric and magnetic field.
1. A charged particle of charge q when placed in an electric field gets accelerated by an
electric force Eq. If V is the potential difference through which the charged particle is
accelerated, the kinetic energy (1/2 mv2) gained by the charged particle will be given
by the expression

1 2
mv = qV (13.2)
2

Equation (13.2) shows that to get high energy, the potential difference through which
the charged particle gets accelerated should be of very high value.
 Nuclear Accelerators 807


2. A charged particle
 of charge q when projected into a magnetic
  field of induction B
withvelocity v gets accelerated by a magnetic force q(v × B). If the angle between v
and B is 90°, the trajectory of the charged particle will be circular of with radius R. The
kinetic energy (1/2 mv2) gained by the charged particle will be given by the expression

1 2 1 2 2 2
mv = qBR (13.3)
2 2m

Equation (13.3) shows that to get high energy, the magnetic induction as well as the circular
path along which the charged particle gets accelerated should be of very high value. By
increasing the magnitude of magnetic induction and radius of the circular path, we can
increase the kinetic energy of the charged particle.

13.4 Main Components

Every accelerator has three essential parts: (i) source of the ions to be accelerated, (ii)
accelerating tube to accelerate the ions, and (iii) source of the electric fields and magnetic
fields needed to cause the acceleration.

13.4.1 Ion sources

The characteristics of ion sources are

i. It should be a large well-focused ion source.
ii. It should be compact, rugged, dependable and have a long life.
iii. It should be designed in such a manner that it can be controlled by external
manipulations.
iv. The energy of all the ions emitted should have approximately the same energy.
v. The efficiency of the ion source should be high so as to simplify the problem of
maintaining a vacuum and to reduce gas consumption.
To obtain different types of ions/projectiles, there are various types of ion sources such
as cold cathode canal ray tube, spark discharge sources, hot cathode arc, capillary arc,
magnetic ion source and so on.

13.4.2 Accelerating tube

High D.C. tension is not applied directly to the ion source as it will damage the ion source
itself. It is applied in several small steps as shown in the Fig. 13.1. Accelerating electrodes
are in the form of metallic cylinders Cs and are placed inside an evacuated glass tube. The
ion beam travels along the axis of these cylinders and is suitably deflected by a magnetic
field. It heats the target to produce transmutation.
808 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 13.1 Schematic diagram of an accelerating tube. The Cs are the deflecting metallic cylinders

The region in which the ions are accelerated must be highly evacuated to keep the particles
from being scattered out of the beam, or even stopped, by collisions with molecules of air.

13.5 Performance Index

The following factors determine the performance index of a nuclear accelerator.
i. The type of accelerated ions.
ii. Operation of the accelerator (pulsed or continuous)
iii. Intensity of the output beam.
iv. Maximum energy attainable.
v. Stability of energy.
vi. Homogeneity/sharpness of energy beam.
vii. Collimation of the energy beam.

13.6 Types of Accelerators

Nuclear accelerators can be broadly classified into two categories: D.C accelerators and R.F
accelerators. The Cockcroft–Walton accelerators and the Van de Graaff accelerators are
belong to D.C (direct current) accelerators. Cyclotrons, betatrons and linear accelerators
are R.F (radio frequency) accelerators. Depending upon the path followed by the ions,
accelerators are of two types: linear accelerators (ions follow a linear path) and cyclic
accelerators (ions follow a circular or spiral path).

13.7 D.C. Accelerators

D.C. accelerators/electrostatics accelerators are those accelerators in which a high D.C
voltage V is built up between two terminals and the charge particles are accelerated in their
passage across the space. If a charged particle of charge Ze is released at one of the terminals,
it will reach the other terminal with a kinetic energy ZeV. There are few D.C. accelerators
 Nuclear Accelerators 809

produce potential difference in the order of 106 volts. Two of them – the Cockcroft–Walton
accelerator and the Van de Graaff accelerator have been in use for many years as particle
accelerators.

13.7.1 Cockcroft–Walton accelerator (D.C. accelerator)

The operation of the first successful accelerator which artificially accelerated ions was
demonstrated at Cambridge University, England, by John Douglas Cockcroft and E.T.S.
Walton in 1932. Using a voltage multiplier, they accelerated protons to energies as high as
710 keV and showed that these react with the lithium nucleus, the products being two energetic
α-particles. The device was named in their honour as the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator.
The Cockcroft–Walton accelerator is based on the voltage multiplier principle. A number
of capacitors of equal capacitance and same number of rectifiers are arranged as shown in
the Fig. 13.2.

Figure 13.2 The arrangement is the voltage multiplier circuit. C1, C2, C3, … and so on are the
capacitors each having capacitance C. R1, R2, R3, … and so on are the rectifiers
810 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Working of the voltage multiplier circuit

We assume that there is no current loss at any point in the circuit. A radio frequency
transformer with output peak voltage V0 ranging from 25 kV to 100 kV is connected to
the voltage multiplier circuit as shown in the Fig. 13.2. The point B is earthed so that its
potential will always be zero. The potential of the point A oscillates with peak voltage +V0
and –V0. Suppose in the first half cycle A is negative, then B will be positive (with respect
to A). At this instant, rectifier R1 conducts and capacitor C1 is charged to a potential of V0.
In the second half cycle, R1 does not conduct and the point C having potential V0 becomes
isolated. In the third half cycle R1 conducts and the point C attains potential 2V0. Also,
during this cycle, the point C is positive with respect to B and hence, R2 conducts. Hence,
the charge accumulated in the capacitor C1 is shared with capacitor C2 increasing its
potential to V0. Again during the fourth half cycle, the potential of capacitor C2 increases.
After a few cycles, an equilibrium is reached in which there is no current in either R1 or R2
and the potentials of the capacitors C1 and C2 attain a steady state value of 2V0.
Now the potential of D is 2V0 with respect to B. Same logic is also applicable to the circuit
CDEF. After a few cycles, the potential difference between the points F and D will be 2V0. Hence,
the potential difference between the points F and B will be 4V0. Again after a few more cycles,
the potential difference between the points H and F will be 2V0 and the potential difference
between the points H and B will be 6V0. Thus, by using such arrangements of say, two capacitors
and two rectifiers, the voltage V0 can be multiplied to any value V. Each circuit BCD, DCEF,
FEGH, and so on are known as voltage doublers as they double the voltage. The total circuit is
known as the voltage multiplier circuit or cascade rectifier.
If a voltage multiplier circuit with load current I has N number of voltage doublers the
output voltage V is given as

I
V = 2NV0 −
12ν C
( )
8N 3 + 9N 2 + N ! (13.4)

or V = 2NV0 if the values of frequency v and capacitance C are high.

The ripple voltage is given by

IN (N + 1)
±∆V = (13.5)
4ν C

Hence, the output voltage of the voltage multiplier circuit is large if the capacitance of each
capacitor and the frequency is large. Large values of capacitance and frequency decrease
the ripple voltage. However, large values of capacitance of each capacitor increase the size
of the accelerator. To avoid this difficulty, a radio frequency transformer has been used.
Starting with V0 = 100 kV, Cockcroft and Walton obtained an output voltage of 400 kV in
their first attempt.
Working of Cockcroft–Walton accelerator
The high voltage between the terminals of the voltage multiplier circuit is applied to the
charged particles which are to be accelerated through an evacuated accelerating tube. One
 Nuclear Accelerators 811

end of the accelerating tube contains the ion source and the target is attached to the other
end. In the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator, energy of 4 MeV has been realized in practice.
Now-a-days, the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator is used as a pre-accelerator, giving enough
energy to ions so that they can be injected into a larger accelerator.
Advantages
The advantages of the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator are the following.
i. Simple in design and construction.
ii. It provides large ion current at constant voltage.
iii. It can be used to accelerate both positive and negative charges or ions to moderate energy.
iv. Since there is no moving part in this accelerator, there is no wear and tear.

Disadvantages
i. The maximum attainable voltage is limited by insulation problems.
ii. The sensitivity and control over voltage is low.
iii. The charged particles can be accelerated only to moderate energies.

13.7.2 Van de Graaff accelerator (D.C. accelerator)

Robert Jemison Van de Graaff an American physicist, in the year 1931, designed a direct
current accelerator which can develop a potential difference of several million volt and
when used with positive ion tubes can impart energies of several MeV to the ions. This
device, called the Van de Graaff accelerator, has found widespread use not only in atomic
research but also in medicine and industry.
Principle
If a charged conductor is placed inside a hollow conductor and connected internally with
the hollow conductor, all the charge of the conductor is transferred to the hollow conductor
no matter how high the potential of the hollow conductor may be. The potential of the
hollow conductor can be raised to any desired value by adding charges to the internal
conductor successively.
In Fig. 13.3 a small sphere of radius r is charged by a positive charge q and kept inside
a large hollow sphere of radius R containing positive charge Q. The outer large sphere is
inside the potential field of the small sphere. Hence the total potential of the outer sphere
VR will be given as

kq kQ
V=
R +
R R

where kq/R is the potential on the surface of the large sphere due to the small sphere and
kQ/R is the potential on the surface of the large sphere due to its own charge Q. Again the
812 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 13.3 A small charged sphere of radius r is kept inside a large hollow sphere of radius R. When the
small sphere is connected internally to the outer sphere, all its charge is transferred to
the outer sphere

small sphere is inside the potential field of the large sphere. Hence, the total potential of the
small sphere Vr will be given as

kq kQ
V=
r +
r R

where kq/r is the potential on the surface of the small sphere due to its own charge and
kQ/R is the potential on the surface of the small sphere due the large sphere containing charge
Q. Therefore the potential difference Vr – VR between the two spheres will be given as

kq kQ kq kQ 1 1 
Vr − VR = + − − = kq  −  (13.6)
r R R R r R

1 1
Since q is positive and > , we conclude
r R
Vr − VR > 0
 Nuclear Accelerators 813

or Vr > VR

Thus, the inner small sphere is at higher potential than that of the outer sphere. The positive
charges always flow from higher potential to lower potential.Hence, when the small sphere
at higher potential is connected internally to the outer sphere at lower potential, all the
charge of the small sphere will be transferred to the outer sphere regardless of the charge Q
that may already be present in the outer sphere.
Construction
The schematic diagram of the Van de Graaff accelerator is shown in Fig. 13.4. It essentially
consists of a continuous belt made up of some insulating material such as rubber, silk,
linen, or other flexible non-conducting materials that is run by means of a motor at high
speed over two pulleys P1 and P2. This charge-carrying belt should have high mechanical
strength, high resistivity, high dielectric strength and high fire resistance. The pulley P1 is
at ground potential and pulley P2 is mounted inside a hollow metal sphere of large radius.
This hollow metal sphere called the high voltage terminal is insulated from the rest of the
apparatuses. To spray the electric charge on the moving belt near the lower pulley P1, a
small transformer–rectifier set capable of developing a potential difference of 10 to 100 kV
is kept near it. A metallic comb, called a spray comb is attached to the positive terminal of
the transformer–rectifier set as shown in Fig. 13.4. To the inner surface of the hollow metal
sphere is attached another metallic comb, called the collection comb to collect the electric
charges near the upper pulley.
The acceleration tube is placed parallel to the charge-carrying belt so that one end of
the tube is inside the high voltage terminal. The accelerating tube is an evacuated tube
of insulating material, commonly porcelain or glass cylinders several inches long and of
large diameters with vacuum tight seals to metal plate electrodes between sections. These
electrodes are connected to corresponding equipotential rings in the column to maintain
a uniform distribution of potential along the tube. The entire set up, except the target end
of the acceleration tube, the transformer–rectifier set and high vacuum pump, is enclosed
by a high pressure tank as shown in the Fig. 13.4. The high pressure tank contains dried up
CCl2F2–air or SF6–air mixtures under high pressure. Their role is to increase the voltage of
the high voltage terminal to a very high value without corona discharge.
Working
The belt near the spray comb moves upward with the help of the electric motor attached to
the pulleys. Since the spray comb is attached to the positive terminal of the high D.C. voltage,
a high electric field is produced at the corona points, i.e., tips of the spray comb as a result of
which the nearby air is ionized. Since the spray comb is positively charged by the high D.C.
voltage, the positive ions produced there by ionization are repelled towards the upward
moving belt. These positive ions attach themselves to the surface of the moving belt and are
814 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 13.4 Schematic diagram of a Van de Graaff accelerator showing the different parts. P1 and P2 are
two pulleys, A1 and A1 are the spray comb and collection comb respectively, B is the
insulating belt

carried upward mechanically by the belt. They are removed from the belt by the collection
comb and are passed to the inner surface of the high voltage terminal as a result of which
its potential increases. This process goes on continuously and so the potential of the high
voltage terminal goes on increasing continuously to a certain maximum value called the
equilibrium value. Beyond the equilibrium value, the excess charge on the high voltage
terminal will be lost to the surrounding by corona discharge and leakage of supports. Thus,
the potential of the high voltage terminal can be increased to a certain maximum value by
this method and this high potential is applied to the acceleration tube by the induction
method.
If Q is the charge on this surface at any instant of time, its potential with respect to the
ground is simply given by
Q
V= (13.7)
C
dV
where C is the capacitance of the system. The rate of increase of potential is given by
dt
 Nuclear Accelerators 815

dV 1 dQ i
= = (13.8)
dt C dt C

The end of the acceleration tube which is inside the hollow metal sphere is automatically
subjected to the potential

 9 × 109 Q 
= V
 R 

due to the charged hollow metal sphere and the other end is at very low potential. Hence,
the potential difference between the two ends of the acceleration tube is

9 × 109 Q
V.
R

The ion source is placed at the end which is inside the hollow metal sphere and the target
is placed at the other end. The ion emitted by the ion source is subjected to a potential
difference of

9 × 109 Q
V
R

and is accelerated downwards with increasing energy to hit the target. It is used in X-ray
generation and as a pre-accelerator, giving enough energy to ions so that they can be
injected into a larger accelerator. Commercial Van de Graaff accelerators are available
now-a-days, to provide a voltage up to 10million volts and proton beam currents of the
order of 6 to 8 mA .
Advantages
i. The potential difference attained is much more than the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator.
ii. The potential difference and hence, ion energy is completely controllable.
iii. The homogeneity of the beam is very high. At energies below 3 MeV it is possible to
obtain a resolution better than 400 eV.
iv. Both positive and negative charges or ions can be accelerated.
v. The sensitivity and control over the voltage is very high.

Disadvantages
i. The maximum particle energies that can be realized by this device are relatively small
in comparison with most other types of accelerators.
ii. The charge-carrying belt gets damaged frequently and maintenance is cumbersome.
iii. The wear and tear of the charge-carrying belt continuously produces dust which is to
be cleaned quickly.
816 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

13.7.3 Tandem accelerator (D.C. accelerator)

A modified version of the Van de Graaff accelerator is the tandem accelerator. In a tandem
accelerator without increasing the operating voltage, the energy of an ion can be increased
two folds indigenously. The tandem accelerator is also called the tandem Van de Graaff
accelerator.
Principle

Figure 13.5 Schematic diagram of a Van de Graaff tandem accelerator

In Fig. 13.5, the metallic hollow sphere of the Van de Graaff accelerator is supposed to
be positively charged. The singly ionized negative ion from the tandem ion source will
move under Coulomb attraction towards the metallic hollow sphere of the Van de Graaff
accelerator. If some how, at the later part of the hollow metallic sphere, two electrons are
stripped off from the singly ionized negative ion, it becomes a positive ion and will move
in the forward direction due to inertia of motion and will simultaneously be repelled in
the direction of motion by the Coulomb force. Thus, at two-stages, the ion gets accelerated
almost by equal amounts, doubling its energy finally. The first instrument of this type
called the two-stage tandem accelerator was built in U.S.A. and was put into operation at
the Chalk River Laboratory, Canada in 1959.
Construction
The constructional details of a two-stage tandem accelerator are shown schematically in
Fig. 13.6.
The main components of a two-stage tandem accelerator are the ion source, electron
adding canal, analyzing magnet, stripping canal, Van de Graaff accelerator, switching
magnet, and the target. The arrangements of the components are depicted in Fig. 13.6.
In a Van de Graaff accelerator, the ion source is placed inside the high voltage terminal
at one end of the acceleration tube. However, in a tandem accelerator, the two ends of the
acceleration tube are at the ground potential with one end containing the target and the
other end containing the positive ion source.
 Nuclear Accelerators 817

Figure 13.6 Schematic diagram of a 12 MeV tandem accelerator. The positive ions become negative
ions after passing through an electron-adding canal and are accelerated towards the
positive high voltage terminal, where they again become positive ions by passing
through the stripping canal. These positive ions are repelled by the high voltage
terminal towards the target

Working
Positive ions are produced in the ion source and are accelerated to about 50 keV. In passing
through the electron-adding canal containing gas at low pressure, approximately 1% of the
positive ions are converted into negative ions by picking up two electrons. The negative ion
beam is separated from the unwanted neutral and positive ions by means of an analyzing
magnet. The negative ions are attracted towards the high voltage terminal and gain energy
of V eV, where V is the voltage of the high voltage terminal. Inside the high voltage terminal,
the negative ions are passed through a stripper canal consisting of a thin carbon foil or
a gas at low pressure. The energy of the negative ions is already much higher than that
required to remove the most tightly bound electrons in a negative ion. Therefore, all the
ions emerging from the stripper will have lost all the electrons to the carbon foil and have
become positive ions. These positive ions will gain again V eV energy from the potential of
the high voltage terminal to the ground potential.
The working of the tandem accelerator shows that second stage is extremely
powerful when heavy ions are to be accelerated. Take for example, oxygen atom
(Z = 8) and let the potential of the high voltage terminal be V = 5 × 106V. In the first
stage, the oxygen atoms are singly charged (q = 1.6 × 10–19 C) and will gain energy of
(W = qV J) 5 MeV. However, in the second stage, all the eight electrons are removed
from the oxygen atom rendering it an oxygen nucleus having a positive charge of
8 × 1.6 × 10–19 C which will gain energy of 40 MeV. Thus, the total energy gain is 45 MeV!
Tandem accelerators are now the standard tool for investigating of proton scattering in
the region of 6 to 20 MeV. A wide variety of positive ions can be accelerated to energies that
depend upon the electric charges involved.
 818 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Advantages
i. The energy of the ion is doubled with the same potential of the high voltage terminal
ii. The manipulation of ion source and target becomes easier as they are at the ground
potential.
iii. A wide variety of heavy positive ions can be accelerated to energies that depend on the
electric charges involved.

Disadvantages
i. The intensity of the beam is very low
ii. The maximum particle energies that can be realized by this device are relatively small
in comparison with most other types of accelerators.

13.8 R.F. Accelerators

R.F. accelerators are those accelerators in which a high R.F. voltage V0 sin wt is built up
between terminals and charge particles are accelerated in steps in their passage across the
spaces. In a few R.F. accelerators, a magnetic field is also used to accelerate charged particles.
Instead of using high potential as in electrostatic accelerators, moderate potential is used
repeatedly to add energy to the ions in R.F. accelerators. Linear accelerators, cyclotrons,
betatrons are a few R.F. accelerators that have been in use as particle accelerators for many
years. Cyclotrons and betatrons are low energy cyclic accelerators.

13.8.1 Linear accelerators

In a linear accelerator, the energy of an ion is increased steadily or in steps as it travels in

a straight line. The small accelerations the ions get in each step add up together to give the
particles more energy than could be achieved by the voltage used in one section alone. In
1924, Gustaf Ising, a Swedish physicist, proposed accelerating particles using alternating
electric fields, with “drift tubes” positioned at appropriate intervals to shield the particles
during the half-cycle when the field is in the wrong direction for acceleration. Four years
later, the Norwegian engineer Rolf Wideröe built the first machine of this kind, successfully
accelerating potassium ions to an energy of 50 keV. Linear accelerators are also called linacs
and are of two types one is a drift tube linear accelerator, which we shall discuss, and the
other is a wave guide linear accelerator, which is beyond the scope of the book.
Construction of a drift tube linear accelerator
The drift tube linear accelerator consists of a number of cylindrical electrodes of increasing
length arranged in a straight line as shown in Fig. 13.7. These cylindrical electrodes are
called drift tubes. The gap or separation between any two consecutive drift tube is the same.
Alternate drift tubes, i.e., drift tubes numbered 1, 3, 5, 7, … are joined to one terminal and
 Nuclear Accelerators 819

drift tubes numbered 2, 4, 6, 8, … are joined to the other terminal of the radio frequency (r.f)
power supply. Hence, at any instant, alternate electrodes carry opposite potentials. All the
electrodes which are at a positive potential in a particular half cycle become negative in the
next half cycle.

Figure 13.7 Schematic diagram of a drift tube linear accelerator

Principle of the drift tube linear accelerator

The drift tubes are connected alternately as described earlier to an alternating voltage
source as a result of which the electric field inside the drift tube is zero and thus, the electric
force acting on the moving ion is zero. Hence, the ions are not accelerated when they are
moving inside the drift tube. When the ions move in the gap between two consecutive drift
tubes, they are accelerated since the successive tubes are of opposite polarity.
Working of a drift tube linear accelerator
Suppose positive ions from the ion source move from left to right along the common axis of
the drift tubes. While passing through the first electrode, the ions receive no acceleration,
since the moving ions are within the uniform potential of the first electrode. If at this
instant, the first drift tube is positive, the second drift tube must be at negative potential, the
positive ions will be accelerated in the gap between these two drift tubes. The positive ions
then enter the second drift tube and travel through it at a constant but higher speed than in
the first drift tube. The length of the second drift tube is such that just as the ions reach the
gap between it and the third drift tube, the potential of these drift tubes are reversed. Now
the second drift tube becomes positive and the third drift tube negative, thus the positive
ions are again accelerated in this gap. Therefore, at each gap of the accelerator, the positive
ions get accelerated.
Theory behind the drift tube linear accelerator
Let
Ln = length of the nth drift tube plus a gap
= separation between the (n – 1)th and nth gap.
vn = speed of the ion in the nth drift tube.
820 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

The speed vn of the ion inside a drift tube does not change because the potential is uniform
inside the drift tube, i.e., the electric field intensity inside the drift tube is zero.
The length/distance Ln is travelled by the positive ions during the time duration of one
T
half cycle of the applied frequency v. Therefore, we have
2

T vn
Ln = vn × = (13.9)
2 2ν

or vn = 2Lnν (13.10)

Now if V0 is the peak value of the potential difference between any two consecutive drift
tubes, then the kinetic energy gained by the ion of charge q in passing any gap will be qV0.
Thus, the total kinetic energy possessed by the ion after passing the 1st gap will be qV0, after
passing the 2nd gap will be 2qV0, after passing the 3rd gap will be 3qV0 and so on. Therefore,
the total kinetic energy possessed by the ion after passing the nth gap will be nqV0. If vn is
1
the speed of the ion in the nth drift tube, its kinetic energy in the nth gap will be mvn2 .
Thus, we have 2

1 2
mvn = nqV0
2

2nqV0
or vn = (13.11)
m

Equation (13.11) shows that for a particular experimental set up,

vn ∝ n , n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … (13.12)

i.e., v1 : =
v2 : v3 : … 1: 2 : 3 : …

Putting Eq. (13.11) into Eq. (13.9), we get

1 2nqV0
Ln = (13.13)
2ν m

Eq. (13.13) indicates that for a particular experimental set up,

Ln = n , n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … (13.14)
 Nuclear Accelerators 821

i.e., L1 : L2 : L3 : ..... = 1: 2 : 3 : ..... (13.15)

Combining Eqs (13.11) and (13.13), we have

vn
= 2ν (13.16)
Ln

Energy of the ion

If there are n number of drift tubes in a drift tube linear accelerator, the total energy E
possessed by the output positive ion will be given by

E = nqV0

The ion hits the target in pulses. The number of pulses per unit time depends on the
frequency of the r.f. source.
Advantages
i. As E = nqV0, the energy of ions can be increased simply by increasing the number of
drift tubes.
ii. It produces high intensity ion beam.
iii. It can be used to accelerate both positive and negative ions.
iv. The peak voltage of the r.f. source is not very high as a result of which the problems
associated with high insulation is minimized.
v. In linear accelerators, the cost per MeV is less than that of cyclic accelerators if ions
are electrons.

Disadvantages
i. As the total length of the accelerator is a few kilometers, it is cumbersome to maintain
vacuum and other arrangements.
ii. The ion beam is pulsed rather than continuous.
iii. In linear accelerators, the cost per MeV is more than that of cyclic accelerators, if ions
are protons.

Example 13.1
One of oldest linear accelerator at Berkeley has 46 drift tubes. If the length of the shortest tube
is 1.0 m, what is the length of the longest tube?
822 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Solution
In a linear accelerator, the first tube is the shortest tube and the last tube is the longest tube.
The length of the nth number tube is given as

1 2nqV0
Ln = .
2ν m

The length of the first tube L1 will be

1 2qV0
L1 =
2ν m

and we obtain

Ln = L1 n

The data given are L1 = 0.5 m, n = 46. Thus, we have

=L46 2=
46 m 13.56 m

13.8.2 Cyclotron

The commonly used cyclic particle accelerator, the cyclotron was developed by E.O.
Lawrence and M.S. Livingston and put into operation in the year 1932. In the cyclotron,
generally deuterons and a-particles are accelerated to high energies.
Principle
If a charge q is projected perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic field of induction B with
speed v, the charge q will trace a circular path of radius r. The kinetic energy of the charge
q is given by

1 2 B2 R2q2
mv == since Brq = mv
2 2m

Example 13.2
Calculate the energy of a proton that is moving in a circle of radius 60 cm under the influence
of a magnetic field 10000 gauss.
 Nuclear Accelerators 823

Solution
The data given are R = 60 cm = 0.6 m, B = 10000 gauss = 1 Tesla
The energy of a proton that is moving in a circular path under the influence of a magnetic
field is given by

1 2 B 2 R2 q 2 12 × 0.62 (1.6 × 10−19 )2

= mv = J = 17.2 Mev
2 2m 2 × 1.67 × 10−27

Construction
The schematic diagram of a cyclotron is shown in Fig. 13.8. In its simplest form, it consists
of two hollow flat semicircular metal boxes D1 and D2 called dees on account of their shape
like the letter D.

Figure 13.8 Schematic diagram of a cyclotron

These two dees have their diametric edge parallel and slightly separated from each other. A
radio frequency alternating potential of peak value of the order of 105 volts and frequency
of the order of megacycles is applied the dees which act as electrodes. Thus, an alternating
electric field is established in the gap between the two dees, i.e., an electric field is directed
towards D1 and D2 alternately. D1 and D2 alternately become positive and negative at the
824 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

same rate as the frequency of the r.f voltage source. An ion source is placed at the centre of
the gap between the two dees which supplies the positive ions to be accelerated. The whole
se-tup is placed between the poles of a strong electromagnet which provides a magnetic
field of induction of the order of 1Tesla perpendicular to the plane of the dees.
Working
Suppose at any particular instant, D1 is positive and D2 negative. A positive ion starting
from the source S will be attracted by the dee D2. Since there is no electric field inside
the dees, the positive ions move with constant speed along a circle of constant radius
r = (mv/qB) under the influence of a magnetic field B which is perpendicular to the plane
of dees. By the time, the positive ions emerge from D2, the polarity of the applied potential
is reversed, i.e., D2 becomes positive and D1 becomes negative. The positive ion will again
face the negative dee D1 and thus again will be accelerated by the electric field in the gap
and ion speed will be increased. Since the speed of positive ions has been increased, they
will move through D1 along a circular arc of greater radius as shown in Fig. 13.8. The time
of passage of the ions to complete the semi-circular path in dee D1 is the same as that of
in D2 and is equal to the half time period of the r.f. voltage source. After traversing a half
cycle in D1, it will reach the edge of D1 and receive an additional acceleration between the
gaps because in the meantime, the polarity of the dees has changed. The positive ion will
continue travelling in a semi-circular path of increasing radii, each time it goes from D1
to D2 and D2 to D1. In this way, the positive ions move faster and faster moving in ever
expanding semi-circular paths until they reach the outer edge of the dees where they are
deflected by a deflector plate and strike the target.
Theory
For the stability of the path of the charged particle, the Lorentz force on the charged particle
  mv 2
is q(v × B) =
qvB sin θ which produces a centripetal force . Thus, we have
r

mv 2
qvB sin θ =
r

In case of a cyclotron, the magnetic induction B is perpendicular to the velocity of the
 
positive ions, i.e., angle between v , and B is 90°. The equation becomes

mv 2
qvB=
r

Brq
or v= (13.17)
m

Here m = mass of the positive ion and is assumed to be constant non-relativistically.

 Nuclear Accelerators 825

The time of passage of the positive ions to complete the semi-circular path in dee D1 is
same as that of in D2 and is equal to the half time period of the r.f. voltage source. If T is
the time period of the r.f. voltage source, then within T/2 seconds, the positive ions travel a
semi-circle of radius r. Thus, we have

T v
π r =v × =
2 2ν

v
or ν= (13.18)
2π r

Here v is the frequency of the r.f. voltage source.

Putting Eqs (13.17) into (13.18), we get

qB
ν= (13.19)
2π m

Since for a particular ion, q/m is constant, the value of v is adjusted corresponding to B
and vice versa so that when ions complete the semi-circular path in D1 and enters the gap
between the two dees, D1 becomes positive and D2 becomes negative. Due to this reason,
the speed and the radii of the semi-circular paths go on increasing. The Eq. (13.19) is called
qB
the cyclotron resonance condition and ν = is called the cyclotron frequency.
2π m

Example 13.3
The applied magnetic induction in a cyclotron is 15000 gauss. Calculate the frequency of the
rf voltage source to accelerate deuterons.
Solution
The datum given is B = 15000 gauss = 1.5 Tesla
The frequency of the rf voltage source to accelerate particles is given as

qB 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.5

=ν = Hz = 11.5MHz
2π m 2π × 3.33 × 10−27

Energy of the ion

The positive ion will have maximum energy at the ime when it reaches the periphery of the
dees having radius R. According to Eq. (13.17), the maximum speed vm at the periphery
will be given by

BRq
vm = (13.20)
m
 826 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

1
Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy Em = mvm2 of the ion will be obtained as
2

1 2 B2 R2q2
=
Em =mvm = 2π 2 mν 2 R2 (13.21)
2 2m

Equation (13.21) shows that the ion energy is limited due to the following factors:
i. Due to limited power and frequency of the r.f. voltage source.
ii. Due to maximum strength of the magnetic field which can be produced.
iii. The expression for maximum energy contains mass of the ion. When speed of ion
approaches the speed of light, the energy gained by the ion while passing the gap
between the two dees is used to increase the mass of the ion rather than its speed. Due
to this reason, heavy ions such as protons, deuterons, a-particles are accelerated in
the cyclotron instead of electrons.
iv. The maximum energy acquired by the ion does not depend on the voltage of the r.f.
voltage source.
v. As the radius of the semi-circular path increases, the successive paths become closer
and closer.

Advantages
i. Cyclotron is capable of producing high energetic ions that are more intense than that
of electrostatic accelerators.
ii. It occupies less area.
iii. It can accelerate both positive and negative ions.
iv. It can accelerate heavy ions.

Disadvantages
i. The output ion beam is not continuous but pulsed.
ii. The energy of the ions are much less constant. This limits its the scope of its wide
applications.
iii. Due to relativistic effects, lighter ions like electrons cannot be accelerated to very high
energy.
iv Cyclotrons cannot be operated in the relativistic range.
v. It is not cost effective.

Example 13.4
The beam in a cyclotron has a maximum diameter of 1.6 m. The magnetic induction is
0.75 Tesla. Calculate the kinetic energy of a proton coming out of the cyclotron. Given: mass
of proton = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
 Nuclear Accelerators 827

Solution
The data given are (i)

1.6
=R = =
m 0.8 m, B 0.75.
2

The kinetic energy of a proton coming out of the cyclotron is calculated by

( )
2
2 2 −19
B 2 R2 q 2 0.75 × 0.8 × 1.6 × 10
=Ek = J = 17.3Mev
2m 2 × 1.67 × 10−19

Example 13.5
Deuterons in a cyclotron describe a circle of radius 32.0 cm just before emerging from the dees.
The frequency of the applied alternating voltage is 12 MHz. Neglecting relativistic effects, find
the energy and speed of a deuteron on emergence.
Solution
The data given are (i) R = 32.0 cm = 0.32 m, v = 12 MHz = 12 × 106 Hz.
The kinetic energy of a deuteron coming out of the cyclotron is calculated by

Ek =2π 2 mν 2 R2 =9.69 × 10−13 J =6.06 Mev

The speed of a deuteron coming out of the cyclotron is directly calculated by

=v 2πν
= R 2.413 × 107 m/s

13.9 Electron Accelerators

The cyclotron we have discussed earlier is not suitable for accelerating electrons to high
kinetic energy. Since the electron is a very light particle (mass = 9.11 × 10–31 kg), even at
1 MeV energy, its mass ‘m’ becomes very high according to the relativistic equation
1
−
 v2  2
=
m m0  1 − 2  .
 c 

Therefore, for 1 MeV or less energy electrons, frequency v given by Eq. (13.19),
v = (qB/2pm), decreases with increasing speed of electrons because m increases with increase
of speed. Thus, the electrons get out of step with the r.f voltage source and eventually, the
energy of the circulating electron stops increasing.
828 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

When the frequency of the r.f. voltage source remains constant throughout the operation
time, the cyclotron discussed earlier has to be modified so that the equality of the LHS
and the RHS of the Eq. (13.19), v = (qB/2pm), can be maintained and electrons can be
accelerated to high energy. This modification of the cyclotron with a view to accelerate
electrons to high energy gave birth to synchrocyclotron [with increase of the speed of the
electrons, v is decreased] and synchrotrons [with increase of the speed of electrons, B is
increased].
i. Synchrocyclotron: As the speed of electrons increases, the relativistic mass m also
increases. To maintain the equality of the LHS and the RHS of the Eq. (13.19)
v = (qB/2pm), and thus to ensure resonance, one may decrease the frequency of the r.f
voltage source as the electrons accelerate in such a way that the product vm remains
constant. In this case, the magnetic induction B is kept constant. The accelerators
that use this technique are called synchrocyclotrons. Synchrocyclotrons are also called
frequency-modulated cyclotrons.
ii. Synchrotrons: As the speed of electrons increases, the relativistic mass m also
increases. To maintain the equality of the LHS and the RHS of Eq. (13.19),
v = (qB/2pm), and thus to ensure resonance, one may increase the magnetic induction
B as the electrons accelerate in such a way that B/m remains constant. In this case,
the magnetic induction B increases with increase of speed of the electrons. The
accelerators that use this technique are called synchrotrons.
In addition to these techniques, we can increase the speed of electrons along a circular
path by subjecting them to a space-varying and time-varying magnetic field. The device
employing this technique was first constructed in 1940 and is called a betatron.

13.9.1 Betatron

The betatron is an accelerator used to accelerate b–particles, i.e., electrons to high speeds
by allowing them to be acted upon by induced electric fields that are set up by a changing
magnetic flux. The energetic electrons can be used for fundamental research or to produce
penetrating X-rays which are useful in cancer therapy, in industry, biological and medical
research. The first betatron was constructed by D.W. Kerst at the University of Illinois in
1940, to accelerate electrons to an energy of 2.3 MeV. Since then, several other betatrons
have been constructed, the largest being the one at the University of Illinois, completed in
1950. It yielded electrons of 300 MeV.
When an alternating magnetic field is applied parallel to the axis of a circular tube
containing electrons, an electromotive force is produced in the electrons’ orbit by changing
the magnetic flux that gives an additional energy to the electrons. A radial force is also
produced by the action of the magnetic field whose direction is perpendicular to the
electron’s velocity which keeps the electron moving in a circular path. Instead of spiralling,
 Nuclear Accelerators 829

as in a cyclotron, the conditions are arranged such that the increasing magnetic field
keeps the electrons in a circular orbit of constant radius. This is the basic law behind the
functioning of a betatron. A betatron provides an excellent illustration of the physical
reality of the equation

  dϕ B
∫ E.d = −
C dt
.

Construction
The construction of a betatron is shown in Fig. 13.9. It consists of a highly evacuated
circular tube called a doughnut chamber. This chamber is placed between the two poles
of an electromagnet so that magnetic induction is along the axis of the circular doughnut,
i.e., magnetic flux is perpendicular to the plane of the circular doughnut. The electrons
produced by the electron gun are injected into the doughnut at the beginning of each cycle
of alternate current in the electromagnet.
The poles of the electromagnet are constructed in such a way as to provide certain
stronger field in the central place and certain weaker field at the orbit of the electron. Thus,
the magnetic field is non-uniform in space and varies with time. This variable magnetic
field performs several functions in the betatron. Those functions are enlisted as:
i. The variable magnetic flux guides the electrons in a circular path.
ii. It gives rise to an induced electric field around the doughnut which accelerates the
orbiting electrons to high speed as a result of which their energies increases.
iii. It keeps the radius of the orbit in which electrons are moving constant.
iv It introduces the electrons into the orbit initially and removes them from the orbit
after they have reached the desired energy.
v. It provides a restoring force that resists any tendency for the electrons to leave their
orbit either vertically or radially.
The direction of variable magnetic field at a particular instant of time is shown in
Fig. 13.9(a). The electric field produced by this variable magnetic field at this time is into
the paper at A so that the force on the electrons is out of the paper at A. The magnetic field
shown in this figure is not to scale.
Working
The electrons from the electron gun are injected into the doughnut shape vacuum chamber
when the magnetic field is just rising from its zero value in the first quarter cycle ab as
shown in Fig. 13.10.
830 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 13.9 (a) Vertical section of a betatron. Cross-sections of the coil and the doughnut are shown.
The plane of the coil and the doughnut are the same and perpendicular to the plane of
the page. Electrons come out of the doughnut at A and enter into it at B. The induced
electric field is into the paper at A. (b) Horizontal section of a betatron
 Nuclear Accelerators 831

Figure 13.10 The flux through the orbit of a betatron during one cycle. Circulation of the electron in
the desired direction is possible only during the half cycle ac out of which electrons are
accelerated only in first quarter cycle ab and are decelerated in the second quarter cycle bc.
e dϕ B π
=
This figure shows that F = 0= at t .
2π r dt 4

During the first quarter cycle, i.e., in time T/4 seconds, the electrons make several thousands
of revolution and gain energy. When the magnetic field has reached its maximum value
within T/4 seconds, the electrons are removed from their orbit in the following way. When
the electrons have acquired the desired amount of energy, a capacitor is discharged through
two coils of wire, one directly above and the other directly below the stable orbit, thus
producing a sudden addition of magnetic flux. This destroys the condition for the stability
of this orbit and the electron beam moves out to larger radii until it strikes the back of the
injector P which acts as the X-ray target. In some betatrons, the high energy electron beam
emerges from the apparatus through a window for other specific purposes.
Theory
By using Faraday’s law of induction, the work done on an electron in one complete
revolution W is obtained as

dϕ B
W =e (13.22)
dt
832 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

If F is the tangential force on the electron, then the amount of work done on the electron in
one complete revolution will be given by

W= F × 2π r

Equating the aformentioned two equations, we get

e dϕ B
F= (13.23)
2π r dt

dϕ B
In Eq. (13.23), it is important to note that is the time rate of change of magnetic flux
dt
enclosed by the electron’s orbit. For the stability of the orbit of the electron, the Lorentz
  mv 2
force on the electron e(v × BG ) =evBG sin θ which provides a centripetal force . Thus,
we have r

mv 2
evBG sin θ =
r

Here m = mass of the electron. In case of betatrons, the magnetic field is perpendicular
to the plane of circulation of the electron in the doughnut chamber. Hence, the magnetic 
induction
 B G is perpendicular to the velocity of the electron, i.e., the angle between v and
BG is 90°. This equation becomes

mv 2
evBG =
r

or mv = BG re (13.24)

In Eq. (13.24), it should be understood that BG is the magnetic induction on the electron’s
orbit. It is the guiding field on the orbit of the electron. Equation (13.24) gives the
momentum (obviously tangential!) of the electron. The tangential force acting on the
electron is obtained by differentiating Eq. (13.24) with respect to time. Hence,

d(mv ) dB
=F = re G (13.25)
dt dt

Combining Eqs (13.23) and (13.25), we get

e dϕ B dB
= re G
2π r dt dt
 Nuclear Accelerators 833

d ϕB dB
or =2 G
dt π r 2
dt

or d dB
< B >= 2 G
dt dt

1
or BG = < B > (13.26)
2

ϕB
< B >= is the average value of the magnetic induction over the orbit. Equation(13.26)
πr2
is called the betatron condition. The betatron condition states that an electron can be
accelerated into a circular orbit of constant radius by the action of a varying magnetic
field only if the variation of the magnetic field over the pane of the electron’s orbit is such

that the magnetic field at the orbit BG is equal to half the average value of the magnetic
induction < B > over the orbit.

Energy of the electron

The energy of the electrons can be calculated from the average induced emf and the
total number of revolutions made by the electrons during the first quarter cycle of the
applied magnetic field. Here it is assumed that the betatron condition is satisfied. Let the
time-varying magnetic flux be given as j = jBO sin wt. The time period of the variation of this
2π
magnetic flux is . As we have discussed earlier, the electrons are accelerated only for
ω

1 2π π
× = seconds.
4 ω 2ω

Using Eq. (13.22), the energy gained by an electron per revolution is obtained as

d
E′ = e ϕ BO sin ωt = eωϕ BO cos ωt (13.27)
dt

π
The average value of the electron energy per revolution during acceleration period
2ω
will be
π
2ω

∫ eωϕ B0 cos ωtdt

2
< E ′ >= 0
= eωϕ B 0 (13.28)
π
2ω
π
∫ dt
0
834 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

For most of the time, electron travels with the speed of light c. Therefore, during acceleration
π πc
time, , the total distance travelled by the electron will be . For one complete
2ω 2ω
revolution, the electron travels a distance of 2pr. Therefore, the number of revolutions the
πc
electron completes in travelling a distance will be
2ω
πc
2ω = c .
2π r 4ωr

According to Eq. (13.28), the average energy gained by the electron per revolution
2 c
is eωϕ B 0 . Therefore, the average energy gained by the electron in number of
π
revolutions <E> will be obtained as 4ωr

2 c
=
<E> eωϕ BO ×
π 4ωr

eϕ B 0 c
or < E >= (13.29)
2π r

Equation (13.29) shows that the energy obtainable is limited by the radius and peak
magnetic flux of the applied magnetic field.
The energy of the electron can also be obtained with the help of the relativistic equation
for energy as

K .E=. pc
= BGO rce (13.30)

Here BGO is the peak value of the magnetic induction at the orbit.

Example 13.6
In a certain betatron, the radius of the stable electron orbit is 30inches and operates at the
maximum magnetic induction of 4000 gauss and 50 Hz. Calculate the (a) average energy
gained per revolution and (b) the final energy of the electrons.
Solution
The data given are R = 30 inches = 0.762 m, B = 4000 gauss = 0.4 Tesla, v = 50 Hz.
(b) The energy of an emerging electron in a betatron is given by

E = BRce = 0.4 × 0.762 × 3 × 108 × 1.6 × 10–19 J = 91.4 MeV

 Nuclear Accelerators 835

(a) 91.4 MeV is obtained by the electron in

c c
=
4ω R 8πν R

number of revolutions. Hence, the average energy gained per revolution will be

E 8πν RE 8π × 50 × 0.762 × 91.4

= = = 291.74 eV
c c 3 × 108
8πν R

Example 13.7
In a 100 MeV betatron the radius of a stable electron orbit is 35 cm and the electron gains
energy at the rate of 480 eV per revolution. How far will the electron travel in attaining full energy?
Solution
The data given are E = 100 MeV, R = 35 cm = 0.35 m, and the energy gain per revolution = 480 eV
The electron gains an energy of 480 eV per revolution; to gain 100 MeV of energy, the electron
will complete

100 × 106 eV
= 2.083 × 105
480 eV

revolutions. The distance traveled by the electron in attaining 100 MeV will be

100 × 106 eV
× 0.35m =4.58 × 105 m .
480 eV

Since Eqs (13.29) and (13.30) are independent of the mass of the electron, one might think that
there would be no upper limit of energy obtainable by means of the betatron; however, beyond
a certain upper limit radiation, loss offsets the gain. Since the electrons are accelerating in a
circular path, their energy loss by radiation is more in comparison to a linear accelerator. The
total energy radiated U by a circulating electron of energy E in one revolution is calculated by
using the formula

e2 E 4 E4
=U = 88.5 keV
3rε 0 m04 c 8 r (13.31)

In Eq. (13.31), U has been measured in keV and E in geV (1 geV = 1000 MeV).
Equation (13.31) shows that the energy radiated per revolution increases with the fourth
power of the electron energy and thus becomes very serious at very high energies.
 836 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Example 13.8
In the 70 MeV betatron the radius of a stable electron orbit is 28 cm. Calculate the (a) value of
magnetic induction at the orbit for this energy, (b) the frequency of the applied electric field,
(c) the energy loss by radiation during a single revolution of an electron.
Solution
The data given are E = 70 MeV, R = 28 cm = 0.28 m.
a. The energy of an emerging electron in the betatron is given by
E = BRce

E 70 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19

or =
B = T = 0.83T
Rce 0.28 × 3 × 108 × 1.6 × 10−19

b. The frequency v of the applied electric field is given by

eBc 2 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.83 × (3 × 108 )2

=ν = MHz = 170.6 MHz
2π E 2π × 70 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19

c. The total energy U radiated by a circulating electron of energy E in one revolution is

given by

e2 E 4 E 4 88.5 × (0.07)4
=U = =
88.5 keV = 7.5 eV
3Rε 0 m0 c
4 8
R 0.28

Advantages
i. Betatrons can accelerate electrons up to an energy of 340 MeV.
ii. Most modern betatrons are operated from a 60–Hz ac source.
iii. It is cost effective.

Disadvantages
i. It is difficult to maintain the stability of the electron’s orbit.
ii. Since the electrons are accelerating in a circular path, their energy loss by radiation is
more in comparison to a linear accelerator.

13.10 Applications of Accelerators

As the definition shows, the fundamental and only direct application of a nuclear accelerator
is to accelerate charged particles to high energies. These high energy charged particles
are used extensively scientifically in nuclear research and commercially in the medical
 Nuclear Accelerators 837

and material processing field and in agriculture. A brief summary of the uses of nuclear
accelerators both direct and indirect, in the production of isotopes, radiation processing of
materials and medicals are given in this section.

13.10.1 Radiation processing of materials

The knowledge of the ffects of nuclear radiations on various kinds of materials is important
both for practical problems connected with the operation of the various devices under
irradiation and for the numerous aspects of solid state physics. The properties of many
materials can be changed by exposing them to nuclear radiations. Thus, many new valuable
materials having optimum properties can be obtained from the conventional materials with
the help of nuclear radiation. The controllable modification of the properties of materials is
accomplished in general by implantation of heavy ions in the materials. It may be proved
detrimental to use materials and devices in a radiation environment without knowing the
effects of radiation on the materials or devices.
a. Ionizing radiations passing through a gas increase its electrical conductivity in textile
industries. Electrified fibers are made neutral by irradiating them by a–active 94 Pu239
or b–active 61Pm147 as a result of which the productivity increases by 30%.
b. Nuclear radiations are used to combine monomers to form certain polymers.
c. The cross-linking of certain polymers to build specific three-dimensional structures is
performed with the help of nuclear radiations.
d. Nuclear radiations are used to degrade certain polymers. Destruction is accompanied
by an increase in solubility and plasticity and decrease in strength and rupture
elongation. Thus, materials liable to destruction should not be used as structural
materials intended to work in conditions of irradiation.
e. Nuclear radiations, now-a-days are in use in developing methods for the production
of new valuable materials like linked polyethylene.
f. Using radiation in the vulcanization process of rubber, the lifetime of tyres increases
by scores of percent.
g. The strength of woods has been increased to several times when exposed to nuclear
radiation of certain intensity for a certain time.
h. High temperature epoxy resins have been produced using nuclear radiation.
i. Scientists are able to synthesize, by nuclear radiation methods in laboratory conditions,
such materials as cyanic acid and hydrazine whose production by conventional
methods is an intricate process requiring much money and energy.
j. Different types of crystal imperfections are produced when crystals are exposed to
nuclear radiations resulting in modified electrical, optical, mechanical and thermal
properties of the crystals. These changes are being exploited technologically.
k. Radiation changes in materials are quite stable.
l The density of quartz decreases by 15% when exposed to nuclear radiation of a
particular intensity for a certain time.
838 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

m. Nuclear radiation changes the lattice types in some crystals.

n. The color centres in cooking salt crystals are produced by using nuclear radiations.
o. Depending upon the types of dielectrics, the electrical conductivity may increase or
decrease when irradiated by nuclear radiations. In certain applications, it is important
to know the behavior of dielectrics under nuclear radiations.
p. The electrical conductivity of semiconductors varies in a complicated manner when
irradiated by nuclear radiations. In certain applications, it is important to know the
behavior of semiconductors under nuclear radiations.
q. The implantation of boron, phosphorous, and tantalum considerably improves the
behavior of silicon and germanium detectors.
r. p–n junctions can be produced from a singe semiconductor by using nuclear
radiations.
s. Thermal conductivity of non-metallic materials decreases when irradiated by nuclear
radiations.
t. The implantation of heavy ions opens up great possibilities for the manufacture and
study of the properties of new alloys, which cannot be fabricated by other methods
because of the chemical incompatibility of the components.
u. The excellent thin film filters of certain pore diameters (ª 0.4 mm) can be manufactured
by using nuclear radiations. Purification of gases and water, the sorting of micro-
impurities according to their size, the study of the size and shape of blood cells, the
sterilization of biological media, the filtration and separation of viruses and molecules,
the purification of wine and beer are done by this nuclear filters.
v. The use of nuclear radiation to kill microorganisms has found applications in
preservation of food stuffs. Irradiated potatoes and onions can be kept without
deterioration or sprouting for nearly two years! This is a better substitute to
refrigeration.
w. Sterilization of surgical instruments and bandages are done by nuclear radiation.
Disposable needles, for example, are ordinarily sterilized by exposure to radioactive
sources.
x. Genetically modified plants have been developed by exposing the seeds to a particular
nuclear radiation.
y. Instead of chemical pesticides to increase the resistance of sprouts against pests, seeds
are being de-insecticized by nuclear radiation.
z. In medicine, the ionizing power of nuclear radiation is used for destruction of
malignant tumours in the body.

13.10.2 Uses of isotopes

By choosing the intensity and energy of the particle beam from the nuclear accelerators,
the desired nuclear reaction can be studied under controlled conditions and the nuclei
 Nuclear Accelerators 839

can be modified to produce artificial isotopes (same Z-value), isobars (same A-value),
isotones (same N-value) and isodiapheres (same (A-2Z)value). For example, 17Cl37 is an
isotope of 17Cl35, an isobar of 16S37, an isotone of 19K39, an isodiaphere of 18Ar39 . At present,
more than 150 various radioactive isotopes are being produced in specially designed
cyclotrons. Separated stable isotopes are being produced on an industrial scale. Both the
radioactive and stable isotopes are produced not only in elementary form but also in the
form of various chemical compounds. Depending on the properties and half life of these
isotopes, they are used as tracers in various fields such as medicine, chemistry, engineering,
biology, agriculture, metallurgy, hydrology, oceanography, ecology, and so on. It has found
practical applications in medical diagnosis, criminology, leak detection, fuel transport and
many other technological problems.
a. The wear on a piston ring is rapidly and sensitively measured by incorporating iron
isotopes.
b. The degree of oil burning in diesel engines is checked by using isotopes.
c. Different types of oil filters are tested by radioisotope tracers.
d. Isotopes are used to detect mechanical flaws in materials.
e. The volume of mercury in air is monitored by 80H197 isotopes in fluorescent lamp
production units.
f. The efficiencies of washing machines and detergents are checked by soaking rags in
oil containing 15P32 and measuring the radioactivity after washing.
g. The methods of applying pesticides in agriculture are devised by using radioisotopes.
h. The methods of destroying pests are devised by feeding them with radioactive
materials.
i. Deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, is used for the investigation of fat metabolism.
j. Many radioisotopes are used in medical diagnosis. Abnormality of thyroid gland is
tested by 53I131.
k. Anemia (deficiency of RBC) and its converse, polycythemia, are studied by injecting
iron isotopes into the blood stream.
l. The size and location of brain tumours can be known with high precision by
introducing certain radioisotopes into the body.
m. The blockage of blood flow is detected introducing 11Na24 into the body.
n. The failure of the body to absorb vitamin B12, causing pernicious anemia, is diagnosed
by introducing 27Co60 into the body.
o. The radiations from radioisotopes have been used in controlling cancerous cells.
p. Radioisotope 6C14 is used to study the kinetics of photosynthesis.
q. Metallurgists use radioisotopes to detect flaws in metals.
r. Chemical engineers use radioisotopes in the study of plastics and polymers and other
synthetic materials.
 840 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

s. Engineers use radioisotopes in the investigation of wear and lubrications.

t. Information regarding the thickness of coatings, thin films, papers are obtained by
using radioisotopes.
u. Information about the level of liquid in a tank, the surface of separation between
immiscible liquids, velocity of flow, degree of intermixing of oil stocks flowing in a
pipe line can be obtained with the help of radioisotopes.
v. The age of meteors, rocks, and minerals containing uranium can be determined from
the known half life of 92U238 and the quantity of helium accumulated from the emitted
a–particle.
w. Radio carbon dating has been used for the age measurements of specimens of
archeological and geological importance.
x. Radio isotopes are used to study atomic and nuclear properties.

Questions

13.1 What is a nuclear accelerator?

13.2 What is distance of closest approach?
13.3 Low energy a–particles can disintegrate only lighter elements. Why?
13.4 What are the limitations in using radiations from natural radioactive elements?
13.5 Why are need of nuclear accelerators needed?
13.6 Why is vacuum maintained inside an acceleration tube?
13.7 What are the basic principles of a nuclear accelerator?
13.8 Under what conditions, can a charge not be accelerated by using magnetic field?
13.9 What are the characteristics of an ion source in nuclear accelerators?
13.10 What are the factors on which the performance index of a nuclear accelerator
depends?
13.11 Explain the working of a voltage multiplier circuit.
13.12 Write an expression for the output voltage of a voltage multiplier circuit.
13.13 What are the factors on which the output voltage of a voltage multiplier circuit
depend?
13.14 Explain the construction of the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator.
13.15 Explain the working of the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator.
13.16 What are the advantages ofthe Cockcroft–Walton accelerator?
13.17 What are the disadvantages of the Cockcroft–Walton accelerator?
13.18 What is the principle of the Van de Graaff accelerator?
13.19 Explain the principle of the Van de Graaff accelerator.
13.20 What are the properties of the belt used in the Van de Graaff accelerator?
13.21 What is the function of the spray comb used in the Van de Graaff accelerator?
 Nuclear Accelerators 841

13.22 What is the function of collection comb used in the Van de Graaff accelerator?
13.23 Describe the construction of the Van de Graaff accelerator.
13.24 Under what conditions, does corona discharge occur in the Van de Graaff accelerator?
13.25 Describe the working of the Van de Graaff accelerator.
13.26 What are the advantages of the Van de Graaff accelerator?
13.27 What are the disadvantages of the Van de Graaff accelerator?
13.28 What is the literal meaning of the word ‘tandem’?
13.29 Explain how the tandem accelerator is a modified version of the Van de Graaff
accelerator
13.30 Explain the principle of the tandem accelerator.
13.31 Describe the construction of the tandem accelerator.
13.32 Explain the working of the tandem accelerator giving one example.
13.33 What are the advantages of the tandem accelerator?
13.34 What are the disadvantages of the tandem accelerator?
13.35 What is the basic principle in the operation of a radio frequency accelerator?
13.36 Give the schematic diagram of a drift tube linear accelerator.
13.37 Why in the drift tube linear accelerator, are the alternate drift tubes connected?
13.38 Why is the electric force on a moving ion inside a drift tube zero?
13.39 Give the principle of a drift tube linear accelerator.
13.40 Explain how the drift tube linear accelerator works?
13.41 Derive an expression for the length of the nth number drift tube.
13.42 Derive an expression for the speed of an ion in the nth number drift tube.
13.43 What are the advantages of a drift tube linear accelerator?
13.44 What are the disadvantages of a drift tube linear accelerator?
13.45 Give the principle of a cyclotron.
13.46 Give the construction of a cyclotron.
13.47 What is the shape of the path of ions in a cyclotron? Justify your answer.
13.48 What are the factors on which the frequency of the r.f. voltage source used in cyclotron
depends? Derive an expression for it.
13.49 Derive an expression for the speed of the ion in a cyclotron at any instant of time.
13.50 Does the frequency of the r.f. voltage source used in a cyclotron remain constant
throughout the operation time? Justify your answer.
13.51 Derive an expression for the maximum energy of the ion in a cyclotron.
13.52 What are the factors on which the maximum energy of the ion in a cyclotron depends?
13.53 Derive an expression for the cyclotron frequency.
13.54 What are the advantages of a cyclotron?
13.55 What are the disadvantages of a cyclotron?
842 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

13.56 Why can an electron not be accelerated by a cyclotron to a very high energy?
13.57 Show that the radius of curvature R of the path of a particle inside the dees of a
cyclotron is proportional to n , where n is the number of times the particle has been
accelerated across the space between the dees.
13.58 What is a synchrocyclotron?
13.59 What is a synchrotron?
13.60 What are the properties of b-particles?
13.61 What is the principle of a betatron?
13.62 Distinguish between the path of an electron in a betatron and the path of a proton in
a cyclotron.
  dϕ B
13.63 Name an accelerator in which the validity of the equation  ∫C E.dl = − dt is
demonstrated.
13.64 What are the roles of applied magnetic flux in a betatron?
13.65 Describe the construction of a betatron.
13.66 Describe the working of a betatron by a neat diagram.
13.67 What is the betatron condition?
13.68 Derive an expression for the betatron condition.
13.69 Derive an expression for the average energy of an electron in a betatron.
13.70 What are the factors on which the average energy of an electron in betatron depends?
13.71 What are the advantages of a cyclotron?
13.72 What are the disadvantages of a cyclotron?
13.73 What are the uses of nuclear accelerators in medical science?
13.74 Give a few uses of nuclear accelerators in agriculture.
13.75 Mention a few uses of nuclear accelerators in material processing.
13.76 Give a few uses of nuclear accelerators in the textile industry.
13.77 What is the role of nuclear accelerators in food stuff preservation?
13.78 How is nuclear radiation used in producing few chemicals?
13.79 How is nuclear radiation used in automobile plants?
13.80 Write an essay on ‘role of nuclear accelerator in the development of physics’.
13.81 How is nuclear radiation is helpful to the farmers?
13.82 How is nuclear radiation helpful to the paper industry and print ing press?
13.83 How is nuclear radiation helpful in filling up of ketchup in an opaque container?

Problems

13.1 A linear accelerator has 960 drift tubes. If the length of the 1st tube is 1.5 m, what is the
length of the last tube? [Ans 46.48 m]
 Nuclear Accelerators 843

13.2 There is a proton linear accelerator with energy 800 MeV and a current of 1milliAmp.
How many protons are produced per second? [Ans 6.25 × 1025 protons/s]
13.3 Calculate the energy of a deuteron that is moving in a circle of radius 60 cm under the
influence of a magnetic field 10000 gauss. Given: mass of deuteron = 3.33 × 10–27 kg.
[Ans 8.65 MeV]
13.4 The applied magnetic induction in a cyclotron is 15000 gauss. Calculate the frequency
of the r.f. voltage source to accelerate protons. [Ans 22.9 MHz]
13.5 The beam in a cyclotron has a maximum diameter of 1.6 m. Given that the magnetic
induction is 0.75 Tesla. Calculate the kinetic energy of a deuteron coming out of the
cyclotron. Given: mass of deuteron = 3.33 × 10–27 kg. [Ans 8.65 MeV]
13.6 Protons in a cyclotron describe a circle of radius 40 cm just before emerging from
the dees. The frequency of the applied alternating voltage is 15 MHz. Neglecting
relativistic effects, find the energy and speed of a deuteron on emergence.
[Ans 7.42 MeV, 3.77 × 107 m/s]
13.7 A deuteron is moving in a circular path in a magnetic field of 17000 gauss in resonance
with the applied dee frequency of 12 MHz. Calculate its energy, momentum, linear
speed, radius of the deuteron path. [Ans 153 MeV, 766 MeV/c, 0.42c, 165 cm]
13.8 In a certain betatron, the radius of the stable electron orbit is 100 cm and it operates
at the maximum magnetic induction of 5000 gauss and 60 Hz. Calculate the (a) final
energy of the electrons and (b) average energy gained per revolution.
[Ans 150 MeV, 754 eV]
13.9 In a 110 MeV betatron, the radius of the stable electron orbit is 50 cm. The electron
gains energy at the rate of 500 eV per revolution. How far will the electron travel in
attaining full energy? [Ans 6.91 × 105 m ]
13.10 The radius of the stable electron orbit of a small betatron–synchrotron is 0.12m. The
maximum magnetic field at this position is 0.9 Tesla. Calculate the maximum electron
produced. The arrangement is the voltage multiplier [Ans 32.4 MeV]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The effectiveness of a nuclear accelerator is characterized by

(i) momentum (ii) speed
(iii) kinetic energy (iv) mass
2. The gain in kinetic energy of a charge q in an electric field may be given as

1 1 2
(i) qV (ii) qV
2 2
2
(iii) qV (iv) qV
844 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

3. The gain in kinetic energy of a charge q moving in circular path of radius R in a magnetic
field may be given as
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2
(i) qBR (ii) qBR
2 2m

1 2 2 2 1
(iii) mq B R (iv) qBR
2 2m
4. Which of the following is not an R.F. accelerator?
(i) cyclotron (ii) betatron
(iii) Cockcroft–Walton accelerators (iv) linear accelerators
5. Which of the following is a D.C. accelerator?
(i) cyclotron (ii) betatron
(iii) linear accelerators (iv) Van de Graaff accelerator
6. The belt used in the Van de Graaff accelerator is made of
(i) conducting material (ii) insulating material
(iii) semiconducting material (iv) any one of the above
7. The stripper canal in the tandem accelerator is made up of
(i) thin carbon foil (ii) thin aluminum foil
(iii) thin platinum foil (iv) a gas at low pressure
8. The relation between the length of the nth number drift tube and the ion speed in it is
vn Ln
(i) = 2ν (ii) = 2ν
Ln vn
Ln vn
(iii) =ν (iv) =ν
vn Ln

9. The energy of an ion in the nth number drift tube of a drift tube linear accelerator is
(i) E = qV0n (ii) E = nqV0

qV0
(iii) E = (iv) E = n2 qV0
n
10. Which of the following charged particles cannot be accelerated by a cyclotron?
(i) a-particles (ii) deuterons
(iii) electrons (iv) tritons
11. Which of the following accelerators is used to accelerate electrons?
(i) cyclotron (ii) drift tube linear accelerator
(iii) Cockcroft–Walton accelerator (iv) betatron
 Nuclear Accelerators 845

12. Which of the following is not an accelerator?

(i) Van de Graaff generator (ii) cyclotron
(iii) drift tube linear accelerator (iv) none of the above

Answers

1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (ii) 4 (iii) 5 (iv) 6 (ii) 7 (i & iv) 8 (i)

9 (ii) 10 (iii) 11 (iv) 12 (iv)
 14 Holography

14.1 Introduction
Electromagnetic radiation scattered by an object contains all the information about the
object. In photography, distribution of only the intensities of light scattered from the
object are recorded on photographic plates. It is a 2-D representation of 2-D or 3-D object;
it gives only a single view. The term “holography” is derived from Greek by combining
Holos (whole) and graphy (writing) meaning complete recording of information on images
in terms of scattered intensities and phases. In holography, distribution of intensities of
light scattered from the object along with is phases are recorded on photographic plates.
It is a 3-D representation of a 3-D object on a 2-D sheet; it gives a 3-D view. Here three-
dimensional images using coherent laser light are produced on photographic plates.
Therefore, though holography was invented by Dennis Gabor in 1948 (it earned him th
Nobel prize in Physics in 1971), it gained momentum only after the invention of the laser
in 1960, the powerful source of coherent light. In this chapter, the concept of holography
is presented very briefly.

14.2 Basic Principles of Holography

The basic principle of holography was first put forward by Dennis Gabor in 1948 while
working on a project to improve the resolving power of the electron microscope. In
holography, three-dimensional perspective images (the clarity of vision changes with
change in eye position) are produced on a photographic film which gives a sensation of the
exact original 3-D object. Here the intensities and the local propagation direction or phase
is recorded on the photographic film. However, all recording films record only the variation
of the intensity of the object wave (i.e., light wave scattered by the object); therefore, to
record phases, we must convert the phase information into variations of intensity. This
 Holography 847

does not happen in photographic images. However, it can be achieved through the process
of optical interference of the light waves. In the interference and diffraction patterns of
light waves, both intensities and phases are recorded.
The basic principle of holography can be understood by referring to Fig. 14.1

Figure 14.1 The interference between directly incident laser light (reference wave) and
corresponding scattered laser light (object wave) by a point object

The plane monochromatic wave of laser light, known as reference wave, is incident on a
point object and is scattered by it. Now the scattered waves known as object waves and the
reference waves of laser light advance and interfere with each other producing concentric
circular interference fringes on a high resolution photographic plate placed in front of them.
On the plane of the photographic plate, bright and dark concentric rings will be formed
due to constructive and destructive interference between the scattered object waves and
the direct reference waves. The light and dark partially absorbing circular fringes become
visible in a reverse way when it is developed. This interference pattern (here in this case, it
appears like Newton’s rings) on the developed photographic plate is called Gabor’s zone
plate or Gabor’s hologram. It was the first hologram constructed by Dennis Gabor and
it laid the foundation for holography. Gabor's zone plate is very similar to Fresnel’s zone
plate except (i) the light and dark fringes shade continuously into each other and (ii) has a
single focus.
848 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 14.2 Reconstruction of real and virtual image due to the illumination of Gabor’s zone plate
hologram by the same laser light The virtual and real images have been formed at S and S¢
respectively as seen by the eye. The virtual and real images look exactly look like point
scatterer

The process of extraction of virtual and real images from Gabor’s zone plate is called
reconstruction. For reconstruction, the plate is now illuminated by the same original plane
monochromatic wave of laser (i.e., reference wave) light as shown in Fig. 14.2, but without
the point scatterer.
The light passing through Gabor’s zone plate hologram will now produce a first-order
interference maximum at Sʹ. To the eye, this light will therefore appear to diverge from
S. All the points on the hologram will diffract the reference wave fronts and thus, virtual
and real images are formed in the absence of the real scatterer! Thus, the reconstruction of
virtual and real images from Gabor’s zone plate made for a point object is explained.
Let us now discuss the construction of Gabor’s zone plate for two point objects and the
corresponding image reconstruction. It has been delineated in Fig. 14.3. Suppose instead
of one scatterer, there are two scatterers on a vertical line separated by a small distance
as shown in Fig. 14.3. Each scatterer will create a Gabor's zone plate. If the photographic
response of the photographic plate is linear, the modulation of intensity of each concentric
fringe pattern on the zone plate will be proportional to the scattered light intensity.
Reconstruction in this case is done in the same method as that of a single point. It will
produce two virtual and real images of both scattering centres, each with its proportionate
intensity. This has been illustrated in Fig. 14.4.
 Holography 849

Figure 14.3 The interference between a directly incident laser light (reference wave) and the
corresponding scattered laser light (object waves) by two point objects

The argument can now be extended to a 3-D object. A 3-D object consists of infinitely
many points and each point acts like a scatterer or scattering center. A 3-D object is
nothing but a continuous distribution of scattering centres. When it is illuminated by laser
light, the scattered lights interfere producing a continuous interference pattern on the
high resolution photographic plate placed in front of it. This interference pattern on the
photographic plate is now called Gabor’s zone plate. The reconstruction of this zone plate
is shown in Fig. 14.5.
Now when Gabor's zone plate is illuminated by a reference laser beam, all the continuous
points on Gabor's zone plate will diffract the reference wave fronts, producing virtual and
real images on the left and right side of the hologram in the absence of a real 3-D object.
Upon reconstruction, the distributed virtual image and real image should appear exactly
like the original 3-D object as viewed from the right of the hologram.
We have presented the basic principles of holography in a simple way as envisioned by
Dennis Gabor. However, the application of these principles suffered from poor quality of
the reconstructed image. The invention of off-axis holography by Leith and Upatnieks in
1962 removed this difficulty.
 850 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Figure 14.4 Reconstruction of real and virtual images due to two point scatterers. The virtual and
real images have been formed at the left side and right side of the Gabor's zone plate
respectively as seen by the eye

Depending upon the method of recording the holograms, holography is of two types,
namely (i) in-line holography and (ii) off-axis holography.
i. In-line holography
The previous discussions pertain to in-line holography. In Figs 14.2, 14.4, and 14.5,
Gabor’s zone plate is illuminated by two light waves along an axis perpendicular to
it – one is the reference wave and the other is the object wave. The quality of the
reconstructed image is poor due to superposition of the conjugate image on the
reconstructed image.
ii. Off-axis holography
Emmett Leith and Juris Upatnieks of the University of Michigan invented the off-
axis holography in 1962 with a laser source which increased coherence length.
The conjugate image problem of in-line holography was corrected in off-axis
holography. A typical diagram showing off axis holography recording is shown in
Fig. 14.6.
 Holography 851

Figure 14.5 Reconstruction of real and virtual images due to a 3-D object. The virtual and real images
have been formed at the left side and right side of the Gabor's zone plate respectively
as seen by the eye

Figure 14.6 Typical illustration of the basics of off-axis holography

852 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

A part of the monochromatic coherent laser light reflected by the mirror and the
other part reflected by the object are incident on the high resolution photographic
plate producing a complicated interference fringe pattern. When developed, the plate
reveals interference fringes called a hologram. After reconstruction, it produces a 3-D
image which looks exactly like the object. The reconstruction process as described
here is shown in Fig. 14.7.

Figure 14.7 The reconstruction process

The angle b between the scattered light and the reference beam will determine the
quality of the reconstructed image. The distance between consecutive maxima or
minima is known as the pitch p and is given as

λ
p=
sin β

The wavelength for a helium–neon laser is 632.8 nm and if b = 20°, then p = 1.85 mm. The
photographic plate must be capable of resolving the lines that are 1.85 mm apart. The
resolving power of the photographic plate is usually expressed in terms of lines per
millimeter that can be resolved by it. In the present case, the resolving power of the
photographic plate turns out to be 540 lines/mm.
Figure. 14.6 can be varied in a number of ways keeping the basic concept intact. One
such variation is shown in Fig. 14.8.
In this case, the narrow laser beam is expanded by a lens called the beam expander.
Then it is incident on a semi-transparent mirror called a beam splitter which splits
the beam into two parts. One part is reflected by the object and the other part by a
mirror so that both reflected beams interfere with each other on the photographic
plate producing a complicated interference pattern. Thus, an off-axis hologram of the
object is produced.
 Holography 853

Figure 14.8 Reorganization of the set up in Fig. 14.6 with the same basic concepts

14.3 Types of Holograms

There are basically two types of holograms: (i) Reflection holograms and (ii) transmission
holograms.

14.3.1 Reflection holograms

Reflection holograms are the most common types of holograms. White ordinary light is all
that is needed for viewing them. The hologram is illuminated by white light at a specific
angle and distance and located on the viewer’s side of the hologram. Thus, the image is
formed by the light reflected by the hologram. Reflection holograms are made with the
reference beam on the opposite side of the object beam. The fringes that form the image
of a reflection hologram are very closely spaced. The fringe spacing is very less compared
to that of transmission holograms. The very closely spaced fringe patterns require the
recording medium and processing method to be of very high standard. Excellent stability
of the optical system is another essential requirement. Reflection holograms produce
images that are usually dimmer than that of off-axis transmission holograms. Recently, a
particular type of reflection holograms has been made which produces holographic images
that are optically indistinguishable from the original objects even in color. In these types of
reflection holograms, the holographic image of the mirror would reflect white light and the
holographic image of the diamond would sparkle.

14.3.2 Transmission holograms

The explanations for the basic principles of holography that have been discussed till now
are based on the transmission type of holograms. Normally, fringes are spaced 1.0 mm to
854 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

10.0 mm apart and are wider than that of reflection holograms. The processing is therefore
less stringent than in a reflection hologram. Transmission holograms are made with both
reference and object waves on the same side. The typical transmission off-axis hologram
can be viewed only with laser light, usually of the same type used to make the recording.
The transmission of reference beams through the holograms makes images visible to the
eye placed on the other side of the holograms. The virtual image can be very clear and
perspective. The vision of the hologram of a full-size room with people in it, gives the
sensation of looking into the room through a window. If this hologram is broken into small
pieces, one can still see the entire scene through each piece. A real image of a transmission
hologram can also be projected onto a screen. The holograms used in different electronic
cards are actually transmission holograms mirrorized with a layer of aluminum on the
back.

14.3.3 Comparison of transmission and reflection holograms

In the following table, we compare transmission and reflection holograms.

Transmission holograms Reflection holograms

1 Transmission off-axis holograms are not viewable Reflection holograms are viewable in white sun
in white light. light.
2 The optical system usually involves at least a The optical system is simple. The laser beam
beam splitter and a beam spreading lens to obtain is widened with a beam spreading lens and is
object waves and reference waves. incident on the object after passing through a
transparent photosensitive plate.
3 Fringes that form the image of a transmission The fringes that form the image of a reflection
hologram are typically 1.0 mm to 10.0 mm apart. hologram are spaced about half a wavelength
apart, or of the order of 3×10-1 mm.
4 The recording medium and processing methods The recording medium and processing methods
are less stringent because fringes are loosely are very stringent. Closely spaced fringes demand
spaced. high quality recording medium and processing.

5 The image can be very deep if the original Reflection hologram images are usually much
coherent laser light is used for viewing. White dimmer than off-axis transmission holograms.
light cannot be used. These are visible in white light.
6 Transmission holograms may be possible even If the developer is old, reflection holograms will
when old developer is used. be murky.
7 In this case, it is not highly essential that a system In this case, stability of the system against slightest
is stable against the slightest of motions. motions is highly essential.

8 The two waves (reference waves and object Here, the two waves may come from the opposite
waves) incident on the photographic plate comes sides of the photographic plate at angles close to
from the same side of the plate at a relatively small 180°.
angle.
 Holography 855

14.4 White Light Holograms

Till now we have described holograms that produce sharp images only when viewed with
highly monochromatic light. For the sake of completion of the chapter, we need to include
a brief description of white light holograms. The holograms discussed earlier are assumed
to have negligible thickness and are referred to as plane holograms. Reflection holograms
can be viewed in white light.
During the recording of reflection holograms, reference waves and object waves come
from opposite sides of the photographic plate at angles close to 180°. Thus, the resulting
interference pattern is nearly perpendicular to the plane of the film. Therefore, one has
to use a thicker (many times the fringe spacing) photographic emulsion and record the
surfaces of maxima within the volume of the photographic emulsion. In this case, the
interference pattern recorded is truly three-dimensional, with twenty or more hyperboloid
interference surfaces within the emulsion. These surfaces are semi-transparent and semi-
reflecting and are separated consecutively by l/2 distance. Upon development, dark fringe
and bright surfaces become reversed and a variation of refractive index is created within it.
This has been illustrated in Fig. 14.9.

Figure 14.9 Formation of a set of semi-transparent and semi-reflecting hyperboloidal interference

surfaces within thick holograms. The interference fringe pattern is produced by two
monochromatic coherent point sources Q and Q ’. Here the difference between
transmission and reflection holography has also been shown

However, in real life, after developing and drying the plate, the emulsion shrinks from its
original dimensions and the interference surfaces get closer. Therefore, the reflected light
generally has a smaller wavelength.
When it is illuminated by white light beam, some of the light is diffracted backward
from the multiple layers. Due to the multiple reflections from these layers, a complicated
 856 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

interference pattern is formed which carries the whole 3-D visual information about the
object. For each particular angle of incidence satisfying the conditions of interference, out
of the whole continuous spectrum of the white light, only a narrow range of wavelengths
is reflected into the observer’s eye. The proper wavelength to be reflected for each angle of
incidence is automatically selected by the hologram. Thus, we can view the 3-D reflection
holograms with white light, direct sunlight or light coming from a small light bulb.
Therefore, viewing of reflection holograms requires white light, not the same laser light as
the one used to record the hologram.

14.5 Necessity of Laser Source

We know that in holography, sustainable high quality interference fringe patterns are
produced due to the interference of reference waves and object waves and are recorded
on high resolution recording media. The recording and production of sustained stable
interference patterns require that the path difference between various interfering light
waves should always be less than the longitudinal coherence length. The longitudinal
coherence length is very small for ordinary light. In this case, for formation of Gabor’s
zone plate, the object should be placed very close to the photographic plate so that the
path difference is very small. It will give rise to a lot of practical difficulties which make
the formation of Gabor’s zone plate impossible. In reality, the path difference introduced
between different light waves reflected from different points of object is not small and so
the interference pattern cannot be recorded. In the other hand, the longitudinal coherence
length for laser light can be of the order of a few kilometers. Therefore, Gabor’s zone plate
can be formed on high resolution photographic plates placed at a larger distance from the
object. Thus, a hologram cannot be made without a laser source. This is the reason that
laser is needed in holography. It explains why holography did not receive much attention
until lasers were developed.

14.6 Basic Requirements of a Holographic Laboratory

Unlike a photographic laboratory, a holographic laboratory requires special attention. In
the following, the basic requirements of a holographic laboratory have been described.

i. The reconstruction of interference patterns in Gabor's zone plate is possible if they

are stable. Therefore, the maximum path difference between the object wave and the
reference wave should not exceed the coherence length.
ii. The spatial coherence is to be maintained so that the object waves scattered from
different points of the object and reference waves interfere to produce high quality
interference patterns on the photographic plates.
iii. The reconstruction depends on both the wavelength and the position of the
reconstructing source. High resolution of reconstruction is very essential. Therefore,
 Holography 857

the source must not be broad and must emit a narrow band of wavelengths.
iv. Like ordinary photography, holography also suffers from aberrations. The aberration
in reconstruction is least if the reconstruction source is of the same wavelength and is
situated at the same relative position as that during recording time.
v. The stability of all the recording components is highly essential in making fine
holograms. Therefore, the photographic plate, the object, and any mirrors used in
producing the reference beam must be motionless with respect to one another during
exposure. This is possible by mounting the components rigidly to supports attached
to massive granite and marble plates placed on vibration-absorbing base like inflated
rubber tubes or sand bags. Even slightest vibrations, even the fraction of wavelength of
light, affect the recording of fringe patterns on the photographic plate by changing the
optical path lengths. Here in this case, the interference fringes would vibrate during
the exposure time causing a blurring of the recording hologram.
vi. It is natural that the output results would be best if the resolution of the photographic
plate is high, because, it can record the very closely spaced fringe patterns.
vii. The highly coherent light laser for holographic applications should be powerful
enough so that the exposure time is very short.

14.7 Viewing a Hologram

The photographic plate containing the interference fringes is kept under the same identical
surroundings as that during the recording time. When we look at the plate, as shown in the
Figs 14.5 or 14.7, the diffracted waves appear to diverge from the virtual image. The eye
adjusts itself so that a real image is formed on the retina. The image is three-dimensional
as well as perspective. When the observer moves his eyes to different positions, the image
displays different parts of the object because the rays of light entering each eye come from
different points of the fringe pattern on the hologram. Thus, the hologram enables us to see
the object in a different perspective. The observer can even see the object behind an obstacle
by moving his head! When a hologram is broken into many small pieces, the perspective
will be limited and there may be a loss in resolution, but each piece will be a hologram of
the complete object scene!
The real image is formed on the observer’s side at equal distance from the plate as that
of the virtual image. This real image can be captured on a photographic plate placed there.
We can also see it by placing our eyes at a distance distinct from it.

14.8 Difference between Photography and Holography

A hologram differs from a photograph in several ways. A few differences are cited in the
following table.
858 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

Holography Photography
1 Each point in the holographic recording includes Each point in a photograph has light scattered
light scattered from every point in the object. only from a single point in the object.
2 The hologram allows the recorded scene to be viewed The photograph gives only a single view.
from a wide range of angles.
3 The reproduced range of a hologram adds many of The photograph is a flat 2-D representation of
the same depth perception cues that were present in 2-D or 3-D objects.
the original scene, which are again recognized by the
human brain and translated into the same perception
of a three-dimensional image as when the original
scene might have been viewed.
4 The developed hologram surface itself consists of a A photograph clearly maps out the light field
very fine, seemingly random pattern, which appears of the original scene.
to bear no relationship to the scene which it has
recorded.
5 When a hologram is cut into pieces, each part When a photograph is cut into pieces, each
is capable of reconstructing the entire object piece shows only part of the scene.
(Accordingly, the perspective will be limited and
there may be a loss in resolution).
6 Holograms can only be viewed with very specific A photograph can be viewed in a wide range
forms of illumination. of lighting conditions.
7 The hologram cannot be constructed without a laser For photograph recording, laser source is not
source. required at all.
8 By principle, in holography, no lens is required for A lens for focusing purpose is required in
focusing purpose; sometimes, holography is called photography to record the image.
lensless photography.

14.9 Applications of Holography

Holography is a very useful tool which finds applications in many areas, such as commerce,
telecommunication, computers, scientific research, aviation, medicine, and industry; the
list is not exhaustive.

14.9.1 Common applications of holography

In the following, a few common applications of holography have been discussed briefly.
i. Commerce:
Supermarket and department store scanners use a holographic lens system that
directs laser light onto the bar codes of the merchandise. Holograms are used in
advertisements and consumer packaging of products to attract potential buyers. They
have been used on covers of magazine publications
ii. Telecommunication
Holographic telepresence is an evolving technology for full-motion, real time 3-D
video conferencing. The technology will reduce the necessity of travel for meetings
 Holography 859

and facilitate distance education. Work in the direction of holographic telepresence

to bring digital participants and remote locations into 3-D virtual space in real time is
going on. Though holographic telepresence is still in its infancy and cost prohibitive,
it may become a reality within the next few decades.
iii. Computers
Holograms can also be used to store, retrieve, and process information optically. The
holographic storing device operates in three dimensions rather than two dimensions,
thus increasing the storing capacity. The holographic memory cards of the size of a
sugar cube can have the memory of a few hundred terabytes. Moreover, even though
part of a hologram becomes defective or is destroyed, while the remaining part
will still retain all the data intact. The technology could be available in the coming
decade. Holographic optical computers will be capable of delivering trillions of bits of
information faster than the latest computers. Color liquid crystal displays (LCD) can
be brighter and whiter as a result of incorporation of a holographic reflector that will
reflect ambient light to produce whiter background.
iv. Scientific research
Holographic techniques are used in the characterization of materials. A hologram
of an abject can be made before and after it is subjected to stress. The change in the
shape of the object due to that stress is recorded in the holograms. Particle physicists
make holographic records of bubble chambers from which accurate measurements
can be made. Electron holography is a method used to create images from materials at
atomic dimensions. Now-a-days, it is applied in the fields of nanostructured materials,
DRAM capacitor design, high temperature superconductors, characterization of
complex molecules, including catalysts, polymers and different types of electronic
materials.
Holographic technology in combination with actual data of Mars will give scientists
a strolling experience on the planet. Interaction becomes more natural facilitating the
exploration and understanding of theRed Planet.
v. Aviation
Holographic optical elements are used for navigation by airplane pilots. A holographic
image of the cockpit instruments appears to float in front of the windshield. This allows
the pilot to keep his eyes on the runway or the sky while reading the instruments. The
feature is available on some models of automobiles.
vi. Health science
Medical doctors can use three-dimensional holographic CAT scans to make
measurements without invasive surgery. This technique is also used in medical
education.
vii. Industry
All types of industries use holograms to enhance the image of their brands in the
market as genuine and authenticated. The holograms are almost impossible to
counterfeit. They are used for attractive product packaging, security applications
860 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

and so on. Holographic techniques can be incorporated in non-destructive testing

methods to test the product quality. In this method, the hologram of the test specimen
is compared with that of the flawless master specimen. In industrial situations, this can
be used in component testing and quality control. Holographic night vision goggles
and fancy items have been made using of this technology.
viii. Security
The use of holograms on credit cards and debit cards provide added security to
minimize counterfeiting. They are used on tamper-resistant packaging. Few countries
have started using holograms on their currency to stop counterfeiting by fraudulent
people.
ix. Preservation of antiques
Holography has been used to make archival recordings of valuable and/or fragile
museum artifacts. Many museums have made holograms of valuable articles in their
collections, both for insurance purposes and to check for deterioration. The holograms
of national treasures, antiques can be made and send to remote areas, enabling people
there to see and appreciate their national heritage in their local areas without long
travelling. The original items are thus properly preserved, without fear of theft.
x. Photography
Holographic techniques applied to the field of photography are found to be far
superior to ordinary photographic perspective scenery. Holographic technology can
be incorporated in digital cameras to detect the edge of the subject and differentiate
between it and the background. As a result, the camera is able to focus accurately in
dark conditions. Holography has been in use by artists to create pulsed holographic
portraits as well as other works of art.
xi. Television
Holographic motion picture technology was implemented practically in the late
1970s was vastly successful. Work on holographic video is going on. Holographic
television may become a reality within the next few years. Many researchers believe
that truly holographic commercial televisions will become available in the coming
decade. Though true holographic projection that can be viewed from any angle in air
is impossible today, it may be possible in the future.

14.9.2 Application of holographic interferometry

Holographic interferometry is an important technique in experimental physics. The

technique can be applied to the study of quasi-static and quasi-dynamic behavior of objects.
It has been developed rapidly in recent years and will probably find more applications in
engineering in the future. Therefore, the application of holographic interferometry needs
special mention.
Optical interferometry is a powerful tool for measuring very small displacements of
the order of wavelength of light. In the field of interferometry, the concept of holography
 Holography 861

can be exploited both for scientific research and industrial process. It is possible to
record several wave fronts on the same plate and obtain several holograms. We can take
the interference patterns of the object waves and reference waves at different real times,
before and after the object is subjected to external stimuli. The technique is called double-
exposure holographic interferometry. In double-exposure holographic interferometry, two
successive holograms are recorded on the same film with little apparent deterioration in
quality. Here the photographic plate is first partially exposed to the object wave and the
reference wave before the application of external stimuli such as stress, magnetic field,
electric field, heat and so on. Then the interference pattern of the same reference wave
and the object wave from the same object under identical conditions taken on the same
photographic plate is again exposed along with the same reference wave. The photographic
plate after development forms the hologram consisting of two interference patterns. On
reconstruction, it gives two images – one corresponds to the unstressed object and the
other to the stressed object. These changes can be decoded and recorded for future use.

14.9.3 Application of holographic microscopy

The application of holographic microscopy needs special mention. It is also called digital
holographic microscopy or digital holography. Digital holographic microscopy opens
door for quantitative phase contrast imaging, suitable for high resolution investigations.
Though digital holography is based on the normal holographic principle, the recording is
performed by digital image sensors like CCD (charge coupled device) or CMOS camera
instead of photographic plate. The reconstruction process is carried out numerically with a
computer. Readymade softwares are available for the purpose.
The ability of holography to record information about depth finds application in studying
transient microscopic events. These events can be captured on the hologram and one can
leisurely observe through the depth of the reconstructed image at a later time. In traditional
microscopy, it is hard to get a sense of the three-dimensional shape of objects like living
cells. In holographic microscopy, it possible to record the 3-D shape of tiny objects such as
cells in high resolution. This method is clearly powerful and also very cheap. Holographic
microscopy belongs mostly to off-axis holography. Digital holography provides a new
method for surface analysis and dynamic life cell imaging. Therefore, digital holography
finds a wide range of applications in medical science such as cell cultures, cell cycle analysis,
morphology analysis of cells, nerve cell studies, red blood cell analysis, cell division and
migration, tomography studies deep in living tissue and so on.
This is not the be all and end all of holography; it is the beginning. Different types of
holograms are available now-a-days. All the 3-D images available commercially are not
truly holographic. The visual effects produced by lenticular printing, the Pepper’s Ghost
illusion, tomography and volumetric displays give the sensation of holographic images.
The principle of holography is not only limited to electromagnetic waves but can also be
applied to any waves like sound waves, electron waves, and so on. Acoustic holography
using sound waves has become increasingly popular in the field of medical science.
Electron holography has been developed for use in the field of scientific and industrial
862 Principles of Engineering Physics 1

research. In recent years, atomic holography has been developed which produces much
higher resolution holographic images. This is because the de Broglie wavelength of the
atoms is much smaller than that of light. Holographic telepresence may revolutionize the
future world.

Questions

14.1 What is holography? Describe its basic principles

14.2 What is Gabor's zone plate?
14.3 Describe the construction and reconstruction of images in holography.
14.4 Compare ordinary photography with holography.
14.5 Give a comparison between Gabor's zone plate and Fresnel's zone plate.
14.6 Distinguish between in-line holography and off-axis holography.
14.7 Describe the construction and reconstruction of images in off-axis holography.
14.8 What are reflection holograms?
14.9 What are transmission holograms?
14.10 Distinguish between reflection holograms and transmission holograms.
14.11 What are the basic requirements of a holographic laboratory?
14.12 Holograms cannot be produced without laser. Comment on the statement.
14.13 Explain how holography technology can be used in memory cards
14.14 Mention a few examples of the application of holography techznology in scientific
research.
14.15 Write a few lines about holographic telepresence.
14.16 Explain how the use of holograms can help to prevent counterfeiting of currency.
14.17 Explain the basis principle of holographic interferometry.
14.18 Distinguish between digital holography and ordinary holography.
14.19 What are the advantages of digital holography over ordinary holography
14.20 Write an essay about the future use of holography technique.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which parameters of light are recorded in holography

(i) Intensities (ii) Phases
(iii) Speed (iv) Both (i) and (ii)
2. Holography was discovered by
(i) Dennis Gabor (ii) Huygens
(iii) Newton (iv) Einstein
 Holography 863

3. Through holography technology, we can produce

(i) One-dimensional image (ii) Two-dimensional image
(iii) Three-dimensional image (iv) Four-dimensional image
4. Holography produces
(i) real images (ii) virtual images
(iii) Both (i) and (ii) (iv) none of the above
5. A recorded holographic plate contains information in the patterns of
(i) Reflection–refraction (ii) Interference
(iii) Diffraction (iv) Polarization
6. In holography, interference pattern is produced due to superposition of
(i) Object wave (ii) Reference wave
(iii) Both (i) and (ii) (iv) none of the above
7. If a hologram breaks into pieces, then each piece contains
(i) Total image (ii) No image
(iii) Parts of the image (iv) Nothing
8. Holography is capturing pictorial details of 3-D objects by using the principle of
(i) Diffraction (ii) Interference
(iii) Refraction (iv) Total internal reflection
9. In holography, there-dimensional image of an object may be reproduced
(i) By using convex lens (ii) By using concave lens
(iii) By using double convex lens (iv) Without using lens
10. In holography, we record
(i) Only the phase of different parts of the object
(ii) Only the intensity from different parts of the object
(iii) Both the phase and intensity from different parts of the object
(iv) None of the above

Answers

1 (iv) 2 (i) 3 (iii) 4 (iii) 5 (ii) 6 (iii) 7 (i) 8 (ii)

9 (iv) 10 (iii)
 Bibliography

Symon, Keith R. 1971. Mechanics 3rd Edition. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing

Company Inc.
Resnick, R. and D Halliday. 1962. Physics (Part I and II) 2nd Edition. New Delhi: Wiley
Eastern Limited.
Jenkins, F. A. and H. E. White. 1981. Fundamentals of Optics 4th Edition. Tokyo: McGraw-
Hill Ltd.
Ghatak, A. 1992. Optics 2nd Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hilsl Publishing Company
Limited.
Mathur, B. K. 1982. Principle of Optics 3rd Edition. Kanpur: Gopal Printing Press.
Hayt, W. H. 1981. Engineering Electromagnetics 4th Edition. , Tokyo: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
Sadiku, M. N. O. 2006. Elements of Electromagnetics 3rd Edition. , New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
Theory and Problems of Electromagnetics. 1979 Schaum’s Outline series, New York:
McGraw-Hill Inc.
Reitz, J. R., F. J. Milford, R. W. Christy. 1979. Foundation of Electromagnetic Theory 3rd
Edition. New Delhi: Narosa Publishing House.
Beiser, A. 1995. Concepts of Modern Physics 5th Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited.
Powell, J. L. and B. Crasemann. 1961. Quantum Mechanics. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH
Publishing Company.
Weber, R. L., K. V. Manning, M. W. White, G. A. Weygand. 1977. College Physics 5th
Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
 Index

Accelerating tube, 807, 810–811, 813 Average value, 28, 115, 283, 475–477, 598, 623,
Accelerator, 808 833
Cockcroft-Walton, 808, 811, 815
D.C accelerators, 808–809, 811 Balmer series, 594–595
Drift Tube Linear, 818–819, 821 Beat, 70, 80
Linear, 809, 818–819, 821 Beat frequency,
Tandem, 816–817 Bel, 750
Van de Graaff, 808–809, 811, 813, 815–816 Betatron, 808, 818, 828–829, 831–833
Acoustics, 736–737, 743, 747, 749, 753, 756, 779 Biaxial crystal optic axis,
Acoustic, 753–754, 756–760, 770–771, 773, 779– Black body radiation, 550–551
781, 786, 861 Bohr’s atom model, 587
Decoupling, 753–754 Boltzmann constant, 553
Filters, 756 Borescopes, 786
grating, 770–771 Brackett series, 595–596
quieting, 753–754, 756 Brewster’s, 509
alpha particle bombardment experiment, angle, 509–510
Ampere’s circuital law, 406–408, 411, 417 law, 279
Amplitude, 2, 6, 7, 10, 14–15, 20, 24 30–32, 41–
43, 78, 103–104, 107, 163, 188, 335, 607, 797 Cavitation, 754–755, 770, 773–775, 777–778, 782
Analyzer, 273, 277, 282–283, 290–291, 306, 308– Circular fringe, 133, 139, 165–166, 168–169, 847
309, 333, 335–337 Circularly polarized light, 277, 314–316, 328
Anechoic rooms, 744 Circulation, 355, 749, 832
Anomalous dispersion, 69 Coherent source, 105–106, 158–159
Architectural acoustics, 736–737, 743 Compton, 551, 568–569, 571–572, 574–575, 602
Attenuation, 47, 482, 484, 520, 524, 532, 756– effect, 568, 572, 574–575
757, 793 shift, 571–572
Constant, 482, 757 wavelength, 571
Factor, 47, 482 Coupled oscillators, 36–37
868 Index

Critical, 306 Electric, 419

angle, 306, 534, 536 Displacement, 419, 430, 432–433, 487
damping, 14 energy density, 447, 450
Crossed nicol prisms, 306 field, 50, 275, 354–355, 387–388, 390–401,
Crystallographic axis, 288 410, 413, 415–417, 430, 451, 454, 460, 464–
Curl, 368–370, 376, 407, 415, 431, 455, 460, 462 465, 478, 480, 488, 806, 813, 818–820
Current density, 407, 418, 429, 455, 458, 480, field intensity, 387–388, 390–401, 410, 416,
653, 655 430, 451, 454, 478, 820
Cut off frequency, 485 Electromagnetic, 1, 51, 67,99, 274, 285, 355, 403,
Cyclotron, 808, 818, 822, 824–825, 827–829, 839 413, 417, 427, 429–430, 447, 449–451, 454,
cyclotron frequency, 825 460–461, 464, 466, 473, 478, 480, 487–488,
510, 512, 524, 534, 550–551, 568, 607, 789–
Davisson-Germer experiment, 551 790, 846, 861
De broglie waves, 576, 578–579, 690 energy density, 447, 450–451
Dead rooms, 744 power density, 451–452
Decibel scale, 749 testing, 788–789
Degree of polarization, 281, 510 Electron Accelerators, 827
Depth of sea, 532, 775–776 Electrostatic potential, 454, 456
Dextrorotary, 323 Elliptically polarized light, 277, 317–319
Dielectric, 277, 388, 474, 488, 490, 495, 497, 499, Emissivity, 562
501, 512, 813, 838 Energy eigenvalues, 618, 621, 625, 690–691
Coefficient, 474 Energy of simple harmonic oscillator, 4–7
constant, 474 Ether, 98–100, 703–705, 707
strength, 813 Excited state, 590, 593, 610
Differential operator, 354, 617 Expectation value, 622–626, 633, 692
Diffraction, 102–104, 106, 186–188, 215, 220–
221, 226–227, 231, 234, 237–239, 241–242, Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
260–263, 272, 551, 576, 582–584, 599–600, 413–415, 417
606, 770–772, 847 Ferromagnetics, 766–767
Diffraction bands, 186 Field, 397
Diffusivity, 49 Electric, 397–399
Dispersion, 66, 69, 256–257, 513, 774–775, 777 Magnetic, 50, 354, 401, 405, 413, 430, 447,
Relation, 513 452, 520, 833
Power, 256 First order focal length, 204
Displacement current, 417–420, 513, 531 First order focus, 204–205
Divergence of a vector field, 364–365, 373 Fluorescent dye, 787–788
Double refraction, 285–287, 290–294, 297 Flux, 415
Doubly refracting crystals, 286–287, 293–294 Density, 415, 655–656, 661–662, 665, 673–
Dye penetrant testing, 786–787 674, 676, 685, 687
of the vector field, 364, 365
Echelon effect, 737, 747–748 Focussing, 747–748
Echo velocity, 793 Forced vibrations, 21, 24, 30
Eddy current testing, 786, 789–790 Frame of reference
Eigenfunctions, 618–619, 621, 625, 633, 692 Inertial, 701–702, 707, 715, 720
Eigenvalue equation, 619–620 Non-inertial, 702
Eigenvalues, 618–622, 625, 633, 690–692 Fraunhofer’s diffraction, 182, 187, 227
Einstein’s principles of relativity, 707 Free particle, 578–580, 618, 647–648
 Index 869

Frequency, 1–4, 7, 11, 30, 32, 34, 37, 40, 66, 76, in-line holography, 850
78, 82, 284, 314, 316–318, 323, 478, 485, 556, Intercept sonar, 781
576, 748, 791–793, 808, 810, 825, Intrinsic impendance, 469, 495, 513
Fresnel’s, 186 Irrotational, 370
Assumptions, 187 Isotropy, 707–708
Diffraction, 186, 227
Equations, 227, 495–496, 500, 518 Lamellar vector field, 362, 369
half period zones, 190, 193, 196, 198, 202, Laplace equation, 455
204–206, 208–209 Laplacian operator, 49, 361
equation in conducting medium Laurent half shade, 333
Fringe Length contraction, 712
width Levo-rotary, 322–323, 330, 337
constant thickness, 127, 168 Light vectors, 272, 274–275, 277–278, 281, 284–
285
Gabor’s, 847 Line integral, 355, 368–369, 376, 406, 413
Hologram, 847 Logarithmic decrement, 15
zone plate, 847–850, 856 Longitudinal wave, 50, 52, 59, 61–62, 99, 272–
Galilean transformation, 702–703, 707 273, 278, 285
Galton’s whistle, 764–765 Lorentz , 454
Gamma function, 560 Force, 454, 824, 832
Gauss divergence theorem, 373 gauge condition, 463–464
Gauss’s law, 387–388, 398, 418 transformation, 702, 707, 710–711, 715, 720,
Gaussian surface, 387–397, 399–400 725–726
Gradient, 361–362, 369, 454–455, 462 transformation equations, 710–711
Grating element, 232, 234, 260, 263 Loss tangent,
Green’s theorem, 379 Loudness, 747–748, 756
Ground state energy, 602–604, 691 Lyman series, 594
Group speed, 67, 579–580
Magnetic, 447
Harmonic motion, 1, 4, 7–8, 14–15, 39, 41, 568 energy density, 447, 450
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 72–74, 598– flux, 357, 402–403, 406, 409, 413, 415–
599, 606 417, 767, 788, 828–829, 831–834
Heisenberg’s gamma ray microscope, 601 induction, 357, 401–403, 406–413, 415, 417,
Holography, 846–847, 849–850, 853, 856–862 420–421, 432, 455, 461, 487, 807, 824, 828–
Hooke’s law of elasticity, 2 829, 832–834
Hunt hall, 736 intensity, 407, 416
Huygens’ principle, 98–99, 101, 103–104, 186– particle testing, 786, 788
187 scalar potential, 454–455
Hyperbolic fringe, 122–123 vector potential, 455–458
Magnetostriction oscillator, 766
Incident flux density, 655–656, 661–662, 665, Malus’s law, 282
673, 685 Mass, 726
Inclination factor, 102, 192 Variation, 726
Indeterminacy principle, 72 energy equivalence, 726
Inertial frame of reference, 701–702, 715 Massless particles, 729–730
Infinity deep potential energy, 687 Matter waves, 576, 580, 606–607
Infrasonic, 764, 779
870 Index

Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations, 427, 430, particle accelerator, 805, 822

432, 447 particle collider, 805
Mean position, 1–2, 5–6, 48, 50, 79–80 particles, 36–37, 48–50, 52–53, 55–56, 59, 62, 70,
Michelson–morley experiment, 703, 707 72, 76, 79, 80, 82–83, 99–100, 103–104, 272,
Mufflers 370, 478, 480, 550–551, 569, 572, 575–580,
Absorptive, 756–758 583, 586–587, 599, 606–608, 618, 648, 650,
Reactive, 756–758 652–656, 659, 661, 663–665, 667, 691, 701,
720, 729, 730, 732, 776–778, 788, 793, 805–
Negative, 286 806, 808–811, 818, 822, 826, 828, 836
Crystal, 286–287 Paschen series, 595
Negative zone plate, 197, 204, 207–209 Penetrant, 786–787, 801
Newton’s, 127 Performance Index, 808
Rings, 127, 134, 137, 140, 143, 154–155, 168, Periodic motion, 1, 52
197, 847 Pfund series, 596
second law, 38, 632–633 Phase, 66
Nicol prism, 305–307, 315–319, 333 constant, 66, 103, 106, 107, 108, 115
Non- factor, 482, 485
destructive evaluation, 785 velocity, 66–69
destructive inspection, 785 Photoelectric effect, 550–551, 563, 565, 568,
destructive testing, 785, 790, 801, 860 574–575
lamellar vector fields, 369 Piezoelectric
Normal dispersion, 69 crystal, 771, 793
Normalization, 612, 620, 689 electric detector, 769
Normalization constant, 612, 620, 689 effect, 767, 795
Normalized wave function, 609, 612–613, 620, oscillator, 767
623 pitch, 852
Nuclear Accelerators, 805, 808, 837, 838 Plane, 231
diffraction grating, 231, 237, 242
Obliquity factor, 102, 192 electromagnetic wave, 464, 481
Observables, 73, 617 monochromatic wave, 464–465, 847–848
off-axis holography, 849–850, 861 of incidence, 275, 277–278, 281, 288, 294,
One-dimensional problems, 646 296–304, 492–493, 495, 497–499, 508, 510,
Operators, 617, 619 516, 520, 523–524
Optical of polarization, 275–277, 287, 291, 322, 510
Activity, 321 of reflection, 275
Rotation, 321, 323, 325, 328, 330 of refraction, 275, 282
Orbital speed, 588–589, 706 of vibration,272, 275–277, 296, 299, 301,
Oscillation 303, 306, 322–325, 327, 333–335, 337, 510
Harmonic, 1–2, 6, 10, 21, 24, 30, 33, 37, polarized light, 276–277, 281, 283, 305, 315–
44, 56, 479 316, 318, 322–323, 324–325, 327, 333–335,
Critical, 13 510
Overdamped Planck’s, 72
underdamped constant, 72, 567, 599
Oscillatory systems, 1 radiation law, 554, 557–558
Plasma, 478
Pair production, 551, 574 angular frequency, 478, 480, 483–486
Parallel Nicol Prisms, 307 state, 478
 Index 871

Point function, 355 Qualiron, 798

Polarimeter, 332–333, 335–337 Quality factor, 20–21, 33–34
Polarization, 290 Quantization, 690
by double refraction, 290–291 of de broglie wavelengths, 690
by reflection, 277, 282 of energy, 690
by scattering, 284 Quantum physics, 549–550, 575, 586, 593, 606–
circular, 272 607, 622, 646, 655, 661, 665, 673
elliptical, 272 Quarter-wave plate, 312–313, 318–319
Polarizer, 273, 277, 282–283, 306–307, 333, 336– Quieting, 756
337
Polarizing angle, 277–279, 280–282 R.F accelerators, 808–818
Positive, 287 Radiographic testing, 790
crystal, 287 Rayleigh-jeans law, 557–558
zone plate, 197, 204–206, 208–209 Reconstruction of images, 861
Potential, 4–5, 7, 25, 355, 362, 454–456, 458, Reflected flux density, 655–656, 662, 665, 676,
461–464, 565–567, 583, 589, 618, 624, 633, 687
647–652, 659, 661, 664, 665-667, 687–688, Reflection, 508
691–692, 778, 786, 796, 806, 810–820, 823– coefficient, 508, 524, 656, 665, 676, 687
824, 858 holograms, 853–856
Poynting, 454 of wave, 57
theorem, 454 probability, 665, 676
vector, 451–452, 469, 475–476 Refraction of wave, 60
Primary, 204 Refractive index, 112, 129, 132, 137, 155, 156,
focal length, 204 157, 161, 163, 169, 279, 281, 293–294, 298,
focus, 204 304–306, 309, 328, 474, 484–485, 513, 515,
Principal, 226 658, 686, 855
diffraction maximum, 226 Relative, 467
plane of extraordinary ray, 288, 296, 299, 301, permeability, 474
303 permittivity, 474
plane of ordinary ray Resonance, 30–34, 737, 747, 749, 755, 759, 765,
quantum number, 550, 588, 594–596, 691 768, 825, 828
section of a crystal, 288, 296, 301, 303 Resonant, 30
Principle amplitude, 31–32
of complementarity, 584 frequency, 30–32, 766
of superposition, 76–77, 79, 108 Reverberant rooms, 744
Probability density, 583–584, 608, 653, 655, 663, Reverberation, 737–738, 742–743, 746–747
673, 684, 692 Reverberation time, 737-738, 742–743, 746, 749
Progressive wave, 48, 50, 52–53, 56 Rotary power, 329, 330, 333, 337–338
Propagation, 481 ROV, 781
constant, 481–483, 485–486 Rutherford’s atom model, 586–587
vector, 49, 466, 469, 492, 510, 513, 515–516, Rydberg’s constant, 592
531, 571
Pulse S.G. cast irons, 798
velocity Sabine, 737–738, 743, 745–746
echo system, 795 Sabine’s formula, 738, 746
872 Index

Sacharimeter, 332, 336 Synchrocyclotron, 828

Scalar field, 354–355, 361–362, 365, 369 Synchrotrons, 828
Scalar potential field, 362
Schrödinger’s, 632 teraelectron volt, 805
time-dependent equation, 632 Thin rod velocity
time-independent equation, 633, 651, 659, Threshold frequency, 565–566
664, 667–681, 688 Time dilation, 713, 720
Schuster’s method, 194, 261 Time period, 2, 4, 7–8, 15, 20, 44, 52–53, 56, 190,
Sharpness of resonance, 32–33 482, 576, 824–825, 833
Signalling, 776 Torpedoes, 780
Silencers, 756 Total internal reflection, 103, 305, 534–535
Simultaneity, 714–715 Transmission, 508
Skin depth, 525, 531–532 coefficient, 508, 524, 656, 673–674, 676, 685
Snell’s law, 131, 280, 293–294, 492, 500, 515, 534 holograms, 853–854
Solenoidal vector field, 365 probability, 656, 673–674, 676, 685
Solenoidal, 365 Transmitted flux density, 655–656, 662, 685
Solid angle, 287, 739 Transverse, 50, 52, 57, 60, 466–467
Sonar, 753–754, 779–782 wave, 57–58, 60, 99, 133, 138, 272–273, 278,
Sonograms, 779 447, 467
Sonography, 779 wave velocity
Sound, 744 Traveling wave, 48
absorption, 744–745 Tunnel effect, 667
absorption coefficient, 744–745
pressure level, 750 Ultrasonic, 764, 769–770, 773–775
refraction, 756 drills, 776
Soundproofing, 758–759 radiation, 770
source of the ions, 807 testing, 786, 791–792
Specific, 329 wet-milling and grinding, 776
inductive capacity, 474 Ultrasound, 764, 770, 773–779
rotation, 329–330, 333, 336–337–339 uncertainty principle, 70, 72, 598–599, 602
Spectral lines, 587, 593–594 Classical, 70
Speed of light, 474, 495, 576, 579, 583, 703, 707, quantum mechanical
709, 715, 726, 826, 834 Uniaxial crystal, 288, 294–295, 297–303
Standard reverberation time, 737, 742 Uuv, 781
Stationary waves, 48, 53, 56, 78, 79, 771
Stefan’s, 561 Vector field, 354–355, 357, 362, 364, 365, 368,
constant, 559, 561 369, 373, 405, 415
fourth power law, 559 vibrations, 275
Stoke’s theorem, 376, 415 parallel, 275, 281
Stopping potential, 565–567 perpendicular, 275, 281
Submarine navigation, 780 Visual and optical testing, 786
Superposition, 76 Visual display units, 796
of waves, 76, 85–86, 581 voltage multiplier circuit, 810
principle, 85, 584, 612 Volume integral, 355, 359, 373, 379
Surface integral, 355, 357, 364, 373, 376, 379, 387 Vorticity, 369
 Index 873

Wave, 48 551, 554–555, 558–559, 561–563, 571–572,

equation, 48–50, 76–79, 460–464, 473, 481, 576–577, 580, 582–583, 593–596, 598–599,
513, 531, 632, 634 601–602
packet, 64–69, 583, 598, 606–607 White light Holograms, 855
Wavefront, 66, 99–102, 106–107, 159, 186, 187– Wien’s, 557
188, 190, 196, 198, 201–209, 2150–216, 231, displacement law, 558
286–287, 293–304, 464 Wien’s radiation law, 557
Wavelength, 53, 56, 60, 65–66, 68–70, 73, 98, Work function, 567
107, 110, 116–117, 153, 155, 158, 160, 163,
169–170, 186, 188, 198, 215, 218, 221, 225– Zero point energy, 691
226, 231, 240–242, 256–257, 260–261, 263, Zone plate, 197–198, 203–210, 847–850, 856
277, 305, 322–323, 329, 333, 336, 447, 550–