Research into practice Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.

au/literacy

The Research into practice

series is being produced by Understanding the Reading Process
the DECS Literacy Secretariat
Deslea Konza, Associate Professor, Faculty of Education and Arts, Edith Cowen University, Western Australia
to foreground current research
and implications for practice.
This first paper focuses upon the
recent research that underpins Introduction
‘the Big Six’ components that
support learning to read Learning to read is the most important educational outcome of primary education. Reading is a complex
identified by Deslea Konza. process that builds on oral language facility, and encompasses both specific skill development (phonemic and
decoding strategies) and the use of comprehension strategies. The precise ways in which these processes
combine need to be understood if teachers are to identify their students’ needs and teach them most effectively.
Over the past four decades, numerous large-scale reviews of research into the effective teaching of reading
have occurred in North America, Britain and Australia in an attempt to provide definitive and evidence-based
guidelines for education systems (Adams, 1990; Anderson, 1985; Chall, 1967, 1996; DEST, 2005; NICHD,
2000; Rose, 2006). There is a compelling consistency in the findings and recommendations of these meta-
analyses. This paper brings together those findings within a framework containing six major components.
While it is somewhat perilous to reduce a complex behaviour such as reading into a small number of
component parts, for the purposes of clarity and ease of understanding, the framework is offered here
as one way of synthesising the major findings of an enormous number of empirical studies into the
components of an effective reading program.
Each of the following six components will be expanded in future papers that will provide key messages
and strategies for classroom implementation.

The Big Six

1. Oral language development and early literacy experiences
About 98% of human teaching and learning is mediated
Children who are surrounded by – or passes though – language.
by, and included in, rich (Manzo, Manzo & Thomas, 2006, p. 616)
and increasingly complex
conversations, have an Oral language provides the foundation for learning to read, and is related to overall reading achievement
overwhelming advantage in throughout primary and secondary schooling (Snow et al., 1995; Wise et al, 2007). From the moment of birth,
vocabulary development, in a child is immersed in an environment that will have an immense impact on his or her long-term facility with
understanding the structures of oral and written language. Children who are surrounded by, and included in, rich and increasingly complex
language, and in tuning into the conversations, have an overwhelming advantage in vocabulary development, in understanding the structures
sounds of the English language. of language, and in tuning into the sounds of the English language. Oral language is important for both reading
Oral language is important for and writing. To understand language at the printed level oral language competency is a necessity. Children
both reading and writing need strong vocabularies to understand the broad range of words in texts; they require strong grammatical
skills to understand the complex sentences present in many texts; and they require the ability to reason and
infer so that the necessary links between information in texts can be made.

Research into practice August 2010 | 1

 Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.au/literacy

Experiences with books and other forms of print, and seeing people reading and writing as part of their
everyday lives also prepares children for reading. Children are not born with the knowledge that marks on
a page can represent language; that we read English from left to right, and from the top of the page down,
or even the way to open a book. This awareness develops gradually from a very young age if young children
observe people around them reading for pleasure and for a variety of other purposes, opening and closing
books, turning pages, and responding to what they read. And if young children are fortunate enough to have
stories read to them, and if individual words are pointed out as the stories are read, the process by which
spoken language is transformed into written language becomes apparent. Some children also learn much
more – they begin to recognise what print looks like, how letters differ from punctuation, and to identify
some letters and commonly-occurring letter patterns.
Experiences with books and
other forms of print, and seeing Unfortunately not all children have the benefit of a language-rich and print-rich environment. These children
people reading and writing as enter school at a significant disadvantage. They will be further disadvantaged if this is not understood and
part of their everyday lives also acknowledged by their school.
prepares children for reading.
All young children need a stimulating language environment at school, but for children from less literacy-rich
backgrounds, the need is urgent and paramount.

2. Phonological awareness, especially phonemic awareness

Faced with an alphabetic script, the child’s level of
phonemic awareness on entering school may be the
single most powerful determinant of the success she
or he will experience in learning to read and of the
likelihood that she or he will fail.
(Adams, 1990, p. 304)

Phonological awareness is a broad term that refers to the ability to focus on the sounds of speech as opposed
to its meaning, and it has a number of different levels or components. It is the realisation that a continuous
stream of speech can be separated into individual words, that those words can also be broken up into one
or more syllables, and that syllables are made up of separate, single sounds.
The most significant of these components for reading development is awareness of the individual sounds or
phonemes, that is, phonemic awareness. The phonemic awareness of preschool children is the single best
predictor of their future reading ability, better than either SES or IQ (Adams, 1990; Bowey, 2005; Ehrie et al,
2001, Snow et al, 1998; Stanovich & Stanovich, 2003; Wasik, 2001). Being able to blend together and to
segment phonemes are the most crucial phonemic skills for reading and spelling.
Some children find it very difficult to hear the separate phonemes because the continuous nature of speech
compresses them into a series of overlapping sounds through a process called coarticulation. Speech must
be rapid and continuous to be comprehensible, and coarticulation facilitates this process. Even in a very
lengthy series of words, the gaps disappear, and the message is delivered in a smooth and seamless manner.
Most children’s early oral However, while making it easy for the listener, coarticulation disguises the underlying segmental nature of
language and literacy experiences speech. To detect separate phonemes, the ability to “pull apart” the process of coarticulation to perceive speech
help them tune into the sounds as a series of separate sounds is required. If children cannot hear the separate sounds, they cannot relate
of their language, and prepare those sounds to letters – an enormous stumbling block in learning to read and spell an alphabetic language.
them for leaning to read. For Most children’s early oral language and literacy experiences help them tune into the sounds of their language,
many children this might begin and prepare them for leaning to read. For many children this might begin with nursery games or rhyming games.
with nursery games or rhyming The ability to recognise and produce rhymes is an early indication that children are developing phonemic
games. The ability to recognise awareness. Most children readily learn the meaning of the word cat and can relate that word to a small furry
and produce rhymes is an early animal – the extent to which they can recognise and produce rhyming words such as mat, fat and sat, and
indication that children are break the word up into the sounds c-at and eventually c-a-t reflects their developing phonological skills. They
developing phonemic awareness. are then ready for the next important step. Children without these core experiences will have much greater
difficulty identifying the separate sounds in words, and further difficulties when faced with translating those
sounds into an alphabetic script. Sound phonemic awareness skills prepare children to step into the next stage.

2 | Research into practice August 2010

Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.au/literacy

3. Letter-sound knowledge (phonics) and word knowledge

In summary, deep and thorough knowledge of letters,
spelling patterns and words …are of inescapable
importance to both skilful reading and its acquisition.
(Adams, 1990, p. 416)

Once children understand that words can be broken up into a series of sounds, they need to learn the
relationship between those sounds and letters – the “alphabetic code” or the system that the English
language uses to map sounds onto paper. There is no way to bypass the decoding step in the reading
process. An understanding of the predictable relationship between sounds and the letters that represent
them (graphemes) is at the heart of reading an alphabetic language. This letter-sound relationship
is referred to as the alphabetic principle, or more commonly, phonics.

How and when to teach phonics ...the research literature makes

it very clear that children should
Most teachers and researchers now agree that phonic elements need to be taught as part of a beginning be using their newly developing
reading program, but debate continues around how and when they should be taught. The empirical evidence phonic skills in the context of
currently available supports a synthetic approach to teaching phonics for beginning and struggling readers motivating connected text as
(Johnston & Watson, 2003, 2005; NICHD, 2000; DEST, 2005; Rose, 2006). A synthetic approach teaches the soon as possible and that they
single letters and common letter combinations in a discrete, systematic and explicit manner, and in an order should continue to have high
that facilitates blending (synthesising) from the first weeks of formal schooling. The early blending component quality texts read to them.
is critical and begins as soon as the children know letters that can be blended into simple vowel-consonant
(vc) or consonant-vowel-consonant (cvc) words. As the letter-sound relationships are learned, they are
practised in easy decodable text. This step is most important for children who do not pick up these relationships
quickly, but in fact most beginning readers benefit from immediate practice of their new skills to build
automaticity and confidence.
The recommendation to use such resources is not to suggest that children should not read other types of texts.
In fact, the research literature makes it very clear that children should be using their newly developing phonic
skills in the context of motivating connected text as soon as possible and that they should continue to have
high quality texts read to them.
The teaching of letter-sound knowledge also includes quite sophisticated content such as affixes, Greek and
Latin roots, and the teaching of spelling rules – essentially word structure. Learning the structure of words
at the syllable and morpheme levels supports word recognition, spelling, and vocabulary development. These
later elements of phonic knowledge can be taught in a more embedded or analytic manner, because the
important principles of blending and segmenting are secured early, and are easily transferred. This more
complex teaching can extend into middle and upper primary school.
Some teachers have concerns that a recommendation to explicitly teach letter-sound knowledge detracts from
a “balanced approach”. Explicit phonics instruction is essential for most beginning and all struggling readers,
but should always be combined with the many other elements of an effective reading program, such as rich
oral language instruction, and modelled and guided reading. Explicit and systematic phonics instruction
should never, for example, take more time in a day than other elements of the literacy program, but it must
be addressed – it is acknowledged as “necessary but not sufficient”. The essence of a balanced approach is
providing the fundamental elements of instruction that children need so they have the best possible chance of
becoming independent readers. It is true that some children readily acquire the skills of independent reading These words must be learned
when exposed to embedded or analytical approaches to phonics teaching, but If “balanced” is interpreted as to the point of automaticity,
offering all children only an embedded approach to phonics instruction, those most in need will be further that is, learned so well that
disadvantaged (DEST, 2005; NICHD, 2000; Rose, 2006). the visual patterns of these
words are stored in the
The other part of letter-sound knowledge – sight words children’s visual memories
or mental lexicons, and thus
While phonic instruction is necessary to help children become independent readers, it will not help them immediately recognised when
when they encounter irregular or “sight” words such as said, was and saw. Unfortunately these words are encountered in text.
some of the most frequent words in the English language, and those that young children meet very early in
their literacy journey. These words must be learned to the point of automaticity, that is, learned so well that
the visual patterns of these words are stored in the children’s visual memories or mental lexicons, and thus
immediately recognised when encountered in text. Rapid retrieval of whole words from the mental lexicon

Research into practice August 2010 | 3

 Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.au/literacy

is where comprehension starts, and the larger the pool of words in a child’s mental lexicon, the better
equipped he will be to comprehend what he is reading. Sight words should also be taught explicitly and
systematically, rather than attempting to teach them when encountered in text. The latter method means
that children are trying to focus on one word among many, and in the context of a story – it is actually more
efficient and easier for most children, especially those children who are struggling, to learn these words
initially as a separate and discrete exercise.
Recognising words in isolation, however, does not necessarily mean that they will be recognised as quickly in
connected text (Ehri, 1997). For this reason, it is very important to give children regular practice of their newly
learned words in context. To repeat an important point – initial instruction in these skills should not be completely
embedded in reading, as this has not been found to be as effective as explicit teaching (Snow, Burns & Griffin,
1998) but once explicitly taught, sight words need immediate consolidation and practice in text.

The importance of automaticity

The goal of teaching letter-sound knowledge – both phonics and sight words – to the point of automaticity is
rapid word recognition. It is of great importance for fluency and understanding that common letter combinations
and sight words are not only learned, but that they are learned so well that they are recognised immediately.
When an unknown word appears in text, children will feel more confident if parts of that word are immediately
recognised. This greatly increases the likelihood that the whole words will be successfully decoded, and
eventually that the whole words are recognised on sight. Reading comprehension starts with the immediate
and accurate recognition of words as this allows the reader to concentrate on the meaning of the text rather
than on decoding.

Vocabulary is a key component 4. Vocabulary

of reading for meaning. If children
know the meaning of a word, Vocabulary is a principal contributor to comprehension,
they are far more likely to be fluency, and achievement. Vocabulary development
able to read it and make sense is both an outcome of comprehension and a precursor
of it within a sentence. to it, with word meanings making up as much as
70–80% of comprehension.
(Bromley, 2007, p.528)

Although the relationship between vocabulary and reading comprehension was recognised many decades ago
(Davis, 1944; Thurstone, 1946; Singer, 1965; Spearitt, 1972), it was the Report of the National Reading Panel
(NICHD, 2000) that more recently refocused teachers’ attention on the importance of vocabulary to reading
acquisition and comprehension.
Vocabulary is a key component of reading for meaning. If children know the meaning of a word, they are
far more likely to be able to read it and make sense of it within a sentence. For example, assume the words
demand and disturb are within the oral vocabulary of a young reader and he has mastered basic decoding
If they are being read to regularly, skills. If he encounters the sentence “Tom’s teacher demanded to know what had caused the disturbance”,
they will also learn a more he will almost certainly be able to decode and process the meaning of the words demanded and disturbance.
“literate” vocabulary. If the reader is not familiar with the meaning of those words, the sentence will be largely incomprehensible,
even if some decoding attempt can be made. And this will be the case for every sentence the child tries
to read – word knowledge contributes in a major way to reading comprehension.
Vocabulary is, for the most part, learned indirectly through repeated exposures to new words in conversations,
by listening to stories, by reading and through the media (Senechal, 1997). Exposure to words in meaningful
contexts is enough to make their meaning clear and so the process of vocabulary acquisition occurs (Nelson
& Van Meter, 2006). Different groups of children, however, have very different outcomes from learning via
these indirect routes.
Some children arrive at school as highly competent vocabulary users. “Typically developing” children are able
to absorb words easily. They find learning new words easy and immersion approaches will be successful for
them. These children are more likely to acquire the skills of reading easily, whereupon they can begin to read
for themselves and build an even stronger vocabulary. Other children, however, come to school with small
vocabularies and they are often not efficient in learning new words.

4 | Research into practice August 2010

Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.au/literacy

Those children who come from rich literate backgrounds will have the benefit of being exposed to a wider
and richer vocabulary and so will gradually learn the meaning of many words through this process. If they
are being read to regularly, they will also learn a more “literate” vocabulary. Children from less rich literacy
backgrounds will hear a far more restricted range of words (Biemuller, 2005); have less access to the
vocabulary of books, will consequently be more likely to have difficulty acquiring the skills of reading,
and less opportunity to use their own reading skills to develop their vocabulary further.
Relying on indirect avenues of vocabulary development alone is not enough to help close the gap between
different groups of children. Fortunately, there is now evidence that direct instruction is effective for vocabulary
learning (Beck & McKeown, 2007; Tomeson & Aarnoutse, 1998; Rinaldi, Sells & McLaughlin, 1997), and this is
required if children from less advantaged backgrounds are going to make substantial gains in this important
area – in fact, direct instruction of vocabulary has been found to add to the vocabulary growth of all children
(see Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2008, p.4 for a brief discussion of related research).
While the vocabulary demands of secondary school rise dramatically as students are faced with extensive
content-area vocabulary, primary school is the place where a rich store of words useful across many contexts While the vocabulary demands
needs to be developed. This requires “rich and robust” (Beck & McKeown, 2002) vocabulary development of secondary school rise
that extends far beyond the typical dictionary definition or “use it in a sentence” exercises. It requires careful dramatically as students are
choice of words for instruction, and strategies that develop deep understanding, regular use, and an increasing faced with extensive content-
“word consciousness” in all students. area vocabulary, primary school
is the place where a rich store
5. Fluency – more than the sum of its parts of words useful across many
contexts needs to be developed.
Fluency is the ability to read connected text rapidly,
smoothly, effortlessly and automatically, with little
conscious attention to the mechanics of reading,
such as decoding.
(Singleton, 2009, p.47)

Fluency reflects a pivotal point in reading development – that point where all the component skills of
learning to read are in place and occurring without overt attention, so that cognitive energy can be focussed
on determining the meaning. It is truly the point where “learning to read” transforms into “reading to learn”.
Fluency encompasses more than reading rate: it also includes appropriate phrasing and intonation, which
reflect comprehension of the material being read. Fluency and comprehension have a symbiotic or co-
dependent relationship: it is only possible to read fluently if comprehension is occurring so that the reader
can adjust phrasing appropriately. Similarly, if the reading is not fluent, comprehension will be compromised.
Children who read very slowly and haltingly are devoting most of their cognitive attention to the subskills of
decoding and word recognition. This places such a load on their working memory, that they have no cognitive
capacity remaining to attend to what the text actually means. Memory limitations also mean that if a message
is not transmitted within a certain timeframe, meaning will be compromised. A reading rate of at least 90–100
words per minute is required for reading comprehension (Armbruster et al. 2001, p.29), a rate that usually
Fluency reflects a pivotal point
develops by the end of Year 2 for simple text.
in reading development ...[it]
Fluency emerges from extensive reading practice of independent level text. This is necessary to ensure that emerges from extensive reading
the skills can become automatised and the number of words that can be read instantly on sight increases practice of independent level
substantially. This highlights the importance of ensuring that children have access to motivating texts text. This highlights the
at their independent reading level to practise their developing skills. importance of ensuring
that children have access
Unfortunately, the children who need to practise most are those that avoid it because they find it so difficult
to motivating texts at their
and laborious. They need extended practice at the intermediate step of reading easily decodable texts.
independent reading level to
Books that have been constructed with a controlled vocabulary, that is, specifically written to include many
practise their developing skills.
examples of particular letter combinations and sight words provide the additional opportunities for practice
that are necessary for automaticity and fluency to develop. Such texts provide “quick wins” (Rose, 2006) –
opportunities for children to practise and gain confidence from reading a whole book. Some teachers believe
that these texts are inappropriate, especially for older struggling readers, but there are increasing numbers
of titles available that match older children’s interests with simple vocabulary and regular repetition of target
words. Struggling readers will not develop fluency without practice at their independent level so we must find
material that matches their needs.

Research into practice August 2010 | 5

 Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.au/literacy

Because these texts have, for very good reason, relatively simple vocabulary, and being mindful that vocabulary
is one of the Big Six, teachers need to be creative in providing other opportunities for development of this
important element. Exposure to more sophisticated words can occur through oral language development and
an emphasis on “word consciousness” in the classroom. Most older students also still enjoy being read to, so
teachers may have opportunities to read texts that engage and motivate while simultaneously developing more
advanced language structures and vocabulary.
Although extensive independent reading is recommended to build fluency, one finding from the National
Reading Panel’s review of research deserves discussion. The Panel could find no evidence supporting the
effectiveness of encouraging independent silent reading as a means of improving reading fluency and
comprehension for poor readers. This means that the common practice of Sustained Silent Reading (SSR) or
Drop Everything and Read (DEAR) may not have the intended effect of developing the skills of poorer readers.
Those students who can already read fluently usually enjoy this part of the school day immensely (as do their
teachers!) but there has been no demonstrated effect for students who have not already integrated the
component parts of reading. Those precious minutes may be better spent with the teacher working with
the students who cannot read fluently, ensuring that the component reading skills are secure.

Comprehension requires
engagement with the text at a
6. Comprehension
deep level, and an array of skills The culminating goal of reading is, of course, comprehension, and it rightly takes its place at the pinnacle
that go far beyond simple word of the Big Six pyramid. Being able to “crack the alphabetic code”, while essential for comprehension, is not
recognition. sufficient. Comprehension will not occur if children do not have an adequate understanding of the vocabulary
in the text; the relevant background knowledge; familiarity with the semantic and syntactic structures that
help predict relationships between words; and the verbal reasoning ability to help “read between the lines”.
Comprehension requires engagement with the text at a deep level, and an array of skills that go far beyond
simple word recognition.
Researchers have concluded that readers who are skilful in gaining meaning from text at different levels
engage in certain behaviours and employ a range of strategies that help them engage with the text.

Typically, good readers:

Understand the purpose of their reading

Good readers understand whether they need to skim the text to get a general idea of the context, scan
for specific information, or read closely to obtain detail. Understanding the purpose of their reading allows
the readers to choose a broad reading strategy for maximum effectiveness.

Understand the purpose of the text

Proficient readers are aware of the way an author’s purpose can be reflected in a text. Different text types,
such as those written to entertain, inform, advertise, persuade, or for a number of other reasons, have
particular characteristics. Being aware of these assists the development of the mature and critical reader.

Monitor their comprehension

Monitoring comprehension assists readers to integrate what they are reading with their existing knowledge;
focus on the relevant parts of the text; distinguish major content from detail; evaluate content; and monitor
their predictions. These ongoing strategies are critical if meaning is to be maintained throughout the text.

Adjust their reading strategies

As a result of monitoring their comprehension, good readers are able to adjust their reading strategies.
They may need to go back and reread if there is some confusion; slow their reading rate if sentences
are long and complex; or use chunking and decoding strategies in combination with their vocabulary
knowledge if they encounter an unknown word among a range of other strategies.

These high level cognitive activities facilitate comprehension, and enable the competent reader to draw
meaning from the text by identifying and remembering critical information, and understanding relationships
and connections. Many children who have mastered the decoding aspect of reading do not develop
comprehension skills easily. These need to be explicitly taught, especially to struggling readers, if they
are to develop skills that will allow them to engage fully in society as literate individuals.

6 | Research into practice August 2010

Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.au/literacy

Conclusion
Reading is without question a highly complex cognitive process. Debate about how best to teach reading
has preoccupied teachers, researchers and even legislators for many decades, but there is now overwhelming
evidence that points us towards the critical elements of reading programs that are most successful with
most children.
It is acknowledged that some children will learn to read whatever method is used – these are the children
who arrive at school with the great advantages of a wide vocabulary and regular and positive experiences
with books and print. Nevertheless, it is the unequivocal conclusion of the major reviews into effective reading
instruction that most children benefit from systematic and explicit teaching of each element of the Big Six.

The incontrovertible finding from the extensive body

of local and international evidence-based reading
research is that children during the early years of Nevertheless, it is the unequivocal
schooling must first master the alphabetic code via conclusion of the major reviews
systematic, explicit and intensive instruction in phonemic into effective reading instruction
awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary, and that most children benefit from
reading comprehension strategies. Because these are systematic and explicit teaching
foundational and essential skills for the development of each element of the Big Six.
of competence in reading, writing and spelling, they
must be taught early, explicitly, and taught well.
(DEST, 2005, p.25)

The children who will be most disadvantaged if they do not participate in such programs are those from less Broadening the base of expertise
language-enriched backgrounds. Most of these children will simply not learn to read independently without in all teachers, so that every
an explicit and systematic approach. child benefits from quality first
teaching, is the most effective
Primary school teachers need to become experts in reading instruction. Broadening the base of expertise
way to reduce the need for
in all teachers, so that every child benefits from quality first teaching, is the most effective way to reduce
intervention.
the need for intervention. A consistent whole school approach, indeed a consistent approach across regions
and the state, is seen to be desirable in focusing human and material resources and political energy in order
to provide the best outcomes for all students.

Research into practice August 2010 | 7

 Literacy is everyone’s business | www.decs.sa.gov.au/literacy

References
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and National Institute of Child Health and Development (NICHD)
learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching
Anderson, R. C. (1985). Becoming a nation of readers: The children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the
report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign, ILL: scientific research literature on reading and its implications
University of Illinois Press. for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769).
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available
Armbruster, B.B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put reading
from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.cfm
first: The research building blocks for teaching children to
read. Jessup, MD: National institute for Literacy. Nelson, N.W., & Van meter, A.M. (2006). Finding the words:
Vocabulary development for young authors. In T.A. Ukrainetz,
Beck, I., & McKeown, M.G. (2007). Increasing young low
Contextualized language intervention: Scaffolding PreK-12
income children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich
Literacy Achievement (pp. 95–143), Eau Claire, WI: Thinking
and focused instruction. Elementary School Journal, 107(3),
Publications.
251–271.
Rinaldi,L., Sells, D., & Mclaughlin, T.F.(1997). The effects of
Beck, I., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words
reading racetracks on the sight word acquisition and fluency
to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford Press.
of elementary students. Journal of Behavioral Education,
Beck, I., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2008). Creating 7(2), 219–233.
robust vocabulary: Frequently asked questions and
Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early
extended examples. New York: Guilford Press.
reading: Final report. Available at http://www.standards.
Biemiller, A. (2005). Size and sequence in vocabulary dfes.gov.uk/rosereview
development: Implications for choosing words for primary
Senechal, M. (1997). The differential effect of storybook
grade vocabulary instruction. In A. Hiebert & M. Kamil (Eds.),
reading on preschoolers’ acquisition of expressive and
Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to
receptive vocabulary. Journal of Child Language, 24(4),
practice (pp. 223–242). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
360–374.
Bowey, J.A. (2005). Predicting individual differences in learning
Singelton, C. (2009). Intervention for dyslexia: A review of
to read. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of
published evidence on the impact of specialist dyslexia
reading: A handbook (pp.155–172). Oxford: Blackwell.
teaching. Commissioned by the Steering Committee for
Bromley, K. (2007). Best practices in teaching writing. In L.B. the “No to Failure” project and funded by the Department
Gambrell, L.M. Morrow & M. Pressley (Eds.), Best practices for Children, Schools and Families, United Kingdom.
in literacy instruction. New York: Guildford Press.
Singer, H. (1965). A developmental model of speed of
Chall, J. (1967). Learning to read: The great debate. Fort reading in grade 3 through 6. Reading Research Quarterly,
Worth: Harcourt-Brace & Company. 1, 29–49.
Chall, J. (1998). Learning to read: The great debate. New Snow, C.E., Burns, M.S., & Griffin, P. (1998). Preventing
York: Harcourt Brace (3rd Ed.). reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC:
Davis, F.B. (1944). Fundamental factors in reading National Academy Press.
comprehension. Psychometrika, 9, 185–197. Snow, C.E., Tabors, P.O., Nicholson, P.A., & Kurland, B.F.
Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST) (1995). SHELL: Oral language and early literacy skills in
(2005). Teaching reading: Literature review. Canberra, kindergarten and first grade children. Journal of Research
Australia: Commonwealth of Australia. in Childhood Education, 10, 37–47.
Ehri, L.C. (1997). Sight word learning in normal readers and Spearitt, D. (1972). Identification of subskills of reading
dyslexics. In B.A. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading comprehension by maximum likelihood factor analysis.
acquisition and dyslexia (pp.163–198). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Reading Research Quarterly, 8, 92–111.
Ehri, L.C., Nunes, S., & Willows, D.M., Schuster, B., Stanovich, P.J., & Stanovich, K.E. (2003). Using research
Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic and reason in education: How teachers can use scientifically
awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence based research to make curricular and instructional decisions.
from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Washington DC: US Department of Education. Available from
Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–87. http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/html/
Johnston, R.S., & Watson, J.E. (2003). Accelerating reading stanovich/
and spelling with synthetic phonics: A five year follow up. Thurston, L.L. (1946). A note on a re-analysis of Davis’
Edinburgh: Research, Economic and Corporate Strategy reading tests. Psychomtrika, 11, 185–188.
Unit, Scottish Executive Education Department. Tomeson, M. & Aarnoutse, C. (1998). Effects of an
Johnston, R.S., & Watson, J.E. (2005). A seven year study instructional programme for deriving word meaning.
of the effects of synthetic phonics teaching on reading and Educational Studies, 24(1), 107–222.
spelling attainment. Edinburgh: Research, Economic and Wasik, B.A. (2001). Phonemic awareness and young
Corporate Strategy Unit, Scottish Executive Education children. Childhood Education, 77, 128–133.
Department.
Wise, J.C., Sevcik, R.A., Morris, R.D., Lovett, M.W., & Wolf,
Manzo, A. V., Manzo, U.C., & Thomas, M.M. (2006). Rational M (2007). The relationship among receptive and expressive
for systematic vocabulary development: Antidote for state vocabulary, listening comprehension, pre-reading skills,
mandates. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 49(7), word identification skills and reading comprehension by
610–619. children with reading disabilities. Journal of Speech,
Language and Hearing Research, 50(4), 1093–1109.

8 | Research into practice August 2010