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Business research is a vital tool for managers to review what makes money and what doesn't. While a lot of business research
is internally focused--meaning the business is looking at its own products, services and productivity--many external business
research methods can help a small company gain a larger market share and expand.
Business research finds qualitative and quantitative information to improve business strategy and implementation.
Understanding how a company, department or staff member adds to the bottom line is the core of business research and its
need.
Internal factors include creating quality products and services at a
reasonable price and maximizing revenue with solid distribution
and service. Internal research seeks to lower costs, improve
products and implement better marketing strategies.
Any company must be competitive in product and price with those
who are providing the same (or similar) product. Research in this
area focuses on competitive pricing and the establishment of
niche and specialty products and services.
A company must understand how the overall industry that it
serves evolves and grows. This is imperative to developing new
technology and better products and to understanding downward
trends.
A company may have the best product in the industry at a highly
competitive price, but if the economy as a whole warrants
cutbacks, sales may decline regardless of how good a product is. Figure 1: Understand the basics of research and analysis.
This is where research helps good managers understand how to
pull expenses in and cut dead weight to ensure company
profitability.

1. RESEARCH DESIGN FOR BUSINESS

Research design is the overall strategy (or research methodology) used to carry out a study. It defines the framework and plan
to tackle established problems and/or questions through the collection, interpretation, analysis, and discussion of data.
While there are several types of research design (more on that later), the research problem defines which should be used —
not the other way around. In working this way, researchers can be certain that their methods match their aims — and that
they’re capturing useful and actionable data.
For example, you might want to know why sales are falling for a specific product. You already have your context and other
research questions to help uncover further insights. So, you start with your research problem (or problem statement) and
choose an approach to get the information you need.
Types of Approaches in Research Design
There are two main approaches to research design that we’ll explore in more detail — quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative research design. Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive (broad generalizations rather
than specific observations), allowing you to adjust your approach based on the information you find throughout the research
process. It looks at customer or prospect data (X data).
For example, if you want to generate new ideas for content campaigns, a qualitative approach would make the most sense.
You can use this approach to find out more about what your audience would like to see, the particular challenges they are
facing (from a business perspective), their overall experiences, and if any topics are under-researched.
To put it simply, qualitative research design looks at the whys and hows — as well as participants’ thoughts, feelings, and
beliefs. It seeks to find reasons to explain decisions using the data captured.
However, as the data collected from qualitative research is typically written rather than numerical, it can be difficult to quantify
information using statistical techniques.
When should you use qualitative research design? It is best used when you want to conduct a detailed investigation of a
topic to understand a holistic view. For example, to understand cultural differences in society, qualitative research design would
create a research plan that allowed as many people from different cultures to participate and provided space for elaboration
and anecdotal evidence.
If you want to incorporate a qualitative research design, you may choose to use methods like semi-structured focus groups,
surveys with open-ended questions, or in-depth interviews in person or on the phone.
Quantitative research design. Quantitative research design looks at data that helps answer the key questions beginning with
‘Who’, ‘How’, ‘How many’ and ‘What’. This can include business data that explores operation statistics and sales records and
quantifiable data on preferences.
Unlike qualitative research design, quantitative research design can be more controlled and fixed. It establishes variables,
hypotheses, and correlations and tests participants against this knowledge. The aim is to explore the numerical data and
understand its value against other sets of data, providing us with a data-driven way to measure the level of something.
When should you use quantitative research design? If you want to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or any other
defined variable (and general results from a large sample population), a quantitative approach is a way to go.
You could use quantitative research to validate findings from qualitative research. One provides depth and insight into the whys
and hows, while the other delivers data to support them.
If you want to incorporate a quantitative research design, you may choose to use methods like secondary research collection
or surveys with closed-ended questions.
Table.1 Differences between quantitative research and qualitative research.
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

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Ask specific narrow Qs Ask broad, general Qs

Collects data from participants Collecting data consisting largely of words (text) or image
(picture)

Analyzes numbers using Descriptions and analysis of words for themes

statistics
Conducts the inquiry in unbiased, Conducts the inquiry in subjective, biased manner
objective manner
Now that you know the differences between the two research approaches (though you can find out more), we can go further
and address their sub-categories.
Research methods: The Subsets of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Depending on the aim/objective of your research, there are several research methods (for both qualitative and quantitative
research) for you to choose from:
Types of quantitative research design
Descriptive – provides information on the current state of affairs, by observing participants in a natural situation
Experimental – provides causal relationship information between variables within a controlled situation
Quasi-experimental – attempts to build a cause and effect relationship between an independent variable and a dependent
variable
Correlational – as the name suggests, correlational design allows the researcher to establish some kind of relation
between two closely related topics or variables

Types of qualitative research design

Case studies – a detailed study of a specific subject (place, event, organization)
Ethnographic research – in-depth observational studies of people in their natural environment (this research aims to
understand the cultures, challenges, motivations and settings of those involved)
Grounded theory – collecting rich data on a topic of interest and developing theories inductively
Phenomenology – investigating a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting the shared experiences of
participants
Narrative research – examining how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their
experiences

Other subsets of qualitative and quantitative research design

Exploratory – explores a new subject area by taking a holistic viewpoint and gathering foundational insights

Cross-sectional – provides a snapshot of a moment in time to reflect the state

Longitudinal – provides several snapshots of the same sample over a period to understand causal relationships

Mixed methods – provide a bespoke application of design subsets to create more precise and nuanced results

Observational – involves observing participants’ ongoing behavior in a natural situation

Let’s talk about these research methods in more detail.

Experimental
As a subset of quantitative research design types, experimental research design aims to control variables in an experiment to
test a hypothesis. Researchers will alter one of the variables to see how it affects the others.
Experimental research design provides an understanding of the causal relationships between two variables – which variable
impacts the other, to what extent they are affected, and how consistent is the effect if the experiment is repeated.
To incorporate experimental research design, researchers create an artificial environment to more easily control the variables
affecting participants. This can include creating two groups of participants – one acting as a control group to provide normal
data readings, and another that has a variable altered. Therefore, having representative and random groups of participants can
give better results to compare.

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Figure 2: Sample population split into intervention and control groups

Descriptive
Descriptive research design is a subset of qualitative design research and, unlike experimental design research, it provides
descriptive insights on participants by observing participants in an uncontrolled, geographically-bound natural environment.

Video 1. Research design can be defined as a framework or blue print for conducting business research project in an efficient manner.
This type gives information on the current state of participants when faced with variables or changing circumstances. It helps
answer who, what, when, where, and how questions on behaviour, but it can’t provide a clear understanding of the why.
To incorporate a descriptive research design, researchers create situations where observation of participants can happen
without notice. In capturing the information, researchers can analyse data to understand the different variables at play or find
additional research areas to investigate.
Exploratory
Exploratory research design aims to investigate an area where little is known about the subject and there are no prior
examples to draw insight from. Researchers want to gain insights into the foundational data (who, what, when, where, and
how) and the deeper level data (the why).
Therefore, an exploratory research design is flexible and a subset of both quantitative and qualitative research design.
Like descriptive research design, this type of research method is used at the beginning stages of research to get a broader
view, before proceeding with further research.
To incorporate exploratory research design, researchers will use several methods to gain the right data. These can include
focus groups, surveys, and interviews in person or on the phone, secondary desk research, controlled experiments, and
observation in a natural setting.
Cross-sectional
Just like slicing through a tomato gives us a slice of the whole fruit, cross-sectional research design gives us a slice
representing a specific point in time. Researchers can observe different groups at the same time to discover what makes the
participant behavior different from one another and how behavior correlates. This is then used to form assumptions that can be
further tested.
There are two types to consider. In descriptive cross-sectional research design, researchers do not get involved or influence
the participants through any controls, so this research design type is a subset of quantitative research design. Researchers will
use methods that provide a descriptive (who, what, when, where, and how) understanding of the cross-section. This can be
done by survey or observation, though researcher bias can be an undesirable outcome if the method is not conscious of this.

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Video 2. Exploratory research is one of the main types of general and survey research. It works to investigate an issue,
occurrence or phenomenon that is not clearly defined.
Analytical cross-sectional research design looks at the why behind the outcome found in the cross-section, aligning this as a
subset of qualitative research design. This understanding can be gained through emailed surveys. To gain stronger insights,
group sample selection can be altered from a random selection of participants to researchers selecting participants into groups
based on their differences.
Since only one cross-section is taken, this can be a cheaper and quicker way to carry out research when resources are limited.
Yet, no causal relationships can be gained by comparing data across time, unlike longitudinal research design.
Longitudinal
Longitudinal research design takes multiple measures from the same participants or groups over an extended period. These
repeated observations enable researchers to track variables, identify correlations and see if there are causal relationships that
can confirm hypothesis predictions.
As the research design is focused on understanding the why behind the data, this is a subset of qualitative research design.
However, the real-time data collection at each point in time will also require analysis based on the quantitative markers found
through quantitative research design.
Researchers can incorporate longitudinal research design by using methods like panel studies for collecting primary data first-
hand. The study can be retrospective (based on event data that has already occurred) or prospective (based on event data
that is yet to happen).
While being the most useful method to get the data you need to address your business concern, this can be time-consuming
and there can be issues with maintaining the integrity of the sample over time. Alternatively, you can use existing data sets to
provide historical trends (which could be verified through a cross-sectional research design).
Mixed Methods
Mixed methods aim to provide an advanced and bespoke response to solving your business problem. It combines the methods
and subsets above to create a tailored method that gives researchers flexibility and options for carrying out research.
The mixed-method research design gives a thorough holistic view of the layers of data through quantitative and qualitative
subset design methods. The resulting data is strengthened by the application of context and scale (quantitative) in alignment
with the meaning behind behavior (qualitative), giving a richer picture of participants.
Mixed method research design is useful for getting greater ‘texture’ to your data, resulting in precise and meaningful
information for analysis. The disadvantages and boundaries of a single subset can be offset by the benefits of using another to
complement the investigation.
This subset does place more responsibility on the researcher to apply the subset designs appropriately to gain the right
information. The data is interpreted and assessed by the researcher for its validity to the end results, so there is potential for
researcher bias if they miss out on vital information that skews results.
Importance of Business Research
Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand
customers, the market and competitors. Such research helps companies to
understand the demand and supply of the market. Using such research will
help businesses reduce costs, and create solutions or products that are
targeted to the demand in the market and the correct audience.
In-house business research can enable senior management to build an
effective team or train or mentor when needed. Business research enables
the company to track its competitors and hence can give you the upper
hand to stay ahead of them. Failures can be avoided by conducting such
Figure 3: Visual Graphs of mixed methods
research as it can give the researcher an idea if the time is right to launch
its product/solution and also if the audience is right. It will help understand
the brand value and measure customer satisfaction which is essential to continuously innovate and meet customer demands.
This will help the company grow its revenue and market share. Business research also helps recruit ideal candidates for
various roles in the company. By conducting such research a company can carry out a SWOT analysis, i.e. understand the
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. With the help of this information, wise decisions can be made to ensure
business success.

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Business research is the first step that any business owner needs to set up his business, to survive or to excel in the market.
The main reason why such research is of utmost importance is that it helps businesses to grow in terms of revenue, market
share and brand value.
Characteristics of Research Design
The main characteristics of research design are:
1. When you are planning to study a phenomenon you may have an assumption about the kind of data you are expecting to

collect. However, the results you find from the study should not be driven from bias and must be neutral. In order to
understand the opinions on the obtained results, you can discuss it with multiple people and consider the points made by
individuals who agree with the results obtained.

2. When a researcher is replicating an already conducted market research, they expect similar results. Decide the type of

research questions you are going to ask through your surveys and define that in your research design. This will help set a
standard for the results. Only if your design is reliable, it will help you obtain the expected results.

3. You need to ensure that the survey questionnaire you are using is valid. Validity refers to the fact that the research tool

you are using is measuring what it purports to measure. Only valid tools will help researchers in gathering accurate results
for their study.

4. The outcome of your research design should be generalizable to a wider population. Findings of a good research design

are generalizable to everyone and it indicates that if your survey was to be replicated on any subgroup of the population, it
would yield similar results.

A good research design ensures to have all the above characteristics in a balanced manner. Apart from these
characteristics, researchers must also have a good understanding of the different research design types to choose from.
This understanding will help them implement the most accurate research design for their study. The design of a study can
be either quantitative or qualitative. In rare cases, researchers do use a mix of both of these methods.

2. RESEARCH DESIGN PLAN

A research design is nothing but a detailed plan of action for the research. A researcher attempting to solve the research
problem, should necessarily prepare a plan which will help him to attain his ultimate motto. This plan is nothing but a research
design. It is a plan which defines research problem, identifies data needed, decides on tool of data collection, and type of study
etc. It is a tentative plan which undergoes many modifications as the research study progresses. It presents a series of guide
posts to enable the researcher to progress in the right direction.
Several definitions of Research Design have been advanced by several writers on the subject of research methodology. Few of
them are presented here:
According to Claire Seltiz, Research Design is a catalogue of the various and facts relating to the formulation of a
research effort. It is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

According to Paul E. Green and Tull, a Research Design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the
information needed. It is the over all operational pattern or framework, of the project that stipulates what information is to
be collected from which sources by what procedures. If it is a good design, it will ensure that the information obtained is
relevant to the j research questions and that it was collected by objective and economical procedures.

According to Fred N. Kerlingar, Research Design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to
obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. The plan is the overall scheme or programme of research. It
includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the
final analysis of the data. To structure the research is to outline the scheme and paradigm of the operations of the
variables strategy. It includes the methods to be used to gather and analyse the data. In other words, strategy implies how
the research objectives will be reached and how the problems encountered in the research will be tackled.

Factors Affecting Research Design

The following factors affect the design of research:
1. The nature of the study;

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2. The scope of the study

3. The level of the study

4. Availability of sufficient data;

5. Proper exposure to the sources of data, especially primary data;

6. Availability of time;

7. Availability of money and manpower;

8. Impact of the various internal and external as well as controllable and uncontrollable variables on the research project;

9. The ability, skill, knowledge, and technical background of the researcher; and

10. Utility and applicability of the research result in practice.

Evaluation of Research Design

The research design must be good. The question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the research
problem and also with the nature of it the problem to be studied.
A good design is often characterized by features like flexibility, appropriateness, economical and so on. Generally, the design
which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a good design. The design
which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations. Similarly, a design which
yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems. A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be
found wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some other research problem.
The fundamental questions in evaluating a research design pertain to the precision, reliability and relevance of the data and
their analysis. Before actually carrying out research, it is better if the researcher evaluates his research design. This can be
achieved if he verifies the following aspects for their explicitness.
How relevant are the objectives?

How relevant are the hypotheses?

How explicit are the hypotheses?

Have the problems and hypotheses been stated in operational terms scientifically?

Has the plan of research been presented in detail so that its logic is apparent?

How scientific is data collection tool?

How scientific is method of data collection?

How precise are the observations?

Can other investigators repeat the observations?

Do the data actually satisfy the demands of the problem, i.e. do they actually demonstrate the conclusion?

Does the research design ensure a comparison that is not subject to the alternate interpretations?

Are the statistical designs appropriate?

Steps Involved in Drafting a Research Report

A research report must be well drafted so that it is seriously taken by others and all that have to be said are well said. Reader
orientation, purpose orientation, time orientation, technology orientation, etc. are all needed. The steps in writing a research
report are presented below.
1. Organization of Thought. Organization of thought as to how the report be presented is the most fundamental starting

point in the journey of preparation of a research report. Ideas come before the mind eye. These are thought over again
and a frame of presentation is planned. This plan does not in itself constitute style, but it is the foundation.

2. Acquaintance with the Research. Full acquaintance with research is needed. This is facilitated by notes. It is desirable

to make notes on separate cards or slips called form-facet. Accuracy and Adequacy are required – The second facet of

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mastery over notes consists in the investigator’s complete control over the data, called study facet, i.e., understanding
each fact by itself and in terms of others and of the researcher’s own thoughts; the notes to be compared; criticized and
revalued in order to enable the investigator to direct and organize the data in his own way and perhaps differently from
what others have done.

3. First Draft. The first draft concentrates on substance, i.e., fullness of facts. All the facts of value are to be brought

together. In addition to fullness, accuracy of the facts incorporated into the text becomes necessary. Another requirement
is that there should be balance, proportion and development in facts. Importance is to be given to the comprehensiveness
of the report but not to the language and form. For writing the first draft the researcher should have control over his notes
and should think continuously over the problem. In a way, the first draft is the most important of the different stages in
reporting. This report may have to be re-written a number of times and still it continues to remain only a working draft.
There are three purposes in writing the first draft, viz., to weave the material together for making clear connections, to
assure the investigator himself of a satisfactory organizations and fullness of the facts, and to avoid blank paper fright that
may be present in every young researcher.

4. Second Draft. After a lapse of sometime from the completion of first draft, the revision is made for writing the second

draft. While drafting the second one, the researcher should concentrate largely on form and language. The researcher
should give the first draft, at this stage, a shape so that it can be readable, clear and lucid. Considerable trimming or
editing will have to be done to make the writing precise, concise and brief. Finally, at the second draft stage, critical
evaluation will have to be made of all that has been written-facts, findings, conclusions and recommendations. To make
the report readable and effective, the language plays major part.

5. Third Draft. The final stage in drafting is the preparation of final report. It concentrates mainly on the finish and final

touches, i.e. on documentation and polish to make the report weighty, authoritative, convincing and attractive.
Documentation indicates the references to the sources, other previous and current work and view, additional data and
discussion and suggested further reading on the specific problem as handled by the researcher. In other words, it
indicates the thoroughness of the investigation and on the other a guide to further work. A good research paper depends
not only upon the amount of reading or notes taken or upon the form of presentation but also upon the accurate and
thorough recording of the investigation.

Preparing a Research Report

The research report is considered as a major component of the research work, because through this report the research
problem, the research design, the analysis and findings are brought to the knowledge of the world. The research report
converts the research work into a public asset from its earlier state of private asset.
The research report shows the readers the progress in knowledge made in the specific area or discipline. The report by
bringing to light the new frontiers of knowledge enhances the society’s intellectual well-being. The report by highlighting the
design and methodology, runs as a fore-runner for future researchers in this or related area. The analyses and interpretations
may give a boost to knowledge. The findings and suggestions take the readers into enlightenment from ignorance. Every
research must endeavor to achieve this.

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Video 3. Writing a business research report. The role of a research report is best known in the absence of the same –
Assume for a while, that no researcher gives out his research work in the form of a report.
Research report is a record of the whole of every bit of the research work. This document is a reservoir of knowledge for
current and future references and use to solve societal problems. Research report is the means through which communication
of the entire work to the society is made. For other researchers, a documented research is a source of information and that a
research report generates more research interests. Research report propagates knowledge throughout the humanity or the
globe.
The role of a research report is best known in the absence of the same – Assume for a while, that no researcher gives out his
research work in the form of a report. Then the research work is just like a lamp in the pot. When, it takes the form of report it is
like a lamp on the hillock illuminating the surroundings. If a research report is not made, even the researcher may not be able
tell his work at a future date. Thanks to human’s potentials to forget. Such waste of efforts should never occur. If only a
research report was made out, re-inventing the wheel would not take place otherwise, same problem may be analyzed by
different people at different places or in the same place at different times or at the same time. This is a greater waste of human
energy. Thus a research report conserves energy that would otherwise would have been spent uselessly.
A research report generally contains three aspects:
1. Preliminary Section,

2. Main Body and

3. Reference Section.

These are briefly given below:

1. Preliminary Section
The preliminary section deals with title, acknowledgement, etc.
1. Title Page: The title of the research report usually bears the investigator’s name, a statement as to the course for which
the study has been required, the date of submission, and the name of the institution making that requirement. In reports of
studies not undertaken for any course, the investigator’s name, the institution he belongs to and the date of completion of
the work is indicated. In a published thesis the latter information is substituted or supplemented by the name of the
publishers and the date and place of publication.
2. Acknowledgement Page: The acknowledgement page is largely one of courtesy in which the investigator acknowledges
the guidance and assistance he has received in the development of the study. Acknowledgement may not refer to the
guide so much as to others who may have aided in a special way. It is rightly said that good taste calls for
acknowledgements to be expressed simply and tactfully.
3. Preface or Foreword: Sometimes a preface or foreword of one or two pages long, follows the acknowledgement page,
bearing some initial remarks and perhaps a brief statement of the scope, aim and general character of the research.
4. Table of Contents: A well-developed table of contents renders a good deal of assistance to a reader in choosing rapidly
and judiciously what he should, subsequently, read carefully. It is usually desirable to include in it not only the chapter
headings, but also the headings of the major subdivisions of the chapters. Sometimes the topics within the subdivisions
are also included and are found enlightening by the readers.
5. Lists of Tables and Figures: Another device used to supplement the table of contents for throwing more light on the
subject of the thesis is that of giving lists of tables and figures which occur in the report.

2. Main Body of the Report

The main body of the research report contains all the material aspect of the research work.
1. Introduction: The first part of the main body of the report, the Introduction, usually includes a statement of the factors
leading up to the choice of the problem, the purposes of the study, the value and significance attached to the problem by
the investigator as a contribution to knowledge and any other information to express the sincerity of the investigator in his
selection. A statement and elucidation of the problem sometimes forms a part of the introduction; but more often/it is set
up as a separate unit. If this is stated in a clear-cut and logical manner, the reader is able to get a sufficiently clear insight
into the study from the very beginning. The problem should be defined in detail. The exact area the investigation is
supposed to cover must be well demarcated. The sources of information selected and their nature and delimitation’s
should be mentioned and justified. All terms of a technical nature or those which may seem vague to the lay reader need
to be defined carefully. The objectives, limitations, hypotheses, etc. are given. The methodology and design of the study
are also given in introduction. To explain the developmental process used for the sturdy the investigator has to describe
the techniques and tools he has used for collecting, organizing, analyzing and interpreting his data. The sources of data
tapped, the channels prepared or adapted and utilized, the nature of data collected, their validity and reliability – all these
should be given in a clear and adequate manner. Data collected, but rejected and the methods tried but not pursued –
these should also find their place in the report and should not be just left out of the picture.
2. Survey of Related Literature: Any research worker has to be up-to-date in his information about studies, related to his
own problem, already made by others. References are made to such similar or related studies and their evaluation too is
made for the benefit of the reader either in the Introductory chapter, or else in a separate chapter. Herein the author finds
another opportunity to justify his own endeavor and to emphasize the worthwhile elements in the treatment, selected by
him, of the problem.
3. Analysis and Interpretation. The analysis and interpretation section deals with the main works undertaken. Each
objective of the research work, each hypothesis, each research question posed and such other major constituents of the
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research work are thoroughly probed, analyzed using the statistical data collected applying appropriate tools of analysis
and interpretations are made in the light of the analysis made. Unusual or complex techniques of collection, organization,
analysis and interpretation are explained in full. Whether the original data themselves should be included in the text or
given in the appendix depends on the nature of the data. If they are not too extensive and are necessary to clarify the
discussion, they should certainly find a place in the text proper, or in the footnotes. If they are extensive and cumbersome,
they should be placed in the appendix. Of the various aids used to make the presentation of data more effective, tables
and figures are most common. When statistical data are assembled according to certain common factors in the form of
tables, significant relationships show up clearly. Depending on the type of material at one’s disposal, many kinds of figures
are found useful, e.g., statistical diagrams, photographs and maps, etc. All the information described above is sometimes
confined to one chapter with separate subdivisions arranged stage-wise. Otherwise, separate chapters are devoted each
major functional area or objective studied. The arrangement depends on the quantity of information one has to convey to
the reader regarding the different stages in the process of the development of the study.
4. Conclusion: The final unit of the report usually contains the findings of the study, the conclusions the investigator has
arrived at, and the generalization he has formulated on the basis of the study. In stating the conclusions, the investigator
must indicate what his contribution has been to his field of study. He should indicate on what data his various conclusions
are based. He should clearly demarcate between the inevitable conclusions and his own interpretation of certain data. The
range of applicability of the conclusions should be indicated on the basis of the limitations of the sources, the sample, the
tools of collection and analysis, etc. Negative as well as positive results should find a place in the conclusions. Any
recommendations, as to the application of the findings, the investigator wishes to make, can find a place in this chapter.
Recommendations or suggestions for further study in the field touched by the present research are also found useful and
are usually included in the concluding chapter.

3. Referencing Section of the Report

Referencing section of any research report has three elements namely, bibliography, appendix and index.
1. Bibliography: The ‘works cited’ form of bibliography is preferable over the ‘sources consulted’. Every book, thesis, article,
documents which has been cited should be included in the list of ‘works cited’. The bibliography should follow a logical
arrangement in alphabetical order. In report of current practice is to have one comprehensive listing-not to divide into
books, journals, newspapers, official papers, documents and manuscripts. The author(s) name, the title of the work, date
of publication, name of the publisher and the place of publication be mentioned. For articles, the volume number and
inclusive pages be also given, the author’s initials or surname should follow the name. When there are three or more
authors of a particular work, the co-authors may be referred alphabetically. If there by more than one work by the same
author, the author’s name should be listed only once; subsequently a line will substitute his name. This bibliographical
listing should not be numbered. It should be given only at the end of the thesis,
2. Appendix: The appendix section gives a copy of the tools of research used, certain sample statistical workings, articles
published by the researcher, etc. Each class of material given may be numbered as Appendix I, Appendix II and so on. It
is saner to give the appendices in the same order in which the relevant items are used.
3. Index: Index is a very important component which facilitates easy location of a concept or entity mentioned in the main
body of the work. Here alphabetical order is followed. Page number is given to easy location. Author Index, Subject Index
and Sponsor Index are certain indices used. All the three may be separately given and merged into one single class of
‘index’.

Interpretation of Research Data

Interpretation of research data means drawing inference from the collected facts and computed statistics or test statistics. The
task of interpretation has two major aspects;
1. The effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of given study with those of others, and

2. The establishment of some explanatory concepts.

In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationship within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other research, theory and hypotheses.
Thus, interpretation is the devise through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researchers
in the course of the study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a
guide for further research.
Process of Interpretation of Research Data
The interpretation of research data is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the part of researcher.
Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from
experts for accomplishing interpretation.
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
1. Researchers must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret the lines of
relationship in terms of the underlying process and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface
layer of his diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and concepts
be formulated.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the final results of research
study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.

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3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight into the study and who is
frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will
result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
4. Researchers must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to
avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear
to be all right at the beginning, may not at all accurate.

Need for Interpretation

The need for Interpretation of research data can hardly be over-emphasized.
1. It is through interpretation that the researcher can understand the abstract principle that works beneath his findings.
Through this he can link up his findings with those of other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can
predict about the concrete worlds of events. Fresh enquiries can test these predictions later on. This way of continuity in
research can be maintained.
2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide for future research studies; it
opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
3. Researchers can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what they are and can make others to
understand the real significance of his research findings.
4. The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into hypotheses for experimental
research and as such interpretation is involved in the transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since
an exploratory study does not have a hypothesis to start with, the findings of such study have to be interpreted on a post-
factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically described as ‘post factum’ interpretation.

Guidelines for Making Valid Interpretations

The following guidelines are useful in making good interpretations,
Don’t interpret from a single or limited number of instances.
Don’t over-stress both positive and negative points.
Don’t omit evidences contrary to one’s opinion.
Don’t overlook important circumstances pertaining to different phenomena studied.
Don’t have any pre-dispositions and pre-conceived notions.
Don’t attribute results to a single factor when other factors are equally important.
Don’t base your judgment on inaccurate instruments of measurement.
Don’t forget to distinguish between material and less-significant issues.
Don’t make any false analogy.
Don’t generalize from insufficient data.
Try to see the problem in right perspective.
Make provision for unstudied factors.
Try to see the differences between cause and effect.
Recognize the limitations of evidences.
Base judgments on complete and accurate data.
Ensure consistency of information and inferences.
Trust statistical evidences more than verbal evidences.
Elicit diverse opinions, make appropriate induction based interpretations
Make appropriate use of deductive technique of interpretation.

3. TYPES OF SURVEYS FOR DATA COLLECTION IN BUSINESS RESEARCH DESIGN

Surveying means contacting for getting certain information. Survey method is a method of collecting data for research purpose.
There are personal surveys, mail surveys, telephone surveys and internet surveys. Survey may be sample survey or census
survey.
The features of each of surveys are given below:

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Personal Survey
Personal survey involves meeting personally every number who has to be surveyed. The features of this method of data
collection are as follows.
The number of respondents that can be contacted is not very high, as the time taken to contact the respondent, and the
time spent on the interview itself is very high in relative terms.
When the time available for research in large the personal method is used.
The cost involved is highest in the personal method since it requires field interviewers as well as their conveyance/
traveling costs. Also, if a person is not available he may have to be contacted again and again.
The accuracy obtained in very high, as the right persons are contacted and if there is difficulty in their understanding
certain questions the interviewer can take care of it. Also, if the interviewer feels that the respondent is not furnishing the
correct facts, by observing he can make his own interpretations, record the responses for better results. The responses
rate is high compared to the mail survey, making the accuracy of the results better.
When a large geographical area is to be covered and the time and cost constraints are high, personal survey method is
not resorted to. However, if it is an ongoing syndicated research or census surveys, such in time and costs have to be
necessarily borne for the sake of better coverage and accuracy.
This method would require the agency to have a good infrastructure of data collection, in terms of field force, its
supervision and control.
When the literacy levels are low and the respondent would find it difficult to fill up the questionnaire on his own, this
method is the best alternative available.
A very length questionnaire under a structured survey is difficult to administer personally, with inaccuracy creeping in on
account of the monotonous nature and fatigue effect on the part of the interviewer. At times, in certain socio-economic
studies when this is unavoidable, the number of interviewers is made larger and certain incentives may be given to the
respondents to extend their co-operation in filling up the set of questions, asked.
The availability of skilled interviewers can reduce the interviewer bias on account of recording incorrect responses of the
fatigue effects.
When the questions require spontaneous answers, this is the best method, However, if the questions are of a personal
nature or require too much thought on the part of the respondent he may feel embarrassed or make up the answers
without thinking. However, in case of non-structured and non-disguised techniques like the in-depth interviews such
probing is called for.
The interviewer may have the tendency to contact some other person; similar to the respondent to complete his quota of
respondents. This affects the accuracy of results thus necessitating a tight control on field work.
A complete list of the respondents would be required to draw a representative sample. However, the interviewer has at
times to use his own discretion and access respondents with similar demography characteristic in case of non-
availability.

Mail Survey Method

Mail survey involves contacting the respondents through post. A questionnaire is dispatched to elicit views. The features of this
method are as follows:
A large number of respondents can be contacted using the available database of addresses.
When the time available is again fairly large, and respondents are very distantly located this method is preferred.
The cost involved is not very high and it is mainly just the cost of mailing which is often very cheap.
The accuracy obtained is not very high since the response rate is not very high, not more than 20%. Also, the right
respondent may not have filled up the questionnaire. Again, the chances of interpreting the questions incorrectly by the
respondents are high, resulting in wrong responses which may be inconsistent with the responses in the rest of the
questionnaire.
The mail method most suited to contact people scattered over large geographical areas when the time available for
contact is fairly enough An updated database of respondent addresses would go a long way in obtaining a good response
rate. With the availability of fax, internet and courier facilities, time can be saved.
The size of filed force required is almost negligible and the agency could function with few data entry operators to take
care of the data collected.
The mail method can be used to contact only people who can read and write and definitely has limitations for social
research at the slum level or rural levels.
This is the method best suited when the questionnaire is very length. The respondents does not have to fill it up in one
stroke. He also has time to think about the questions and answer them. Errors on account of fatigue or monotonous
nature of the dialogue with the interviewer are not likely to creep in.
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The interviewer bias is not of any consequence in this case.

The questions which require spontaneous answers would not lend themselves suitable to the mail survey. However,
personal questions or those involving certain through processes are best suited to the mail questionnaire method.
The questionnaires are out of the control of the agency. The person who fills up the questionnaire may not be desired
respondents but someone in the same office or household.
The mailing would not solve the purpose if the addresses of the respondents have not been updated. The existence of a
mailing list is essential.

Video 4. Email Surveys are defined as a data collection method used to collect quantitative
data using surveys or questionnaires that are sent to targeted respondents via email.

Telephone Survey Method

In telephone survey voice contact is directly established with the respondents. The features of this method are as follows:
The number of respondents who can be contacted is fairly large, as the time to contact them is less than that for a
personal interview.
The cost involved in moderately high as skilled telephone operators need to be employed. Also if the respondent is not
available he needs to be contacted more than once.
The accuracy obtained is fairly high in this case as the response rate is comparable to the personally administered
questions. In certain cases, it might be higher also. The skill of the telephone interviewer makes the respondent at ease
and comfortable to answer and the questions. Also, certain questions, which need explanations can also be posed
through the telephone.
The telephone method can be used for respondents having the ability to communicate and express themselves. As such,
only a certain class of respondents lend themselves useful to such methods.
The length of the questionnaire has to be extremely short in this case. The issue which is addressed through the
questions has to be focused one so that, less time is required to be spent over the telephone to explain the purpose of the
research etc. The telephone method would thus have a limited use.
The skill of the operator/interviewer largely is responsible for the size of bias in recording the respondents incorrectly.
The questions requiring spontaneous answers or of a personal nature can be administered over the telephone but those
which require thinking would be difficult to take care of using this method.

Internet Survey Method

This is the world of connectivity through internet. Internet survey involves using internet for survey. The superiority of this
survey is that it has no limitations of geography. The questionnaire may be put through a websites, forums, blogs, wikis, mail-
groups etc. The survey may be advertised through internet or other mode inviting the attention of the prospective respondents.
They may send their responses again over the internet. This is the most modern type of survey and has great potentials. It is
not prohibitively expensive.

4. REFERENCES
1. Casse, C., & Lee, B. (eds) (2011) Challenges and Controversies in Management Research. New York, NY: Routledge.

2. Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R., Jackson, P.R. (2008) Management Research (3rd edition). London: Sage.

3. Ghauri, P., & Grønhaug, K. (2002), Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practical Guide (2nd edition), London: FT
Prentice Hall Europe.
4. Saunders, M.N.K., Lewis, P., Thornhill, A. (2012) Research Methods for Business Students (6th edition), Harlow, England:
Pearson Education, Inc.

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